SPECIAL FEATURE ON INDUSTRIAL SYMBIOSIS “Uncovering” Industrial Symbiosis
Marian R. Chertow
Keywords Summary by-product synergy eco-industrial development Since 1989, efforts to understand the nature of interfirm re- eco-industrial parks source sharing in the form of industrial symbiosis and to repli- industrial ecology cate in a deliberate way what was largely self-organizing in industrial ecosystems Kalundborg, Denmark have followed many paths, some with industrial symbiosis much success and some with very little. This article provides a historical view of the motivations and means for pursuing industrial symbiosis—defined to include physical exchanges of materials, energy, water, and by-products among diversified clusters of firms. It finds that “uncovering” existing symbioses has led to more sustainable industrial development than at- tempts to design and build eco-industrial parks incorporating physical exchanges. By examining 15 proposed projects brought to national and international attention by the U.S. President’s Council on Sustainable Development beginning in the early 1990s, and contrasting these with another 12 projects observed to share more elements of self-organization, recommendations are of- fered to stimulate the identification and uncovering of already existing “kernels” of symbiosis. In addition, policies and prac- tices are suggested to identify early-stage precursors of po- tentially larger symbioses that can be nurtured and developed further. The article concludes that environmentally and eco- nomically desirable symbiotic exchanges are all around us and now we must shift our gaze to find and foster them.
Address correspondence to: Professor Marian R. Chertow School of Forestry & Environmental Studies Yale University 205 Prospect Street New Haven, CT 06511-2189 USA
© 2007 by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Yale University
Volume 11, Number 1 http://mitpress.mit.edu/jie Journal of Industrial Ecology 11 FORUM
Introduction Pursuing Industrial Symbiosis
Looking back, 1989 was an inspirational year Although industrial symbiosis may appear to for industry and environment. Following the have leapt fully grown onto the sustainability Bruntland Commission report in 1987 came two stage, notions of trading and resource exchange key events. The seminal article by Frosch and are as ancient as primitive peoples sharing animal Gallopoulos (Frosch and Gallopoulos 1989) in parts. Scrap dealers, charities organizing clothing Scientific American envisioned “industrial ecosys- drives, and companies buying and selling residual tems” in which “the consumption of energy and materials on line are engaging in resource ex- materials is optimized and the effluents of one change. To distinguish industrial symbiosis from process . . . serve as the raw material for another other types of exchanges, my colleagues and I process.” That same year, a cluster of companies have adopted a “3–2 heuristic” as a minimum from different industries that were intensively criterion. Thus, at least three different entities sharing resources was unexpectedly uncovered in must be involved in exchanging at least two dif- Denmark and then described in the international ferent resources to be counted as a basic type of press (Knight 1990; Barnes 1992). What we have industrial symbiosis. By involving three entities, come to call “the industrial symbiosis at Kalund- none of which is primarily engaged in a recycling- borg” provided a concrete realization of the in- oriented business, the 3–2 heuristic begins to rec- dustrial ecosystems Frosch and Gallopoulos the- ognize complex relationships rather than linear orized.1 one-way exchanges. A simple version of this is Industrial symbiosis has been defined as engag- a wastewater treatment plant providing cooling ing “traditionally separate industries in a collec- water for a power station and the power station, tive approach to competitive advantage involv- in turn, supplying steam to an industrial user. ing physical exchange of materials, energy, water, The words “kernel” and “precursor” have been and by-products. The keys to industrial symbio- chosen to describe instances of bilateral or mul- sis are collaboration and the synergistic possi- tilateral exchange of these types that have the bilities offered by geographic proximity” (Cher- potential to expand, but do not yet meet the tow 2000). Since 1989, efforts to understand fuller 3–2 definition of industrial symbiosis. See the nature of symbiosis and to replicate in a figure 1. deliberate way what was largely self-organizing The symbiotic relationships described above in Kalundborg have followed many paths, are presumed to provide environmental bene- some with much success and some with very fits, although these benefits have seldom been little. carefully measured. They occur in single-industry This article provides a historical view of the dominated clusters such as petrochemical com- motivations and means for pursuing symbio- plexes as well as multi-industry ones such as sis, with a focus on assessing planned versus Kalundborg. In general, three primary oppor- spontaneous symbiosis. By examining 15 pro- tunities for resource exchange are considered posed projects brought to national and interna- (Chertow et al. 2007): (1) By-product reuse— tional attention by the U.S. President’s Council the exchange of firm-specific materials between on Sustainable Development beginning in the two or more parties for use as substitutes for early 1990s, and contrasting these with another commercial products or raw materials. (2) Util- 12 projects observed to share more elements of ity/infrastructure sharing—the pooled use and self-organization, recommendations are offered to management of commonly used resources such stimulate the identification and uncovering of al- as energy, water, and wastewater. (3) Joint provi- ready existing symbioses. In addition, policies and sion of services—meeting common needs across practices for governments, nongovernmental or- firms for ancillary activities such as fire suppres- ganizations (NGOs), and businesses are suggested sion, transportation, and food provision. to identify early stage “precursors” or “kernels” of Many motivations exist for pursuing industrial symbiosis that can be nurtured and developed symbiosis, either directly or indirectly as a result further. of trying to meet other objectives. The most
12 Journal of Industrial Ecology SPECIAL FEATURE ON INDUSTRIAL SYMBIOSIS
Figure 1 Example of 3–2 symbiosis involving a minimum of three different entities exchanging at least two different resources.
obvious motivations are conventional business was proposed as a way to attract jobs through reasons; for example, resource sharing can reduce “clean” economic development in a poor rural costs and/or increase revenues. At another level, U.S. county in Virginia (Hayes 2003). In China, industrial symbiosis can enhance long-term re- a sugar refining company grew by following the source security by increasing the availability of path of the supply chain for that industry, thereby critical resources such as water, energy, or par- providing solutions for two important problems: ticular raw materials through contracts. In some decreasing the environmental impacts of sugar re- cases, companies pursue symbiosis in response to fining through reuse of by-products and increas- regulatory or permitting pressure requiring indus- ing employment by using these by-products to trial operators to increase efficiency of resource fuel new enterprises (Zhu and Cotˆ e´ 2004; Zhu use, reduce emissions, or eliminate waste. et al. 2007). Figure 2 shows the expansion of the Historically, what is often described as “spon- Guitang Group beyond sugar refining into related taneous co-location” of businesses in industrial industries that use materials from the two key districts has been shown to give rise to many pub- by-product streams from sugar cane production: lic and private benefits including labor availabil- molasses (the sugar refining residue) and bagasse ity, access to capital, technological innovation, (the fibrous waste product). and infrastructure efficiency (Marshall 1890; Business development strategies involving Krugman 1991; Desrochers 2001; Duranton and industrial symbiosis are being used in some Puga 2003). Still, the modern literature on these countries to alleviate environmental degrada- “agglomeration economies” generally overlooks tion where contamination has already occurred environmental benefits of agglomeration through at the “end of the pipe.” Van Berkel (2004), resource sharing (Chertow et al. 2006). Although a leading industrial symbiosis researcher from self-organizing industrial districts have been ob- Australia, describes the use of resource exchange served to produce many advantages over the last as an approach to addressing the high volume of hundred years, people involved in planning eco- wastes from mineral, metal, and energy produc- industrial parks (EIPs) and other concrete mani- tion in Australia. One well-studied example is the festations of industrial symbiosis have anticipated Kwinana Industrial Area in Western Australia, many other types of benefits as key rationales for operating since the 1950s, composed of numer- advancing projects, including economic devel- ous mineral processing industries. Between 1990 opment broadly, remediation of pollution asso- and 2001, the number of core process industries at ciated with heavy industry, water and land sav- Kwinana increased from 13 to 21 and the number ings, and greenhouse gas reductions, as discussed of symbiotic exchanges increased from 27 to 106. below. Of these, 68 involved core process industries and Because industrial development is a form of 38 involved services and infrastructure (Altham economic development, there has been interest and van Berkel 2004, van Beers et al. 2007). in using the concept of industrial symbiosis in The differential distribution of rain, surface the form of eco-industrial parks (EIPs) to (1) re- water, and groundwater has led many commu- vitalize urban and rural sites, including brown- nities to ask whether there could be more sus- field redevelopment, (2) promote job growth tainable ways to use water. The symbiosis in and retention, and (3) encourage more sustain- Kalundborg, Denmark began because of the low able development. An eco-industrial park project availability of groundwater and the need for a
Chertow, “Uncovering” Industrial Symbiosis 13 FORUM
Figure 2 The Guitang Group, beyond sugar refining. Source: Zhu and Cotˆ e´ 2004, 1028. Used by permission from authors. surface water source which, once identified, be- Concentrations of industry are often heavy came a key part of the resource exchange network generators of greenhouse gases associated with there (Christensen 1998). Several AES power global climate change. Discussions in Alberta, plants in the United States associated with eco- Canada’s industrial heartland, raised the idea industrial development in areas concerned with of establishing tree plantations near the oil water availability in Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and and petrochemical industries located there, not New Hampshire use millions of gallons of sewage only to compensate for CO2 emissions, but also water per day for cooling water. to provide employment and renewable materi- In many parts of the world, land that was for- als (Alberta’s Industrial Heartland Association merly arable has, over time, degraded with the 2000; Cotˆ e´ 2003). A heavy industry area in intrusion of salt water. In Narrogin, Australia, eastern Australia focused on minerals process- farmers are now planting mallee trees that soak ing and chemical production makes a sizeable up groundwater with their deep roots, helping to contribution to greenhouse gas emissions be- prevent the rise of the saline water table (Barton cause of raw material consumption, transport, 1999). The opportunity provided by the kernel of and waste disposal (Sustainable Gladstone 2005). tree planting to build industrial symbiosis around The Australian government is examining the ex- it has resulted in construction of a pilot plant tent to which by-product reuse and exchange can designed to process the harvested shrubs to pro- result in reduction of greenhouse gases in the duce one megawatt (1 MW)2 of renewable en- Gladstone Industrial Area. ergy, 700 tonnes3 per year of eucalyptus oil, and So far, we have recounted business benefits 200 tonnes per year of charcoal as a possible sub- of symbiosis across companies, as well as exper- stitute for black coal in high-temperature met- iments and opportunities for resource conser- allurgical reactors (Department of the Environ- vation. Symbiotic activity can also come into ment and Heritage 2004; Enecon 2006). play in response to a regulatory situation. In
14 Journal of Industrial Ecology SPECIAL FEATURE ON INDUSTRIAL SYMBIOSIS the United States, for example, the Public Utili- colleagues investigated 63 “eco-industrial” sites: ties Regulatory Policy Act (PURPA) bestowed 30 in the United States and 33 in Europe. The certain pricing benefits on facilities willing to work of the Gibbs team found little success in co-generate steam and electricity, which stim- the United States and somewhat more success ulated many industrial plants to become “quali- in Europe. After carefully examining the data, fying facilities” under the law.4 Rules regarding Gibbs concluded that “initiatives based upon the scrubbing of flue gases in power-generating facil- interchange of wastes and cascading of energy are ities in several countries have led to many sym- few in number and difficult to organize” (Gibbs bioses involving the use of scrubbed sulfur for et al. 2005). production of gypsum wallboard. Even when a Half of the U.S. sites the Gibbs team re- law does not directly command reuse, a less tan- viewed were associated with the work of the U.S. gible “license to operate” in the form of regula- President’s Council on Sustainable Development tory permits or greater social acceptance can be (USPCSD), formed during the Clinton admin- associated with projects showing environmental istration. In its report, Sustainable America,the benefits (Gunningham et al. 2003; Chertow and USPCSD (1996, 104) recommended that “Fed- Lombardi 2005). eral and state agencies should assist communities Thus, there are many reasons for pursuing in- that want to create eco-industrial parks that clus- dustrial symbiosis, beginning with the most basic ter businesses in the same area to create new mod- desire of businesses to be profitable and com- els of industrial efficiency, cooperation, and en- petitive. Important social, environmental, and vironmental responsibility.” These 15 so-called regulatory drivers also exist, which play out dif- “eco-industrial parks” were at various stages of ferently in different parts of the world, as illus- planning or implementation, including four sites trated by the examples above. At the same time, funded by the U.S. Environmental Protection although there are numerous measurable bene- Agency in Chattanooga, Tennessee; Baltimore, fits, the classic expression—“if (the subject un- Maryland; Brownsville, Texas; and Cape Charles, der discussion) is so advantageous, why aren’t we Virginia. The sites were announced at a PCSD seeing a lot more of it?”—is applicable to indus- task force meeting in October 1996. The author trial symbiosis. In fact, many barriers to industrial attended this meeting ten years ago and oversaw symbiosis are identified and detailed in the liter- an independent telephone and Internet survey of ature. In addition to the usual problems of busi- these 15 projects completed in 2005. The results ness development, these barriers are rooted in areshownintable1.7 the operational, financial, and behavioral issues The USPCSD consensus definition of an eco- raised by the need to work across organizations industrial park was as follows: (Lowe et al. 1995; Chertow 2000; Chertow 2003; Gibbs 2003; Ehrenfeld and Gertler 1997; Mirata A community of businesses that cooperate 2004).5 Neither are the externalities of symbiotic with each other and with the local commu- arrangements all positive in the minds of citizens nity to efficiently share resources (informa- tion, materials, water, energy, infrastructure concerned about pollution and health effects of and natural habitat), leading to economic industry. Indeed, one town’s economic develop- gains, gains in environmental quality, and eq- ment can be another town’s emissions source or uitable enhancement of human resources for 6 traffic jam. the business and local community. (USPCSD 1997, 36) Planning and Self-Organization Gibbs and colleagues (Gibbs et al. 2002) de- in Industrial Symbiosis termined that of the 15 projects (including the A surprising aspect of industrial symbiosis now Burnside Industrial Park in Nova Scotia, Canada, well known to researchers and policy makers has cited by both Gibbs and colleagues 2002 and been that efforts to plan industrial ecosystems the USPCSD in 1996), five were open, three to achieve the benefits described above have re- had failed, and seven were still identified as sulted in many failures. Gibbs (Gibbs 2003) and “planned.”
Chertow, “Uncovering” Industrial Symbiosis 15 FORUM v i i concept concept failed concept with R&D center development project industrial park traditional industrial park Open Open with changed OpenOpen Open as an industrial park Closed Open Open as sustainable Planned Open with changed Planned NeverPlanned emerged, open as Planned, changed concept Planned Never emerged Failed or stalled Regional exchange Failed or stalled Never emerged Failed or stalled Open as standard Gibbs et al. category Revised category v iii ii Summary as of 2005 (2002–2004) 2005–2006 no longer pursuing EIP concept.name As to of Fairfield 2002, Eco-Business changed Park. Corp. performed some data base development. Center supporting land and farm-based enterprises. research and development; augments existingindustrial large park. spring 2005. “sustainable technology” businesses even if no EIP. Plant site to an environmentalwere technology never center completed. coastal forest” did not occur;officials described as by having local been “plannedmanufacturing around business a that didn’t materialize.” Program; now called Plattsburgh Airbase Redevelopment Corp., with 60 tenants. neighborhood; today “Phillips Eco-Enterprise Center” has created over 100 jobs. Alameda County Waste Management Authority;not has come to fruition as EIP. Existing industrial park when funded by US-PCSD, now Planned as regional exchange and data base; Bechtel Now called Intervale Community Food Enterprise Opened “Eco-efficiency Centre” in 1998 oriented to Opened as EIP in 2000, final sale of assets occurring Original plan to develop a park “within a second growth From original emphasis on EIP with ISO 14000/EMS Original project focus to create jobs in poor Planned as resource recovery park for waste diversion by 8 Status of eco-industrial park project sites profiled by the U.S. President’s Council on Sustainable Development, 1996 Maryland Park—Raymond, Washington Texas Vermont Scotia, Canada Industrial Park—Cape Charles, Virginia New York Park—Minneapolis, Minnesota California 1. Fairfield Ecological Industrial Park—Baltimore, 7. The Volunteer Site—Chattanooga, Tennessee Plans to convert the Volunteer Army Ammunition 11. Raymond Green Eco-Industrial 2. Brownsville Eco-Industrial Park—Brownsville, 3. Riverside Eco-Industrial Park—Burlington, 4. Burnside Eco-Industrial Park—Halifax, Nova 5. Port of Cape Charles Sustainable Technologies 6. Civano Industrial Eco-Park—Tucson, Arizona Residential “new town” development planned to seek Name, location listed in 1996 10. Plattsburgh Eco-Industrial Park—Plattsburgh, 9. Green Institute Eco-Industrial 8. East Bay Eco-Industrial Park—Alameda County, Ta b l e 1
16 Journal of Industrial Ecology SPECIAL FEATURE ON INDUSTRIAL SYMBIOSIS uncertain AES gives Granite Ridge power plant back iii v Open Open, but status Planned Never emerged Planned Never emerged Planned Never emerged Food Planet.com 2005; iii ii v v i v ii v McCullough 2005; i v Chaffee 2005; v ix features did not have agovernment site staff determined reported and there local wasfollowing little a activity 1996 feasibility study. community; successor organization domain namesale, for no further mention. tenant—720-MW gas-fired power station—opened in 2003 and facility sold to creditors in 2004. multistakeholder group; early feasibility study1998, done city in staff report interest1998. lost in project by Plan to develop an industrial park with some EIP Envisioned renovating existing facility in disadvantaged Private developer named in 1998. Anchor Intended as a network of firms organized by PARC-USA 2005; v i Bakke 2005; iii Hewett 2003; ii Tagliaferri 2005. ix Briggs 2005; i Park—Skagit County, Washington Maryland Park—Londonderry, New Hampshire New Jersey 12. Skagit County Environmental Industrial 13. Shady Side Eco-Business Park—Shady Side, 14. Stonyfield Londonderry Eco-Industrial 15. Trenton Eco-Industrial Complex—Trenton, to bank 2004, Sources:
Chertow, “Uncovering” Industrial Symbiosis 17 FORUM
Although the 15 proposed projects were all Ridge power plant back to bank” 2004). Cape labeled “eco-industrial parks” a decade ago, none Charles still has an office building but has sold off adheres to the idealistic vision of the USPCSD its few remaining assets for other land uses (Slone above (Chertow 2004). Yet neither do simple la- 2005). bels such as “planned” or “failed” give a nuanced Upon further analysis, we can now see that sense of what occurred. Gibbs and colleagues cat- the 15 projects were quite a mixed bag. The egorized ten projects as either “planned” (seven) Brownsville, Texas, project, according to the or “failed or stalled” (three). The Brownsville, USPCSD (1997) documents, was to be a re- Texas, concept did not take hold, but although gional materials exchange; it was clearly noted two others of these ten failed as EIPs, they that “a defined ‘eco-industrial park’ is consid- did become conventional industrial parks (Chat- ered as one possible component of regional indus- tanooga and Plattsburgh). I record only one trial symbiosis, but not the driving force” (emphasis project in California’s East Bay as still “planned,” added). With respect to the Burnside Industrial although the concept has changed. Now called Park in Nova Scotia, the original PCSD (1997) the Alameda County EIP, it was, from the start, documents name the key feature of Burnside as sited by a waste transfer station with a plan to a “six year multi-disciplinary, multi-institutional become a resource recovery park (Liss 2005), study of requirements” using a cooperative part- although this vision, too, has been deferred by nership among academia, government, and the market realities (Bakke 2005). A fifth project private sector. The Burnside Eco-Efficiency Cen- in Burlington, Vermont, opened with a changed tre largely fits this bill and continues to function concept as the “Intervale Community Food En- as a living laboratory for research and demon- terprise Center.” The Web site describes a new stration, but the Burnside Park itself, with 1400 public market “to be built on the site of the for- companies, does not meet the definition of an mer Eco-Park” (Intervale 2005, emphasis added). EIP above (Barchard 2005). The Green Institute The other five in our survey had achieved few project intended to create employment opportu- results: we were told in various ways that, after nities through a very small EIP and to incorpo- a time, “nothing happened.” Sometimes this was rate environmental education in “the poorest and after a feasibility study or an initial request for most diverse neighborhood in Minnesota.” It has proposals, or a series of meetings with stakehold- achieved success as “the Phillips Eco-Enterprise ers, but we had the impression that most were Center” with environmental building features never embedded in the planning process but were and job creation organized by a grassroots group. ideas without a strong basis. These are labeled in In reviewing the previous decade, then, we table 1 as “never emerged.” can see in these 15 projects, as well as many other Of the five projects categorized by Gibbs and early efforts such as those initiated in the pri- colleagues as “open,” the Fairfield Park in Bal- vate sector by the group now known as the U.S. timore reported changing its name in 2002 and Business Council for Sustainable Development leaving behind the EIP concept (Build Fairfield (Forward and Mangan 1999; Chertow 2000), 2005). Both the projects in Minneapolis and what paleontologists might call a series of “evolu- Nova Scotia fulfilled the main objectives estab- tionary experiments.” Reexamining the original lished in the PCSD case studies, but neither is a USPCSD documents, we see that a variety of ap- self-defined EIP (see below). Given the high fail- proaches to eco-development were tried—from ure rates of businesses, the fact that 2 of 15 origi- regional databases, to waste parks, to retrofits of nal PCSD projects, in Londonderry, New Hamp- existing parks—for a plethora of reasons—inner shire, and Cape Charles, Virginia, did open as city development, rural development, and en- self-defined EIPs could be viewed as a success. Un- hancing the “new town”9 concept. They relied fortunately, both have run into serious difficulties to a large extent on public funding and although since 2004. The Londonderry anchor tenant—a some became active, others died off quickly. In new 720-MW power plant—is operating but is time, however, it seemed as if all of the early in receivership, given the high price of natural projects were lumped together as a single idealized gas and steep tax liabilities (“AES gives Granite model and, when the success rate was found to
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Sulfur Gas (back up) BPB Liquid Statoil Gyproc A/S Fertilizer Water Refinery Production Scrubber Wall-board Sludge Plant Boiler water Waste water water Steam Cooling Lake Water District Heating Tissø Heat Municipality of Energy E2 Asnaes Kalundborg Power Station Wastewater Treatment Plant Fish Heat farming
Hot water Sludge
Steam Fly ash Organic residues Water A-S Soilrem Yeast Novo Nordisk A/S Farms slurry Novozymes A/S Cement; Sludge Pharmaceuticals roads (treated)
Figure 3 Industrial symbiosis of Kalundborg, Denmark. be very low, the word got out that eco-industrial Clearly, a more robust model of industrial sym- parks just do not work. biosis is needed. Alternatively, many of the suc- In looking back over this period, I suspect that cessful industrial ecosystems described in this ar- some projects were prematurely put on the PCSD ticle did not arise in the ways pursued by the list in the first place to fill out the cohort for PCSD. One feature that several of these have a meeting that would achieve media attention in common is the experience of a quiet period in October 1996. It was good for the govern- where firms engaged in exchanges among them- ment agencies to have more projects and good selves, unconscious of a bigger picture, followed for many, especially those within small commu- by an act of discovery that revealed the pattern nities, to be recognized on the national stage and of existing symbiotic exchanges and the resulting possibly be made eligible for public funding. Re- environmental benefits. viewing the projects codified on the Internet as a The most colorful case returns us to Kalund- series of case studies by the Smart Growth Net- borg, Denmark (figure 3). The first exchanges work (Smart Growth 2005), however, is like en- were in the 1970s, and, by the late 1980s, at least tering a time warp beginning in 1996 and trail- ten additional exchanges had begun across mul- ing off after 1998. Of the dozens of “Google hits” tiple firms (Symbiosis Institute, 2003). Yet, un- called up for each of the projects, most are echoes til some local high school students prepared a of a handful of Web sites, even if the sites are re- science project in 1989 in which they made a labeled with current dates. As a founding member scale model of all the pipelines and connections of the fledgling U.S.–Canadian NGO called the in their small community, the unique aspects of Eco-Industrial Development Council I can say the project went largely unnoticed (Christensen with certainty that dozens of evolutionary exper- 1998). Recognition of Kalundborg’s symbiotic at- iments continue in North America well beyond tributes was an uncovering of what already ex- the PCSD projects, but they are seldom neatly isted rather than the exploration of a new fron- packaged in an EIP box, thus casting the EIP tier. Following this high school project, still on concept as an artifact of cyberspace. display in Kalundborg, came the European media
Chertow, “Uncovering” Industrial Symbiosis 19 FORUM
(Knight 1990; Barnes 1992), and then academics 2004) writes that following through on the (Engberg 1993; Gertler 1995) to describe the ex- idea of examining large volume wastes from isting network from a broader environmental per- minerals processing in the context of the spective. Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Devel- Two fundamental conclusions have gained ac- opment Project under the auspices of the ceptance concerning the Kalundborg case. First, World Business Council for Sustainable De- we see that rather than resulting from planning velopment “revealed that quite significant or a multistakeholder process such as the ones regional by-product synergies are already pursued through the President’s Council on Sus- happening in resource processing intensive tainable Development, the Kalundborg symbio- regions” [emphasis added]. As noted earlier, sis emerged from self-organization initiated in the this prominent and diversified Australian private sector to achieve certain goals listed ear- mineral processing area has over 100 sym- lier, such as cost reduction, revenue enhance- r biotic exchanges. ment, business expansion, and securing long- Having become aware of Kalundborg, term access to water and energy. This implies two Austrian researchers also wondered that the symbiosis was not “seen” by outsiders whether that industrial ecosystem would be because the exchanges emerged from the invis- found to be unique. In developing the con- ible hand of the market rather than direct gov- cept of an “industrial recycling-network,” ernment policy or involvement. Second, once a Schwarz and Steininger (Schwarz and revelation was made, a coordinative function was Steininger 1995, 1997) studied the spa- found to be helpful in organizing more exchanges tially broader province of Styria and un- and moving them forward. In Kalundborg, for covered a network with a high degree of example, managers belonged to an Environment diversity and complexity. The researchers Club and a coordinative organization, the Sym- found exchanges consisting of hundreds of biosis Institute, was launched in 1996 as part thousands of tons of materials including of Kalundborg’s industrial development agency, power plant gypsum, steel slag, sawdust, specifically working to accelerate the number and recyclable paper and wood. Although and complexity of new exchanges (Jacobsen the Kalundborg participants became con- 2005). scious of the environmental characteristics If key types of mixed industrial ecosystems of their exchanges over time, the Styrian are self-organizing and arise for opportunistic companies were not generally aware of the reasons, then a similar pattern of discovery, in ubiquitous networking of regional mate- which preexisting symbioses were later recog- rial flows, and the authors were concerned nized, would be observed in other locations. In- that these companies were missing out on deed, we see this pattern repeated in several additional benefits. They stressed the im- other multiple-industry ecosystems wherein sig- portance of a coordinative function as in nificant industrial activity and interfirm sharing Kalundborg to try to increase exchange and were found to be well established in practice, improve internal and external communi- but never mapped and described using ecolog- cation. The notion of recycling networks ical metaphors. A common language has even spread over the last decade so that a central- emerged that reflects the notion of “uncovering” ized “Regional Recycling Information Sys- a pattern of trades more extensive or more in- tem” (REGRIS) in the Oldenburger Mun- terconnected than had been previously realized. sterland Region of northwest Germany now Several examples have been found that follow supports the management of intercompany this pattern of discovery in Australia, Austria, information flows, provides data to local Germany, Finland, and the United States. These firms about recycling opportunities, and co- are discussed in turn below. ordinates recycling activities (Milchrahm r r and Hasler 2002). In the example of Kwinana, Australia, In Finland, Korhonen and colleagues discussed above, van Berkel (Van Berkel (Korhonen et al. 1999) describe the city
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of Jyvaskyl¨ a¨ where the energy supply is or- With respect to the role of government, Porter ganized around co-production of heat and notes that “the appropriate policy towards clus- electricity and includes industrial wastes ter development is usually to build on existing used as fuels in a highly efficient system. or emerging areas that have passed a market The system arose for economic/regulatory test” (Porter 1998a). Many observers of indus- reasons, but was not consciously labeled as trial symbiosis similarly suggest the desirability “industrial ecology” or “industrial symbio- of working from an established base, a conclu- sis” prior to the intervention of professors sion affirmed here (Schwarz and Steininger 1997; r there. Chertow 2000; Korhonen 2002; Baas and Boons In North Carolina, USA, staff members 2004; Desrochers 2004; Jacobsen and Anderberg of the six-county Triangle J Council of 2005). An industrial ecology view makes this es- Governments came to realize over time pecially clear, as it depends on the existence of that their planning work to create the material and energy flows for its craft. Industrial Ecosystem Development Project was actually based on a foundation of ex- Understanding Emerging change activity. From 1997 to 1999, an Symbioses inventory of business inputs and outputs was conducted and 182 businesses repre- From the analysis presented thus far, contrast- senting 108 different business segments re- ing a planning approach with self-organization sponded to the inventory survey. According can be summarized in two stylized models of sym- to the final project report, two-thirds of all biosis as follows: those surveyed were characterized as having Planned EIP model. This model includes a con- some experience with reuse (Kincaid 1999; scious effort to identify companies from different Kincaid 2005). Of these, the researchers industries and locate them together so that they found that a surprising 36 percent had al- can share resources across and among them. Typ- ready engaged in activities beyond simple ical U.S. planning for these systems has involved recycling, thus affirming favorable market the formation of a stakeholder group of diverse ac- conditions and a symbiosis mindset that tors to guide the process and the participation of was unseen prior to the survey (Kincaid at least one governmental or quasi-governmental 2005). agency with some powers to encourage develop- ment, such as land use planning and/or zoning, A parallel to the self-organizing kernels of grant giving, or long-term financing. industrial symbiosis described in the examples Self-organizing symbiosis model. In this model, above can be drawn from an examination of an industrial ecosystem emerges from decisions the roots and development of business clus- by private actors motivated to exchange resources ters as analyzed by Porter. In describing how to meet goals such as cost reduction, revenue en- these “geographic concentrations of intercon- hancement, or business expansion. The individ- nected companies and institutions” arise, Porter ual initiative to begin resource exchange faces (Porter 1998b) notes many different motivat- a market test and if the exchanges are success- ing forces including the availability of special- ful, more may follow if there is on-going mutual ized skills, role of existing suppliers, scarcity con- self-interest. In the early stages there is no con- ditions, and availability of natural resources, as sciousness by participants of “industrial symbio- well as chance, although “what looks like chance sis” or inclusion in an “industrial ecosystem,” but may sometimes be the result of pre-existing lo- this can develop over time. The projects can be cational circumstances” (Porter 1998a). Parallel strengthened by post facto coordination and en- to the dubious mission of creating eco-industrial couragement. parks from scratch, as we have seen, Porter high- If, as described here, the self-organizing sym- lights the difficulty of seeding clusters where biosis model building from kernels of coopera- no important preexisting locational advantages tion and exchange tends to be more success- exist. ful, then we must examine it more closely to
Chertow, “Uncovering” Industrial Symbiosis 21 FORUM
Ta bl e 2 Projects sharing characteristics of uncovered industrial symbiosis referenced in this article Project Relevant section reference
Kwinana, Australia See Pursuing Industrial Symbiosis Gladstone, Australia See Pursuing Industrial Symbiosis and Bossilkov and colleagues (2005) Triangle J, North Carolina Planned project that uncovered self-organized roots among member firms—discussed in Planning and Self-Organization in Industrial Symbiosis Barceloneta, Puerto Rico See Understanding Emerging Symbioses Guayama, Puerto Rico See Understanding Emerging Symbioses Kalundborg, Denmark Mentioned throughout Styria, Austria See Planning and Self-Organization in Industrial Symbiosis Jyvaskyl¨ a,¨ Finland See Planning and Self-Organization in Industrial Symbiosis National Industrial Symbiosis See Policy Proposals for Uncovering Symbiosis (U.K. Symbiosis) Guitang Group, China See Pursuing Industrial Symbiosis—some parts of symbiosis planned but others appeared opportunistically (Zhu et al. 2007) Burnside Industrial Park, Canada See Planning and Self-Organization in Industrial Symbiosis—symbioses not planned but later coordinated by the Eco-Efficiency Centre Alberta Heartland, Canada See Pursuing Industrial Symbiosis
look for patterns or common characteristics. ther evolution toward a strategic vision and col- The USPCSD projects provide a convenient, if laborative action rooted in sustainability. nonrandom, sample of projects proposed through This diagram offers insight on two important a process. We do not have a comparable set questions: what do symbiotic relationships look of self-organizing symbiosis projects to exam- like before they are broadly known and at what ine because, by their very nature, they are not point are they “uncovered” in industrial ecosys- known until there has been some success and tems? Stage 1 shows that companies can coop- an uncovering event occurs. Acknowledging the erate for reasons of economic efficiency. Once problem of selection bias, projects more closely a regional efficiency gains momentum based on resembling self-organizing symbiosis that are re- autonomous decision-making, it may continue ferred to throughout this article are listed in to thrive and enter the more advanced stage table 2. of learning denoted in Stage 2. With respect Boons and Berends (2001) and Baas and to awareness by the companies of the environ- Boons (2004) offer an important theoretical per- mental benefits being gained, by definition, they spective suggesting how the emergence of indus- cannot be “uncovered” before the exchanges are trial symbioses based on the exploitation of win- established, which is why attempts at creation win situations among area firms could lead to a outside of the market are likely to fail. The dia- form of organization that embraces sustainable in- gram does not offer a temporal explanation—that dustrial development. Their three-part diagram is is, when the collection of companies involved at depicted in figure 4. the regional efficiency stage might move to the The first stage, regional efficiency, is described subsequent stages illustrated. as “autonomous decision-making by firms; co- In the case of Kalundborg, there were well- ordination with local firms to decrease ineffi- developed regional efficiencies (Stage 1) by the ciencies (i.e., ‘utility sharing’).” Stage 2 broadens time the symbiosis was brought to broader atten- goals and membership into regional learning, tion and may even have entered Stage 2 given where the authors see that “based on mutual the informal informational networks there. Per- recognition and trust, firms and other partners haps one way to understand the dominance of exchange knowledge, and broaden the definition Kalundborg in the literature is to see it as having of sustainability on which they act.” The third moved directionally further to the right of these stage, a sustainable industrial district, shows fur- stages than other relevant projects at the time
22 Journal of Industrial Ecology SPECIAL FEATURE ON INDUSTRIAL SYMBIOSIS
I Regional efficiency II Regional learning III Sustainable industrial district
Figure 4 From regional efficiency to a sustainable industrial district. Source: Baas and Boons 2004. Used by permission from authors. of uncovering. Nascent symbioses found earlier at some unspecified time, an uncovering event in their possible trajectories are less stable and, occurs, usually catalyzed by members of a third therefore, their futures are more uncertain, party such as an academic institution or business whereas Kalundborg was fairly well-developed at association, thereby leading to greater awareness the time of its unveiling. Rather than seeing of the exchanges. Kalundborg as chance or a historical accident, Some industrial groupings of companies, a fuller explanation would be to recognize that it as in Australia’s mineral processing industry built on existing scarcities (in the case of ground- and Austria’s recycling network in Styria, find water), opportunities (in the case of by-product productivity-enhancing efficiencies through self- use by new entrants), regulatory changes (in the organization. Stronger regulatory roots combined case of reuse of organics and impetus to pursue with elements of self-organization are seen in flue gas desulfurization), and other locational ad- those uncovered in Puerto Rico. In one case, the vantages (including the port and the availability Barceloneta pharmaceutical companies teamed of industrial land). up in a private initiative to share wastewa- With respect to the diagram from Baas and ter processing in response to regulatory changes Boons, it is not clear that Stage 3 is coming any and, subsequently, further exchanges developed time soon nor that a strongly collective orienta- (Ashton 2003). In the case of Guayama, Puerto tion will ever fully fit with the other imperatives Rico, regulatory conditions negotiated with gov- of firms. Although these three stages are rooted ernment drove a new power station development in existing development, Baas and Boons also to use four million gallons10 per day of municipal talk about an earlier “selection” stage for new or waste water and, in turn, to co-generate steam greenfield sites. Inclusion of this selection stage for a nearby refinery, with other exchanges fol- ahead of Stage 1 raises the previously unsuccessful lowing in their wake (Chertow and Lombardi prospect of development from scratch, before the 2005). Still, the grouping of companies that be- symbioses take shape, although with two notable came involved did not call themselves by a name exceptions. Clearly, there have been planned de- that expressed recognition of the environmental velopments, especially of single-industry dom- benefits, nor was there a clear coordinative func- inated systems, that could successfully assem- tion that might attract new exchanges, let alone ble core actors and organize benefits, as seen an institutionalized sense of organizational learn- in many chemical and petrochemical complexes. ing. In fact, these projects were not attempting The other exception occurs most notably in East to follow a symbiosis model, nor were they fully Asia, where formal planning is much more insti- conscious of the collective environmental ben- tutionalized in countries such as China, Korea, efits being gained. To generalize, then, at some and Singapore. point following self-organization, uncovering oc- The symbioses mentioned in table 2, whether curs, which opens the door for, but does not motivated by economic, social, environmental, dictate, active coordination and further devel- or regulatory forces, have met a market test and opment of exchanges, as depicted in figure 5. continue onward. In these cases, two periods can Given the phenomenon of “uncovering” re- be observed: the initiation phase before discov- lationships in industrial ecosystems, how can we ery and a second period when the symbiotic ex- establish more foresight in addition to hindsight? changes are developed further with some new en- A role for government and policy ideas are offered trants and some die-offs of specific trades. Then, in the following section.
Chertow, “Uncovering” Industrial Symbiosis 23 FORUM
1. Period of initial self- 2. Period of sustaining interfirm organization for reasons of exchange including some new entrants economic efficiency and/or to and some die-offs meet regulatory conditions
Time during which an uncovering event may occur typically based on third party review
Choices concerning efforts to coordinate and attract additional symbioses
Figure 5 Empirical findings of industrial symbiosis progression.
Policy Proposals for Uncovering in participation across firms, including search Symbiosis and coordination costs, some of which could be borne externally (Ehrenfeld and Chertow The more spontaneous view of industrial sym- 2002). biosis raises the question of whether a laissez- Three policy ideas, then, are useful for gov- faire approach might be desirable, what role there ernment and business to move industrial symbio- could be for government, and, more fundamen- sis forward during different stages of discovery. tally, whether there is any stage at which gov- These are to: ernment intervention might be effective. Given 1. bring to light kernels of cooperative activ- the importance of coordination, it should also be ity that are still hidden; asked who might best deliver this function, in- 2. assist the kernels that are taking shape; and cluding various levels of government, nongovern- 3. provide incentives to catalyze new kernels mental organizations such as trade associations by identifying “precursors to symbiosis.” and universities, or on-site entities at industrial parks or clusters. These three potential programs also imply not A basic rationale for public involvement has supporting projects, through public or private in- been indicated by John Ehrenfeld (Ehrenfeld vestment, that have much wishful thinking but 2003). He points out that industrial ecosystems no tangible kernels to roast. provide a greater level of public benefit than stan- Bring existing kernels to light: Academic re- dard industrial networks because they offer in- searchers, having revealed many patterns of ex- creased environmental benefits. Consequently, change, have a good sense of where others might they are likely to need some type of public as- lurk, especially based on industry type. Business sistance to continue to deliver public goods at managers know what large by-product exchanges this greater level because, left to their own de- they are engaged in but often lack access to vices, private firms will typically underdeliver information about their neighbors in different them. Firms also face risks of association, such industries. As a start, reconnaissance teams of as an increased level of dependence on others researchers and managers who can map the flows and the extent of the transaction costs involved from heavy industry areas such as mining, steel,
24 Journal of Industrial Ecology SPECIAL FEATURE ON INDUSTRIAL SYMBIOSIS cement, and chemicals would be likely to un- ated the world’s largest coordinating entity for cover many kernels of exchange. As the research by-product reuse within regional business clus- on recycling networks suggests, these exchange ters, called “The National Industrial Symbiosis relationships are quite broadly dispersed and can Programme.” NISP describes as its mission that even include smaller and less industrial compa- it “facilitates links between industries from dif- nies. Systematic means of bringing these existing ferent sectors to create sustainable commercial kernels to light through mapping of flows and opportunities and improve resource efficiency” identification of relevant institutions will inform (NISP 2005). how to proceed. Identify and assess “precursors to symbiosis” as Assist kernels beginning to take shape. Where a catalysts for new kernels. Many common envi- kernel is known to exist and is emerging, it is ronmentally related activities can be seen as an excellent candidate for assistance because it precursors to symbiosis—defined as a resource implies that at least two or three firms are al- exchange with a public goods component but in- ready on a trajectory toward industrial symbio- volving only one or two firms or other organiza- sis. As innovation research has shown repeat- tions. Examples of these precursors to symbiosis edly, it is much easier to continue on a given are resource sharing projects involving (1) co- trajectory than to shift to another, perhaps ex- generation, (2) landfill gas, and (3) wastewater plaining why many firms find it difficult to con- reuse. These projects can be driven by the pub- tinuously innovate, thus missing out on key op- lic or private sectors, but where they have begun portunities (Christensen 1997; Dosi et al. 1988). for whatever array of reasons, they can be used With respect to companies that adopt an indus- as bridges to more extensive exchange. Another trial symbiosis mindset, it is likely that some of precursor to symbiosis is the existence of one suc- their managers will be able to spot new oppor- cessful material exchange, sometimes referred to tunities, as they will be thinking “what can we as green twinning, which is shown to be finan- trade?” even knowing that additional transaction cially and environmentally beneficial, such as air costs may be incurred by the establishment of fur- pollution control waste to gypsum board, or steel ther exchanges. Technical or financial assistance slag to cement (Forward and Mangan 1999). As to facilitate the exchanges envisioned by these a means of screening and targeting public invest- managers could accelerate the evolutionary pro- ment in symbiosis, projects involving these and cess. In Guayama, Puerto Rico, for example, since other precursors could be identified as meriting the power plant opened in late 2002, symbiotic further investigation as likely kernels of indus- relationships have been proposed by two phar- trial symbiosis. maceutical companies for additional wastewater As noted in figure 5, actors in “discovered” reuse, as well as by two chemical companies for kernels have the choice to opt collectively specific by-product sharing (Chertow and Lom- for an increased level of coordination and/or bardi 2005). consciously pursue more symbiosis. The act of A key question with existing kernels, how- uncovering is a critical inflection point at which ever, is whether it is the company itself or an in- public incentives to continue symbiosis and dividual project champion (or champions) that maintain the spillover environmental benefits drives the nascent symbioses. Here, attempts to could be offered, if desired by the key actors. help a kernel to “pop” must consider what will The three roles outlined above of identifying ker- happen if key personnel are removed or retire. nels, assisting them to grow, and catalyzing new Thus, policy must strive to be sustainable even in ones are all promising areas of policy develop- the face of generational change, business mergers, ment that can be done in ways that still recog- and economic trends. One useful model here may nize similarities and differences among projects. be the creation or extension of NGOs that are The development and implementation of policy business associations to assist with kernel devel- in this arena needs to be informed by a sophisti- opment. An offshoot of the U.K. Business Coun- cated understanding of market function and firm cil for Sustainable Development has now cre- behavior.
Chertow, “Uncovering” Industrial Symbiosis 25 FORUM
Conclusion Additional research is needed to illuminate conditions under which kernels and precursors In general, the empirical research in indus- have survived and thrived. At the same time, trial symbiosis discussed here corroborates and although this article has focused primarily on expands earlier threads in the literature in find- positive externalities of firms, there are many ing that attempts to plan “eco-industrial parks,” negative ones, and some form of assessment of particularly from scratch, that involve significant when a reasonable carrying capacity is reached material and energy exchanges have rarely come in an area is also warranted. Evolutionary ex- to fruition in a sustainable way (Ehrenfeld and periments should continue to provide better in- Gertler 1997; Chertow 1999; Baas and Boons formation on which industrial sectors tend to 2004; Gibbs and Deutz 2004; Korhonen and produce good participants, what the capacity lim- Snaikin 2005). We do not yet see new indus- itations might be, and which incentives and be- trial ecosystems emerging from highly structured haviors are most effective in fostering on-going planning processes in Asia, despite the poten- symbiosis. tial to do so, although many symbiotic relation- Economically and environmentally desirable ships have been identified (Liu et al 2004).11 symbiotic exchanges are all around us. Identi- Rather, an emergent characteristic of geographi- fying and fostering emerging industrial ecosys- cally proximate firms successfully exploiting syn- tems offers the promise of many environmen- ergistic exchanges is their evolution from op- tal and other benefits. Grounded in what has portunistic business decisions. These kernels of been learned empirically over the last 15 years symbiosis across firms, such as sharing ground- about the phenomenon of business co-location water or a specific material, are observed to be known as industrial symbiosis, this article helps necessary preconditions for what sometimes be- steer public and private actors to higher probabil- come more extensive exchange networks. Cer- ity approaches to resource sharing in geographi- tain identifiable precursors of symbiosis, such as cally related industrial areas by choosing projects co-generation or waste water reuse, also emerge with demonstrable kernels of self-organization from business decisions often rooted in regula- that can emerge more fully as viable industrial tory situations and can lead to more extensive ecosystems. symbiotic cooperation as well. Even when several exchanges have been im- plemented based on self-organization, the partic- Notes ipants and neighbors generally have not recog- nized or described these phenomena in environ- 1. With respect to the vocabulary of industrial sym- biosis, many related terms are used, such as indus- mental terms, until some sort of uncovering event trial ecosystems, eco-industrial park, and industrial has occurred, either during the initial period or recycling network. Definitions of the various terms later on when exchanges are more deeply rooted. can be found in the Encyclopedia of Energy in the Policies prescribed to encourage the uncovering article “Industrial Symbiosis” (Chertow 2004). of symbioses include (1) forming reconnaissance 2. One megawatt (MW) = 1 × 106 joule/sec (J, SI) teams to identify industrial areas likely to have ≈ 3.412 × 106 British Thermal Units/hr (BTU). a baseline of exchanges and mapping their flows 3. One tonne (t) = 103 kilograms (kg, SI) ≈ 1.102 accordingly, (2) offering technical or financial short tons. assistance to increase the number of interactions 4. The U.S. Energy Policy Act of 2005 makes signif- once some kernels are found to be in place, in- icant changes to the Qualifying Facility (QF) pro- spired by managers with a symbiotic mindset, and visions of the Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA) by, among other things, condition- (3) pursuing locations where common symbiotic ally terminating the mandatory purchase and sale precursors already exist, such as co-generation, obligations for new QFs and tightening thermal landfill gas mining, and waste water reuse, often output requirements for new qualifying cogenera- as one-off activities, to determine whether they tion facilities (Hunton and Williams 2005). may be likely candidates for technical or financial 5. Gibbs and colleagues (2002) summarize many of assistance as bridges to more extensive symbiosis. the descriptions of barriers as follows:
26 Journal of Industrial Ecology SPECIAL FEATURE ON INDUSTRIAL SYMBIOSIS
First, there are technical barriers, includ- Alberta’s Industrial Heartland Association. 2000. A ing the possibility that local industries do strategy for development in Alberta’s industrial heart- not have the potential to “fit together.” land: Eco-industrial networking. Summary for the Second, informational barriers may make March 2000 McCann Report. Alberta Indus- it difficult to find new uses for waste trial Heartland Inventory. Edmonton, Alberta, products, relating to poor information Canada. regarding the potential market and po- Altham, J. and R. van Berkel. 2004. Industrial sym- tential supply. Third, economic barriers biosis for regional sustainability: An update on may inhibit the incentive to use waste Australian initiatives. Paper presented at 11th streams as a resource if there is no reli- International Sustainable Development Research able market for them. Fourth, regulatory Conference, March, Manchester, UK. barriers may prevent industries or indus- Ashton, W. 2003. Why participate in eco-industrial trial processes being linked together. Fi- networks? The case of Puerto Rico’s pharmaceu- nally, there may be motivational barriers tical manufacturing cluster. Paper presented at In- wherein firms, public sector agencies and ternational Society for Industrial Ecology Confer- other relevant local actors must be will- ence, July 1, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, ing to co-operate and commit themselves MI. to the process. Baas, L. W. and F. A. Boons. 2004. An industrial ecol- ogy project in practice: Exploring the boundaries 6. In addition, there has been concern for many of decision-making levels in regional industrial years about the use of industrial by-products, es- systems. Journal of Cleaner Production 12(8–10): pecially in symbioses involving agriculture. This 1073–1085. is an important environmental and health issue to Bakke, R. 2005. Personal communication with R. be carefully examined in every case of by-product Bakke, Senior Program Manager, StopWaste.org, reuse, especially with increasing concerns about 15 April 2005. the spread of diseases (Lifset 2001; Chertow 2004). Barchard, W. 2005. Personal communication with W. In the examples cited in this article I have found no Barchard, Senior Pollution Prevention Advisor, widely reported evidence of environmental health Environment Canada, 4 March 2005. problems resulting from by-product exchanges. Barnes, H. 1992. Fertile project exploits recycled 7. With thanks to K. Drakonakis, the survey in- wastes. Survey on Denmark. The Financial Times, volved contacting the last parties identified from 8 October, 5. the PCSD list and continuing until a further con- Barton, A. 1999. The oil mallee project: A multifaceted tact or related professional was reached to address industrial ecology case study. Journal of Industrial the fate of the project. Internet searches were used Ecology 3(2–3): 161–176. to continue to track and document outcomes be- Boons, F. and M. Berends. 2001. Stretching the bound- cause project land does not, per se, disappear, but ary: The possibilities of flexibility as an organisa- eventually goes to another use. tional capability in industrial ecology. Business 8. The names are drawn from the 1996 agenda Strategy and the Environment 10(2): 115–124. available at
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Cohen-Rosenthal. Sheffield, UK: Greenleaf Pub- Kalundborg. Journal of Industrial Ecology 1(1): 67– lishing. 79. Chertow, M. R. 2004. Industrial symbiosis. In Ency- Enecon, P. L. 2006.
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Jacobsen, N. B. 2005. Personal communication with N. Determinants and and coordination challenges. B. Jacobsen, Oresund Environmental Academy, 4 Journal of Cleaner Production 12(8–10): 967– June 2005. 983. Jacobsen, N. B. and S. Anderberg. 2005. Under- NISP (National Industrial Symbiosis Programme). standing the evolution of industrial symbiotic 2005.
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eco-industrial development: A case study of the About the Author Guitang Group. Journal of Cleaner Production 12(8–10): 1025–1035. Marian R. Chertow is associate professor of indus- Zhu, Q., E. Lowe, Y. Wei, and D. Barnes. 2007. trial environmental management and the director of Industrial symbiosis in China: A case study of the Industrial Environmental Management Program at the Guitang Group. Journal of Industrial Ecology the Yale University School of Forestry & Environmen- 11(1): 31–42. tal Studies in New Haven, Connecticut, USA.
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