Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Vol-3, Issue-1, 2017 ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in

The State of English Language in : Teacher Perspectives

Nyarigoti Naom United States International -African

Abstract: In Kenya, and other countries across the examinations, the Kenya Minister for world where English is the medium of instruction, attributed the poor performance in English to English language proficiency is fundamental. Due to Kenyans' heavy use of slang language dubbed the significant role English plays in Kenya, various ‘Sheng’. In 2013, the Kenya Education Cabinet strategies have been used to ensure that learners Secretary noted that English language skills are have the necessary language skills. Despite these deteriorating and called on Kenyans to develop a efforts, there has been continuous outcry over the reading culture that will eventually raise the level of deteriorating level of English language proficiency understanding of the language and its usage. He in educational institutions and even in the job expressed the need to review the curriculum and industry. The study used interviews and focus group directed English teachers to improve on their discussions to explore teachers’ views regarding the approaches to the teaching of the subject. current situation in English language teaching and The issue of falling performance of English in Kenya possible strategies for improvement. Findings show a in the past years has shifted focus to the teaching and need for collective effort by education actors to learning of English. The government has previously adopt new approaches that give students multiple responded to this by reviewing the syllabus for opportunities to learn relevant language skills. Such English, and even getting technical expertise from approaches include, cross curricular language the British Government to run in-service courses in teaching, changed attitudes, use of technology and teaching the integrated curriculum of English. teacher development programmes. However, results in National Examinations in 1. Introduction English and media reports from employers suggest that the problem has not been solved. This study Language in education is a subject that has explored teachers’ views regarding the teaching and received much attention recently. Many education learning of English in secondary schools with the systems across the world are coming up with what aim of seeking possible strategies for improvement. they regard as effective policies geared towards These was on the premise that teachers spend more improving quality. However, these practices have not time with learners; therefore, they understand their met the target goals of education and serious needs and challenges better. concerns have been raised over the deteriorating English language proficiency. In Kenya, government 2. Background reports and the media have continuously raised concerns over the falling quality of English language Kenya is a multilingual nation comprising over 42 skills. Weaknesses in English reading and writing indigenous languages (SIL Reports in Ethnologue, have been blamed for students’ poor performance 2008; The , 2010). In formal across the curriculum (Daily Nation August 14 1993, settings, both English and Kiswahili are commonly cited in Mazrui, 2004). Similar concerns are raised in used. English has the highest status as it is associated higher learning institutions where it is claimed that with the elite and employment. Local indigenous many undergraduate students in have languages are considered lowest in status and are poor mastery of English and hence cannot compete often used in rural areas and informal settings. In in the job market (M. Mazrui & Mazrui, 1996). urban settings, ‘Sheng’ a pidgin which draws mainly Further, there has been a general outcry both over the on Kiswahili and English, is used as an identity usefulness of the English language in fostering and marker among the youth. Originating in the early developing Kenya’s rich and varied cultures – this 1970s in the slum areas of (Ogechi, 2005), being the main objective of Kenyan education Sheng is gaining popularity across social classes and (Bunyi, 1999; Michieka, 2005) – and over its even in neighboring countries. Many critics on effectiveness as a language of instruction (Alidou, Kenyan education claim that Sheng has a detrimental 2006). effect on student performance in both Swahili and English (Momanyi, 2009). In the year 2011, while announcing the results of Kenya Certificate of Primary Education

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Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Vol-3, Issue-1, 2017 ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in

Like most African nations, the indigenous they are doing, why they are doing it and what they languages are regarded as an important element in could change to make their performance even better. Kenyan cultural identity (Bunyi, 1999) although, for some, the existence of many languages is viewed as a 3. Literature Review root source of the tribal conflicts experienced in the country in the past (Kioko et al., 2008). These varied In Kenya, previous researchers have identified views and attitudes have far reaching implications some of the factors contributing to poor language for language classroom practices and education in skills to include: mismatch between prescribed general. version of English to be taught and the language of Currently the English language plays a key role in the local literature (Kioko & Muthwii, 2001); the Kenya’s legal, economic and education system integrated approach to teaching English (Okwara, (Michieka, 2005). In education, it is not only one of Shiundu & Indoshi 2009; Ongong’a, Okwara, & the important subjects in the curriculum but is itself Nyangara, 2010 ); lack of relevant professional the medium of instruction. It is, however, estimated development programmes, heavy workload, limited that only 16% of Kenyans can communicate in resources, (Nyarigoti, 2013) ; and teacher attitudes English (Sure & Webb, 2000). English is still a (Nyarigoti and Ambiyo, 2014). Some of the marker of higher socio-economic class and there is a strategies that have been used to address the clear correlation between proficiency in English and language problem in Kenya include: in- service the number of years one has spent in the education training for teachers (Nyarigoti 2013) and sometimes system, since school exposes people to more English punitive school level language policies that only (Bunyi, 1999). allows learners to use English and any use of other Based on its role, there is pressure from every languages is punishable (Muthwii & Kioko 2001). angle to improve the language skills. The current Whether these strategies have achieved expected economy is information-centered and the greatest results is debatable since concerns about poor rewards, both financially and personally, go to those language skills seem incessant. With the growing who are able to communicate effectively both orally change in the way learners access, learn and use and in writing. Employers are demanding high information, English language teaching (ELT) literacy levels from the employees. This means not approaches that have been used before, may not only the ability to read and write, but also skills like effectively address the student language problem. critical thinking, listening, speaking, and presenting. The advancement in technology has revolutionized Internet reading requires new skills for maneuvering the way things are done in all aspects of life thus through the jungle of information and for opening new grounds for new challenges and learner manipulating it to suit an array of needs. Further, the needs. direct correlation between the language proficiency, Schools and traditional methods are losing ground the kinds of jobs they qualify for and the pay they due to the easy access to information that technology receive makes the situation even more urgent. These offers, usually outside classroom walls. The 21st demands place greater importance on the level of century generation cannot go without internet which literacy people need to have in order to be relevant in provides immediate contact with people and this multimedia age. information around the world. This implies change in This study was guided by the constructivism teaching and learning approaches in general and theory. Constructivism as a learning theory advanced language teaching in particular. by Piaget, 1972, Vygotsky, 1978 and Bruner, 1990), In order to keep pace with the fast changing holds that people produce knowledge and form world, education systems across the world have meaning based upon their experiences. Instead of adopted varied approaches of ELT. For instance in absorbing or passively receiving knowledge, learners Europe and Canada, Content and Language actively construct knowledge by integrating new Integrated Learning (CLIL) approach has been used information and experiences into what they have in bilingual classrooms. This is aimed at teaching previously come to understand, revising and several contents through a specific language or vice- reinterpreting previous knowledge in order to versa (Coyle, Hood, & Marsh, 2010). In CLIL, either reconcile it with the new (Billett, 1994). The language or content can be more emphasized constructivist theory encourages continuous depending on the goals proposed by the teacher. improvement through daily reflection. Reflection Others have adopted a blended approaches - involves representation of past experiences and combination between online and traditional face-to- learning, reorganization of present meaning, and face teaching- (Graham, 2006) and the internet is improvement of present and future understanding seen to offer a myriad of possibilities for language and performance (Moon, 1999). It facilitates both teaching and learning (Finardi 2015). personal and professional development leading to Another approach that has been used to address empowerment and emancipation. Through targeted language challenges in other regions of the world is and thoughtful reflection, teachers can consider what teaching language across the curriculum. The

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Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Vol-3, Issue-1, 2017 ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in approach originated in Great Britain in the Bullock speak, read and write about what they are learning Report (education for life) which stated that: and relate it to what they already know. Language is Each school should have a language policy for therefore not just communication skills but a tool for language across the curriculum, establishing each conceptualizing and linking information. It helps to teacher’s involvement in language and reading bridge between cognitively demanding tasks and development throughout the years of schooling their solutions in a more decontextualized manner. (1975:419). Therefore, the goal of language learning is not just to The policy is based on the argument that learning develop cognitive academic language proficiency but does not only happen in specific language classes but to build strong literacy skills including critical and also in other content subjects, and activities across creative thinking as well as competence in the whole school curriculum. The policy was interpersonal and team-working skills which are so reemphasized in the Swann Report (Education for important in life and in the world of work. Inability all): “Unless there is s school language and learning to demonstrate these skills therefore is an indication policy across the curriculum, there will be wastage of of non-achievement of intended goals of language effort and often confusion (DES 1985:419).” The learning, hence the concerns about poor language approach has been tried in other parts of the world skills. (New Zealand, Canada, Australia, and America) and studies in these regions have shown improved 4. Method classroom achievement (Wright, 2007, Ulusoy & Dedeoglu 2011). This study used a qualitative case study approach Arguments for cross curricular language policy to explore views of teachers with regard to the state have been that while much of the explicit language of English and possible strategies for improvement. learning occurs in the English classrooms, it can be Four secondary schools from Nairobi and Kajiado extended in other subject areas as students engage in were involved in the study. a range of learning activities with significant Participants included 20 teachers selected through language demands. This concept refers to integrating purposeful sampling. Ten of these teachers taught all aspects of within the school English and the other 10 taught other subjects particularly emphasizing the role of language in all including Geography, Maths. Art and Design, subject matter learning. The concept acknowledges Kiswahili, History, Physics, Biology and business the fact that language and content are closely studies. Data were collected using individual interrelated and content subjects provide a context interviews, and focus group discussions. There were for language while effective language development two (5-member each) focus groups in each facilitates the learning of content subjects. For participating school, one for teachers of English and instance, in science, Alan and Peat (1988) argue that the other for teachers of other subjects. Although there are strong parallels between the way in which interest was in teachers of English, other subject the visual world is created and the way in which teachers were included in order to find out whether language is used to create our mental spaces. views expressed by teachers of English also run Language plays an active role in the way scientists across the curriculum. Five teachers of English and communicate with each other and in the development five teachers of other subjects participated in the of science. Quoting Hume, they summarize the role interviews. of language as follows: “Nothing is more usual than for 5. Findings and Discussions philosophers to encroach on the province of grammarians, and to engage in disputes of 5.1 Influence of social media and sheng words, while they imagine they are handling languages controversies of the deepest importance and concern.” (Hume 1988: 1233) All the teachers in the study admitted that the Perception on language learning has changed quality of English had gone down and that they had radically over time. Previously, language learning the greatest role to play to improve language skills. was confined solely to the four conventions of They reported that social media is having a huge Reading, Writing, Listening and Speaking, but in this impact on how language is learnt and used. They multimedia age (Kress 2003), this has been expressed that the use of English is growing in broadened to include nonverbal representations and informal use and across social networking sites. As all forms of human perception and expression. one English teacher reports: Corson (1990: 72) thus distinguishes eight modes of “One effect that I have seen in the human activities involving language: listening, classroom, in terms of writing, is the decline speaking, reading, writing, viewing, shaping, of students’ ability to write using complete watching, and moving. Students learn new concepts sentences and complete words. Students mainly through language when they listen to and

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Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Vol-3, Issue-1, 2017 ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in

often use ‘texting’ language” (English application of new technologies in learning implies teacher) fundamental changes for the role of the teacher. Similarly, commercial players, for instance, These changes are often not addressed in continuing broadcast media widely use informal language professional development programs. Teachers are portraying a lack of symbiosis between these sectors therefore resistant to using technologies which do not and classroom practice. They expressed that most of reflect what they consider to be current pedagogical the celebrities who act as role models to most young best practice. They feel overwhelmed by the speed of learners often use informal language. technological development which they feel has had a Social platforms such as Facebook have had huge negative impact on the proficiency of English great effect on language; for example, common among learners. Teachers propose access to words such as; friend, like, status, wall, page, and appropriate training, development and support in profile have been given new meanings. Words that using ICT. This would build their confidence and dominate everyday life influence the words learners allow for increased learner control leading to the use. Since so much of the written and spoken development of personalized learning environments. language learners are exposed to, is now on the screens of television shows, computers, tablets, and 5.3 Personal professional development smartphones, language evolves partly through their interaction with technology. The use of this informal Focus group discussions with both teachers of medium leads to an equally casual attitude to English and those of other subjects revealed that grammar. This creates a huge threat to the learning of good teachers are recognized by their results and to formal English. Teachers of English reported that be a good teacher you need to continuously be other teachers are practically using this informal learning. The teachers however reported that they language with the students in class, making it were mainly involved in the normal preparation for difficult to correct the learners. They called for their classes; minimal attention was given to self- collegial responsibility by all teachers to ensure that directed forms of learning. They attributed it to their correct language skills are upheld. workload which allowed very little time for engaging Confirming previous research, the teachers noted in personal development activities. This was a that “Sheng” (slang language used by the youth) was common concern in both groups of teachers some still an obstacle in English language learning. They arguing that the location and limited resources in the noted that improvement in language would be schools did not make it possible for them to possible if all teachers regardless of their specialty undertake any self-directed study, ‘There is no addressed the ‘sheng’ problem. The teachers of library around here and the school library only has English reported that some of the teachers often used course books’ (a History teacher). ‘sheng’ in class with the students, a practice that The teachers reported that lack of relevant made it difficult to eliminate its interference with reference materials was also a constraint on their English language learning. teaching. Although this was a problem experienced across the departments within the schools, the 5.2 Use of Information Technology teachers reported that, unlike other subjects, the teaching of English required learners to be exposed Evidence from the study showed that there is need to a wide range of genres so as to facilitate their to consider affective factors in embedding the uptake language competence. In School A, although the of new media and information communication and issue of students’ textbooks did not seem to be a technology (ICT) in teacher practice. Teachers, problem, the teachers expressed the view that they especially those with limited access to resources, feel lacked reference materials related to their threatened by technology as they have an effect on professional development. If the teachers needed any their reputations and professionalism, and also by a materials that touched on their professional growth lack of confidence in relation to their increasingly or subject area, they had to visit the local university highly-skilled learners: “when it comes to IT, these libraries. Time was, however, a limiting factor during people are too clever”. Priority therefore should be the school term. Teachers instead opted to take study given to encouraging greater use of ICT and new leave in order to facilitate their professional media, so as to enable them to keep pace with the development, although most did not stay long in their learners, and to integrate such resources in language current schools after their studies. learning programs. This will inculcate a sense of As stated by constructivism theorists, personal confidence among language teachers in the use and reflection and development is crucial in the teacher application of technology. career. It serves the functions of extension, growth Similarly, teachers reported that programs of and renewal (Grundy & Robinson, 2004). Extension professional development for teachers have not involves introducing new knowledge and skills into adopted current technological developments. The the teachers’ repertoire, for example the introduction

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Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Vol-3, Issue-1, 2017 ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in of ICT into the classroom. Growth involves in teaching language in their classrooms. Although development of the teachers’ expertise; while the content area teachers seem to know the role of renewal concerns updating those teachers with older language in content delivery and understanding, they qualifications so as to catch up with the new dismissed the idea that they somehow must share the developments in their work. These functions may responsibility for literacy. The teachers consider also be influenced by what Kelchetermans (2004) themselves to be content experts who focus on the refers to as ‘teachers’ professional selves’ (personal content and not on teaching students how to use interpretive framework). This includes how teachers language. They believe that it is the duty of the look at their job, give meaning to it and act in it. English language teachers to teach language and With this fast changing world, teachers need to generally view language learning as something they keep renewing their knowledge so as to meet the will have to teach in addition to the topics they are needs of the contemporary student. Approaches that responsible for instead of viewing it as one way to worked a few years ago might not be valid in the help students learn their content. Their comments current classroom. Therefore, teachers need to include the following: rethink what their role entails. They need to I know language proficiency is crucial in learning understand that there are many ways they can utilize but it will be difficult to attend to students’ their time to their own benefit and to the benefit of language needs and at the same time teach your the students. This should include renewing and subject content when one has over 50 students per sustaining their knowledge base so as to keep up class (a Geography teacher). with the moral purposes of teaching. They need to see the importance of updating their professional My focus is not on the grammar but the content. I knowledge through involvement in learning activities do not penalize wrong grammar. That is the work and shaping their working environments to support of language teachers (a Biology teacher) professional growth. We expect students to learn their language skills in language classes so that when they come to our 5.4 Teacher involvement in reforms classes, they apply them ( The teachers of English reported that despite the teacher) continuous concerns about deteriorating quality of The above remarks show lack of collaboration language skills, they played limited roles in proposed among the teachers across the curriculum. educational reforms; they simply implement According to Vacca et al., (2005), teacher prescribed programs. Consultation programs are not collaboration is an important part of professional robust and, where teachers have participated, they development. The negative feelings associated with tend to be used to rubber stamp what has already having other subject teachers assist students in been proposed, a practice that reduced them to a language skills was shown by one female English ‘technician’ role. Teachers said that they are teacher in her interview who reported that in a expected to work out ways of improving language previous Heads of Departments meeting, they had skills but this rhetoric is frequently supplanted at agreed to address the issue of language across the national level by increasing regulation of curriculum subject because if the students could not content, , prescription of targets and communicate correctly, it affected other subjects. benchmarks and regular measurement of outcomes. They agreed to the idea that all teachers should look Such policy prescriptions of what counts as into language issues such as spelling, grammar, successful educational outcomes limits teacher punctuation, handwriting, and neatness in writing. creativity and commitments. The pressure by the This idea was not well received by the other subject government to raise achievement exerts priority over teachers who claimed that content, and not language the overall goals of learning. All teachers are in a was important as far as their subjects were position to make important contributions to concerned. improving language skills of the learners, both It is evident from the above observation that through the learning activities which they plan and issues of language have been left to the language through their interaction with them. This can be teachers. Language teachers report that they are achieved through collaborative relationships between always blamed for students’ failure: “When students teachers, policy makers and other educational cannot express themselves well in their tests, the stakeholders. blame is directed to teachers of English.” (English teacher). They insisted that every learning institution 5.5 English across the curriculum needs a language policy which should be implemented systematically across the curriculum Interviews with teachers of other subjects and all teachers need to view themselves as teachers revealed mixed feelings about taking responsibility of English, regardless of their subject specialization. This will allow students opportunities to see how

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Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Vol-3, Issue-1, 2017 ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in language skills such as reading and writing are teachers can advise teachers in all subject areas about applicable to all content areas and in real life. They comprehension strategies, that is, the steps that good gave examples such as in a math class, the teacher readers use to make sense of a text i.e. teaching of would take time to explain what the words reading skills such as skimming, scanning and active ‘difference’, ‘parallel’ or ‘mean’ in both math and reading; identifying key points and making notes and English. Students can also be encouraged to read summarizing. about or write about a sport or activity in a Physical The teachers of English in the study proposed a Education class. common approach to marking students’ work where students are informed that teachers in subjects across 5.6 Teacher incompetence the curriculum are consistent in supporting them in their language skills. All teachers will need to be Focus group discussions with the English clear about their responsibilities and their roles in the language teachers, revealed that some content assessment of language use. This will include identifying grammatical errors, spelling, punctuation, teachers’ uncooperativeness was due to low proficiency in English language. They reported that and general writing skills. For example, in subject teachers were equally struggling with Geography, students could be reminded to structure grammar, spelling, structure, and even spoken their paragraphs in a logical sequence and to language and therefore unable to assist learners: reconsider their choice of connectives to support the development of their argument. This will “If we ourselves cannot tell the difference complement what is learnt in language classrooms. between “pin” and “bin,” or “aloud” and The teachers of other subjects however did not seem “around”, how are we going to make the students recognize them, and use them correctly in their to buy in the idea. They argued that students should not be penalized for language errors but, instead, speech?”; emphasis sh “What do you expect anyway; the teachers ould be put on content ‘after all English themselves are equally struggling with the is a foreign language’ a belief which may explain language incompetence. language”. (Teachers of English). students’ Such remarks show that the language problem is more complex than it appears. This implies that some 5.7 Pressure for outcomes teachers equally need support in their language skills posing the question, who takes responsibility for the The fierce competition among individuals and teachers’ language improvement? A possible schools revealed the effects of an increasingly result- approach would be to have teacher support groups. oriented approach at the expense of the national Teacher support groups, also referred to by other goals of education. The teachers in the study names, such as teacher networks (Villegas-Reimers, expressed the view that pressure to perform well in 2003), study groups (Guskey, 2000) and learning examinations was compromising the objectives of circles (Tripp, 2004), are defined as two or more learning: ‘The education system in Kenya attaches teachers collaborating to achieve either their considerable importance to the academically individual or shared goals or both, on the assumption excellent student’ (English teacher). The teachers of that working with a group is usually more effective English, in particular, reported that there was no than working on one’s own (Richards & Farrell relationship between the objectives of the integrated 2005). The programs are meant to recognize the English curriculum that was being offered in Kenya nature and extent of teachers’ knowledge, utilizing it and the respective examinations undertaken by the to help others improve their teaching skills through learners. The target of the teachers, learners as well learning from their own and their colleagues’ as the parents seemed to be the immediate outcome experience. They use collaborative activities to break of the examinations and not the national education down barriers of isolation and allow teachers to goals. The consequence of this mismatch between support each other in collective problem solving. learning outcomes and the national education goals These are operationalized through: teacher-led was, poor applied language skills as one teacher of workshops, teacher network conferences, well-being English notes: ‘surprisingly, some of those graduates programs, teacher network websites and who cannot express themselves properly passed their publications. exams very well and they hold good certificates’. Teacher support groups can be based on topics Similarly, teachers of other subjects seemed to be (e.g. teaching writing or a response to a current generally aware of the priority language has on concern in education), or the school (e.g. different students overall learning, but they said it was hard teachers from different schools).Through support for them to focus on those opportunities because of groups, teachers are exposed to learning the current situation that stresses examination results opportunities and take part in activities geared over critical thinking. They expressed the view that towards improvement. For instance, language pressure to perform well in examinations would not

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Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Vol-3, Issue-1, 2017 ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in allow them to pay extra attention to students’ and measurable learning outcomes and more language skills. Success was measured by the emphasis on the responsibility of teachers to overall grade attained at the end of the course. The construct learning environments that challenge, teachers reported that their focus was mainly on the engage and motivate all learners immediate outcome and that there were Advancement in technology has changed learners consequences if the students did not do well in the view towards learning and teachers are therefore exams; ‘we are rushing to complete the syllabus and required to shift their knowledge, world-views, prepare the learners for examinations’. They beliefs, goals, skills, and attitudes that they bring to proposed an overhaul of the curriculum and the the classroom. Emphasis should not only be on assessment criteria so that a single examination is not teacher development courses for the teaching of used to measure achievement. This would reduce English but also on building teachers’ confidence pressure and allow teachers to use teaching and ability for their students’ attitude development approaches that are geared towards long term towards English. The current learners are exposed to objectives. a wide range of digital media and social platforms that allow flexibility of language use, calling for 6. Conclusion teachers to shift their approaches and attitudes. Teachers should positively embrace technology so as In the absence of a well-documented language to be at bar or ahead of their learners. It is only policy in Kenya, teachers of English are left to through this would they keep speed with the fast grapple with strategies to calm the ever growing changing world and therefore have confidence in the outcry over limited language skills of learners. classroom. Among the many factors standing in the way to improved language skills are challenges of an 8. References educational policy that has sustained an examination- driven curriculum in contrast with the explicit [1] Alan, F. F. & Peat, D., ''The role of language in objectives to provide an education that can equip the science''. Foundations of Physics 18(12) 1988 pp 1233- learner with critical skills. Further, due to limited 1242. ongoing training, there exists a lack of confidence [2] Alidou, H., ''Optimizing learning and education in among teachers in using and guiding learners in Africa – the language factor. 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