Evolution of Supraclavicular Brachial Plexus Block

Evolution of Supraclavicular Brachial Plexus Block 1 2 3 Teo Wei Wei , Beh Zhi Yuen , Shahridan Mohd Fathil 1Department of Anaesthesia, National University Hospital, Singapore 2Anaesthesia Department, Changi General Hospital, Singapore 3Anaesthesia Department, Ng Teng Fong General Hospital, Singapore Often considered the ‘spinal anaesthesia of of the supraclavicular fossa, the plexus is the upper extremity’, the supraclavicular most compactly arranged, consisting of approach to the brachial plexus provides distal trunks and origins of divisions. Hence, excellent anaesthesia of the upper limb with the supraclavicular approach of the brachial rapid onset1. Its use in history dates all the plexus has been thought to provide way back to the 1920s, but gradually fell out anaesthesia to the entire upper extremity of favour due to high incidence of with a rapid onset and in the most consistent pneumothorax, improvement in general manner. anaesthesia safety and safer alternative approaches. With the advent of ultrasound- At the supraclavicular fossa, both the guided techniques allowing real-time brachial plexus and subclavian artery lie visualisation of anatomy, there has been above the first rib and the pleura. The renewed interest in the block due to brachial plexus is located lateral and increased safety and reduced complication posterior to the subclavian artery, while the rate. subclavian vein and anterior scalene muscle are found medial to the subclavian artery. ANATOMY The pleura is usually situated within 1-2 cm medial from the brachial plexus. The brachial plexus supplies motor and sensory innervation to the upper limb. It is formed by the ventral rami of C5 to T1. They INDICATIONS AND BENEFITS emerge, as roots, between the anterior and middle scalene muscles, then proceed to The most common indication of the traverse the posterior triangle, forming three supraclavicular brachial plexus bock is upper trunks, the upper, middle and lower. extremity surgery1. As with all peripheral Posterior to the mid clavicle, each trunk then nerve blocks (PNBs), supraclavicular divides to form an anterior and posterior brachial plexus block offers an excellent division. The divisions then combine to form anaesthetic alternative for upper limb the lateral, medial and posterior cords, which surgery. It provides superior, long-lasting are named according to their relation to the analgesia, and avoids potential side effects of second part of the axillary artery. Various a general anaesthesia including nausea, peripheral nerves, including the terminal vomiting, dental trauma, sore throat, allergic branches, emerge from these cords. reactions and intraoperative haemodynamics swings. PNBs indeed offer distinct benefits A brachial plexus block can be performed at over general or neuraxial anaesthesia in multiple sites along its anatomical path. certain clinical situations, especially high Common approaches include that at the risk patients. interscalene, supraclavicular, infraclavicular and axillary levels (Figure 1)2. At the level HISTORY TECHNIQUES The first documented brachial plexus block A. Surface landmark with paraesthesia was performed by William Steward Halsted seeking in 1884, who directly exposed the brachial plexus in the neck with cocaine3. It was only Classical approach in 1911 when Kulenkampff performed the (‘Kulenkampff technique’) first percutaneous supraclavicular brachial plexus block4. In collaboration with Persky5, The classical Kulenkampff approach Kulenkampff’s technique and experience involves the patient to be in the sitting with 1000 supraclavicular brachial plexus position, with the arm to be ‘blocked’ lying blocks was published in 1928. in the lap with the shoulder relaxed. If the sitting position is not possible, the patient However, Kulenkampff’s technique of will lie supine, with a pillow under his inserting the needle posteriorly, medially scapula and his head rotated opposite from and caudally in the direction of T2 or T3 the side to be blocked4, 5. spinous process, carried an inherent risk of pneumothorax.5 This, together with The needle is inserted at a point middle of the improvements in general anaesthesia safety, clavicle, crossed by a line projected as well as the advent of reportedly safer downward from the external jugular vein. It alternatives including axillary approach by is advanced lateral to the subclavian artery Accardo and Adriano (1949)6, Eather and and is directed posteriorly, medially and Burnham (1958)7, later De Jong (1961)8, caudally to the upper border of the first rib supraclavicular approach gradually fell out (i.e. in the direction of the T2 or T3 spinous of favour in the early 1960s. process). The classical approach involves inducing paraesthesia in the finger tips Until the last two decades, with the usually at a depth of 1-2cm. This indicates introduction of real-time ultrasound guided the needle’s contact with the plexus. Local techniques to reduce risk of inadvertent anaesthetic is then slowly injected, with pleura puncture, the supraclavicular paraesthesia increasing temporarily until the approach of the brachial plexus, with its local anaesthetic’s action causes the rapid onset, high success rate and large area sensation to disappear.4, 5. of anaesthesia coverage, has gradually regained popularity.1, 2, 9, 10 Modified techniques The medial orientation of the needle in the classical approach was associated with increased risk of pleural puncture and pneumothorax, reported 6% incidence5. Consequently, attempts to modify the classical technique were described to reduce this risk. Several modified techniques were published subclavian artery. No pneumothorax in chronological order: reported in 136 cases. MacIntosh & Mushin (1942)11 Lamoureux & Bourgeois-Gavardin Brown’s plump-bob technique16 (1952)12 Subclavian perivascular technique – This is initially a surface landmark with Winnie & Collins (1964) 13 paraesthesia seeking technique which later Parascalene technique – Vongvises & incorporate the use of a nerve stimulator. Panijayanond (1972) 14 This is performed with the patient supine on Dupre & Danel technique (1982)15 a horizontal table with the ipsilateral arm at Brown’s plump-bob technique (1988)16 the side and the head turned opposite the side to be blocked. The point of needle insertion There were great diversity of technique with is “immediately adjacent and superior to the minimal variations revealed that none of clavicle at the lateral-most insertion of the them was perfect and free from potential sternocleidomastoid muscle onto the hazard. Below are some techniques worth clavicle”. The needle direction is mention. anteroposterior—that is, perpendicular to the table—as if following the line of a suspended Subclavian perivascular technique – plumb-bob through the insertion site. Local Winnie & Collins13 anaesthetic is injected at a single site after adequate paresthesia or motor response by a This is a surface landmark with paraesthesia nerve stimulator. seeking technique. The needle is inserted at the base of interscalene groove, posterior to the subclavian artery, in the horizontal plane. B. Surface landmark with nerve The disadvantages of this technique are stimulator vascular puncture, hematoma, and pneumothorax (less than 1:1000 in Locating nerves by obtaining paraesthesia experienced hand). could indicate that the needle tip is intraneural. If local anaesthetic were to be Dupre & Danel technique15 injected despite the paraesthesia, this could potentially result in neural damage and This is also a surface landmark with complications. On the contrary, absence of paraesthesia seeking technique. Surface paresthesia does not reliably exclude the landmarks: the external jugular vein, the possibility of needle-to-nerve contact nor sternocleidomastoid muscle, and the does it prevent post-operative neural injury clavicular insertion of the trapezius muscle. (PNI). Nevertheless, severe paresthesia that The needle is inserted at the intersection occurs with needle advancement or injection point between external jugular vein and a should prompt the cessation of either line drawn from the top of supraclavicularis maneuver, and repositioning of the needle 17 minor fossa to edge of external clavicular should be considered. insertion of trapezius muscle. The advantage 18 is that it did not require location of In 1962, Greenblatt was first to describe the use of a portable solid-state nerve stimulator with variable current output in nerve Brown20 in 1995 showed seizures associated identification and location. Since then, with supraclavicular brachial plexus blocks peripheral nerve stimulation using a low to be as high as 79 in 10,000. These intensity, short duration electrical stimulus complications are due to the close proximity to obtain a defined response to locate the of the brachial plexus with the subclavian nerve/plexus was used in the practice of artery and pleura. Moreover, success of the PNBs. The goal of nerve stimulation is two- block with the above techniques is largely prong; firstly, to place the needle tip in close dependent on our knowledge and proximity to the target nerve/plexus so as to understanding of the anatomy of the brachial inject local anaesthetic in the vicinity of the plexus. However, it has been shown that nerve; secondly, for identifying intraneural there are large anatomical variations in over needle tip placement (i.e. a motor response at 50% of the population10. ≤0.2 mA is obtained only with intraneural needle tip location). It has been reported

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