Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17)

London, UK, September 13–15, 2017 Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

© 2018 SysMus17. Permission is granted to redistribute part or all of this document on the condition that the original source be properly cited.

Print version: March 2018 Preface

SysMus17, the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology, took place on September 13–15, 2017 at Queen Mary, University of London. The SysMus conference series is run by students for students, and provides the opportunity to gain experience in conference attending, presenting, networking, and organising.

SysMus17 received 76 submissions in the form of extended abstracts1. Each abstract was reviewed by two reviewers and one meta-reviewer from the SysMus17 scientific committee. On the basis of these reviews, 47 abstracts (62%) were accepted for the conference. Each of these accepted submissions is represented in this proceedings book, either by an extended abstract or by a longer paper.

The SysMus17 papers represent a variety of perspectives on systematic musicology. Most describe empirical studies, but also included are theory, analysis, and history papers. The ‘word cloud’ on the cover of this proceedings book plots the 100 most common words found in the SysMus17 proceedings, with the size of each word proportional to its frequency of occurrence2. The word cloud clearly indicates that music is at the centre of SysMus17; within music, particular focuses include performance, emotion, rhythm, analysis, listening, perception, teaching, and creativity.

It was a pleasure to receive so many submissions for SysMus17, and to work with the authors to finalise their proceedings contributions. I’m excited to imagine how our new generation of systematic musicologists will contribute to the field in the coming years.

Peter Harrison Scientific Chair, SysMus17 January 2018

1 These figures exclude submissions subsequently withdrawn by the authors. 2 The word list was curated to remove uninformative words, such as stop words and paper metadata. Counts for words with similar stems (e.g. ‘music’ and ‘musical’) were combined. The word cloud was created using the software environment R and the R packages tm and wordcloud.

i

ii Committees

Core SysMus17 Hosting Committee

SysMus17 Chair Sarah Sauvé1 IT Manager Pedro Douglass-Kirk2 Scientific Committee Chair Peter Harrison1 Social Secretary Katie Rose Sanfilippo2 SysMus17 Supervisor Marcus Pearce1

1Music Cognition Lab, Queen Mary, University of London http://music-cognition.eecs.qmul.ac.uk/ 2Music, Mind & Brain, Goldsmiths, University of London http://www.musicmindbrain.com/

Volunteers

Canishk Naik Ioanna Zioga Jiajie Dai Manuel Anglada-Tort Ozge Alakus Rebeka Bodak Sarah Toorani Shirley Wu

Scientific Committee

Agata Zelechowska Kelly Whiteford Angel Faraldo Landon Peck Anja-Xiaoxing Cui Manuel Anglada-Tort Anthony Chmiel Marco Susino Brooke Okada Michaela Korte Cárthach Ó Nuanáin Moe Touizrar Cory Meals Montserrat Pàmies-Vilà Daniel Fiedler Mylène Gioffredo David Baker Nerdinga Letule Fabian Moss Noah Little Georgios Diapoulis Olivia Podolak Gesine Wermke Raluca Matei Hayley Trower Riza Veloso Helena Dukic Savvas Kazazis Jason Noble Scott Bannister Jessica Crich Steffen Herff Juan Ignacio Mendoza Garay Suzanne Ross Jun Jiang Tejaswinee Kelkar Katie Rose Sanfilippo Ulf Holbrook Keith Phillips

iii Table of Contents

Paper Page

Aydin Anic, William Forde Thompson, Kirk N. 1–7 Olsen. Stimulation of the Primary Motor Cortex Enhances Creativity and Technical Fluency of Piano Improvisations.

Jay Appaji, Zachary Wallmark, Jay Dowling. 8 Cognition of South Indian Percussion.

Lotte Armbrüster, Werner Mende, Hanna 9–10 Ehlert, Gesine Wermke, Kathleen Wermke. Musical Intervals in Baby Sounds.

Joshua S. Bamford. 11 Chance Music is Best Not Left to Chance.

Scott Bannister. 12 A Survey of Musically-Induced Chills: Emotional Characteristics and ‘Chills Moments’ in Music.

Stefanie Bräuml. 13 Neuroaesthetics and Music: Difficulties of a Young Field of Research.

Sarah Campbell, Paul Sowden. 14 ‘Feeling the Gap’: Does Interoceptive Ability Mediate the Disparity Between Physiological and Subjective Emotional Response to Music Listening?

Francisco Cardoso. 15–19 Towards a New Model for Effective Musical Teaching in Performance-Oriented Settings.

Álvaro M. Chang-Arana. 20–23 Spanish Version of the Kenny-Music Performance Anxiety Inventory (K-MPAI): Factorial Structure and First Statistical Analyses of a Peruvian Sample.

Anthea Cottee, Sean O’Connor. 24 Adaptation of the Mindfulness-Acceptance- Commitment Approach for Groups of Adolescent Musicians: An Assessment of Music Performance Anxiety, Performance Boost, and Flow.

Pablo Cuevas. 25–28 Sounds of Native Cultures in Electroacoustic Music: Latin American Study Cases.

iv Anna Czepiel, Emma Allingham, Kendra 29 Oudyk, Adrianna Zamudio, Pasi Saari. Musicians’ Timbral Adjustments in Response to Emotional Cues in Musical Accompaniments.

Georgios Diapoulis, Marc Thompson. 30–33 Kinematics Feature Selection of Expressive Intentions in Dyadic Violin Performance.

Katerina Drakoulaki, Robin Lickley. 34 Grammaticality Judgments in Linguistic and Musical Structures.

Daniel Fiedler, Daniel Müllensiefen. 35–36 Musical Trajectories and Creative Music Teaching Interventions Affect the Development of Interest in ‘Music’ of German Secondary Schools’ Students.

Konstantinos Giannos, Emilios 37–42 Cambouropoulos. Chord Encoding and Root-finding in Tonal and Non-Tonal Contexts: Theoretical, Computational and Cognitive Perspectives.

Luciana F. Hamond. 43–48 Visual Feedback in Higher Education Piano Learning and Teaching.

Marvin Heimerich, Kimberly Severijns, 49 Sabrina Kierdorf, Kevin Kaiser, Philippe Janes, Rie Asano. Investigating the Development of Joint Attentional Skills in Early Ontogeny Through Musical Joint Action.

Dasaem Jeong, Juhan Nam. 50–55 How the Rhythm is Actually Performed in the First Movement of the Beethoven’s Seventh Symphony.

Elizabeth Kunde, Kate Leonard, Jim Borling. 56 The Effect of Socio-Cultural Identity on Musical Distaste.

John Lam Chun-fai. 57–59 Modes of Listening to Chinese Pentatonicism in Parisian Musical Modernity.

Rebecca Lancashire. 60–66 An Experience-Sampling Study to Investigate the Role of Familiarity in Involuntary Musical Imagery Induction.

Chloe Stacey MacGregor, Daniel Müllensiefen. 67–73 Factors Influencing Discrimination of Emotional Expression Conveyed Through Music Performance.

v Raluca Matei, Jane Ginsborg, Stephen Broad, 74 Juliet Goldbart. A Health Course for Music Students: Design, Implementation and Evaluation.

Pablo Mendoza-Halliday. 75–77 A Theory of the Musical Genre: The Three-Phase Cycle.

Jaco Meyer. 78 Musical Forces Can Save Analysts from Cumbersome Explanations.

Robyn Moran, Richard Race, Arielle 79 Boneville-Roussy. Measuring Rhythmic Abilities: The Development of a Computer-Based Test to Assess Individual Differences in Beat Keeping.

Ekaterina Pavlova. 80–83 Selling Madness: How Mental Illness Has Been Commercialised in the Music Business.

Landon S. L. Peck. 84 Experiences and Appraisals of Musical Awe.

Keith Phillips. 85 Investigating the Improvisers’ Perspective Using Video-Stimulated Recall.

Sinead Rocha, Victoria Southgate, Denis 86 Mareschal. Infant Spontaneous Motor Tempo.

D. C. Rose, L. E. Annett, P. J. Lovatt. 87 Investigating Beat Perception and Sensorimotor Synchronisation in People With and Without Parkinson’s Disease.

Suzanne Ross, Elvira Brattico, Maria Herrojo- 88 Ruiz, Lauren Stewart. The Effect of Auditory Feedback on Motor Sequence Learning in Novices.

Pathmanesan Sanmugeswaran. 89 Performing Auspiciousness and Inauspiciousness in Parai Mēlam Music Culture in Jaffna, Sri Lanka.

Katharina Schäfer, Tuomas Eerola. 90 Social Surrogacy: How Music Provides a Sense of Belonging.

Theresa Schallmoser, Siavash Moazzami 91 Vahid, Richard Parncutt. Estimation of Time in Music: Effects of Tempo and Familiarity on the Subjective Duration of Music.

vi Eva Schurig. 92–95 Urban Traffic Safety While Listening to Music – Views of Listeners and Non-Listeners.

Jan Stupacher, Guilherme Wood, Matthias 96 Witte. Infectious Grooves: High-Groove Music Drives Auditory-Motor Interactions.

Jasmine Tan, Joydeep Bhattacharya. 97 Interoception in Musicians’ Flow.

M. S. Tenderini, T. M. Eilola, E. de Leeuw, M. 98 T. Pearce. Affective Priming Effects Between Music and Language in Bilinguals’ First and Second Language.

Hayley Trower, Adam Ockelford, Arielle 99 Bonneville-Roussy. Using Zygonic Theory to Model Expectations in Repeated Melodic Stimuli.

Michelle Ulor, Freya Bailes, Daryl O’Connor. 100 Can Individuals be Trained to Imagine Musical Imagery? A Preliminary Study.

Joy Vamvakari. 101 “Let the Music Flow in You”: Music Listening, Health and Wellbeing in Everyday Life.

Makarand Velankar, Parag Kulkarni. 102–105 Study of Emotion Perception for Indian Classical Raga Music.

Gesine Wermke, Andreas C. Lehmann, Phillip 106–107 Klinger, Bettina Lamm. Reproduction of Western Music Rhythms by Cameroonian School Children.

Johanna N. Wilson. 108 Analysing the Implications of Music Videos on Youths’ Listening Experience.

Adrien Ycart, Emmanouil Benetos. 109 Neural Music Language Models: Investigating the Training Process.

vii Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

Stimulation of the Primary Motor Cortex Enhances Creativity and Technical Fluency of Piano Improvisations

Aydin Anic*#†1, William Forde Thompson*#†2, Kirk N. Olsen#†3 *ARC Centre of Excellence in Cognition and its Disorders, Macquarie University, Australia #Centre for Elite Performance, Expertise, and Training, Macquarie University, Australia †Department of Psychology, Macquarie University, Australia [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

relates to the appropriateness of the responses given in a ABSTRACT specific context (Dietrich, 2004). Musical improvisation is a quintessential creative behaviour that can be investigated Musical improvisation is an ecologically valid and contextually using neuroscientific methods to identify specific brain appropriate medium to investigate the neuroscience of creativity. regions that contribute to creativity (McPherson & Limb, Previous research has identified several brain regions that are 2013). A prominent method used to investigate musical involved in musical creativity: the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex creativity is functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) (DLPFC), the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC), the pre- (e.g., Limb & Braun, 2008). fMRI measures the blood- supplementary motor area (pre-SMA), and the ventral and dorsal oxygenated level dependent (BOLD) signal that indicates the premotor cortex (vPMC and dPMC, respectively). These brain activation and deactivation patterns of brain regions in regions underpin high-level processing and motor functions. The response to a stimulus (Sawyer, 2011). We now review the present study asked whether the primary motor cortex (M1 region) core brain regions involved in musical improvisation – a form plays a role in creativity and technical fluency. The M1 region of musical performance that requires, by definition, creativity underpins the acquisition and consolidation of novel motor skills and (Bengtsson, Csıkszentmihalyi & Ullén, 2007). hand movement. Here, we used transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) to investigate the overarching research question. A. Brain Regions Involved in Musical Improvisation and tDCS is a non-invasive mode of brain stimulation that is delivered Creativity via two saline-soaked electrodes diametric in charge: the anodal electrode stimulates neural activation; the cathodal electrodes inhibits neural activation. A bi-hemispheric, online tDCS montage was used Previous literature has shown that several brain regions in this study. Eight proficient pianists were recruited and separated are involved in creative music improvisations: the dorsolateral into two tDCS groups: Anodal-Left M1/Cathodal-Right M1 (n = 4) prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), which is part of the Executive and Cathodal-Left M1/Anodal-Right M1 (n = 4). tDCS was Control Network (ECN) and regulates attention, working administered whilst participants performed musical improvisations. memory and monitoring (Limb & Braun, 2008; Bengtsson, The level of creativity and technical fluency was judged Csıkszentmihalyi & Ullén, 2007); and the ventral medial independently by an expert musician adjudicator. We hypothesised prefrontal cortex (vMPFC), which is part of the Default Mode that the Anodal-Left M1/Cathodal-Right M1 (excitatory) tDCS group Network (DMN) and regulates mental simulation and mind will demonstrate an enhancement of creativity and technical fluency wandering (Bashwiner, Wertz, Flores & Jung, 2016). compared to the Cathodal-Left M1/Anodal-Right M1 (inhibitory) Importantly, these brain regions are diametrically opposed; tDCS group. The preliminary results show that during musical the activation of one (e.g., ECN) results in the deactivation of improvisation, creativity (p = .07) and technical fluency (p = .05) the other (e.g., DMN) (Limb & Braun, 2008; Bengtsson, increased when excitatory tDCS was applied to the left M1 region of Csıkszentmihalyi & Ullén, 2007; de Manzano & Ullén, proficient pianists. Furthermore, there was no apparent decrease in 2012a). creativity and technical fluency for the inhibitory tDCS group. In light of these preliminary findings, we conclude that there is some However, recent studies have also shown that these evidence that the M1 region does contribute to musical creativity. two brain regions operate concurrently in musical Future work with a larger sample size will shed further light on this improvisations (Pinho, Ullén, Castelo-Branco, Fransson & de contribution. Manzano, 2016). Further research has investigated high-level motor areas and their role in musical creativity, including the I. INTRODUCTION pre-supplementary motor area (pre-SMA) and the premotor cortex (PMC). The PMC can be further separated into the ventral premotor cortex and dorsal premotor cortex (vPMC & Investigating the neural underpinnings of creative dPMC, respectively) (Berkowitz & Ansari, 2008; de Manzano cognition is important to understand how novel ideas and & Ullén, 2012a). These premotor areas are interconnected and behaviour manifest. The two key constituents of creativity involved in cognition (Bashwiner et al. 2016). Specifically, include: originality and congruency (Boccia, Piccardi, the pre-SMA is involved in timing aspects of performance; the Palermo, Nori & Palmiero, 2015). Originality involves the PMC is involved in performance of original motor tasks generation of novel responses to a stimulus; congruency (Berkowitz & Ansari, 2008; de Manzano & Ullén, 2012a).

1 The focus of the present study is on the primary motor cortex experimentation: Online vs. offline tDCS. Online tDCS (M1 region) and its possible role in mediating creativity and involves the simultaneous application of tDCS and also technical fluency in the context of improvised jazz measurement of task performance; whereas, offline tDCS performance. involves a separation of stimulation and task performance (Karok & Witney, 2013). B. The Primary Motor Cortex Furthermore, there are two tDCS configurations (placement) of electrodes: unihemispheric and bihemispheric. The M1 region is involved in the consolidation and Unihemispheric tDCS involves one electrode (either the acquisition of new motor skills (Sosnik, Flash, Sterkin, anodal or cathodal) over a specific area and hemisphere of the Hauptmann & Karni, 2014; Karok & Witney, 2013). brain (e.g., the left DLPFC) and the remaining electrode is Furthermore, the M1 underpins movement properties of the placed on the contralateral (opposite) hemisphere’s mastoid hand that include: dexterity, finger individuation, velocity, (behind the ear) and serves as a reference and concentrates and direction (Sosnik et al. 2014). The M1 region covers both stimulation (Karok & Witney, 2013). Bihemispheric tDCS is hemispheres of the brain (Vines, Nair & Schlaug, 2008). The comprised of both electrodes placed on both hemispheres of connection between the two hemispheres is inhibitory in the brain (e.g., left and right M1 region) stimulating one nature, and this is known as the inter-hemispheric inhibition hemisphere and inhibiting the other (Waters-Metenier, Husain, connection (IHIC) (Vines, Nair & Schlaug, 2008). In other Wiestler & Diedrichsen, 2014). A study conducted by Karok words, when the M1 region of a specific hemisphere is & Witney (2013) investigated the optimal tDCS configuration activated (e.g., the left M1), the right M1 is inhibited through and found bihemispheric, online tDCS is a superior method the IHIC system to further concentrate activation to the left compared to unihemispheric tDCS (Karok & Witney, 2013). M1 region (Vines, Nair & Schlaug, 2008). Moreover, the left Therefore, the present study incorporated a bihemispheric, M1 mediates control of the right hand, whereas the right M1 online tDCS montage. mediates control of the left hand (Vines, Nair & Schlaug,

2008). Studies have confirmed that the M1 region operates asymmetrically. For instance, Vines, Nair and Schlaug (2008) E. Aims, Design & Hypothesis found in right handers that stimulating the left (dominant) M1 region with transcranial direct stimulation (tDCS) had effects The aims of the study were to: (1) investigate the M1 for both hands; whereas, stimulating the right (non-dominant) region as a possible brain region that contributes to musical M1 region had effects for the contralateral (opposite) hand. creativity and technical fluency; and (2) assess the possible For the purpose of experimental control in the present study, relationship between technical fluency and creativity in the pianists were instructed to only use their right hand when context of a musical improvisation. There were two tDCS performing jazz improvisations. conditions: Anodal-Left M1/Cathodal-Right M1 (n = 4) and Cathodal-Left M1/Anodal-Right M1 (n = 4). We predicted C. Technical Fluency in Musical Improvisations that the application of Anodal-Left M1/Cathodal-Right M1 tDCS would improve creativity and technical fluency relative to the application of Cathodal-Left M1/Anodal-Right M1 In a musical context, technical fluency refers to the tDCS. technical ability of the performer to express musical ideas with their musical instrument. Together with creativity, technical fluency of musical improvisations in the present II. METHOD study are measured. It is, however, yet to be determined if these components are related. Thus, another aim of the study is to assess whether technical fluency and creativity are A. Participants related in an improvised jazz context. Eight proficient jazz pianists (4 female; mean age =

20.25, SD = 2.25) and one independent expert musician D. Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation adjudicator participated in the study. Six of the eight participants were right-handed; one participant was left- In this study, tDCS was applied to modulate the handed and one was mixed-handed. All participants gave activation of the M1 region of proficient musicians. tDCS is a informed consent to participate in the study. A TMS screener neuro-modulatory brain stimulation technique that alters the was administered prior to tDCS application to ensure that activation patterns of neurons over a desired area (Karok & participants did not have any neurological disorders, metal Witney, 2013; Vines, Nair & Schlaug, 2008). tDCS is implants, or any other brain-related conditions that may cause comprised of two saline-soaked electrodes that deliver two risk or harm. All participants satisfied the TMS screener. different charges: the anode (positive) electrode stimulates Participants were reimbursed $50 or course credit for their neural activity; whereas the cathode (negative) electrode participation. This study was approved by the Macquarie inhibits neural activity (Nitsche, Schauenburg, Lang, University Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC Liebetanz, Exner, Paulus & Tergau, 2003). There are Medical Sciences) Reference number: 5201600392. disparate tDCS methodologies that have been used in previous studies (e.g., Furuya, Klaus, Nitsche, Paulus & Altenmuller, 2014). There are two forms of tDCS that are used for

2 B. Stimuli were subjected to tDCS stimulation lasting between fifteen and twenty-one minutes (including ramp-up and ramp-down). Ten original musical pieces were written specifically This duration of tDCS is considered safe (Bikson, Datta and for this study to ensure novelty. All pieces incorporated an Elwassif, 2009). The ramp-up period lasted 30 seconds when electronic drum kit, electronic piano, grand piano and live the session began; the ramp-down period lasted 30 seconds at electric bass guitar. The electronic drum kit, electronic piano, the session. All participants were stimulated for two and a half and grand piano were programmed using Notion music minutes (including the ramp-up period) before the task generation software; the live electric bass was recorded using commenced to ensure a controlled and adequate degree of GarageBand and was performed by the first author. Each stimulation was administered before the performance began. musical piece contained a total of ten bars. As shown in Figure 1, the first bar involved a four-beat count-in using the tDCS was administered using the Neuro-Electrics high-hat of the drum kit to indicate that the piece is about to Instrument Controller (NIC) on a 15-inch MacBook Pro. The begin. The next four bars, indicated with the rehearsal mark NIC software controlled the configuration of tDCS and ‘A’, involved all instruments and a novel melody which was allowed the impedances of the electrodes to be monitored. An presented on the treble clef only. Participants played along to 11-inch MacBook Air was connected via a ThunderBolt cable the melody while sight-reading a musical score. The next to a 27-inch iMac to present the musical stimuli to the section, indicated with the rehearsal mark ‘B’, consisted of participants. The 11-inch MacBook Air was used by the five measures representing the section when participants experimenter to organise and record the performances. All performed their improvisations. All the pieces were written to performances were conducted on a Musical Instrument Digital conform to the jazz genre in terms of harmonic and rhythmic Interface (MIDI) keyboard. qualities. Six of the ten pieces were written in varying major key signatures; the remaining four pieces were written in D. Experimental Paradigm varying minor key signatures. All ten pieces were The participants were pseudo-randomised into the two programmed at 90 beats per minute. tDCS stimulation groups: Anodal-Left M1/Cathodal-Right M1 (n = 4) and Cathodal-Left M1/Anodal-Right M1 (n = 4). The ten novel musical stimuli were initially randomised into two melodic sequences to organise the presentation of the stimuli; each melodic sequence consisted of five of the ten musical stimuli and corresponded to the two blocks of the experiment. For each participant, the trials within the respective melodic sequence were randomised to mitigate any presentation bias due to order effects. The experimental paradigm consisted of two blocks: block one served as the control in which no tDCS was administered; block two consisted of one of the two types of tDCS stimulation. See Table 1 and Figure 2 for a detailed description of the experimental paradigm and design. The duration of the experiment lasted for approximately 90 minutes.

Table 1. Experimental conditions used in the study.

Figure 1. A sample of the stimuli used in the experiment. The stimuli Group Block one Block two Melodic sequence was divided into two sections: Section ‘A’ required sight-reading a novel melody to ensure ecological validity and a context on which to 1A No treatment Anodal-Left Melodic sequence 1 base their improvisations. Section ‘B’ was the improvisation section M1/Cathodal- – Melodic sequence Right M1 2 that was designated for improvisations. Participants played with their right-hand only. 1B No treatment Anodal-Left Melodic sequence 2 M1/Cathodal- – Melodic sequence

Right M1 1

C. Equipment 2A No treatment Cathodal- Melodic sequence 1 Left – Melodic sequence A bihemispheric, online tDCS montage was used in the M1/Anodal- 2 study. tDCS consisted of two saline-soaked electrodes (anode Right M1 and cathode). The electrodes were placed on C3 and C4 sites that correspond to stimulation of the M1 region. These sites 2B No treatment Cathodal- Melodic sequence 2 are derived from the 10-20 electroencephalogram system that Left – Melodic sequence specifically targets the M1 region. tDCS was programmed to M1/Anodal- 1 deliver 1.4mA constantly during the session. The participants Right M1

3 F. Expert Adjudication Block Two 5 In order to adjudicate the performances, the Trials Anodal-Left/Cathodal- independent expert musician adjudicator was presented with Right the audio files of all trials and the musical stimuli used in the n = 4 study. The adjudicator was blind to each participant’s allocated condition. In the adjudicator’s instructions, the Block one 1.4mA tDCS 5 definitions of technical fluency and creativity were outlined to Trials create a well-defined focus for adjudication of these N = 8 constituents of performance. Both technical fluency and

Block Two creativity were judged using two separate Likert scales No Stimulation 5 ranging from one to ten. A score of one represented a low Trials level of creativity/technical fluency; a score of ten represented Cathodal-Left/Anodal- Right a high level of creativity/technical fluency. n = 4

1.4mA tDCS III. RESULTS

Figure 2. The experimental procedure. The first block consisted of five trials with no stimulation. The second block consisted of five A. Creativity in Musical Improvisation trials with tDCS stimulation set at 1.4mA. An independent samples t-test was computed to compare the mean difference in creativity scores between block one (control) and block two (stimulation) for the two E. Procedure tDCS groups: Anodal-Left M1/Cathodal-Right M1 (excitatory tDCS) and Cathodal-Left M1/Anodal-Right M1 (inhibitory Upon entering the laboratory, participants were tDCS). The analysis revealed that creativity increased for the presented with the TMS screener to determine if the excitatory tDCS group (M = 1.20, SD = 0.82) compared to the application of tDCS was safe to administer. Participants then inhibitory tDCS group (M = .15, SD = .50) and this difference provided informed consent and completed a demographic approached statistical significance; t(6) = 2.19, p = .07. A questionnaire. To familiarize the participants with the Cohen’s d effect size calculation revealed a large effect size, d experiment, two practice trials were administered. Both the = 1.55. The present results demonstrate that there is a trend practice trials and experiment trials consisted of two stages: that stimulation of the left M1 region in musical improvisation familiarisation and performance. enhances creativity. See Figure 3 for the mean creativity The familiarisation stage consisted of two playings of scores for both tDCS groups. each stimulus. In the first playing, the participant was instructed to listen and follow the melody presented in section ‘A’ without playing the piano. The entire duration of the stimuli was presented. In the second playing, the participants were instructed to play the melody presented in section ‘A’ with their right hand only. Section ‘B’ in the second playing was not played. In the familiarisation stage, the piano accompaniment playing the melody in the section was played through the speakers. The purpose of the familiarisation stage was to ensure that the participants were familiar with the procedure of the trial. A sub-set of participants required more playing’s to be familiar with the piece before the performance.

In the performance stage, two opportunities to play the entire trial was afforded. The participants were instructed to play the melody presented in section ‘A’ and then improvise Figure 3. Mean creativity scores for both tDCS groups and the in section ‘B’. Importantly, the piano accompaniment was difference between baseline and tDCS stimulation blocks. removed during their improvisation. Participants were informed of this instruction prior to the commencement of the performance stage. The audio from all the trials were randomised across participants, conditions, and blocks, and B. Technical Fluency in Musical Improvisations collected onto a USB and sent to the independent expert An independent samples t-test was computed to musician adjudicator for evaluation. compare the mean difference in technical fluency scores between block one (control) and block two (stimulation) for the two tDCS groups: Anodal-Left M1/Cathodal-Right M1

4 (excitatory tDCS) and Cathodal-Left M1/Anodal-Right M1 number of notes increased in the excitatory tDCS group (M = (inhibitory tDCS) between block one (control) and block two 3.25 SD = 4.08) relative to the inhibitory tDCS group (M = (stimulation). The analysis revealed that technical fluency 1.00 SD = 2.35), but this difference was not statistically increased for the excitatory tDCS group (M = 1.05, SD = 0.41) significant; t(6) = .955, p > .05. See Figure 5 for the mean compared to the inhibitory tDCS group (M = .20, SD = .57). number of notes used for both tDCS groups. This difference was statistically significant; t(6) = 2.42, p = .05. A Cohen’s d effect size calculation revealed a large effect size, d = 1.72. See Figure 4 for the mean technical fluency scores for both tDCS groups. Interestingly, there was no apparent decrease in creativity and technical fluency for the inhibitory tDCS group.

Figure 5. Mean number of notes used for both tDCS groups and difference between baseline and tDCS stimulation blocks.

2) Pitch range. Figure 4. Mean technical fluency scores for both tDCS groups and A difference score was calculated for each tDCS group difference between baseline and tDCS stimulation blocks. between block one (control) and block two (stimulation). Although pitch range did increase for the excitatory tDCS

group (M = 1.90 SD = 1.50) relative to the inhibitory tDCS C. Correlation Between Technical Fluency and Creativity group (M = .20 SD = .37), this difference was not statistically significant; t(3.35) = 2.201, p > .05. See Figure 6 for the mean A Pearson’s r correlation coefficient was computed to pitch range used for both tDCS groups. determine if there is a significant relationship between technical fluency and creativity. Firstly, all eighty trials from both stimulation groups across all blocks and participants were used in the analysis. There was a statistically significant positive correlation between technical fluency and creativity, irrespective of tDCS group, r(78) = .765, p < .001. Further analyses was conducted by separating the trials to the respective stimulation groups (excitatory tDCS = 40 trials; inhibitory = 40 trials). There was a statistically significant difference between technical fluency and creativity scores for the excitatory tDCS group, r(38) = .820, p < .001 and the inhibitory tDCS group, r(38) = .732, p < .001. Figure 6. Mean pitch range for both tDCS groups and difference between baseline and tDCS stimulation blocks. D. Follow-Up Analysis: Melodic Features

In a follow-up analysis, three melodic features were 3) Number of different notes. analysed to determine if tDCS had an effect on the above findings. The three melodic features analysed were: number of A difference score was calculated for each tDCS group notes, pitch range, and number of different notes. These between block one (control) and block two (stimulation). The features were analysed for performances in the improvisation number of different notes used was higher for the excitatory section only (section ‘B’ of each stimulus). An independent tDCS group (M = 1.20 SD = .43) relative to the inhibitory samples t-test was computed to investigate the difference in tDCS group (M = .60 SD = .71), but this difference was not each performed melodic feature in each stimulation group: statistically significant; t(6) = 1.441, p > .05. See Figure 7 for the mean number of different notes used for both tDCS groups. 1) Number of notes.

A difference score was calculated for each tDCS group between block one (control) and block two (stimulation). The

5 performance scores on creativity and technical fluency and a stronger relationship between ratings of creativity and technical fluency. Although the correlations for both tDCS group elicited statistical significance, a tentative interpretation suggests that excitatory tDCS benefits creativity through an enhancement of technical fluency, whereas inhibitory tDCS does not. Overall, the excitatory tDCS findings suggest that the M1 region does influence technical fluency and creativity in the context of musical improvisations.

B. Melodic Feature Analysis Figure 7. Mean number of different notes used for both tDCS groups and difference between baseline and tDCS stimulation blocks. Specific melodic features in the performances were analysed to determine whether they were also influenced by tDCS. These features include the number of performed notes, E. Multiple Regression: Melodic Features pitch range, and number of different notes used in the improvisation section of each trial. Although statistical A multiple regression was computed to determine if significance was not reached for the aforementioned features, the three melodic features (number of notes, pitch range, and a positive numerical trend suggested that improvisers in the number of different notes) significantly predicted creativity excitatory tDCS group employed a greater number of scores. The multiple regression showed no statistical performed notes, a larger pitch range, and a greater number of significance for the three predictors on creativity, F(3,4) different notes, relative to improvisers in the inhibitory tDCS = .899, p > .05, adjusted R2 = -.045. Furthermore, a multiple group. regression was computed to investigate whether results on the three melodic features significantly predicted technical fluency score. The multiple regression demonstrated no C. Implications statistical significance for the three predictors on technical fluency, F(3,4) = .463, p > .05, adjusted R2 = -.299. The primary implication from this study is preliminary evidence that the M1 region contributes to creative cognition in a musical context, perhaps to some extent via an increase in technically fluent performances. In light of the previous IV. DISCUSSION literature focusing on creativity in musical improvisations (e.g., Bengtsson, Csıkszentmihalyi & Ullén, 2007; Bashwiner The aims of the study were to (1) assess the M1 region et al. 2016; de Manzano & Ullén, 2012a), this study has and its influence on creativity and technical fluency in an provided preliminary evidence that creativity does involve improvised jazz context using tDCS; and (2) examine whether low-level motor areas such as the M1 region (Sosnik et al. creativity and technical fluency as interrelated concepts in 2014). jazz improvisations. The hypothesis for the study was that participants who receive excitatory tDCS will show an increase in creativity and technical fluency when compared to D. Limitations and Future Directions participants who receive inhibitory tDCS. The results provide preliminary support for both hypotheses. The small sample size of this study (N = 8) has resulted in low statistical power. Thus, a replication of this study using a greater sample size is needed for strong conclusions to be A. Creativity and Technical Fluency drawn. Furthermore, the implementation of a control group with no tDCS stimulation will provide a control in which to This preliminary study has shown that when excitatory illustrate any change in creativity and technical fluency scores tDCS was applied to the M1 region, creativity and technical when compared to the two types of tDCS stimulation. Indeed, fluency both increased when compared to inhibitory tDCS with the use of a control group, stronger conclusions can be application. These increases were significant for technical made about the M1 region and its effects on creativity and fluency and approached significance for creativity (p = .07). technical fluency in the context of a musical improvisation. Furthermore, there was evidence to suggest that creativity and Finally, the recruitment of multiple expert adjudicators in technical fluency are interrelated concepts in the context of future work will significantly enhance reliability of the results, musical improvisations. Specifically, there was a strong as inter-rater reliability measures can then be calculated. positive correlation between creativity and technical fluency, irrespective of tDCS application (r = .765). Subsequent analysis revealed a stronger positive correlation for improvisations following excitatory tDCS (r = .820, p < .001) V. CONCLUSION than for improvisations following inhibitory tDCS (r = .732, p This preliminary tDCS study is the first to utilise < .001). In other words, excitatory tDCS elicited higher bihemispheric online tDCS over the M1 region to determine

6 its influence on creativity and technical fluency in the context improvisation. PLoS ONE, 3, e1679. of improvised jazz performance. The preliminary evidence McPherson, M. & Limb, C.J. (2013). Difficulties in the suggests that excitatory tDCS applied over the M1 region of neuroscience of creativity: jazz improvisation and the proficient pianists enhances both creativity and technical scientific method. Annals of the New York Academy of fluency, relative to inhibitory tDCS. We conclude that Sciences, 1303, 80–83. creative cognition in a musical context encapsulates technical Nitsche, M.A., Schauenburg, A., Lang, N., Liebetanz, D., fluency and involves the M1 region. Future research with a Exner, C., Paulus, W. & Tergau, F. (2003). Facilitation of greater sample size will shed further light on these findings. implicit motor learning by weak transcranial direct current stimulation of the primary motor cortex in the human. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 15, 619–626. Pinho, A.L., de Manzano, O., Fransson, P., Eriksson, H., & ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Ullén, F. (2014). Connecting to create: Expertise in musical improvisation is associated with increased The authors would like to thank Associate Professor Paul functional connectivity between premotor and prefrontal Sowman for assistance in the tDCS component of the study, areas. The Journal of Neuroscience, 34, 6156 – 6163. Jordan Wehrman for assistance with participant testing, and Pinho, A.L., Ullén, F., Castelo-Branco, M., Fransson, P., & de the Macquarie University Music, Sound, and Performance Manzano, O. (2016). Addressing a paradox: Dual Lab for helpful comments throughout the process of strategies for creative performance in introspective and experimental design and analysis. extrospective networks. Cerebral Cortex, 26, 3052–3063. Sawyer, K. (2011). The cognitive neuroscience of creativity: A critical review. Creativity Research Journal, 23, 137- REFERENCES 154. Sosnik, R., Flash, T., Sterkin, A., Hauptmann, B., & Karni, A. Bashwiner, D.M., Wertz, C.J., Flores, R.A., & Jung, R.E. (2014). The activity in the contralateral primary motor (2016). Musical creativity “revealed” in brain structure: cortex, dorsal premotor and supplementary motor area is interplay between motor, default mode, and limbic modulated by performance gains. Frontiers in Human networks. Scientific Reports, 6, 1-8. Neuroscience, 8, 1-18. Bengtsson, S.L., Csıkszentmihalyi, M., & Ullén, F. (2007). Vines, B.W., Nair, D., & Schlaug, G. (2008). Modulating Cortical regions involved in the generation of musical activity in the motor cortex affects performance for the structures during improvisation in pianists. Journal of two hands differently depending upon which hemisphere Cognitive Neuroscience, 19, 830–842. is stimulated. European Journal of Neuroscience, 28, Berkowitz, A.L., & Ansari, D. (2008). Generation of novel 1667–1673. motor sequences: The neural correlates of musical Waters-Metenier, S., Husain, M., Wiestler, T., & Diedrichsen, improvisation. NeuroImage, 41, 535-543. J. (2014). Bihemispheric transcranial direct current Bikson, M., Datta, A. & Elwassif, M. (2009). Establishing stimulation enhances effector-independent representations safety limits for transcranial direct current stimulation. of motor synergy and sequence learning. The Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology, 120, 1033–1034. Neuroscience, 34, 1037–1050. Boccia, M., Piccardi, L., Palermo, L., Nori, R., & Palmiero, M. (2015). Where do bright ideas occur in our brain? Meta- analytic evidence from neuroimaging studies of domain- specific creativity. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1-12. de Manzano, O., & Ullén, F. (2012a). Activation and connectivity patterns of the presupplementary and dorsal premotor areas during free improvisation of melodies and rhythms. NeuroImage, 63, 72–280. Dietrich, A. (2004). The cognitive neuroscience of creativity. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 11, 1011-1026. Furuya, S., Klaus, M., Nitsche, M.A., Paulus, W., & Altenmuller, E. (2014). Ceiling effects prevent further improvement of transcranial stimulation in skilled musicians. The Journal of Neuroscience, 34, 13834-13839. Karok, S. & Witney, A.G. (2013). Enhanced motor learning following task-concurrent dual transcranial direct current stimulation. PLoS ONE, 8, e85693. Kim, Y.K. & Shin, S.H. (2014). Comparison of effects of transcranial magnetic stimulation on primary motor cortex and supplementary motor area in motor skill learning (randomized, cross over study). Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, 937. Limb, C.J, & Braun, A.R. (2008). Neural substrates of spontaneous musical performance: an fMRI study of jazz

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Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

Cognition of South Indian Percussion

Jay Appaji*1, Zachary Wallmark*2, Jay Dowling#3 *Southern Methodist University, Dallas, Texas USA; #University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, Texas, USA [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

characteristic (ROC) to test the significance of position, trial ABSTRACT type, and confidence level on recognition accuracy. Background Conclusion The mridangam is a double-headed pitched drum From Experiment 1, we can conclude that trial type was prominently featured in South Indian (Carnatic) music. significant in affecting listeners’ ability to identify rhythmic Carnatic music utilizes a series of looped percussive patterns samples. Delay time between samples also played a role in the that often feature rhythmic accents between pulses. While identification task. The results of Experiment 2 indicate that previous studies in rhythmic memory have dealt with Western recognition accuracy was highest when the correct answer was rhythms (Iversen, Repp, & Patel, 2009), few have focused on in position one, while the lowest accuracy rate occurred when Indian rhythms (Srinivasamurthy, Tronel, Subramanian, & the correct answer was in position three. We conclude with a Chordia, 2012) . Studies on the cognitive representation of discussion of implications of our findings for our understanding rhythm suggest that listeners’ attention is directed toward the of culturally unfamiliar rhythms. downbeat of a rhythm, then organizes other parts of the rhythm in reference to the downbeat in a “hierarchical” Keywords sequence (Fitch, 2013). rhythm; cross-cultural music cognition; South Indian music; n-back; memory Aims We aim to explore what inherent qualities of Carnatic REFERENCES rhythm aid and impede rhythmic memory, understand how Iversen, J. R., Repp, B. H., & Patel, A. D. (2009). Top-Down ordering affects rhythmic recognition accuracy, and determine Control of Rhythm Perception Modulates Early Auditory to what extend memory for isolated Carnatic rhythms is Responses. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, modulated by delay between stimuli. 1169(1), 58–73. Method Fitch, W. T. (2013). Rhythmic cognition in humans and animals: distinguishing meter and pulse perception. In Experiment 1, we evaluated naïve participants’ (N = 36) Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, 7. memory for 27 natural and mechanical (computer generated) Srinivasamurthy, A., Subramanian, S., Tronel, G., & Chordia, versions of mridangam rhythmic patterns, with a “target” P. (2012). A beat tracking approach to complete rhythm memorized in contrast to two lure patterns, designated description of rhythm in Indian classical music. In Proc. as “similar” and “different”, separated by three delay times (3s, of the 2nd CompMusic Workshop (pp. 72–78). 6s, and 12s). In Experiment 2 (N = 24), listeners heard a series of 20 rhythmic trials. Each trial began with a “target” rhythm, followed by a pool of three answer choices comprised of a random order of the “target,” a similar lure, and a different lure. Participants were instructed to determine which of the three was the “target,” and to rate their confidence in their answer using a 6-point Likert scale. Results Results of Experiment 1 suggested that there was not a significant difference in listeners’ ability to distinguish between natural and mechanical versions, F(1, 35) = .52, ns. Difference between “similar” and “different” lures was significant, F(1, 35) = 16.85, p < .001; delay time between samples also appeared to have an effect on identification, F(2, 70) = 5.06, p < .01. Mean accuracy rate in Exp. 2 was high (91%), though accuracy decreased with ordering of the target (i.e., position 3 targets had lower accuracy than position 1). We used general estimations equation modeling (GEE) and receiver operating

8 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

Musical Intervals in Baby Sounds

Lotte Armbrüster*1, Werner Mende#, Hanna Ehlert*, Gesine Wermke†, Kathleen Wermke* *Center for Pre-Speech Development & Developmental Disorders, University Hospital, Würzburg, Germany #Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences & Humanities, Berlin, Germany †Institute of Music Research, University Würzburg, Germany [email protected]

ABSTRACT Results Over the three months, a number of 3,587 (59%) Background vocalizations exhibited intervals in their melody (1st month: nd rd Perception and memorizing of salient, regularly occurring 55%; 2 months: 62%; 3 month: 63%). Interval (f0 ratio) sounds start in the womb at about the third trimester of distributions were very similar over the three months with the gestation. Fetuses are particularly sensitive to ‘musical’ minor second (semitone) being the most prominent interval elements of their mother’s voice and speech sounds, based on (Figure 1). Moreover, a remarkably monotonous decline from prosodic elements such as melody, rhythm, tempo and pitch. semitone to larger intervals was found (Figure 1). The auditory stimulation experienced in the womb was found 45% to imprint and shape postnatal auditory development and 40% musical preferences (Ullal-Gupta, 2013). Young babies are able to communicate by vocal sounds long before vocabulary 35% and grammar is established, and they do so by making 30% extensive use of melody (f contour) (Wermke & Mende, 0 25% 2011). They are also well-equipped with surprising musical perceptual capabilities (Trehub, 2003). In two previous pilot 20% Percentage studies, we identified and analyzed f0 ratios in infant cry 15% melody and observed a stable pattern of several musical intervals (Wermke & Mende, 2009; Dobnig et al., 2017). 10% 5% Aims 0%

The aim of this study was to quantitatively characterize fifth fourth tritone unison octave min. 6th maj. 6th min. 7th maj. 7th min. 3rd maj. 3rd musical interval-like substructures of the melody (f0 contour) min. 2nd maj. 2nd of pre-speech sounds of babies during their first three months Figure 1. Distribution of identified intervals (frequency ratios) over of life. the first three months (bin range = 100 cent, start bin -50 to +50). Method Conclusions Spontaneously uttered sounds of 12 healthy German babies In agreement with our previous findings, frequency ratios were recorded in weekly intervals over the first three months. (intervals) along the full scale of musical intervals from prime Frequency spectrograms and melodies of 6,059 vocalizations to octave and beyond were identified. Melody intervals are a were analyzed by using the open-source software Praat 6.0.26. regular phenomenon of pre-speech sounds, forming an After low-pass filtering (40 Hz Gaussian Filter), intervals organic perceptive - productive unity. Whether the robust were identified and quantitatively analysed. The applied “semitone-phenomenon” reflects a relationship to the interval model was defined as plateau-transition-plateau “semitone as perceptual boundary” in adults (Zarate, Ritson & structure in the melody, with each plateau lasting ≥ 50 ms, Poeppel, 2012), needs to be investigated. Subsequent studies containing a f0 variation smaller than ± a quarter tone are warranted to investigate a potential influence of exposure (according to perceptual entities) and creating a relative to music or ambient language on the observed interval reference tone. Here, each measured interval was auditory re- distribution in baby sounds. evaluated by the first author using a special Praat routine. Results are reported for (1) frequency of occurrence of Keywords melodies containing intervals and (2) distribution of all melody; infant; musical interval; semitone; pre-speech identified frequency ratios displayed in a cent scale (organized development around musical intervals from the prime to the octave and above). REFERENCES Ullal-Gupta, S. et al. (2013). Linking prenatal experience to the emerging musical mind. Front Syst Neurosci., doi: 10.3389/fnsys.2013.00048.

9 Wermke, M.; Mende, W. (2011). From Emotion to Notion: The Importance of Melody. The Oxford Handbook of Social Neuroscience, pp. 624–648. Trehub SE. (2003). The developmental origins of musicality. Nat Neurosci., Review 6, 669–673. Wermke, K; Mende, W. (2009). Musical elements in human infants’ cries. In the beginning is the melody. Musicae Scientiae 13 (2 Suppl), 152-175. Dobnig, D. et al. (2017). It all starts with music – Musical intervals in neonatal crying. Paper presented at the 25th Simposio Internacional de Comunication Social, Santiago de Cuba, Cuba. Zarate, J.M., Ritson, C. R., & Poeppel, D. (2012). Pitch-interval discrimination and musical expertise: Is the semitone a perceptual boundary? J Acoust Soc Am., 132(2), 984–993.

10 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

Chance Music is Best Not Left to Chance

Joshua S. Bamford Finnish Centre for Interdisciplinary Music Research, University of Jyväskylä, Finland [email protected]

ABSTRACT Conclusions It was expected that participants would be unable to Background distinguish 12-tone from chance melodies as neither would Understanding random events is an ability which eludes form any recognisable pattern. If this were true, participants humanity. Truly random events may be misinterpreted as should have performed at chance level. This turned out not to conforming to a pattern, while events with a pattern may seem be the case as participants seemed to consistently misidentify to have none. In most cases, people will assume that a 12-tone serialism as being more “random”. “random” distribution should be more evenly distributed than This is possibly because no notes are repeated in a 12-tone it really is (Ladouceur et al., 1996). Meanwhile, highly row, thus achieving a perfectly even distribution, while complex patterns may be perceived as random if they’re not chance music often results in repetitions or clusters of notes. understood (Falk & Konold, 1997). It is important to This is similar in nature to the Birthday Problem, in which the distinguish between random processes and seemingly random probability of two people at a party sharing a birthday is outcomes, however these are easily confused in perception. remarkably higher than expected (Ball, 1960:45). Using the This has been demonstrated across many domains, but never Birthday Problem equation, we can calculate the probability when perceiving stimuli through sound, even though chance of having a repeated note in a random sequence of 12 notes and serial composers of the mid-20th Century provided perfect drawn from the Chromatic scale. It is, in fact, highly probable study material for us. that a random melody of 12 notes would contain at least one repetition; there is a probability 99.9% that at least one note Aims will be repeated. Human ears may use the lack of tonal centre This study aimed to test perception of randomness through created through an even distribution of notes as a heuristic for sound, using the principles of chance and serial composition. gauging randomness, demonstrating an intuitive It was hypothesised that participants would be unable to misunderstanding of probability. distinguish 12-tone rows from random sequences of 12 notes, These findings are consistent with the findings of thus scoring no better than chance on a forced-choice task. Ladouceur and colleagues (1996), who suggest that an even distribution is often perceived as being more random. This Method expands upon our understanding of general principles in the A battery of 16 chance composed melodies and 16 12-tone perception of random events across sensory modalities. It rows were composed, and presented to participants in a also highlights the importance of establishing a tonal centre forced-choice paradigm. Chance melodies were composed for the perception of structure in music. Although this study using a random number generator in MATLAB, which picked exclusively used 12-tone rows out of the context of a larger 12 numbers as independent events, from a possible range of 1 musical structure; it supports previous research that suggests to 12, corresponding to the 12 notes of the chromatic scale. the tone row structures in dodecaphonic music are Tone rows were composed by the experimenter, using imperceptible to listeners (Raffman, 2003). Thus, it is principles of 12-tone music in which no note may be repeated. suggested that human perception should be considered when All notes of both melodies were of equal length at a constant analysing chance and serial works, or assessing their historical tempo with no rhythmic variation. success. Participants were presented with one chance melody and one 12-tone row in random order. They were then asked Keywords which of the two pieces sounded more “random”. This was chance music; serial music; music perception; probability repeated over 16 trials, and participants were given a point every time they correctly identified the chance melody as REFERENCES being the more “random” of the two stimuli. Ball, W. W. (1960). Other questions on probability, in Mathematical recreations and essays. Macmillan: New York. Results Falk, R. and Konold, C. (1997). Making sense of randomness: Testing is ongoing, but the initial sample (N = 16) already implicit encoding as a basis for judgment. Psychological Review, suggests significant results on a Wilcoxon test, z = 2.82, p < 104(2), 301-318. .01, with nearly all participants performing worse than chance Raffman, D. (2003). Is twelve-tone music artistically defective? and worse than expected in the hypothesis (Mdn = 6, Midwest Studies in Philosophy, 27(1), 69-87. compared to expected 8 correct out of possible 16). Ladouceur, R., Paquet, C. and Dube, D. (1996). Erroneous Perceptions in generating sequences of random events. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 26(24), 2157-2166.

11 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

A Survey of Musically-Induced Chills: Emotional Characteristics and ‘Chills Moments’ in Music

Scott Bannister Department of Music, Durham University, United Kingdom [email protected]

Wagner, and Jacobsen, 2015). Additionally, new evidence ABSTRACT regarding specific chills moments in music suggest that Background although dynamic and musical change may elicit chills, there is a need to consider the role of perception and experience of Musically-induced chills have received some attention in social relationships with regards to musical chills; this could be music and emotion research (Grewe et al., 2007; Panksepp, within a piece of music (perception of unity and togetherness), 1995); however, little is known about the emotional or between the music and listener (comfort and reducing characteristics of chills, although theories have linked the loneliness; empathizing with the human voice). Further experience to social separation (Panksepp and Bernatzky, empirical work is required to test existing theories of musical 2002), and the mixed emotional concept of ‘being moved’ chills. The current study provides one of the first investigations (Wassiliwizky, Wagner, and Jacobsen, 2015). In addition, the into the various emotional qualities of chills, beyond feelings links between chills and various musical features or moments of peak pleasure. Additionally, the study presents the first are still unclear. extensive dataset regarding musical excerpts that elicit chills, Aims and specific moments in the pieces that are linked to the experience. This study aims to develop a preliminary understanding of the emotional characteristics of chills, and to collect a variety Keywords of musical excerpts and features that elicit chills in different music; emotion, chills; induction mechanisms; open-ended listeners. responses Method REFERENCES A survey was administered to participants (N = 375), Grewe, O., Nagel, F., Kopiez, R., and Altenmüller, E. (2007). collecting open ended responses regarding an experience of Listening to music as a re-creative process: Physiological, musical chills (subjective feelings, musical features, situation). psychological, and psychoacoustical correlates of chills and strong Additionally, two extra chills pieces were requested to be emotions. Music Perception, 24(3), 297-314. described by participants (sound, notable features, specific Juslin, P. N. (2013). From everyday emotions to aesthetic emotions: chills moments). Towards a unified theory of musical emotions. Physics of Life Reviews, 10(3), 235-266. Results Kuehnast, M., Wagner, V., Wassiliwizky, E., Jacobsen, T., The open-ended responses were analyzed through the Menninghaus, W. (2014). Being moved: Linguistic representation process of thematic analysis, coding raw data and developing and conceptual structure. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1242. Panksepp, J. (1995). The emotional sources of “chills” induced by broader themes. Results suggest that the experience of chills is music. Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 13(2), pleasurable but often involves mixed emotions of happiness 171-207. and sadness; accordingly, participants often used language such Panksepp, J., and Bernatzky, G. (2002). Emotional sounds and the as ‘being moved by the music’ or ‘being touched’, terms brain: The neuro-affective foundations of musical appreciation. previously associated with mixed emotional states (Kuehnast et Behavioural Processes, 60(2), 133-155. al., 2014). Responses often contained references to tears or Wassiliwizky, E., Wagner, V., and Jacobsen, T. (2015). Art-elicited crying, alongside reports of gooseflesh, tingling sensations and chills indicate states of being moved. Psychology of Aesthetics, feelings in the chest, suggesting that chills reflect strong Creativity, and the Arts, 9(4), 405-416. emotional experiences. In terms of specific chills moments across musical excerpts, five main themes emerged, namely ‘entrances of instruments’, ‘peaks and build up’, ‘social concepts’, ‘transitions and change’, and ‘voice and words’. These themes represent aspects of music such as dynamic and structural changes, the effects of the human singing voice, and more abstract social concepts, such as the presence of many voices, or the musical unity of a large orchestra. Conclusions The data indicate that chills are pleasurable, but often reflect mixed emotions, possibly like being moved (Wassiliwizky,

12 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

Neuroaesthetics and Music: Difficulties of a Young Field of Research

Stefanie Bräuml University of Vienna [email protected]

ABSTRACT Background Keywords Neuroaesthetics is a young and controversially discussed neuroaesthetics and Music; methodology of neuroaesthetics; field of research. In the beginnings of the 21st century, British theory of Neuroaesthetics; criticism of neuroaesthetics neurobiologist Semir Zeki brought the term “neuroaesthetics” REFERENCES as a subdiscipline between humanities and natural science in the discourse. Neuroaesthetics tries to investigate aesthetic Zeki, S. (2001). Artistic Creativity and the Brain. Science, 293, 51-52. problems empirically. Depending on the self-conception of the discipline, the methodological spectrum moves in a wider or narrower framework and bases only on magnetic resonance imaging or includes additionally psychological as well as evolutionary biological research methods. Aims In my poster presentation, I would like to delineate a series of difficulties of neuroaesthetics in music research: (1) challenges concerning the identity and aims of the field of research; (2) methodological difficulties which require substantial improvement; (3) external and internal coherence; (4) criticism on reductionism; (5) demands on a modified purpose; (6) integration of the physical dimension of aesthetic experience; call for an observance of the existence of mirror cells; (7) questions on the relevance of neuroaesthetics as an autonomous field of research; (8) criticism on the dominance of neuroimaging; and (9) ecological validity of neuroaesthetic studies. Method Literature review. Results (1) There’s still no agreement concerning the key fields, research questions and objects of neuroaesthetics. The question if neuroaesthetics should focus only on aesthetic experiences or not is still not answered sufficiently. (2) We should gain a deeper understanding of the possibilities and limits of neuroimaging methods in neuroaesthetic research projects (there’s a strong tendency to over-interpretate data gained from functional magnetic resonance imaging surveys). (3) Neuroaesthetics is a genuine interdisciplinary field of research and needs an embedment in all disciplines taking part.

Conclusion As a young and promising field of research, neuroaesthetics has to face its difficulties and has to find appropriate solutions to them in order to stabilize and strengthen its potential as a discipline anchored between humanities and natural sciences.

13 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

‘Feeling the Gap’: Does Interoceptive Ability Mediate the Disparity Between Physiological and Subjective Emotional Response to Music Listening?

Sarah Campbell1, Paul Sowden School of Psychology, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK [email protected]

dependent upon emotion quadrant. The disparity between ABSTRACT objective and subjective music-evoked emotional response was moderated by interoceptive ability. Background Emotion involves an interplay between bodily reactions Conclusions (objective physiology) and cognitive processing (subjective Different types of subjective music-evoked emotion are perception). The circumplex model of emotion (Russell, 1980) characterized by different physiological profiles and an characterizes emotions into four quadrants of a 2D emotion individual’s ability to subjectively experience and report their space, comprised of a valence dimension and an arousal emotional state is moderated by their interoceptive ability. dimension. Thus, we argue that peoples’ emotional experience of music is In music-evoked emotion research, a disparity between related to the integration between their body awareness and physiological and subjective responses has been noted. In the subjective processing. Training interoceptive ability may present study we investigate the hypothesis that the size of therefore be a useful approach to maximize the effectiveness this disparity is a function of an individual’s ability to of using music as an emotion regulation tool. perceive internal bodily signals (interoceptive ability; Craig, Keywords 2002). Specifically, we expect that individuals with high music; emotion; psychophysiology. awareness of their internal bodily sensations will display a subjective experience of emotion that is more strongly REFERENCES predicted by their physiological response. Russell, J.A.. (1980). A Circumplex Model of Affect. Journal of In addition, we hypothesized that the disparity will vary as Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 1161-1178. a function of emotion quadrant. This is because high arousal Craig, A.D.. (2002). How do you feel? Interoception: the sense of the emotions provide a stronger physiological signal and therefore physiological condition of the body. Nature Reviews require less interoceptive awareness. Consequently, the Neuroscience, 3, 655-666. discrepancy will be less dependent on interoception for high arousal than for low arousal emotions where the physiological signal is weaker. Aims The current study aimed to ascertain whether disparity between physiological and subjective responses of music- evoked emotion results from individual differences in interoceptive ability. A further aim was to examine the relationship between subjective and objective music-evoked emotional responses in each of the four emotion quadrants of a 2D emotion space. Method Seventy-seven participants listened to four self-selected pieces of emotional music, one for each quadrant of the emotion space: one happy, one sad, one tender, and one tense. During music listening, participants continuously reported their subjective emotional response, then completed a static emotion measure. Physiological measures shown to differentiate arousal and valence were recorded, namely facial EMG, EDA and ECG. Participants then completed subjective and objective measures of interoceptive ability. Results Moderation analyses showed subjective musical emotion was characterized by differentiated physiological profiles

14 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

Towards a New Model for Effective Musical Teaching in Performance-Oriented Settings

Francisco Cardoso Centro de Estudos de Sociologia e Estética Musical, Escola Superior de Música de Lisboa, Portugal [email protected]

2007; Manturzewska, 1986; Mills, 2007; Sosniak, 1990). For ABSTRACT example, research outlines the considerable qualitative There is a discernable growing concern about teaching effectiveness changes which occur in learning when teachers adapt their in music education. Current effective teaching models fail to fully teaching to students’ individual characteristics and needs describe the phenomenon of effective teaching, and fail to fully serve (Beheshti, 2009; Hultberg, 2002; North & Hargreaves, 2008; teacher education. The goal was to find a model that could: (1) help Sloboda, 1986); or that successful learning occurs when the instrumental teachers to measure their own levels of teaching teacher can provide the ‘scaffold’ for the development of efficacy within a short period of time and in a specific setting, (2) skills in the early stages, and then, remove it progressively respond to specific needs teachers have, helping them managing and according to the student’s increasingly individual autonomy improve their levels of teaching efficacy during their daily practice, (Burwell, 2005; Hallam, 2006; Jorgensen, 2000; Lehmann et and (3) allow teachers to improve themselves through time, even al., 2007; McPhail, 2010). Therefore, teachers’ effectiveness many years after finishing their degree. A model that had the can be said to be at the centre of the learning process and as potential to fulfill such goals consisted of a self-analysis tool with 19 the main parameter influencing successful learning. effective teaching descriptors to be used along with video-recorded lessons. In this study 45 different instrumental teachers analyzed a II. EFFECTIVE TEACHING MODELS total of 180 different instrumental lessons. Results suggest that 98% of teachers were to use this tool to measure their teaching Effective teaching can be, to a large extent, identified, effectiveness, being able to identify areas of their teaching that observed and measured (Collinson, 1999, p. 10; Gunderson, needed improvement. Results suggest that this model allows teachers 2009, p. 16; Kohut, 1985, p. 74). Two well-known effective to identify clearly what aspects of effective teaching are missing in teaching models are the End Products Model and the Teachers their practice, and allows them to reinforce good teaching practices. Characteristics Model. These results indicate that it is possible to improve the quality of According to the first one - End Products Model - effective teaching in an educational setting where the main goal keeps being to teaching can be identified in the form of observable end raise the future generation of performers, and where the didactical products (i.e. what students’ learn, which skills they acquire) options taken by teachers are still strongly influenced by tradition. (Muijs, 2006; Tuckman & Tuckrnan, 1995). These ‘end products’ are in themselves learning goals and vary according I. INTRODUCTION to the fundamentals and principles that guide the learning The growing concerns about teaching effectiveness in process. Therefore, within this model, teacher efficacy is music education may be explained by factors like: (1) the measured according to the ability displayed in helping their growing body of research in music education suggesting that students to reach the established goals (Hallam, 2006; the existing teaching and learning models are limited in terms Regelski, 2006; Ryans, 1963). of their contribution to improving pupils’ learning outcomes However, a detailed analysis of the two allow us to see (Muijs, 2006). New research has also brought to light that they fail to fully describe the phenomenon of effective “progressive teaching strategies and styles” (Beheshti, 2009, teaching (Cardoso, 2012), and fail to fully serve teacher p. 107; Zhukov, 1999, p. 6) and has defined the “so-called education, because they are somewhat detached from practice best [teaching] practices” (Westerlund, 2008, p. 91). (2) the (Madsen, 2003). The key problems of these two models may fact that each year, only a small percentage of the total be summarized in two main aspects: first, the time-scale used, number of students attending instrumental lessons in specialist and second, the singular perspective adopted. Music Schools and Conservatoires, become expert performers Scale Issue - The identification of effective teaching and (Sloboda, 1991). Most of the schools report a large number of effective teachers tends to occur as the result of a drop-outs among students within the first two to three years of generalization process. However, the scale involved in these instrumental tuition (Costa-Giomi, Flowers, & Sasaki, 2005; two effective teaching models is considerable. Mills, 2007). (3) The traditional model of instrumental Perspective Issue - In addition to the adoption of a smaller teaching, one-to-one tuition, tends to be seen as “very measurement unit, an adequate perspective on effective expensive” (Bolliger & Reed, 2008, p. 1). teaching should pay attention to approaches other than Research has shown that differences in the quality, depth external ones. Discussion of effective teaching has tended to and speed of instrumental learning are commonly attributed to adopt an almost exclusively external perspective, i.e. those teachers’ ability to convey appropriate guidance and to that observe, describe and measure effective teaching are provide the necessary conditions for learning to occur (Duke, outside the learning process (Coles, 2009; Lehmann et al., 2009; Hallam, 1998, 2006; Lehmann, Sloboda, & Woody, 2007; Madsen, 2003; Mills, 2007; Mills & Smith, 2003; Reid, 2001; Wood & Wood, 1996; Zhukov, 1999).

15 Therefore, the goal was to find a model that could, tool for measuring effective teaching could be successfully ultimately, help instrumental teachers to measure their own implemented by instrumental teachers in their practice. levels of teaching efficacy within a short period of time and This study included several research steps: First, each on a specific setting, one that could respond to certain needs participant, an instrumental teacher, would prepare four one- teachers have (e.g. challenging learning problems, students to-one lessons to be video-recorded. These could be four that fail in acquire certain skills), and that allowed teachers to lessons with the same student, lessons with four different improve themselves through time, even many years after students, or any other combination. Secondly, each participant finishing their degree. This is especially important considering would analyze each video-recorded lesson with the aid of the that musicians become conservatoire teachers usually structured analysis tool provided. Finally, each participant "without any rigorous preparation for the work" (Kemp, 1996, would prepare a written report with his or her findings on p. 230). his/her teaching (positives and negatives). No instructions A model that had the potential to fulfill such goals had were given to reflect on the research process itself. Thus, in a already been presented in a previous research project sense, participants were asked to do participate also as co- (Cardoso, 2012). Such model had been designed to measure researchers of their own teaching practice. levels of teaching effectiveness in instrumental lessons. And The use of videos seemed to be appropriate for this study the reliability of such model allowed to identify a "positive because video not only allows the capture of events with a subjective experience of teaching effectively" coined there as stronger sense of reality but also allows the researcher to look Optimal Teaching Experience© (Cardoso, 2012, p. 317). The into those events in a more diverse and detailed way which model consisted of a list of 19 effective teaching descriptors, would be impossible with a real in vivo observation (Crano & i.e. aspects of the teaching practice that, according to Brewer, 2002; Knoblauch, Schnettler, & Raab, 2009; Potter, literature, are well-established as powerful contributors to 2003), enhancing “the quality and detail of virtually any successful learning (Figure 1). These descriptors provided the research study” (Ratcliff, 2003, pp. 113, 128). And this is necessary elements to develop a structured analysis tool that particularly true for a setting that it is so difficult to penetrate could be used by teachers to analyze their own video-recorded and study like the one-to-one tuition setting. Similarly, asking lessons. In order to help teachers to identify in which parts of a written reflection as part of the study seemed also to be the lesson they were attained higher or lower levels of appropriate because this kind of data is seen by many as efficacy, the model included also the identification of all those having immense educational potential to promote growth in descriptors through 5-minute time-units. Finally, teachers student teachers, to help the work of teacher educators and to were asked to identify 'Effective Teaching Units' (ETU's), i.e. add depth to the studies of educational researchers, and has the units that signal effective change in students’ performance been included as part of most teacher education programmes and skills and that are the result of “the skillful arrangement of (Check & Schutt, 2012; Hammersley, 2002). Written performance tasks [...] to facilitate the accomplishment of reflection may be produced after the occurrence of an event or specific goals” (Duke, 2009, p. 160). phenomenon, or as in this case, it can be generated through the analysis of previously collected data, for example, a video- recorded lesson (Marecek, 2003). Regarding the structured analysis tool provided, that was actually an Excel file with all the parameters aligned to the left and grouped by descriptor. Time-slots were also clearly identified. Along with the file were given instructions as to what variable really meant, and what things should the participants be able to see to validate each variable in each slot of time. As for the written report, instructions were given to write upon any patterns of behaviour observed (either positive or negative) from the structured analysis. Participants included 47 different Portuguese conservatoire teachers that video-recorded and analyzed a total of 188 different lessons, held with 134 different instrumental students. Participants were mainly male teachers Figure 1 – Effective Teaching Descriptors (53%), and although participants' age was mainly between 18 and 30 (74.8%), they displayed different levels of teaching III. METHODOLOGY experience (Charts 1). Although the model had been successfully tested to identify teaching effectiveness in instrumental lessons by means of an experienced researcher and teacher educator, and although it had also been clear that the model had the potential to be successfully used by instrumental teachers themselves to help them analyzing and improving their teaching, there was still no evidence that the model could effectively work that way. Therefore, it was necessary to design an exploratory study, one that allowed to understand if the structured analysis Chart 1 – Participants Teaching Experience Distribution

16 Regarding the way they saw their teaching, it was Data was analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. interesting to see that, generally speaking, teachers tended to One of the methods adopted for qualitative analysis was identify as positive their ability to maintain high levels of 'content analysis', which “involves the making of inferences attention in their students (A), and to do well on setting goals about data [...] by systematically and objectively identifying (GS), in particular in setting clear goals (GS1 - 40%). The special characteristics (classes or categories) within them” descriptor most recurrently identified as needing improving (Gray, 2004, p. 328). After delineating the ‘sampling unit’ and was related with teaching or lesson pace (P), in particular the the ‘unit[s] of analysis’ (Kalof, Dan, & Dietz, 2008, p. 105), ability to imprint a fast pace for the lessons (P1 - 43%) and to data are then systematically classified, i.e. through a process balance the two teaching modes across the lesson (P4 - 38%). of coding, raw data are transformed “into a standardized Another descriptor recurrently identified as needing form” (Babbie, 2005, p. 355). In this study the 19 variables of improving was feedback (F), in particular the ability to give the structured analysis tool provided the units for this kind of high rates of both and corrective feedback (F8 - 43%), the analysis. The second method adopted for qualitative analysis ability to give frequent feedback (F1 - 38%) and the ability to was 'thematic analysis', "a method for identifying, analyzing, give precise and detailed feedback (F4 - 36%). and reporting patterns (themes) within data” (Braun & Clarke, 2006, pp. 6, 7). This was important to collect participants perceptions about the usefulness of this tool to improve their teaching efficacy. In addition, data was also analyzed quantitatively by means of 'quasi-statistics', which involved "simple statistical procedures" for the purpose of helping to identify "singularities, regularities and variations", aiming to "enhance the rigour and the power of qualitative analysis” (Dey, 1993, pp. 29, 54). This kind of quantitative analysis method seemed adequate considering the fact that the sample chosen had no inferential goals, nor were there any attempts to make it represent the entire population of instrumental Chart 3 – Descriptor Tendency Analysis teachers and students in Portuguese specialist Music Schools (Robson, 2002). The analysis of written reports allowed us to learn about the impact of using such tool to their teaching effectiveness, to IV. RESULTS help them improving as teachers. And in this regard, it was The analysis of written reports allowed us to see that by interesting to see that, 49% of the participants (N = 23) using this tool to measure their effective teaching, 98% of decided to add to their written report some comments on how teachers were able to identify areas of their teaching that doing this kind of analysis had helped them to improve as needed to improve. Among the aspects that were more easily teachers (by highlighting the positives and exposing those identifiable by teachers (either as positive or as needing areas needing improvement), how they saw the benefits of improvement) were: the pace at which the lesson moving using this tool to reflect on their teaching, and how they (P1), the clarity of goals set (GS1), the adequacy of goals in would see themselves using this tool in the future again. Some terms of the amount of challenge it involved (GS2), and the even mentioned positive things such as: 'doing this kind of frequency at which feedback was given. Inversely, the analysis represented a "turning point in the way they saw the variables that were more difficult to identify or less obvious teaching process"' (P24), or "this kind of self-analysis tool for the teachers were: identifying a short period of time was extremely enriching due to the number of parameters it between teacher's interventions (P3), information about timely involves and the kind of assessment it promotes" (P32), or given feedback (F2) and relevant or meaningful feedback (F6) even "the analysis of these video-recorded lessons made me (Chart 2). start a period of reflection upon my teaching practice" (P46). Moreover, this tool seems to be useful for all kinds of teachers regardless their level of teaching experience. These positive comments were produced by inexperienced teachers (P2, P3, P30), by teachers that had few years of teaching experience (P5, P24, P29, P32, P38, P42), and by teachers that had more than 5-years of teaching experience (P9, P16, P17, P25, P33, P34, P40, P43, P46).

Pace, P2 - Brief instructions, P3 - Short time between teacher's interventions, P4 - Balanced distribution between practice and performance mode, F1 - Frequent Feedback, F2 - Immediate Chart 2 – Variables Identified by Teachers in the Written Feedback, F3 - Short Feedback, F4 - Precise and detailed Feedback, 1 Report F5 - Honest Feedback, F6 - Relevant/Meaningful Feedback, F7 - Constructive Feedback, F8 - High rates of both positive and 1GS1 - Clear Goals, GS2 - Goals with the appropriate amount of corrective Feedback, SEB - Help students to display high Self- challenge, GS3 - Task/Ability oriented Goals, GS4 - Goals displaying Efficacy Beliefs, A - Ability to activate and maintain high levels of positive beliefs, GS5 - Goals displaying high expectations, P1 - Fast Attention in the students.

17 V. DISCUSSION Friendly+Guide+for+Social+Scientists#0 Duke, R. A. (2009). Intelligent Music Teaching. Austin: Learning Results indicate resulting benefits of using this structured and Behavior Resources. tool to identify effective teaching by teachers themselves. It Gray, D. E. (2004). Doing Research in the Real World. London: not only allows teachers to identify clearly what aspects of SAGE Publications. effective teaching are missing, but allows them also to Gunderson, J. (2009). Flow and Effective Teaching: A Study. reinforce good teaching practices. Teachers were able to use Saarbrüchen, Germany: VDM Verlag Dr. Müller. the tool themselves and, more importantly, they were able to Haddon, E. (2009). Instrumental and vocal teaching: how do music draw conclusions from what they saw. students learn to teach? British Journal of Music Education, Therefore, it can be said that this model of effective 26(1), 57–70. Hallam, S. (1998). Instrumental Teaching: A practical Guide to teaching that consists of identifying and measuring effective Better Teaching and Learning. Oxford: Heinemann International. teaching descriptors through the systematic analysis of 5- Hallam, S. (2006). Music Psychology in Education. London: Institute minute slots in video-recorded lessons represents a powerful of Education - University of London. tool for instrumental teachers to measure their own levels of Hammersley, M. (2002). Action Research: A Contradiction in teaching efficacy within a short period of time and on a Terms? Annual Conference of the British Educational Research specific setting, to respond to specific pedagogical and Association. University of Exeter, England: British Educational didactical needs, and to allow teachers to improve themselves Research Association. through time, even after many years of teaching experience. Hultberg, C. (2002). Approaches to Music Notation: the printed In order to be able to generalize these findings and to score as a mediator of meaning in Western tonal tradition. Music Education Research, 4(2), 185–197. prove this model even more useful, this study should be Jorgensen, H. (2000). Student learning in higher instrumental replicated to a larger number of conservatoire teachers. education: who is responsible? British Journal of Music Additionally, it would be interesting to measure the level of Education, 17(1), 67–77. accuracy that teachers display in the identification of effective Kalof, L., Dan, A., & Dietz, T. (2008). Essentials of Social Research. teaching descriptors through video-analysis. Adding this extra Maidenhead, Berkshire: Open University Press. element to the findings may result into an additional layer of Kemp, A. E. (1996). The Musical Temperament - Psychology and perception about this model. Personality of Musicians. New York: Oxford University Press. 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19 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

Spanish Version of the Kenny-Music Performance Anxiety Inventory (K-MPAI): Factorial Structure and First Statistical Analyses of a Peruvian Sample

Álvaro M. Chang-Arana University of Jyväskylä, Finland [email protected], [email protected]

two reasons: to identify the specific behavior of MPA in a ABSTRACT Peruvian sample; and to assess whether the theorized structure This study estimated validity evidence based on internal structure, and by Kenny (2009; 2011) resembled the Peruvian sample. reliability evidence for scores derived from the intended uses of the Chang-Arana (2015a, 2015b) adapted the K-MPAI to the Spanish Kenny-Music Performance Anxiety Inventory (K-MPAI). It Peruvian context and estimated its psychometric properties in a also provided the first statistical analyses of a Peruvian sample of 455 large sample of tertiary music students from three major music music students (mean-age = 21.19, SD = 3.13). A high-order institutions. Later, the same author (Chang-Arana, 2016) exploratory factor analysis with Schmid-Leiman solution was reported the first statistical analysis of the Peruvian sample. performed on the K-MPAI items. One high-order factor (ordinal alpha Nevertheless, the results of those research experiences are α = .97) and two first order factors (ordinal alpha α = .93; α = .92) were obtained, explaining 58.65% of shared variance. A significant effect partially unpublished and available only in Spanish, raising the was found for gender differences, but not for musical institutions or need to communicate these findings to wider audiences. genre. A high-order factor called “negative affectivity in relation to Consequently, this paper is based upon sections from previous music performance anxiety” and two first-order factors labelled Chang-Arana’s works (2015a, 2015b, 2016). “music performance anxiety” and “depressive components” were proposed. Gender-related score differences for MPA and the lack of II. AIMS significant differences in MPA scores between musical genre or Estimate validity evidence based on internal structure and musical institution were partially consistent with previous literature. reliability evidences for scores derived from the intended uses I. INTRODUCTION of the Spanish K-MPAI (Chang-Arana, 2015b; Kenny, 2009). Provide the first statistical analyses of a Peruvian sample According to Kenny (2011), music performance anxiety (Chang-Arana, 2016). (MPA) is characterized by an apprehensive and persistent anxiety towards musical performance, especially in situations III. METHOD where one is being scrutinized by others and where there is a fear of failing (Kenny, 2011). It originates in the confluence of After translating the K-MPAI to Spanish through a back- “underlying biological and/or psychological vulnerabilities translation process (Brislin, 1986), the author of the inventory and/or specific anxiety-conditioning experience” (p. 61). MPA recognized it as the official Spanish version (D. T. Kenny, can be experienced by musicians at any point in their personal communication, October 16, 2013). Through a professional life, and it is partially independent of their age, convenience sample, 455 tertiary Peruvian music students accomplishment level, amount of practice, etc. (Chang-Arana, (mean-age = 21.19, SD = 3.13) were group-surveyed with the 2016; Kenny, 2011; Ortiz, 2011a, 2011b; Yoshie, Kudo, & Spanish version of the K-MPAI. Consent forms and response Ohtsuki, 2008). However, although widely experienced by instructions were read aloud, clarifying any possible doubt musicians (Fishbein & Middlestadt, 1988), adequate levels of from participants. MPA can result in a facilitated performance, caused by an A high-order exploratory factor analysis (HOEFA) with increase in concentration and attention (Martínez & Paterna, Schmid-Leiman-solution (SLS, Schmid & Leiman, 1957) was 2010; Papageorgi, Creech, & Welch, 2011). performed on the scored items of 455 tertiary Peruvian music students from three music faculties. Reliability was estimated Nevertheless, increased levels of MPA which surpass the through ordinal alpha, due to the polychoric nature (i.e. Likert individuals’ adaptive coping levels can have potentially scale) of the items (Bonanomi, Ruscone, & Osmetti, 2013; detrimental effects on the professional life and health of Gadermann, Guhn, & Zumbo, 2012; Zumbo, Gadermann, & musicians. For instance, threats include drugs consumption Zeisser, 2007). (legal, illegal and non-prescribed), impaired performances, and Differences in MPA scores for gender, musical genres and even abandonment of the profession (Kenny, 2011; Ortiz, musical institutions were tested with t-test and one-way- 2011a; Taylor & Wasley, 2004; West, 2004). Recently, Peru ANOVA, respectively. has experienced an increase in higher music education HOEFA and reliability values were calculated using Factor programs and youth professional orchestras, raising the 9.3.1 (Lorenzo-Seva & Ferrando, 2015). Additional data chances for people to become musicians and experience MPA. analyses were calculated in SPSS 21. Effect sizes were Nevertheless, its systematic study was until recently in its interpreted according to Ellis (2010) and statistical power was infancy in Peru due to a lack of solid psychological interpreted according to Cohen (1992). measurement tools. Therefore, one of the main priorities was to explore the underlying structure of the Kenny Music Performance Anxiety Inventory (K-MPAI, Kenny, 2009) for

20 IV. RESULTS Table 3. Descriptive statistics and Shapiro-Wilk normality test for MPA scores according to gender, musical genre and institution. A. High-Order Exploratory Factor Analysis The extraction method selected for the HOEFA was Variables M SD n S-W df p Minimum Rank Factor Analysis (MRFA). After this step, an Gender oblique promin rotation was selected given the theoretical Male 67.57 27.52 337 0.99 337 .11 dependence of first order factors towards the high order factor. Female 82.53 31.14 113 0.99 113 .76 Musical When deciding about what kind of correlation matrix to Genre factorize, a polychoric correlation matrix was chosen since a Classical 71.68 29.71 161 0.99 161 .43 Likert scale (polychoric scale) was used to collect the answers Modern 71.60 29.19 283 0.99 283 .22 from ordinal variables (Burga, 2006). In order to ease the Musical interpretation of the factorial matrix, an orthogonal correction Institution was performed through SLS, thus allowing an easier * A 71.34 29.31 230 0.99 230 .03 interpretation of factorial loadings from every item towards the B 75.93 26.54 84 0.98 84 .37 first and second order factors. Minimum Average Partial C 69.19 30.18 141 0.99 141 .57 (MAP) method was selected to determine the amount of factors Note: Adapted from “Music Performance Anxiety in Peruvian to retain. Finally, items with factorial loadings equal or higher Music Students: Differences According to Gender, Educational than .30 were retained (Wolff & Preising, 2005). Institution and Musical Genre,” by A. M. Chang-Arana, Persona, The initial conditions for performing the HOEFA were 19. adequate, Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) = .91, χ²(780) = 6390.8, *p < .05. p < .001. Factor extraction was repeated until a stable structure was obtained still presenting adequate values for the KMO and V. CONCLUSION Bartlett’s sphericity tests, KMO = .93, χ²(435) = 4948.9, p < The aim of this paper was two-fold. First, to estimate validity .001. One high-order factor (G) and two first order factors (F1, evidence based on internal structure and reliability evidences F2) were obtained, explaining 58.65% of shared variance (see for scores derived from the intended uses of the Spanish K- Table 1). Large effect correlations were obtained between G MPAI (Chang-Arana, 2015b; Kenny, 2009). A high-order and F1, r = .73; and G and F2, r = .91. Ordinal alpha levels and factor called “negative affectivity in relation to music standard error measurement were subsequently calculated and performance anxiety” and two first-order factors named “music are presented in Table 2. performance anxiety” and “depressive components” were proposed, resembling the tripartite model of anxiety and Table 2. Ordinal alpha and SEM for K-MPAI high and low level depression (Anderson & Hope, 2008; Clark & Watson, 1991) factors. and Kenny’s typology of MPA (2011).

Second, the first statistical analyses of a Peruvian sample Factors Ordinal α SEM were provided (Chang-Arana, 2016). On the one hand, higher G (30 items) .97 4.87 levels of MPA detected in female participants may coincide with previous biological and cultural explanations, particularly F1 (21 items) .93 6.11 with gender-based raising patterns (Branney & White, 2008; F2 (10 items) .92 3.01 Olatunji & Wolitzky-Taylor, 2009; Robson & Kenny, 2017; Note: G = high-order factor; F1 = first first-order factor; F2 = Winkler, Pjrek & Kasper, 2006). On the other hand, no second first-order factor. Item 14 loaded for both F1 and F2. significant differences were found in MPA scores according to the musical genre of specialty (Kenny, 2011). However, B. MPA differences According to Gender, Musical Genre alternative results can be found in the literature. For instance, and Musical Institution Papageorgi et al. (2011) reported significantly higher MPA Descriptive statistics and Shapiro-Wilk normality tests were levels in Western classical musicians when compared to calculated for MPA scores according to gender, musical genre Scottish traditional or jazz musicians. These differences were and musical institution (see Table 3). Evidences of proceeding found when surveyed right before a solo performance context. from a normally distributed population were obtained. Even Future research could use the K-MPAI to study how musicians though musical institution A violated the normality assumption, from different genres experience MPA, according to it was assumed as normally distributed, basing this claim on the performance context (e.g. solo or group) and proximity of central limit theorem (Field, 2009). performance (e.g. before or after a performance). A medium effect was found for gender, t(448) = -4.83, p Lastly, despite the existence of differences in MPA levels < .001, d = .50, 1 – β = .81; but not for musical genre, t(442) = according to gender or musical genre, the importance of this 0.03, p = .98, d = .003, 1 – β = .05; or musical institution, F(2, research field still stands. MPA can have detrimental effects on 452) = 1.42, p = .24, η2 = .006, 1 – β = .30. the life of musicians at several levels, and interventions should be planned in order to protect them. Nevertheless, one of the requirements to achieve this goal is to count with solid psychological measurement instruments. This research has been an empirical effort in that direction.

21 Table 1. HOEFA of the K-MPAI items in a Peruvian sample.

Music Negative Affectivity in Depressive Components Items Performance Relation to Music (F2) Anxiety (F1) Performance Anxiety (G) 10. Prior to, or during a performance, I get feelings akin .479 .527 to panic 11. I never know before a concert whether I will .264 .644 perform well 12. Prior to, or during a performance, I experience dry .335 .456 mouth 15. Thinking about the evaluation I may get interferes .385 .463 with my performance 16. Prior to, or during a performance, I feel sick or faint .286 .544 or have a churning in my stomach 17. Even in the most stressful performance situations, I .165 .427 am confident that I will perform well 18. I am often concerned about a negative reaction from .396 .342 the instructor or listener/audience

19. Sometimes I feel anxious for no particular reason .274 .457

20. From early in my music studies, I remember being .566 .363 anxious about performing

21.I worry that one bad performance may ruin my career .405 .381

24. I give up worthwhile performance opportunities .193 .476

26. My worry and nervousness about my performance .496 .516 interferes with my focus and concentration 28. I often prepare for a concert with a sense of dread .269 .676 and impending disaster 29. One or both of my parents were overly anxious .227 .407 30. Prior to, or during a performance, I have increased .423 .507 muscle tension 32. After the performance, I replay it in my mind over .331 .350 and over 34. I worry so much before a performance, I cannot .463 .473 sleep 36. Prior to, or during a performance, I experience .516 .483 shaking or trembling or tremor

38. I am concerned about being scrutinized by others .535 .483 39. I am concerned about my own judgement of how I .406 .329 will perform 14. During a performance I find myself thinking about .185 .185 .618 whether I'll even get through it 1. I generally feel in control of my life .233 .494 3. Sometimes I feel depressed without knowing why .251 .569 4. I often find it difficult to work up the energy to do .216 .490 things 5. Excessive worrying is a characteristic of my family .203 .456

6. I often feel that life has not much to offer me .403 .613

7. Even if I work hard in preparation for a performance, .171 .494 I am likely to make mistakes

13. I often feel that I am not worth much as a person .413 .714 27. As a child, I often felt sad .257 .493 31. I often feel that I have nothing to look forward to .308 .646 Note: N = 455. Extraction method: Minimum Rank Factor Analysis (MRFA).Method used for estimating advised number of dimensions to retain: Minimum Average Partial (MAP).

22 Fishbein, M., & Middlestadt, S. (1988). Medical problems among ACKNOWLEDGMENT ICSOM: Overview of a national survey. Medical Problems of Performing Arts, 3(1), 1-8. This study was possible thanks to a group of professors and Gadermann, A. M., Guhn, M., & Zumbo, B. D. (2012). Estimating colleague classmates who supported me through the whole ordinal reliability for Likert-type and ordinal item response data: A process. Particularly, I would like to express my gratitude to conceptual, empirical, and practical guide. Practical Assessment, two people. First, to Professor Andrés Burga-León, my thesis Research & Evaluation, 17(3), 1-13. Retrieved from supervisor who walked me through my psychometric learning; http://www.pareonline.net/getvn.asp?v=17&n=3 and, second, to Professor Dianna T. Kenny for trusting me with Kenny, D. T. (2011). The psychology of music performance anxiety. her inventory and being an active supporter of my research. New York: Oxford University Press. Finally, I would like to thank the anonymous SysMus17 Kenny, D. T. (December, 2009). The factor structure of the revised reviewers for their valuable commentaries and suggestions. Kenny Music Performance Anxiety Inventory. Research presented at the International Symposium on Performance Science, Auckland, New Zealand. Retrieved from REFERENCES http://www.legacyweb.rcm.ac.uk/cache/fl0019647.pdf Anderson, E. R., & Hope, D. A. (2008). A review of the tripartite model Martínez, M. C., & Paterna, C. (2010). Manual de psicología de los for understanding the link between anxiety and depression in youth. grupos [Group psychology manual]. Madrid: Síntesis. Clinical Psychological Review, 28, 275-287. doi: Papageorgi, I., Creech, A., & Welch, G. (2011). Perceived 10.1016/j.epr.2007.05.004 performance anxiety in advanced musicians specializing in Barlow, D. (2000). Unravelling the mysteries of anxiety and its different musical genres. Psychology of Music, 41(1), 18-41. doi: disorders from the perspective of emotion theory. American 10.1177/0305735611408995 Psychologist, 55(11), 1247-1263. doi: 10.1037/0003- Lorenzo-Seva, U., & Ferrando, P. J. (2006). FACTOR: A computer 066X.55.11.1247 program to fit the exploratory factor analysis model. Behavior Bonanomi, A., Ruscone, M. N., & Osmetti, S. A. (2013). The Research Methods, 38(1), 88–91. doi:10.3758/BF03192753 Polychoric Ordinal Alpha, measuring the reliability of a set of Olatunji, B. O., & Wolitzky-Taylor, K. B. (2009). Anxiety sensitivity polytomous ordinal items. In Advances in Latent Variables- and the anxiety disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis. Methods, Models and Applications. Retrieved from Psychological Bulletin, 135(6), 974-999. doi: 10.1037/a0017428 http://meetings.sis- Ortiz, A. (2011a). Music performance anxiety-Part 1: A review of its statistica.org/index.php/sis2013/ALV/paper/viewFile/2651/424 epidemiology. Medical Problems of Performing Artists, 26(2), Branney, P., & White, A. (2008). Big boys don’t cry: Depression and 102-105. men. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, 14(4), 256-262. doi: Ortiz, A. (2011b). Music performance anxiety-part 2: A review of 10.1192/apt.bp.106.003467 treatment options. Medical Problems of Performing Artists, 26(3), Brislin, R. W. (1986). The wording and translation of research 164-171. instruments. In W. J. Lonner & J. W. Berry (Eds.), Field methods Robson, K. E., & Kenny, D. T. (2017). Music performance anxiety in in cross-cultural research (pp. 137-164). USA: Sage Publications. ensemble rehearsals and concerts: A comparison of music and Burga, A. (2006). La unidimensionalidad de un instrumento de non-music major undergraduate musicians. Psychology of Music, medición: Perspectiva factorial [The unidimensionality of a 1-18. Doi: 10.1177/0305735617693472 measurement instrument: A factorial perspective]. Revista de Schmid, J., & Leiman, J. M. (1957). The development of hierarchical Psicología de la PUCP, 24(1), 54–80. Retrieved from factor solutions. Psychometrika, 22(1), 53-61. http://revistas.pucp.edu.pe/index.php/psicologia/article/view/642/ Taylor, A., & Wasley, D. (2004). Physical fitness. In A. Williamon 629 (Ed.), Musical excellence: Strategies and techniques to enhance Chang-Arana, A. M. (August, 2015a). Adaptation and psychometric performance (pp. 163-178). New York: Oxford University Press. properties of the Kenny-Music Performance Anxiety Inventory (K- West, R. (2004). Drugs and Musical Performance. In A. Williamon MPAI). Paper presented at the X Latin- American Regional (Ed.). Musical Excellence: Strategies and Techniques to Enhance Conference and III Pan American Regional Conference of Music Performance (pp. 271-290). New York: Oxford University Press. Education, Lima, Peru. Retrieved from Winkler, D., Pjrek, E., & Kasper, S. (2006). Gender specific symptoms http://congreso.pucp.edu.pe/isme/wp- of depression and anger attacks. The Journal of Men’s Health and content/uploads/sites/8/2013/07/Actas-ISME-Per%C3%BA- Gender, 3(1), 19-24. doi: 10.1016/j.jmhg.2005.05.004 2015.pdf Wolff, H. G., & Preising, K. (2005). Exploring item and high order Chang-Arana, A. M. (2015b). Adaptation and psychometric properties factor structure with the Schmid-Leiman solution: Syntax codes of the Kenny-Music Performance Anxiety Inventory (K-MPAI) for SPSS and SAS. Behavior Research Methods, 37(1), 48–58. (unpublished bachelor thesis). University of Lima: Peru. doi:10.3758/BF03206397 Chang-Arana, A. M. (2016). Music performance anxiety in Peruvian Yoshie, M., Kudo, K., & Ohtsuki, T. (2008). Effects of psychological music students: differences according to gender, educational stress on state anxiety, electromyographic activity, and arpeggio institution and musical genre. Persona, 19, 167-177. performance in pianists. Medical Problems of Performing Artists, Clark, L. A., & Watson, D. (1991). Tripartite model of anxiety and 23, 120-132. depression: Psychometric evidence and taxonomic implications. Zumbo, B. D., Gadermann, A. M., & Zeisser, C. (2007). Ordinal Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100(3), 316-336. doi: versions of coefficients alpha and theta for Likert Rating Scales. 10.1037/0021-843X.100.3.316 Journal of Modern Applied Statistical Methods, 6(1), 21-29. Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112(1), 155- Retrieved from 159. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155 http://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/jmasm/vol6/iss1/4 Ellis, P. D. (2010). The essential guide to effect sizes: Statistical power, meta-analysis, and the interpretation of research results. UK: Cambridge University Press. Field, A. (2009). Discovering statistics using SPSS (and sex and drugs and rock ‘n’ roll) (3a ed.). Dubay: Sage.

23 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.). Adaptation of the Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment Approach for Groups of Adolescent Musicians: An Assessment of Music Performance Anxiety, Performance Boost, and Flow

Anthea Cottee1, Sean O’Connor2 University of Sydney, Australia [email protected], [email protected]

While reduction in overall MPA was not significant, results ABSTRACT are noteworthy for a small and variable population. Timing of the improvement of the control group MPA at follow-up Background raises the possibility of a ‘coaching ripple effect’ (O’Connor Many musicians experience Music Performance Anxiety & Cavanagh, 2013) occurring as a result of shared (MPA; Kenny, 2011) which may develop early, peak in experiential interactions that warrants further exploration. adolescence (Osborne & Kenny, 2005) and continue into Factor analysis and qualitative feedback assist in professional life, impacting on general well-being (Kenny, understanding mechanisms of MPA. This study makes a Driscoll, & Ackermann, 2014). Adrenaline in performance valuable contribution to addressing a potentially debilitating can have a positive effect, known as performance boost problem for musicians. (Simoens, Puttonen, & Tervaniemi, 2015). Strategies assisting a state of flow (Csikszentmihalyi, Abuhamdeh, & Nakamura, Keywords 2005) have been suggested to assist managing MPA (Lamont, performance anxiety; flow; performance boost; 2012). Rather than challenging difficult thoughts, the mindfulness; acceptance Mindfulness, Acceptance and Commitment (MAC) Approach (Gardner & Moore, 2004) uses mindfulness and acceptance REFERENCES strategies that have been shown to decrease anxiety and Csikszentmihalyi, M., Abuhamdeh, S., & Nakamura, J. (2005). Flow increase flow in sport (Gardner & Moore, 2012). Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 598-608). New York, NY: Guilford Publications; US. Aims Gardner, F. L., & Moore, Z. E. (2004). A Mindfulness-Acceptance- Exploration of MPA, performance boost, and flow may Commitment-Based Approach to Athletic Performance enhance psychological understanding of performance. The Enhancement: Theoretical Considerations. Behavior Therapy, adaptation of the MAC Approach for musicians aims to 35(4), 707-723. doi:10.1016/S0005-7894%2804%2980016-9 Gardner, F. L., & Moore, Z. E. (2012). Mindfulness and Acceptance develop an early intervention approach for MPA. Models in Sport Psychology: A Decade of Basic and Applied Method Scientific Advancements. Canadian Psychology, 53(4), 309-318. Kenny, D. (2011). The psychology of music performance anxiety. 36 musicians (13-22yr) participated in seven focused and Oxford: Oxford University Press. interactive group sessions of the MAC Approach, or a no- Kenny, D., Driscoll, T., & Ackermann, B. (2014). Psychological intervention control group, and completed questionnaires of well-being in professional orchestral musicians in Australia: A demographics, MPA, boost, flow, and qualitative feedback. descriptive population study. Psychology of Music, 42(2), 210- 232. doi:10.1177/0305735612463950 Results Lamont, A. (2012). Emotion, engagement and meaning in strong Relationships between measures were all significant: MPA experiences of music performance. Psychology of Music, 40(5), and boost (r = -.554, p < .001), MPA and flow (r = -.476, p = 574-594. doi:10.1177/0305735612448510 O’Connor, S., & Cavanagh, M. (2013). The coaching ripple effect: .003), and boost and flow (r = .485, p = .003). Post MAC The effects of developmental coaching on wellbeing across sessions the intervention group had a non-significant 2 organisational networks. Psychology of Well-Being: Theory, reduction in MPA compared to control (p = .097, η p = .08, Research and Practice, 3(1), 2. doi:10.1186/2211-1522-3-2 two-tailed), and a significant reduction in performance context Osborne, M., & Kenny, D. (2005). Development and validation of a 2 factor (p = .048, η p = .11). No significant differences were music performance anxiety inventory for gifted adolescent found for boost or flow. Follow up results demonstrated a musicians. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 19(7), 725-751. non-significant trend of reduced MPA for the intervention doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2004.09.002 group, and also non-significant improvement in the control Simoens, V. L., Puttonen, S., & Tervaniemi, M. (2015). Are music group. Analysis of qualitative feedback was 71% positive. performance anxiety and performance boost perceived as extremes of the same continuum? Psychology of Music, 43(2), Conclusions 171-187. doi:10.1177/0305735613499200 Analysis of the relationships between MPA, performance boost, and flow presents an addition to current literature. Development of the MAC approach for adolescent musicians aims to address the need for early intervention for MPA.

24 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

Sounds of Native Cultures in Electroacoustic Music: Latin American Study Cases

Pablo Cuevas Musikwissenschaftliches Institut, Universität zu Köln, Germany [email protected]

irrefutable because of their sufficient general nature. First, the ABSTRACT necessity of caution while trying to operate inductively with The electroacoustic music for tape of Latin American origin shows a musics of Latin American origin must be observed, since one rich history and a large, relative unexplored repertoire since its considers a space with a rich, complex, and regional highly beginnings in the middle of the 20th century. In this paper, I study the differentiated history, comprising a territory two times bigger inclusion of sounds of native cultures in a group of selected than Europe. Any hasty, simplifying approach to its cultural electroacoustic works between 1961-1989. A musical analytical products should therefore be avoided. inductive process divided in three stages was used to recognize and Second, I concentrate on a broad question that is partially interpret this recurring topic. I formulate the notion of distance to shared by both authors: How did composers express their embrace three types of references to the sounds of native cultures that origins and culture in their electroacoustic works for tape? To can be found in this music. These references operate as indexes of a answer it, I incorporated subsequent bibliography concerning cultural identity that the composers were trying to portrait. individual composers and national approaches to this subject (For reasons of space this entire bibliography cannot be cited I. BACKGROUND within this paper). I also broadened the study subject to include In an article published in 1992 the composer and electroacoustic works produced by composers of Latin musicologist Graciela Paraskevaídis (1940-2017) transcribed American origin (but not necessarily in Latin America) and analysed the electroacoustic work Tramos (1975, 16´53´´, according to their historical weight. I built a corpus of 47 1-ch., Buenos Aires) by Argentinean composer Eduardo musical works from 16 composers in the time-lapse between Bértola (1939-1996). She saw this work as a dialectical 1961 to 1989. The selection criteria for the data collection counterpart to some previous electroacoustic music of process have their roots on the following methodological European origin that should have worked as an early model for aspects. the creation of electroacoustic music in Latin America (Paraskevaídis 1992, p. 4). Her postulate implies the A. Historical Relevance recognition and a critical examination of the historical, 1) First level. I took the broad notion of Mediamorphose to performative and compositional practices of European conceptualize the sociohistorical role of technology as a key academic music that were imported in the Americas since the aspect of electroacoustic music. Mediamorphosen are the beginnings of the colonial processes in the 16th century. transformations in the production of culture under the influence Bértolas´ Tramos – a work consisting of a montage of radio cuts of historical new communicational technologies (Smudits 2002, that produce meaning through their semantical interpretation – p. 16). Cultural products are then defined by both the intrinsic, is a part of a group of 10 electroacoustic works composed in autonomous dynamics of the implicated communicational Latin America between 1970-1980 that Paraskevaídis selected technology and by external, political, economic, and as the basis for her approach and out of which she draws 7 ideological conditions (Smudits 2002, p. 43), in other words, common features that would characterize these musics. The the dialectical interaction between technology and society root of her inductive venture was her encyclopaedic knowledge conditions the electroacoustic music that emerges from it. of the history of academic music in Latin America, which Although this sociohistorical role of technology could be indeed prevent her from generalizing as she pointed out the criticized as a technological determinism that obscures the need of a methodological differentiation among works and their social fundaments that had opened the way for technological individual character in order to compare them one another innovations (Sterne 2003, p. 8), it is also true that rightly (Paraskevaídis 1992, p. 4). A similar approach can be electroacoustic music is a cultural product of a technological found in an article by composer and musicologist Coriún moment that was initiated with the invention of electronic Aharonián, where he uses the same idea of cultural analogue signal recording and broadcasting technology, in countermodel (Aharonián 2000, p. 3) as a selection criterium to other words, this music results from the electronic conform a group of (not exclusively electroacoustic) musical Mediamorphose. Composers did face creative challenges while works out of which he draws 13 possible trends that would be working with this new medium and these challenges reveal the distinctive for these musics. In this case he focuses on 30 works presence of electronic analogue technology in all dimensions between 1971-1992. of music (composition, storage, and reproduction) for the first Although the personal bond among the above-mentioned time in history. authors is not to be underestimated if the coincidences in their 2) Second level. I focused on a regional level and applied thinking and methodology are to be mentioned, I will consider the above-mentioned notion of electronic Mediamorphose to nonetheless two common epistemic aspects which are select exclusively analogue electroacoustic music for tape

25 produced by composers of Latin American origin. In order to increasing proximity grades: silent references, sounding deal with the vast geocultural region called Latin America I references, and aesthetical references. studied primarily composers that were active at the Latin American Center for Higher Musical Studies (CLAEM, 1962– A. Silent Reference 1970) of the Instituto Torcuato Di Tella in Buenos Aires, The sounds of native cultures are integrated in some works because of its relevance in the institutional history of academic that paradoxically do not contain them. The title of the music in Latin America (e.g., Castañeira de Dios, 2011), and electroacoustic piece huauqui (1975, 11´03´´, 1-ch., contained an electroacoustic studio that was among the best Montevideo) by Uruguayan composer Graciela Paraskevaídis equipped of its time. Besides, the great majority of composers is a word in Quechua (the language of the Inca), which has a that were active there had shown remarkable professional paths double meaning for her. First as a statuette that was sculpted by after their residency in Argentina (Novoa 2011, pp. 28-29). an Inca according to his own image and likeness, second, as a word representing the idea of fraternity and community. She B. References to the Region conceived this piece as the starting point of a personal search The presence references to the region of origin and to the for a new, concise composing style, as she began to concentrate culture of the composers was the last criterium for the selection herself on the use of few sound materials out of which she of electroacoustic works to be studied. These references allude constructs her music (Paraskevaídis, 1996), as can be a spatial location in its geocultural dimension (Said 1994, p. 52). exemplified in the electronic (e.g., 0´´-2´09´´), vocal (3´35´´ - In the case of electroacoustic music, they can be recognized in 4´40´´) and instrumental (2´10´´-3´34´´) sounds in huauqui and the work title, dedication, literary or poetic source, musical and their static developments. That would partly explain why she style quotations, use of speech, environmental recordings, and refers to this self-portrait character of the huauqui. This in the creative information provided by composers. From the reference to the Inca world was the first reference to the Latin 133 works I had collected following the second socio-historical American region in the titles of her musical works, which date level, I choose 47 pieces, from which 8 are early examples of back to 1967 and had shown the presence of Spanish, Italian, electroacoustic music from some composers which do not show and German words mostly deriving from the literary sources any references to the region. she used. In another context, but operating with the same reference II. AIMS enclosed in the title one finds the electroacoustic work Canto In this paper, I discuss one type of reference that is common selvagem (1967, 2´55´´, 2-ch., Rio de Janeiro) by Brazilian to 10 electroacoustic works within the musical corpus of 47 composer Jorge Antunes (1942). This short “wild song” consist pieces that I studied: The presence sounds of native cultures. I of two sound layers that build a two-part form and show the explore the ways in which these sounds were incorporated, how character of an accompanied melody: Percussion instruments they were approached and what meaning can be extracted from that are intended to represent primitive cultures (Lintz-Maués the music. 2002, pp. 72-73) and a melody composed with synthetic sounds that should evoke wild screams. The composer does not engage III. METHOD deeply with the native cultures he alludes and remains therefore in the experimental, improvisatorial terrain that characterizes For the analysis of electroacoustic music, I followed and his early electroacoustic music, as exemplified by his previous applied the semiological tripartite model of music as symbolic work Valsa sideral (1962, 3´10´´, 2-ch., Rio de Janeiro), the form according to Nattiez (1975). The musical corpus was first electroacoustic work composed exclusively with synthetic analysed in three stages. First, an analysis of each work based sounds in Brazil, whose melodic features reminds those from on pre-established criteria. The segmentation and comparison Canto selvagem. of the compounding sounds of a piece follows an interpretation Although these two composers share a strong social of the Gestalt principles applied to the auditory experience as committed thinking that can be found in their music -with more postulated by Roy (2003). Second, I added compositional or less intensity according to biographical circumstances-, they information to define a poietic level for each work (Nattiez show very different starting points for their compositions. One 1975, p. 52) shared aspect of their approaches is nonetheless the reference As a result of the analytical data evaluation many recurring to the sounds of native cultures, which is silent since no features were recognized among these works; the presence of engagement with these cultures can be acoustically proved. sounds of native cultures was one of them. The interpretative analysis of this recurring aspect was the last stage. Here I B. Sounding Reference combine the two-level analytical data that I previously obtained In another level, one finds electroacoustic works that with information about the context of creation of this present sounds of native cultures that were electronically electroacoustic music as a horizon of expectation (Jauß 1970, processed and mounted. The composers tried to enrich personal, pp. 173-174) that opens a way for the interpretation of the mostly already defined personal styles with the addition of music. these sounds. IV. RESULTS The work Guararia Repano (1968, 14´20´´, 2-ch., Caracas) by Chilean composer and CLAEM invited teacher José Vicente I postulate the notion of distance to conceptualize the ways Asuar (1933-2017) resulted from the materials he collected for in which composers operated with the sounds of native cultures. a previous multimedia work in which he co-worked. He used There are three types of distance that correspond to different, two “instrumental songs from the Guajiro Indian” (Asuar 1975, p. 15) and integrated them in key moments in the highly

26 differentiated form of Guararia Repano, the native name for a of the human voices it contains, which operate both as sounding mountain nearby Caracas (Venezuela). Both sound materials and aesthetical references. I will focus on the latter. A Mayan show a melodic character that reveals the composer’s creative language spoken by a male voice can be heard at 1´01´´ -1´14´´ intention as he constructs an imitative polyphony between the and 10´07´´ -11´13´´. These two extracts are inserted second material and an electronic variation of it at 4´00´´. Asuar symmetrically at begin and at the end of the work, while in the had no interest in dealing with the geocultural origins of these middle of it one hears a poem in Spanish recited by the native sounds since he explored their sound qualities abstractly, composer at 4´58´´ -6´15´´. All this, combined with a solid alluding partially to traditional techniques while building the control of the durations of the formal units, speaks of the form of this musical work, where synthetic sounds and relevance the composer gives to this voice. He coined the term recordings seem to coexist intermingled together. humanofonal (humanphonal) to describe the human presence A recording from a cosmogonic ritual-song of the U'wa within a sound landscape, which he discovered while natives is the basic material for the work Creación de la tierra experimenting with environmental recordings in Guatemala (1972, 18´19´´, 1-ch., Buenos Aires) by Colombian composer since 1968. This human presence in the native languages Jacqueline Nova (1935-1975). She approached to this native contains for him a historical and anthropological dimension sounds in an abstract way too, showing a strictly musical that he tries to portrait in his música ideológica [ideological interest in the sound of this native language and its music]. He hears in these languages an old suffering that dates compounding elements, an interest that dates back to some of back to the colonial processes in the Americas and the her previous music like Uerjayas (1967) for voices and annihilation of native cultures (Vázquez 2015, p. 203.) The traditional instruments, which displays “Birth Songs” of the composer´s approach to the language focus on its musical U'wa. In Creación de la tierra one hears an original recording character and not on its meaning (Gamazo 2016) and that can of a song for the “Creation of the Earth” at 16´28´´. Before this be related to the work of Jacqueline Nova, although the happens, she processed these vocal sounds to create long ideological concerns and an implicit social critique are stronger reverberant layers and opposed rhythmic structures that derive in the case of Orellana. He used a Mayan language again in his from the rhythmic and repetitive character of the original work Rupestre en el Futuro (1979, 22' 41”, 1-ch., Guatemala recording. She creates a contrast between both types of material, City), which has its precedent in a short piece called Iterotzul as occurs at the beginning of the work at 2´16´´, or (1973, 3' 13”, 1-ch., Guatemala City) where the presence of symmetrically near the end of it between 14´46´´-15´04´´. The Mayan language is predominant. This same language and voice way she worked with the native sounds reminds the abstract are a recurring element in Rupestre, whose title portrays musical principles that rule the sound world of her previous ironically the difficulties of composing electroacoustic music electroacoustic work Oposición-Fusión (1968, 10´50´´, 2-ch., without appropriate equipment. It is no coincidence that at Buenos Aires), particularly in the tensions between continual 22´01´´ and until the end of the piece one hears the Mayan and discontinuous sounds. language in the same symmetrical position and with the same Uruguayan composer Coriún Aharonián (1940) used relevance as in the previous Humanofonía. exclusively sounds of native and mestizo flutes in his Oscar Bazán composed an electroacoustic trilogy that was Homenaje a la flecha clavada en el pecho de Don Juan Díaz de based in his experiences with the music of the Selk’nam natives. Solís (1974, 13´25´´, 2-ch., Bourges). The approach of These three works are Episodios (1973, 4´47´´), Austera (1973, Aharonián can be summarized as the use of technology to 12´28´´), and Parca (1974, 8´43´´), all of them stereophonic potentiate native sounds, since he does not modify the pieces composed in Buenos Aires. The native sounds were the instrumental sounds electronically, but isolate them at first, starting point for a personal search that led him to the notion of superposing them later creating dense sound layers from 7´17´´ música austera [austere music], a music where repetitions and onwards. Whilst the title of the work recalls the murder of the an overall simplicity prevails (it cannot be considered minimal Spanish conquistador Juan Díaz de Solís (1470-1516) by an music because of the geocultural sources out of which Bazán Indian arrow as he was sailing upstream nearby today´s conceived the idea.) The three above-mentioned works are Uruguay, the wind instruments used by Aharonián belong connected through shared features, for instance, the use of indeed to the Altiplano region in west-central South America. major seconds in Austera (2´01´´ -4´27´´) and Parca (2´35´´ - The composer denies that there was any programmatic link 5´01´´), the stereophonic spacialization of the sounds in Parca between the sound world of the piece and its title (Aharonián (0´´ -2´34´´) and Episodios (0´´ -30´´), or the presence of 1995, pp. 8-9), and that partly explains the abstract character of intentional out-of-tune minor-scale intervals in Austera (4´28´´ his approach as he concentrates exclusively on the native -6´´18´´) and Parca (2´35´´ -5´01´´). In Episodios (0´´-30´´) sounds as they emanate out of these flutes which he played and and Austera (2´01´´ -4´27´´) the composer emulates a native recorded himself. drum and a flute with the synthesizer, although these are exceptional moments that reveal the origins of his conception C. Aesthetical references of austere music. The overall sound world of the pieces remains The use of sounds of native cultures as the basis for the of electronic nature. construction of personal aesthetics finds an example in the electroacoustic music of Guatemalan composer Joaquín V. CONCLUSIONS Orellana (1930) and Argentinean composer Oscar Bazán The composition of academic music with references to (1936-2005). native cultures shows classical, extensively studied examples Orellana´s electroacoustic work Humanofonía (1971, 11' in the vocal-instrumental repertoire of Latin American origin, 13”, 1-ch., Guatemala City) can be considered as a speech- for instance the Sinfonía india (1936) by Mexican composer composition because of the musical and aesthetical relevance Carlos Chávez (1899-1978.) I concentrate my study on the

27 specificities of the electroacoustic music repertoire, which is a relatively unexplored musicological subject. The notion of distance that I postulate and its three subcategories seems appropriate to systematically describe the varying ways in which composers approach these sound worlds. This distance can be found in other references to the region that are found within this musical corpus I study. For instance, some silent political references to the region can be found in the title of some pure electronic pieces like ¡Volveremos a las montañas! (1968, 12´20´´, 2-ch., Buenos Aires) by Chilean composer Gabriel Brnčić (1942), or as sounding references in works were the voice of politicians can actually be heard, as in Trópicos (1973, 19´44´´, 2-ch., New York) by Venezuelan composer Alfredo del Mónaco (1938-2015.) This is nonetheless a subject for future research. I must finally remark that although the composers I mentioned shown different approaches to the sounds of native cultures, one can recognize nonetheless a common feature: All of them were trying to represent their region using sound materials that worked as indexes of a cultural identity. They were trying to differentiate his electroacoustic music from other electroacoustic musics. While doing so they approached to their cultures of origin in various ways, under which the use of recorded sounds related to the region appears to be the specific aspect of their electroacoustic music. REFERENCES Aharonián, C. (1995). Gran Tiempo - Composiciones Electroacústicas [CD]. Montevideo: Tacuabé. Aharonián, C. (2000). An Approach to Compositional Trends in Latin America. Leonardo Music Journal, 10, 3-5. Asuar, J. V. (1975). Recuerdos. Revista Musical Chilena, 132, 5-22. Castañeira de Dios, J. (Ed.) (2011). La música en el Di Tella: resonancias de la modernidad. Buenos Aires: Secretaria de Cultura de la Presidencia de la Nación. Gamazo, C. (2016). Joaquín Orellana o una plaza triste y el silencio de siempre. Retrieved March 4, 2017, from https://www.plazapublica.com.gt/content/joaquin-orellana-o- una-plaza-triste-y-el-silencio-de-siempre Jauß, H. R. (1970). Literaturgeschichte als Provokation. Frankfurt a. M.: Suhrkamp. Nattiez, J. J. (1975). Fondements d'une sémiologie de la musique. Paris: Union Générale d´Éditions. Novoa, L. (2011). Cuando el futuro sonaba eléctrico. In J. Castañeira de Dios (Ed.), La música en el Di Tella: resonancias de la modernidad (22-29). Buenos Aires: Secretaria de Cultura de la Presidencia de la Nación. Paraskevaídis, G. (1992). Tramos. Lulú. Revista de teorías y técnicas musicales, 3, 47-52. Paraskevaídis, G.(1996). Magma. 9 Compositions [CD]. Montevideo: Tacuabé. Roy, S. (2003). L'analyse des musiques électroacoustiques. Paris: L´Harmattan. Said, E. (1994). Culture and Imperialism. New York: Vintage. Smudits, A. (2002). Mediamorphosen des Kulturschaffens. Kunst und Kommunikationstechnologien im Wandel. Vienna: Braumüller. Sterne, J. (2003). The audible past. Cultural origins of sound reproduction. Durham: Duke University Press. Vázquez, H. G. (2015). Conversaciones en torno al CLAEM. Buenos Aires: Instituto Nacional de Musicología Carlos Vega.

28 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

Musicians' Timbral Adjustments in Response to Emotional Cues in Musical Accompaniments

Anna Czepiel1, Emma Allingham2, Kendra Oudyk3, Adrianna Zamudio4, Pasi Saari5 Department of Music, Art and Culture Studies, University of Jyväskylä, Finland [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

effects were not significant when “melody” was entered as a covariate. There were no significant main effects of “mode” on “spectral centroid”, “inharmonicity”, or “spectral flux”. ABSTRACT There was a significant main effect of mode on perceptual 2 Background ratings F(1,44) = 16.29, p < .001, η = .27. The direction of the effect was as expected; happier ratings for major keys and Previous research has linked the musical communication of sadder ratings for minor keys. emotion to changes in timbre (e.g. Hailstone et al., 2009). Content analysis of the cellist’s comments confirmed that the Furthermore, timbral changes in musical performances have major accompaniments were considered “happy” and the minor been observed when musicians are given verbal instructions to accompaniments were considered “sad”. Content analysis of convey a certain emotion in their playing. (Gabrielsson & the participants’ comments showed that the ratings were Juslin, 1996). influenced by musical features such as dynamics and technical Aims aspects of playing such as vibrato, articulation and bowing. The present study aimed to evoke changes in timbre in a Surprisingly, some listeners perceived changes in the tonality cellist’s performance using musical cues, as opposed to verbal and “speed” of the melodies. cues, and to explore whether these changes could be Conclusions successfully perceived by listeners. Attack time was the only timbral feature analysed that was Method significantly affected by mode of accompaniment. Variations Three melodies were composed that were intended to be in mean attack time and mean RMS may be related to neither specifically major nor minor. Both major (happy) and differences in mode (major-minor) of accompaniment, minor (sad) accompaniments were composed for each melody, although they may have been caused by aspects of the melodies and each accompaniment was recorded on both MIDI and real themselves. It cannot be concluded, from this study, that timbre piano. The intention was that the minor accompaniment would was significantly affected by mode of accompaniment. prompt the cellist to create a “sad” timbre in the melody and However, the perceptual results suggest that the musician the major accompaniment would prompt a “happy” timbre. did encode emotions in his playing, prompted by major and Further, a bass line only accompaniment was used, intended as minor accompaniments that were successfully decoded by an emotionally “neutral” comparison. The MIDI/real piano listeners. Investigating the acoustic features related to these comparisons were included to allow exploration of the effects emotions could be the topic of future research. of these modes on the cellist’s playing. The cellist was asked to Keywords write down his performance intentions and what informed music perception; timbre; emotion; music performance; them. expressivity; MIR Firstly, acoustic features of the cello recordings alone were extracted and analysed using the MIRtoolbox in MATLAB REFERENCES (Lartillot & Toiviainen, 2007). Secondly, the cello recordings Gabrielsson, A., & Juslin, P. N. (1996). Emotional expression in music were perceptually rated by 47 listeners in terms of how happy performance: Between the performer’s intention and the listener’s and sad they were perceived to be on a scale of 1 to 7, in experience. Psychology of Music, 24, 68–91. comparison to the “neutral” version. Listeners could not hear Hailstone, J. C., Omar, R., Henley, S. M., Frost, C., Kenward, M. G., the accompaniment and were asked to describe how they made & Warren, J. D. (2009). It's not what you play, it's how you play their decisions. it: Timbre affects perception of emotion in music. The Quarterly A two-way ANCOVA was used to analyse the data obtained Journal of Experimental Psychology, 62(11), 2141-2155. from the feature extraction and a factorial repeated-measures Lartillot, O., & Toiviainen, P. (2007). A Matlab toolbox for musical ANOVA was used to analyse the perceptual data. Content feature extraction from audio. In International Conference on analysis was used on the qualitative data. Digital Audio Effects (pp. 237-244) Results The “mode” (major or minor) of the accompaniments had a significant effect on mean “attack time”, F(1,7) = 6.86, p = .03, η2 = .50 and mean “RMS” F(1,7) = 8.87, p = .02, η2 = .56. The

29 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

Kinematics Feature Selection of Expressive Intentions in Dyadic Violin Performance

Georgios Diapoulis1, Marc Thompson2 University of Jyväskylä Dept., Music, Arts, and Culture Studies, Finland [email protected], [email protected]

an unsupervised machine learning technique whereas feature ABSTRACT selection is supervised technique. There is evidence that bodily movement plays a crucial role in Computational approaches such as feature selection and regulating expressivity in music performance. Advances in feature transformation (e.g. PCA) can provide us with useful technologies related to human movement research (e.g. motion insights about the embodiment of expressive performance. capture using infrared cameras) give us the opportunity to study More specifically, PCA has been used to detect the dominant bodily motion with millimeter precision. Consequently, we can modes in movement data (Daffertshofer, Lamoth, Meijer & extract fine-grained kinematic characteristics and perform statistical Beek, 2004, Toiviainen et al., 2010). For example, in a learning techniques in order to identify similarities and differences in previous study using the same data set (Diapoulis, 2016) we spatial accuracy of intended expressive movements. In this study, we applied joint-PCA on the violin dyads; the first principal applied feature extraction and feature generation algorithms to component (PC) consisted of movement on the mediolateral identify the kinematic characteristics that better predict expressive axis, the second PC consisted of movement on the intentions. The results suggest that musical expressivity is not anteroposterior axis, and the third PC consisted of movement physically rendered in similar movement patterns during perception on the vertical axis. On the other hand, feature selection does and during production of dyadic musical performance. We propose not transform the original data, instead it is the process of that future studies should focus on the interaction between motor selecting the appropriate subset of features. Whereas PCA experience and visual perception of expressivity. transforms the original dimensions of the movement data and I. INTRODUCTION generates a new synthetic data set, feature selection algorithms are used to identify which feature subset can better Expressive bodily motion is a fundamental property of perform predictions. music performance, and highly important aspect to deepen our Broughton & Davidson (2016) described the expressive understanding of human interaction (Palmer, 1997). moments in marimba performance using Laban movement Advances in motion capture technologies make possible to analysis, and they reported that head nod, head shake, upper record bodily motion with high spatial and temporal accuracy. body wiggle, and anteroposterior surge, along with a regular Thus, there is growing interest to explain behavioural and sway (anteroposterior movement) are all factors of expressive affective phenomena based on objective measures of motion performance. Bodily sway has been shown in many studies to capture data. The research program of embodied music be a significant factor of communication and interpersonal cognition suggest that bodily motion has major importance in coordination of leader-follower dynamics (Chang, musical activities (Leman, 2008). Investigating motion is a Livingstone, Bosnyak & Trainor, 2017; Keller & Appel, continuing concern within natural sciences, and the study of 2010). physical motion in the 17th century established what is known The perception of expressive performance is associated today as Newtonian physics or classical mechanics. As an with a wide variety of movement patterns, but there is analogy, the study of human motion might be the appropriate consensus in literature that bodily sway is a dominant focal point for sound and reproducible studies within component of expressive gestures (Broughton & Davidson, behavioural and cognitive sciences. 2016; Dahl & Friberg, 2007; Diapoulis, 2016). On the other Full-body human movement recordings may produce high- hand, there are no studies that attempt to identify which bodily dimensional spaces which make the analysis of the data a parts can better discriminate different expressive manners. challenging endeavour. Dimension reduction techniques are The present study fills a gap in the literature by shifting the based on feature extraction and feature generation. Feature focus on the kinematic features that discriminate the different selection is a feature extraction technique which selects the expressive manners. Thus, we make use of third-person appropriate subset of features that optimize the learning objective movement measures to classify intersubjective performance. Feature selection is a family of different experience of expressive intentions. An important point that techniques that may vary from a simplistic exhaustive search we have to clarify is that the focus is on intended and not on of all possible combinations of a set of features, to highly perceived expressivity in music performance. That is, our aim sophisticated techniques. On the other hand, principal is to identify which kinematic features account for the component analysis (PCA) is a technique that is used to embodiment of intended expressivity in dyadic music perform feature generation. PCA generates a new synthetic performance. data set which produces a new transformed coordinate system based on the percent of explained variance. The fundamental difference between PCA and feature selection is that PCA is

30 II. METHODS Thompson and Luck (2012). In this study, the authors reported that there is no consistency in the embodiment of A. Participants and Procedure normal and exaggerated piano performance. The decision to Three violin dyads participated in this study (6 musicians take the two extreme expressive conditions (deadpan and total; 4 females; age: M = 24.1, SD = 1.7). The violinists were exaggerated) was done with a view to reduce the average recruited from student populations at the University of duration of the perceptual experiment, due to the fact that the perceptual experiment was web-based (online) and we didn't Jyväskylä and the Jyväskylä University of Applied Science. provide any incentives to the participants (for details see Musicians had received on average 15.8 (SD = 2.3) years of Diapoulis, 2016). instrumental training on the violin. The violin dyads performed while standing and looking at D. Movement Analysis each other as shown in Figure 1. The dyads performed a short All the analysis is based only on motion captured data. In piece arranged for two violins: "De Kleinste", composed by J. the pre-processing stage of the movement analysis we reduce Beltjens (16 bars, 6/8 time signature), and the score is the 26 markers to 20 joint markers for each violinist, ignoring available in Diapoulis (2016). After a short rehearsal period, the markers on the violin. Then we connected the 20 joint each dyad performed the piece nine times in a 3 × 3 task markers in order to create stick figures as shown in Figure 2. design: three expressive intentions (deadpan, normal, This was done to facilitate presentation view and had no effect exaggerated) performed using three timing conditions (60- on the movement analysis. Preliminary movement analysis BPM, 90-BPM, free tempo). In the current study, we ignored showed that the musicians embodied the different levels of the effect of tempo, as a factor that might have an effect on expressivity by moving with more kinetic energy in the more the classification of different expressive conditions. exaggerated expressive conditions. This preliminary result was interpreted as evidence that the assigned linguistic descriptions (i.e. normal, deadpan, exaggerated) had causal effect on the embodiment of the musicians' expressive intentions.

Figure 1. Snapshot from a dyadic performance.

B. Apparatus Optical motion capture data was produced using 8 Qualisys Oqus infrared cameras at 120 Hz sampling rate. Twenty-six markers were placed on the joints of each musician, and five markers were placed on the violin (2 on the bow, and 3 on the violin itself). The data was labeled within Qualisys' Track Manager software and analyzed in MATLAB using functions within the MoCap Toolbox (Toiviainen & Burger, 2010), and the MATLAB statistics and machine learning toolbox. C. Experimental Design This study is based on the experimental design that was reported in Diapoulis (2016). The aforementioned study had Figure 2. Stick figure of violinist, this is the back view of the two experiments; a motion capture experiment of dyadic performer. violin performance, and a perceptual experiment of evaluating For the movement analysis, we assigned to the stick figures expressivity in performance. Figure 1 shows a screenshot frontal view in respect to the two markers on the hips. This from a perceptual stimulus. In the current study, we have used step was done in order to standardize the motion capture data. the motion capture segments that we used as stimuli for Then we segmented each motion capture recording in four perceptual evaluation of expressivity. No perceptual data are parts based on the score, and we computed the velocities for used in the current study. As noted in Diapoulis (2016) the every marker (120 timeseries = 20 markers x 3 dimensions x 2 total number of perceptual stimuli was 72 segments performers). The next step was to concatenate the two (3×2×3×4); three dyads, two expressive conditions (deadpan timeseries for each segment, in order to treat the dyad as a and exaggerated), three modalities (audiovisual, audio-only whole. First, we computed the velocities and then we applied and visual-only), and four melodic segments. The decision to concatenation of co-performers in order to eliminate the eliminate the normal expressive manner, was done based on

31 possibility of applying derivation on non-continuous Diapoulis (2016). The mean duration of each perceptual timeseries, which implements noise in variance. This error stimulus was 8.89 seconds, whereas the mean duration for the was done by the first author in Diapoulis (2016), and the exaggerated condition was 9.20 seconds and the mean result was that the joint-PCA produced five dimensions for duration for the deadpan condition was 8.58 seconds. explained variance of 95%. A. Kinetic Energy E. Kinematic Features and Statistical Learning For each dyadic performance, we extracted the The statistical analysis was based on the global descriptor instantaneous kinetic energy for each performer using the of standard deviation for each segment. We applied forward method used by Toiviainen, Luck & Thompson (2010). The sequential feature selection (FSFS) using cross-validation, in total kinetic energy was estimated as the sum of both order to identify which markers can better predict the different performers' translational and rotational energy of each marker. expressive intentions. For that purpose, we evaluate the performance of both linear and quadratic classifiers of We trimmed each performance from five to twenty-five discriminant analysis. seconds, and we estimated the kinetic energy within this time Moreover, we also applied FSFS and backward sequential span. The total mean instantaneous kinetic energy across all feature selection (BSFS) on transformed kinematics that we segments for all dyads per expressive condition was .31, .80, generated by applying joint-PCA on a small subset of 1.20 Joules for deadpan, normal and exaggerated expressive ancillary markers (head, root, left and right shoulder). For this intentions respectively. This measure provides an estimation purpose, we followed the feature extraction process that we of the overall physical activity, and provide us the initial already described, but we focused on the subset of ancillary evidence to continue to further analysis. markers and we applied joint-PCA in advance of calculating the statistical moment of standard deviation. The decision to B. Principal component analysis focus on the subset of ancillary markers, was done due to the We applied joint-PCA on the ancillary markers, of head, fact that the first three principal components generated new root, left and right shoulder of the timeseries data. We synthetic dimensions that describe movement on the selected this small subset of ancillary markers, because mediolateral, anteroposterior and vertical axis (see ancillary gestures have been proposed that play a crucial role Introduction). The computational procedure is shown in in the perception of expressivity (Thompson and Luck, 2012; Figure 3. Wanderley 2002). Furthermore, joint-PCA produced four synthetic dimensions that explained more than 95% of variance (see Table 1), and the first three principal component consist of movements on different axes, which makes the interpretation of the components trivial (see Introduction). Figure 4 shows the principal component loadings matrix based on varimax rotation. The latter is a linear transformation which rotates the coordinate system in order to maximize the explained variance.

Principal Components PC1 PC2 PC3 PC4

Percent of explained variance 72.0 12.7 6.3 4.5

Table 1. Explained variance of the first four principal components.

Figure 3. Computational process for generating features based on joint principal component analysis.

III. RESULTS We remind the reader that the motion capture segments Figure 4. Principal component loadings matrix based on were identical to the perceptual stimuli that we used in varimax rotation.

32 C. Feature Selection body sway. Our analysis shows that the production of We applied feature selection on two sets of kinematic deadpan and exaggerated expressive performance can better features; the extracted and the generated kinematics. The discriminated based on movement on the vertical axis. Thus, extracted kinematics described a 60-dimensional space. The the results suggest that bodily movement based on motoric global descriptor of standard deviation was extracted for every experience might not align with visual perception of marker for each segment. The set of the generated features, expressive music performance. described a four-dimensional space, based on the global descriptors of standard deviation that was calculated from the V. CONCLUSION joint-PCA for each segment. We presented evidence that intended expressive 1) FSFS on the extracted kinematics. We applied forward performance might not share the same movement patterns sequential feature selection on the global descriptors of all the with visual perception of expressivity. Future studies should markers. Our analysis, showed that FSFS using 6-fold cross- focus on the comparison of expert musicians and non- validation on a quadratic discriminant classifier predict the musicians populations in order to study the interaction expressive intentions of deadpan and exaggerated with 100.0% between motor experience and visual perception of expressive accuracy based on the confusion matrix. This prediction music performance. Ultimately, the focus should be placed on performed using the kinematic features of standard deviation kinematic correlates of intended and perceived expressivity in of the left knee and the head on the vertical axis. We also music performance. Data collection is ongoing and future performed FSFS based on linear discriminant classifier. This reports will include more violin dyads. approach predicted the expressive intentions with 98.6% accuracy, based on the kinematics of the right ankle and head REFERENCES on the vertical axis. Broughton, M. C., & Davidson, J. W. (2016). An Expressive Bodily 2) FSFS and BSFS on the generated kinematics. We Movement Repertoire for Marimba Performance, Revealed applied FSFS and BSFS based on the kinematics that were through Observers' Laban Effort-Shape Analyses, and Allied generated from joint-PCA. This analysis showed that the Musical Features: Two Case Studies. Frontiers in Psychology, 7. third principal component (PC3) was the best predictor of Daffertshofer, A., Lamoth, C. J., Meijer, O. G., & Beek, P. J. (2004). expressive intentions for both FSFS and BSFS. Using PCA in studying coordination and variability: a tutorial. Clinical quadratic discriminant analysis (QDA) the accuracy was 97.2% biomechanics, 19(4), 415-428. Dahl, S., & Friberg, A. (2007). Visual Perception of Expressiveness and using linear discriminant analysis (LDA) the accuracy in Musicians9 Body Movements. Music Perception: An was 93.0%. Interdisciplinary Journal, 24(5), 433-454. Diapoulis, G. (2016). Exploring the perception of expressivity and IV. DISCUSSION interaction within musical dyads. (Master’s thesis, University of The aim of the study was to identify which kinematics Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland). Retrieved from http://r.jyu.fi/jXo features can better discriminate performances of deadpan and Keller, P. E., & Appel, M. (2010). Individual differences, auditory imagery, and the coordination of body movements and sounds in exaggerated expressive intentions. Three violin dyads musical ensembles. Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary participated and they performed a short composition. The Journal, 28(1), 27-46. instruction given to the violists was to perform the piece under Leman, M. (2008). Embodied music cognition and mediation three expressive manners (for details see in Methods, technology. Mit Press. subsection Experimental Design). We segmented the song in Palmer, C. (1997). Music performance. Annual review of psychology, four melodic segments based on the score (for detailed 48(1), 115-138. information see Diapoulis, 2016), and for each segment we Thompson, M. R., & Luck, G. (2012). Exploring relationships both extracted and generated global descriptors based on between pianists’ body movements, their expressive intentions, velocity timeseries data. The statistical moment of standard and structural elements of the music. Musicae Scientiae, 16(1), 19-40. deviation was the most appropriate descriptor of expressivity. Toiviainen, P., & Burger, B. (2010). Mocap toolbox manual. Online Our goal was to identify which kinematic features can at:http://www.jyu.fi/music/coe/materials/mocaptoolbox/MCTma better predict intended expressivity in musical dyads. Thus, nual. our focus was to use a variety of machine learning techniques Toiviainen, P., Luck, G., & Thompson, M. R. (2010). Embodied in order to predict the qualities of deadpan and exaggerated meter: hierarchical eigenmodes in music-induced movement. expressive intentions. For that purpose, we used both Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 28(1), 59-70. supervised and unsupervised algorithms. Forward sequential Wanderley, M. M. (2002). Quantitative analysis of non-obvious feature selection using QDA showed that the velocities of the performer gestures. Lecture notes in computer science, 241-253. left knee and the head across the vertical axis are the most important kinematic features. Using LDA the kinematic feature of the left knee was replaced by vertical motion of the right ankle. Furthermore, we applied both FSFS and BSFS on the transformed kinematics (i.e. PCA). Once again, movement on the vertical axis showed to be the most important predictor of expressive intention. The aforementioned evidence raises questions whether or not the intended expressivity shares the same movement patterns as perceived expressivity. The perception of expressive bodily motion seems to had major influences from

33 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

Grammaticality Judgments in Linguistic and Musical Structures

Katerina Drakoulaki*1, Robin Lickley# *Department of Linguistics, Faculty of Philology, School of Philosophy, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens #Speech and Hearing Sciences Division, School of Health Sciences, Queen Margaret University, Edinburgh [email protected]

ABSTRACT Keywords music psychology; psycholinguistics Background A common hierarchical organization in language and music REFERENCES has been speculated with accounts that posit shared syntactic Jentschke, S., Koelsch, S., Sallat, S., Friederici, A., D. 2008. Children rules (Katz & Pesetsky 2011) or gradient structural constraints with Specific Language Impairment also show impairment of (Optimality Theory, Katz 2006). There is evidence that music-syntactic processing. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. processing of syntactic hierarchical organization is localized in Vol. 20, pp. 1940-1951. doi: 10.1162/jocn.2008.20135 the same cortical areas (BA 44, 45). A shared processing Katz, J. 2006. Language, music and mind: an optimality-theoretic resources network has been suggested (SSIRH, Patel 2008). approach. Massachusetts: IT. Retrieved from: www.web.mit.edu/. Aims Katz, J., Pesetsky, D. 2011. The identity thesis for language and music. Retrieved from: http://ling.auf.net/lingbuzz/000959 It is not clear whether the same syntactic rules are shared or Lerdahl, F., Jackendoff, R. 1983. A generative theory of tonal music. whether syntactic constraints are organized differently in Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press language and music. It was hypothesized that participants Patel, A. 2008. Music, language, and the brain. New York: Oxford would find stimuli containing syntactic linguistic and musical University press. deviances less acceptable than stimuli containing a linguistic semantic deviance. Method An online, graded acceptability judgment task was administered to adults. Stimuli were either read or heard depending on their type. For linguistic syntax, deviant stimuli with adjective-noun mismatch were read; for musical syntax, deviant stimuli with cadence violation were heard (Jentschke et al. 2008). For linguistic semantics, deviant sentences containing reversed thematic roles of non-reversible verbs were read. Results Judgments were successful altogether; regular stimuli were given high scoring and irregular stimuli low scoring. Linguistic stimuli caused a binary judgment, with syntactic and semantic regular stimuli receiving the highest possible scoring, while syntactic and semantic irregular stimuli received the lowest possible scoring. Scoring for irregular music stimuli was more evenly distributed. The results were not predicted in the hypothesis. Conclusions Optimality Theory suggests that constraint rules are hierarchically organized for each language, resulting in hard and soft constraints. Similarly, Generative Theory of Tonal Music (Lerdahl & Jackendoff 1983) suggests constraint rules. There have been efforts to align these theories for some levels of analysis, although not for syntax. It is suggested that the constraints for linguistic stimuli are hard, whereas the constraint for music stimuli is soft but further research is needed.

34 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

Musical Trajectories and Creative Music Teaching Interventions Affect the Development of Interest in ‘Music’ of German Secondary Schools’ Students

Daniel Fiedler*1, Daniel Müllensiefen#2 *Department of Music, University of Education Freiburg, Germany #Goldsmiths, University of London, United Kingdom [email protected], [email protected]

ABSTRACT Results Background The sequence pattern analyses identified three Trajectories of musical development can be very different developmental trajectories of ‘musical self-concept’ and across adolescence and the causes and mechanisms leading to ‘musical sophistication’, which differ from the absolute level these differences are often the focus of research in music as well as them continually changing over time. From these, education (e.g., Müllensiefen et al., 2015). To measure the two typical trajectories of musical development were aspects of musical development, the psychometric constructs identified and associations with the variables sex (phi = .299, ‘musical self-concept’ (Spychiger, 2017) and ‘musical p ≤ .001), musical status (phi = .229, p ≤ .001), type of school sophistication’ (Müllensiefen et al., 2014) as well as ‘interest (n. s.), and the overall self-assessed marks in ‘music’ (n. s.) as in music as a school subject’ (Rakoczy et al., 2008) can be well as the self-closeness to the school subject ‘music’ (r = used. However, there is no study, which shows that there are .250, p ≤ .001), were found. The multilevel analysis shows different developmental trajectory groups of the constructs that the two typical developmental trajectories affect students’ ‘musical self-concept’ and ‘musical sophistication’, which ‘interest in music as a school subject’ over the four time differ from the absolute level as well as them continually points. Additional, the multilevel analysis shows that the changing over time. Moreover, there are also only very few interest in ‘music’ is decreasing (p ≤ .001), but students in the studies, which analyses the effects of specific music lessons– typical high developmental trajectory demonstrate a especially of creative music teaching interventions (about 10 significant higher interest in ‘music’ over time (p ≤ .001)– double-lessons)–on the development of the target variable of compared to the students in the typical low developmental this research study ‘interest in music as a school subject’. To trajectory. Moreover, a further analysis shows that creative analyse these effects, the specific music lessons or the creative music teaching interventions (p ≤ .05) as well as the typical music teaching interventions include a higher amount of high developmental trajectory of students (p ≤ .001) affect the creative, i.e. productive and transformative, forms of activities development of interest in ‘music’, while ‘interest in music as as well as methods (e.g., composing, improvising, arranging, a school subject’ is generally decreasing over time (p ≤ .001). dancing or drawing to music etc.). Conclusions Aims In summary, the identified two typical developmental The aims of this repeated-measurement study with four trajectories as well as the creative music teaching different time-points in the school years 2014/2015 and interventions (about 10 double-lessons) contribute the 2015/2016 were: (1) to identify different typical development of ‘interest in music as a school subject’ over developmental trajectories (regarding the constructs ‘musical time. Hence, this study makes an important contribution to the self-concept’ and ‘musical sophistication’) within a sample of understanding of the mechanisms of musical development secondary school students, and (2) to analyse how ‘musical during adolescence, and of the effects of of a creative self-concept’ and ‘musical sophistication’ as well as time- orientation of music lessons. shifted creative music teaching interventions contribute to the development of ‘interest in music as a school subject’. Keywords Music education, musical developmental trajectories, Method musical sophistication, musical self-concept, creative music Data of 167 students (f = 94, m = 73) from two Grammar teaching interventions Schools and two Middle Schools are presented. The data comprised the self-assessed psychometric constructs as well REFERENCES as music-specific and demographic background variables Aisenbrey, S. & Fasang, A. E. (2010). New Life for Old Ideas: The (e.g., age, sex, etc.) at four time points across nearly two “Second Wave” of Sequence Analysis. Bringing the “Course” school years. The data were analyzed using sequence pattern Back Into the Life Course. Sociological Methods & Research, analyses (Aisenbrey & Fasang, 2010; Gabadinho, 2011) and 38(3), 420-462. multilevel linear models. Gabadinho, A., Ritschard, G., Struder, M. & Müller, N. S. (2011). Minning sequence data in R with the TraMineR package. A user’s guide. University of Geneva. Retrieved from:

35 http://mephisto.unige.ch/pub/TraMineR/doc/TraMineR-Users- Guide.pdf [06/30/2017]. Müllensiefen, D., Gingras, B., Musil, J. & Stewart, L. (2014). The Musicality of Non-Musicians: An Index for Assessing Musical Sophistication in the General Publication. PLoS ONE, 9(2): e89642. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0089642. Müllensiefen, D., Harrison, P., Caprini, F., & Fancourt, A. (2015). Investigating the importance of self-theories of intelligence and musicality for students’ academic and musical achievement. Frontiers in Psychology, 6:1702. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015 .01702 Rakoczy, K., Klieme, E., & Pauli, C. (2008). Die Bedeutung der wahrgenommenen Unterstützung motivationsrelevanter Bedürfnisse und des Alltagsbezugs im Mathematikunterricht für die selbstbestimmte Motivation. [The Impact of the Perceived Support of Basic Psychological Needs and of the Perceived Relevance of Contents on Students’ Self-Determined Motivation in Mathematics Instruction]. Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie, 22, 25-35. Spychiger, M. (2017). Musical self-concept as a mediating psychological structure. From musical experience to musical identity. In R. MacDonald, D. J. Hargreaves, & D. Miell (Eds.): Handbook of Musical Identity (pp. 267-287). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

36 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

Chord Encoding and Root-finding in Tonal and Non-Tonal Contexts: Theoretical, Computational and Cognitive Perspectives Konstantinos Giannos1, Emilios Cambouropoulos2 School of Music Studies, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece [email protected], [email protected]

ABSTRACT harmonies via various processes are the consonant root- position triad and the dissonant chord of a triad with an added The concept of root is of great significance in chord encoding in 7th; the notion of the root (son fondamental) as the basis to tonal music. Is this notion useful in non-tonal idioms or should it be create a chord is also introduced (Lester, 2007). Rameau extended, changed or abandoned in different musical contexts? A realised himself that the system he proposed, regardless its series of harmonic excerpts from diverse idioms are examined through the application of different root-finding and chord encoding great strengths, had some inadequacies and ambiguities. To models, such as Parncutt’s perceptual virtual pitch root-finding illustrate this better he explains that the sixte ajouté, subdominant chord with added 6th, can have double meaning, model, the harmonic system of Paul Hindemith, and the General th Chord Type (GCT) representation. This way, the models are tested in either as such a subdominant or as a supertonic with added 7 . various contexts, such as tonal, neo-tonal, whole-tone or atonal A further revolutionary approach on the theory on chords harmonies. In this process, the abstract encoding of chords in diverse was the functional theory of Hugo Riemann (1849-1919). He tonal or non-tonal contexts is explored, employing a utilitarian notion tries to solve problems, like the above, by establishing the of ‘reference tone’ in cases where root ambiguity is strong and relation of chords to the three main chord functions in a scale, cannot be resolved. namely, Tonic (T), Dominant (D) and Subdominant (S). As music got more complex, no theory was sufficient to I. INTRODUCTION deal with the ambiguities that emerged. A work that attempted In the early 20th century, the concept of tonality has been to fulfil this role, was that of Paul Hindemith (1895-1963) in brought to its limits. New scales along with new chords have The Craft of Musical Composition (1937/1945). There, based been introduced in the spectrum of composers’ tools. Music on principles like the harmonic series and combination tones theory had to catch up to such innovations, attempting to he proposes two series in which intervals are ordered and describe new scales, how new chords are formed and how become important factors in finding a chord’s root and they fit in the context of a musical piece. The task of categorising them in one of the six groups. describing chords and providing a rather general theory that B. Chord Grouping as a Result of Categorical Perception encodes them has proven to be a difficult task. Auditory scene analysis suggests that grouping as well as In tonal music labelling notations include: a) figured bass segregating sound information, are processes of music (basso continuo, intervals above a given bass note), b) roman perception (Bregman, 1990). According to Gestalt psychology, numerals (chord functions within a certain key), c) popular as listeners, we perceive rather complex entities as wholes music or jazz notation. In atonal and non-tonal music, the instead of their constituent parts, as in the case of complex concepts of pitch class sets and interval vectors are commonly tones or even chords (Vernon, 1934). employed. To name such musical entities one could mention pitches, In the current paper, an encoding scheme is examined, intervals, chords, durational relationships, rhythmic patterns, which aims to be applicable in various idioms in a universal or even phrases and phrase groups (Deutsch, 2013). Of course manner. Furthermore, the encoding of chord types is reviewed such entities are not all perceived at the same perceptual level; focusing on the principle of root and on the intervals involved for instance, chords and any pitch simultaneity may be seen as in the simultaneity. Is root useful in every case? Would it be being significant perceptual ‘primitives’ already at the level of better if it were abandoned or is there a need to be extended or the musical surface (Cambouropoulos, 2010). changed? On which principles can one base such a chord Chord labelling means abstracting from a multitude of labelling system? actual pitch renderings to a sufficiently concise encoding. In II. CHORD ENCODING order to abstract any chord type, it is necessary to take into account some general characteristics, like perceptual A. Historical approach on the Concept of Root equivalences and similarities. The first characteristic is octave Following the seminal reference to the concept of chord in equivalence and the other is the interval equivalence. Octave Gioseffo Zarlino’s (1517-90) Le institutioni harmoniche equivalence refers to the strong perceptual similarity between (1558), music theorists attempted to discover the rules that two tones related by octaves and relates to terms such as pitch govern chords. Jean-Philippe Rameau (1683-1764), a couple classes or tone chroma. As far as the interval equivalence is centuries later, discusses major and minor triads. Some concerned, it is derived directly from octave equivalence. important topics include the suggestion that the origin of all Pairs of inversion related intervals, also known as interval classes, have a perceptual relationship, a fact noticed by both

37 music theorists (Piston, 1948/1987) as well as by music The GCT algorithm aims to encode any given pitch perception researchers (Plomp, Wagenaar, and Mimpen, 1973; collection based on two main parameters: a binary Deutsch and Roll, 1974). However, an interval class may not classification of consonance and dissonance, and a scale be perceived directly, but rather as a result of a pitch class and hierarchy. For the first, a 12-value consonance/dissonance an interval (Deutsch, 2013). vector is introduced, where 0 means dissonance and 1 means With regards to triads, major and minor chords fall into two consonance. As for the scale, it is necessary for the definitions distinct perceptual categories (Locke and Kellar, 1973); their of a tonic (or reference note) and also to know which chord inversions aren’t considered as different chords (Hubbard and notes belong to the respective scale. Datteri, 2001). To compare these two types, they both have a For example, the regular consonance / dissonance vector fifth, a minor and a major third, with the thirds being ordered for a tonal context is [1,0,0,1,1,1,0,1,1,1,0,0]; this means that differently within the fifth. Therefore, factors like order of the unison, minor and major third, perfect fourth, perfect fifth, intervals and a tone of reference, or root in this case, seem to minor and major sixth are considered consonant, whereas the play an important role in categorising chord types. rest dissonant, i.e. minor and major second, tritone, minor and “The roots of non-tertian chords are not defined by any major seventh. generally accepted theory or by the common agreement of Pitch hierarchy (assuming there is one) is given as a ‘tonic’ listeners” (Kostka, 2006, p.100-101). It is straightforward to and its scale tones, e.g. 0 [0,2,4,5,7,9,11] for C major or 3 determine the intervals involved in a certain chord, but [0,2,3,5,6,8,9,11] for Eb octatonic (whole-step-half-step scale). looking for a root based upon theoretical principles can be a An input chord to the GCT algorithm is given as a list of much harder task. The most complete work on the subject MIDI numbers which is converted to pitch classes (i.e., MIDI comes from Paul Hindemith (1937/1945), which, however, numbers modulo 12) before being fed into the algorithm. has received criticisms from more recent researchers The basics of how this algorithm works on a given input (Thomson, 1965, 1993; Kostka, 2006; O’Connell, 2011). chord is explained here: There exists an enormous number of possible pitch simultaneities that include different numbers and GCT Algorithm combinations of notes in various transpositions and inversions. Allen Forte’s (1977) theory reduces chord types to up to 11 sets with cardinality 3, 29 sets with cardinality 4, 35 with 5 find all subsets of pairwise consonant tones and so on. Such a drastic reduction is problematic for tonal select maximal subsets of maximum length music as, for instance, major and minor chords are represented for all selected maximal subsets do by the same pc-set. On the other hand, the traditional order the pitch classes of each maximal subset in the most encoding of triad-based chords is insufficient for non-tonal compact form (chord ‘base’) music. It seems to be interesting and useful to find a method to add the remaining pitch classes (chord ‘extensions’) above encode all these pitch combinations that takes into account the highest pitch of the chosen maximal subset (if perceptual factors (e.g. octave and interval equivalence, necessary, add octave - pitches may exceed the octave consonance/dissonance), and at the same time adapts to many range) different idioms, if not all Western music idioms, in a manner the lowest tone of the chord is the ‘root’ that is appropriate to them. Such a encoding scheme may be transpose the tones of chord so that the lowest becomes 0 used both as an analytical tool and in compositional processes. find position of the ‘root’ in regards to the given tonal The General Chord Type (GCT) representation, explained centre (pitch scale) below, aims to cover these goals. endfor III. THE GENERAL CHORD TYPE REPRESENTATION To illustrate this better, let’s assume the chord consisting of It is nearly impossible to use the same tools of music MIDI pitch numbers 54. 62, 69 and 72 and try to convert them analysis in different music idioms and draw significant results. into a GCT representation. Let the key be C major: 0 A special theory has been developed for the atonal, 12-tone or [0,2,4,5,7,9,11] and consonance / dissonance vector as above. serialism, with regards to 20th century music analysis, that is The pitches mod12 equal to [6,2,9,0] and are ordered from the set theory, including representations like pitch class sets lower to higher [0,2,6,9]. and interval vectors (Forte, 1977). However, it is debatable if We observe that the maximal consonant subset appears to such representations work efficiently in tonal and the non- be [2,6,9] (the rest with only two elements are [2,6], [2,9], tonal idioms in between. [0,9] and [6,9]), and is considered the ‘base’ of the In order to deal with the problem of labelling any collection representation. Tone 0 is added to the right as an extension of pitches within a given hierarchy (e.g. key) and also and is written as [2,6,9,12]. Comparing it with the given scale, functioning properly in different harmonic contexts, the 2 becomes the ‘root’ of the chord and it is rewritten as th General Chord Type (GCT) representation has been proposed, [2,[0,4,7,10]]. The specific chord is a major 7 chord on the nd which will be described below (Cambouropoulos, 2 degree, note D, i.e., the secondary dominant in C major. Kaliakatsos-Papakostas, Tsougras, 2014). B. Evaluating the GCT Representation A. Description of the GCT Algorithm The GCT algorithm has been tested in a tonal context against the Kostka-Payne harmonic analysis dataset created by

38 David Temperley, where the automatic chord labelling was correct by 92.16%, compared to the Kostka-Payne ground truth (Kaliakatsos-Papakostas, Zacharakis, Tsougras, Cambouropoulos, 2015). Even though the aim of GCT is to be applied in many other non-tonal music idioms, it has not been tested systematically on them yet. The difficulty of this task resides on the lack of a systematic approach to label symbolically the chords used in non-tonal music. Therefore, it is difficult to find similar th ground truth for 20 century harmonic styles. Figure 1 Reduction of m.1-5 of Beethoven’s Piano Sonata op.27 It is important to note that, the application of the GCT both no.2. as an analytical and compositional tool depends on the user’s Obviously, it is ineffective to analyse tonal music settings. The algorithm labels given simultaneities (taken from harmonically with set theory. It is claimed that octave a harmonic reduction that has been manually constructed); it equivalence and inversional equivalence are shared features of does not produce harmonic reduction and analyses all – at least Western music – idioms’ analysis. However, automatically. However, the fact that one can ‘learn’ from inversion is used slightly differently in the two contexts. For data which chords comprise a specific idiom, and thus occur instance, in atonal music it refers to setting the order of more often, can lead the algorithm a step further in doing a intervals of a pitch-class set in reverse (Kostka, 2006). harmonic reduction itself. Whereas in tonal idioms, or idioms that have a tonal IV. ROOT-FINDING IN NON-TONAL component, it seems that the order of intervals in a pitch simultaneity is important. CONTEXTS In this part, the effectiveness of GCT on finding a tone Table 1 List of representations for Beethoven op.27 no.2. upon on which a chord is built will be evaluated, compared with Parncutt’s tonal root-finding model (1997) based on PCs Forte sets GCT GCT_all1 Terhardt’s theory of virtual pitch and the ‘universal’ theory of chord roots proposed by Hindemith (1937/1945). Apart from 1 4 8 0 3 7 0 0 3 7 0 0 3 7 1 4 8 11 0 3 5 8 0 0 3 7 10 7 0 3 5 8 that, it will be paralleled with the abstract encodings of Forte’s 1 4 9 0 3 7 8 0 4 7 8 0 4 7 pc-sets and their efficiency on different contexts. 2 6 9 0 3 7 1 0 4 7 1 0 4 7 Note that in the current paper, the step of voicing in 0 6 8 0 2 6 7 0 4 10 5 0 2 6 Parncutt’s model is omitted, because in non-tonal contexts all 1 4 8 0 3 7 0 0 3 7 0 0 3 7 the resulting values are really close to each other. If it is taken 0 3 6 8 0 2 5 8 7 0 4 7 10 11 0 3 6 8* into account the weighted bass note tends to become the 1 4 8 0 3 7 0 0 3 7 0 0 3 7 respective perceptual pitch. Also, the application of Krumhansl/Kessler profiles (1982) is being the same as the Apart from atonal music, where tonality is non-existent, one one in Parncutt (2007), where he examines the profiles of Tn- can discover tonal centres in other non-tonal idioms. Kostka Types. It is agreed that since the concept of tonality doesn’t fit (2006) calls the method to establish a tonal centre in such on the examined excerpts, Krumhansl/Kessler profiles would works, tonic by assertion, and is achieved by “the use of bias mistakenly the results. reiteration, return, pedal point, ostinato, accent, formal The application of the three models in a tonal context is placement, register, and similar techniques” (p.102). tested on Beethoven’s Sonata op.27 no.2 (Figure 1). All three The next two examples, figure a tonal centre, so it can be models agree on the same roots. Here the standard concept of used as a reference in a pitch hierarchy. In the Hindemith root can be observed. Note that Parncutt’s model suggests two excerpt (Fig. 2), a B appears as a drone tone in the soprano, possible roots, because it isn’t used in its full version. As far while there is a melodic movement around E in the bass. E is as set theory is concerned, it is less efficient to provide picked between the two as the main pitch reference, and the information on the chord degrees, thus their function in the pitch hierarchy suggested is E mixolydian, or in GCT notation key, and the different types of chords, since major and minor 4 [0,2,4,5,7,9,10]. chords group together. The excerpt from Scriabin’s etude (Fig. 3) is a bit more In Table 1 below, which corresponds to Figure 1, the pitch complex. There are two whole tone scales in m. 1,3-4 and m. classes of the chords, their respective prime forms and GCTs 2 respectively. It is very hard to say which are the bases of are presented. GCTs appear in two forms: one with the those two scales. The chromatic scale can be a common ‘standard’ tonal consonance vector and one with a vector reference point for the whole excerpt, also because it deals where all intervals are ‘consonant’, all vector entries are 1 with the interchange between two scales in such a short period. (abbr. GCT-all1). With regards to tonal consonance GCTs, both the degrees and the chord types are described. The first part explains the position of the chord in the scale, while the latter the intervals comprising the chord.

39

Figure 3 Reduction of m.1-4 of Scriabin’s Etude op. 56 no.4

Figure 2 Reduction of m.1-3 of Hindemith’s choral song Un For the analysis of excerpt from Scriabin’s Etude, cygne from the Six Chansons. Parncutt’s perceptual pitch model gives in almost all cases The main difference between GCT’s roots and roots two equal maximum values, which are greater than the rest by proposed by Hindemith is on chords built on fourths. In case 2 or 3 units. This ambiguity makes it more difficult to of quartal chords, GCT picks the note placed in the lowest compare the results with the other models. consecutive fourths, a somewhat appropriate decision, since With regards to GCT, it is tested with two possible there is a principle to always output a solution variations of the consonance / dissonance vector. We suppose, (Cambouropoulos, Kaliakatsos-Papakostas, Tsougras, 2014). based upon the interval vector of the whole tone scale In Table 2 below, as well as in Table 1 and the rest of the <060603>, that the existing intervals should be ‘consonant’. tables, we can observe many similarities between the Forte So the resulting vectors are [1,0,1,0,1,0,1,0,1,0,1,0] and sets and GCT_all1. The differences are noted with an asterisk [1,0,0,0,1,0,1,0,1,0,0,0] where the first considers ‘consonant’ (*) next to the GCT representation. The most usual issue is unison, major 2nd, major 3rd, tritone, minor 6th and minor 7th, with regards to combinations that include major or minor and the second the same without major 2nd and minor 7th. triads. For instance, a major triad [0,4,7] is a subset of The first vector (named here as wt1, and the other wt2) [0,2,4,7], while its GCT version is [7,[0,3,5,7]] (see chord no. struggles with two issues. When compared with GCT_all1, 9). they share the same representation, bases included, except Table 2 List of representations of Hindemtih’s Un cygne. from chords no. 6 and 8 (see Table 3). Apart from that, it doesn’t share any root suggested by Hindemith’s theoretical PCs Forte sets GCT GCT_all1 approach either. On the other hand, wt2 regards major 3rd of higher 4 9 11 0 2 7 7,0 5 10 5,0 2 7 importance as an element in encoding. We can see some types 2 7 9 11 0 2 4 7 3,0 4 7 14 3,0 2 4 7 of whole-tone chords in Kostka (2006). The proposed encodings by GCT are very similar to them. Major 3rd is 1 6 8 11 0 2 5 7 4,0 5 10 15 2,0 2 5 7 indeed the basis of their construction, however when they 4 6 11 0 2 7 2,0 5 10 0,0 2 7 have 4 or more voices, major 2nds are inevitable. Kostka 2 4 9 11 0 2 5 7 7,0 5 10 15 5,0 2 5 7 avoids to write major 2nds near bass, and at the same time 4 6 11 0 2 7 2,0 5 10 0,0 2 7 keeps the chord in the closest form possible so it’s built on 3rds. 1 6 8 11 0 2 5 7 4,0 5 10 15 2,0 2 5 7 Table 3 List of representations of Scriabin Etude op.56 no. 4. 1 2 6 9 0 1 5 8 10,0 4 7 11 9,0 1 5 8 2 4 6 11 0 2 4 7 7,0 3 7 17 7,0 3 5 7* PCs Forte GCT_all1 GCT_wt1 GCT_wt2 2 6 9 0 3 7 10,0 4 7 10,0 4 7 3 5 9 11 0 2 6 8 3,0 2 6 8 3,0 2 6 8 5,0 6 10 16 1 4 6 11 0 2 5 7 9,0 5 10 15 7,0 2 5 7 1 3 7 9 11 0 2 4 6 8 7,0 2 4 6 8 7,0 2 4 6 8 3,0 4 8 10 7 11 0 4 3,0 4 3,0 4 18 6 7 11 0 1 5 7,0 7 13 2,0 1 5 0 2 6 8 0 2 6 8 0,0 2 6 8 0,0 2 6 8 2,0 6 10 16 0 2 4 6 10 0 2 4 6 8 10,0 2 4 6 8 10,0 2 4 6 8 2,0 4 8 10 14 Hindemith’s harmonic language extensively uses quartal 5 7 9 11 0 2 4 6 5,0 2 4 6 5,0 2 4 6 5,0 4 6 14 and quintal chords. When the [0,5,10] representation is 1 3 5 7 11 0 2 4 6 8 10,0 2 4 6 8 11,0 2 4 6 8 3,0 4 8 10 replaced by [0,2,7], the concept of superimposed fourths 14 becomes less obvious. Taking into account his theoretical 3 5 7 11 0 2 4 8 3,0 2 4 8 3,0 2 4 8 3,0 4 8 14 background, the first chord would not have a root and be part 1 5 8 11 0 2 5 8 5,0 3 6 8 11,0 2 6 9 1,0 4 10 19 of group V, but the other version fits in group III, thus revoicing would impact a chord’s effect. By abstracting it that For the last example, a rather extreme case has been much, the factor of the positioning of intervals is ignored, an examined. Clearly it is meaningless to look for ‘roots’ in an issue that is important in the composer’s music. Also atonal piece, designed not to have such. Hindemith’s theory, perceptionally those two differ significantly. A sus2 chord has however, can propose encodings even for the most complex a completely different sound than a quartal. There is no debate chords. Surprisingly, tonal GCT, Hindemith and Parncutt th about the consonance of the perfect 5 , as opposed to two agree with each other, with few exceptions. GCT_all1, ths stacked perfect 4 . however, gives very different results. GCT_all1 seems to be closely related to the prime forms in Forte’s theory (GCT_all1 produces a normal order encoding accompanied with a transposition operator).

40 Hindemith’s theory, it isn’t accepted by many theorists and can only be loosely applied in atonal settings. Parncutt’s perceptual root-finding model was primarily designed for tonal music, but it might be extended if empirical results come up from research similar to that of Krumhansl and Kessler (1982). Forte’s prime forms are based on the structure of intervals in a pitch class set, omitting the need to a referential point. Figure 4 m.1-4 of Webern’s choral song Entflieht auf leichten However, it seems necessary, when the existing tonality, Kähnen op.2. whichever its use, is taken into account. Although, it is Table 4 List of representations of Webern’s Entflieht auf uncertain whether the strict mathematical abstraction of leichten Kähnen op.2. Forte’s prime forms or the more generic one of GCT fits better at the concepts of categorical perception suggested in PCs Forte sets GCT GCT-all_1 the beginning. 2 5 9 11 0 2 5 8 2,0 3 7 9 9,0 2 5 8 ACKNOWLEDGMENT 0 4 6 10 0 2 6 8 0,0 4 6 10 4,0 2 6 8 2 7 11 0 3 7 7,0 4 7 7,0 4 7* I would like to thank Maximos Kaliakatsos-Papakostas for 0 4 8 0 4 8 0,0 4 8 0,0 4 8 his help about the algorithmic applications and Costas 1 5 9 10 0 1 4 8 10,0 3 7 11 9,0 1 4 8 Tsougras for his theoretical insights. 4 5 9 0 1 5 5,0 4 11 4,0 1 5 4 6 7 10 0 2 3 6 4,0 3 6 14 4,0 2 3 6 REFERENCES 2 6 7 11 0 1 5 8 7,0 4 7 11 6,0 1 5 8 Bernstein, D. W. (2007). Nineteenth-century harmonic theory. In 1 2 8 10 0 1 4 6 10,0 3 4 10 8,0 2 5 6* Christensen, T. (Ed.) The Cambridge History of Western Music 0 4 9 0 3 7 9,0 3 7 9,0 3 7 Theory (pp. 778-811). Cambridge University Press. 1 8 10 0 2 5 10,0 3 10 8,0 2 5 Bregman, A. S. (1990). Auditory Scene Analysis: The Perceptual 4 7 10 0 3 6 4,0 3 6 4,0 3 6 Organization of Sound. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 2 6 8 11 0 2 5 8 11,0 3 7 9 6,0 2 5 8 Cambouropoulos, E. (2010). The Musical Surface: Challenging 1 5 8 9 0 1 4 8 1,0 4 7 8 5,0 3 4 8* Basic Assumptions. Musicae Scientiae, 131-147. 0 5 9 0 3 7 5,0 4 7 5,0 4 7* Cambouropoulos, E., Kaliakatsos-Papakostas, M., & Tsougras, C. 1 5 7 10 0 2 5 8 10,0 3 7 9 5,0 2 5 8 (2014). An Idiom-independent Representation of Chords for 3 7 10 11 0 1 4 8 3,0 4 7 8 7,0 3 4 8* Computational Music Analysis and Generation. Proceedings of 2 8 10 11 0 2 3 6 8,0 3 6 14 8.0 2 3 6 the Joint 11th Sound and Music Computing Conference (SMC) 2 5 9 10 0 1 5 8 10,0 4 7 11 9.0 1 5 8 and 40th International Computer Music Conference (ICMC). Athens. Cambouropoulos E. (2015) The Harmonic Musical Surface and Two Novel Chord Representation Schemes. In Meredith. D. (Ed.), V. CONCLUSION Computational Music Analysis, (pp.31-56), Springer. Tonal ambiguity in non-tonal – even in some tonal – Deutsch, D. (2013). Grouping Mechanisms in Music. In D. Deutsch contexts has been a hard issue to resolve, since the conception (Ed.), Psychology of Music (pp. 183-248). San Diego: Elvesier of ‘chord’ and ‘root’. For sure, naming roots considering the Academic Press. Deutsch, D. (2013). The Processing of Pitch Combinations. In D. general existing hierarchies might lead to fallacies, like in Deutsch (Ed.), Psychology of Music (pp. 249-325). San Diego: atonal music. Nevertheless, when we decide to encode a Elvesier Academic Press. symmetrical or a complex non-tertian chord it is necessary to Deutsch, D., & Roll, P. L. (1974). Error patterns in delayed pitch reach a ‘reasonable’ solution. Topics in categorical perception comparison as a function of relational context. Journal of make the whole enterprise of encoding chords an interesting Experimental Psychology, 103, 1027-1034. problem. Forte, A. (1977). The Structure of Atonal Music. New Haven, CT: GCT representation works effectively in tonal idioms, Yale University Press. when tested against standard harmonic ground truth data or Hindemith, P. (1945). The Craft of Musical Composition. (A. Mendel, compared with other models, such as Parncutt’s perceptual Trans.). New York: Associated Music Publishers, Inc. (Original work published 1937) root model. As far as Hindemith’s neo-tonal music, the Hubbard, T. L., & Datteri, D. L. (2001). Recognizing the component representation of quartals was sufficient also with regards to tones of a major chord. American Journal of Psychology, 114(4), maintaining the order of intervals in a chord. For different 569-589. pitch hierarchies, like the whole-tone idiom, it is not trivial to Kaliakatsos-Papakostas M., Zacharakis A., Tsougras C., encode chords effectively. Interval vectors can be a useful tool Campouropoulos E. (2015). Evaluating the General Chord Type to deal with them. Seconds, when considered ‘consonant’ in Representation in Tonal Music and Organising GCT Chord the above examples, had the tendency to preoccupy the Labels in Functional Chord Categories. Proceedings of the 16th representations in comparison to other intervals. This can be International Society for Music Information Retrieval seen between GCT_all1 and GCT_wt1. Conference (ISMIR). Malaga. Kostka, S. (2006). Materials and Techniques of Twentieth-Century Apart from those idioms, GCT works well in atonal music. Music. New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. The flexibility of the consonance/dissonance vector, makes Krumhansl, C. L. (2001). Cognitive Foundations of Musical Pitch. GCT_all1 similar to Forte’s prime forms (literally identical to New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Tn-transposition-related normal orders). With regards to

41 Krumhansl, C. L., & Kessler, E. J. (1982). Tracing the Dynamic Changes in Perceived Tonal Organization in a Spatial Representation of Musical Keys. Psychological Review, 89, 334- 368. Lester, J. (2007). Rameau and eighteenth-century harmonic theory. In Christensen, T. (Ed.) The Cambridge History of Western Music Theory (pp. 753-777), Cambridge University Press. Locke, S. & Kellar, L. (1973). Categorical Perception in a non- Linguistic Mode. Cortex, 9, 355-369. O’Connell, K. (2011). Hindemith’s voices. The Musical Times, 152(1915), 3-18. Retrived January 23, 2017, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/23039710 Parncutt, R. (1997). A Model of the Perceptual Root(s) of a Chord Accounting for Voicing and Prevailing Tonality. In Music, Gestalt, and Computing (Vol. 1317, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, pp. 181-199). Berlin: Springer. Parncutt, R. (2009). Tonal implications of harmonic and melodic Tn- Types. In T. Klouche & T. Noll (Eds.), Mathematics and Computation in Music (pp. 124-139). Berlin Heidelberg: Springer. Persichetti, V. (1961). Twentieth-Century Harmony: Creative Aspects and Practice. New York: W. W. Norton & Company Piston, W. (1987). Harmony (2nd ed.). London, England: Norton. (Original work published 1948) Plomp, R., Wagenaar, W. A., & Mimpen, A. M. (1973). Musical Interval Recognition with Simultaneous Tones. Acustica, 29, 101-109. Thomson, W. (1965). Hindemith's Contribution to Music Theory. Journal of Music Theory, 9(1), 52-71. Retrieved January 23, 2017, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/843149 Thomson, W. (1993). The Harmonic Root: A Fragile Marriage of Concept and Percept. Music Perception 10(4), 385-415. Vernon, P. E. (1934). Auditory perception. I. The Gestalt approach. II. The evolutionary approach. British Journal of Psychology, 25, 123-139; 265-283.

42 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

Visual Feedback in Higher Education Piano Learning and Teaching

Luciana F. Hamond Baden Powell Music School – FAETEC-RJ, Brazil [email protected]

feedback is both intra- and interpersonal (Hamond, 2017; ABSTRACT Welch et al., 2005). Intrapersonal feedback occurs within the Feedback is crucial for learning; in piano learning, feedback is both individual (i.e. the student) and primarily involves the sensory intra- and inter-personal. Evidence indicates that the application of system. In piano learning and playing, intrapersonal feedback visual feedback can enhance instrumental and singing learning. is mainly auditory (Banton, 1995; Finney, 1997), visual However, what is not yet clear is exactly how visual feedback might (Banton, 1995; Bishop & Goebl, 2015) and proprioceptive be used in higher education piano studios. An exploratory study (Brown & Palmer, 2012; Wöllner & Williamon, 2007). Intra- (Hamond, 2017) was conducted to investigate the pedagogical uses personal feedback in piano learning also encompasses other of additional visual feedback generated by technology in higher internal processes such as the conscious-awareness state of the education piano studios. Three teacher-student pairs in higher individual (Acitores, 2011), metacognitive knowledge education in Brazil and the researcher, as technology-mediator, (Hallam, 2001), self-regulatory skills (Nielsen, 2001), and a participated in this study. Each pair chose a movement of a classical sense of self (Damasio, 2000) which also play their roles in sonata of their current repertoire to work on in two piano lessons. learning. The technology system involved a digital piano, connected with a In piano learning and teaching, there are two types of laptop running Digital Audio Workstation (DAW) software (Cockos’ inter-personal feedback: (a) between the teacher and the Reaper) via MIDI interface, and an additional PC screen. Data student; and (b) between individuals and a technology system. collection encompassed the video observation of two lessons, Interpersonal feedback involves information which is interviews with participants, and MIDI data. A multi-methods delivered by the teacher in order to improve a student’s Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA) was used: thematic analysis for videos and interviews, microstructure analysis of musical behavior in performance. Inter-personal feedback in piano learning is both videoed lessons, and MIDI QDA. Real-time and post-hoc visual verbal and non-verbal. Types of verbal and non-verbal feedback was generated by the technology system, combined or not feedback in piano learning were observed in several studies with auditory feedback. Results indicated that additional visual (Benson & Fung 2005; Burwell 2010; Hamond 2013; feedback can augment intrapersonal feedback, enhance conscious- Siebenaler 1997). Types of verbal feedback involve: giving awareness of students’ performances and subsequently enhance directions or instructions, providing information, asking learning and performance. Teacher-student pairs differed in questions, offering general feedback – positive, negative or preferences when using either auditory or visual feedback. ambiguous, and also off-task comments. Types of non-verbal feedback encompass: teacher’s playing or singing, teacher’s I. INTRODUCTION modelling, teacher’s imitating student’s playing, making hand Feedback makes learning possible. The impact of feedback gestures, body movements, conducting, tapping the pulse, and on learning has been indicated in the literature of cybernetics also smiling, laughing, nodding, shaking, as well as using (Schwartz & Andrasik, 2003; Annett, 1969; Wiener, 1961), other facial expressions. motor control and learning (Gibson, 1968; Magill, 1989; Interpersonal feedback can also occur between individuals Schmidt & Lee, 2011), music learning (e.g. Welch, 1983, and technology. The perspectives of teachers, expert pianists 1985a, 1985b) and one-to-one instrumental and vocal learning and students on the use of technology in instrumental learning (Creech & Gaunt, 2012, for an overview). A master- have been investigated in several studies (Benson, 1998; apprenticeship model has been noted in one-to-one Daniel, 2001; Riley, 2005; Tomita & Barber, 2008). Various instrumental and vocal learning in several studies (e.g. Hallam, types of technology have been investigated in these studies: 1998; Jørgensen, 2000) ‘where the dominating mode of video recording (Daniel, 2001), MIDI protocols and piano roll student learning is imitation’ (Jørgensen, 2000, p. 68). Some visualization (Riley, 2005; Tomita & Barber, 2008), and research has highlighted the supportive use of technology in instructional media (Benson, 1998). However, these studies one-to-one instrumental learning ‘as a medium of investigated the application of technology based on student transformative change’ (Creech & Gaunt, 2012, p.701) self-reports and self-assessment (Benson, 1998; Daniel, 2001; towards ‘student reflection, autonomy [and] motivated, self- Riley, 2005; Tomita & Barber, 2008). directed learning’ (Creech & Gaunt, 2012, p. 703). The application of real-time visual feedback, as a new The provision of feedback is a crucial aspect of ensuring technology system, has been investigated by several studies in learning in educational environments. Feedback can be instrumental and vocal learning (Brandmeyer, 2006; Sadakata defined as the “information provided by an agent (e.g., teacher, et al., 2008; Welch, 1983, 1985b; Welch et al., 2005). Real- peer, book, parent, self, experience) regarding aspects of one’s time visual feedback was researched in tapping and performance or understanding” (Hattie & Timperley, 2007, percussion learning when imitating rhythms (Brandmeyer, p.81). In instrumental and vocal learning, the nature of 2006; Sadakata et al., 2008). The benefits and limitations of

43 using real-time visual feedback were investigated in higher C. Materials education singing studios (Welch, 1983, 1985b; Welch et al., The technology system encompassed: a digital piano, two 2005). MIDI cables, a laptop computer running Cockos’ Reaper Different types of technology have been used in piano- DAW software with piano roll screen option via a MIDI related studies (François, Chew, & Thurmond, 2007; interface, one additional PC computer screen to be placed in Himonides, 2012; McPherson, 2013). Measurements and front of the piano student, and one VGA cable to connect the assessments of piano performance practices and /or laptop computer and the additional PC screen. The technology improvisations have been conducted when using different system allowed the collection of MIDI data on the DAW types of technologies with visual feedback (François et al., software. The equipment used to collect the video and 2007; McPherson, 2013). However, the use of technology in interview data involved: two digital cameras, two tripods for higher education piano studios, especially for the use of the digital cameras, and one voice recorder. additional visual feedback, seems to be under-researched. D. Procedure II. METHOD Each teacher-student pair had two piano lessons videoed For this research I used an action-case study (Braa & alongside the application of the technology system which was Vidgen, 1999), a hybrid methodology where aspects of case facilitated by the researcher (the author). During the two piano study and action research can be combined. Data collection lessons, a large amount of MIDI technology-generated data involved three sources: video recording of two piano lessons was recorded at the DAW software Cockos’ Reaper whilst (n = 6), audio recorded interviews with teachers and students participants played the piano; this data could be played back separately (n = 12) after each piano lesson, and technology- alongside visualizations of participants’ performances as a generated MIDI data. A multi-method qualitative data piano-roll form. The main data collection and analyses were analysis approach was adopted in this study: thematic analysis video and MIDI. Interviews were conducted in order to (Braun & Clarke, 2008) was adopted for video and interview complement the findings from the video and MIDI QDA. data, microstructure analysis of the musical behaviour such as Semi-structured interviews were conducted after each piano playing and listening back (Demos & Chaffin, 2009), as well lesson with each participant separately. The interviews as MIDI technology-generated data qualitative data analysis. focused on participant perspectives on the application of this technology system, particularly visual feedback, in a higher A. Ethical Review education piano studio. Participants’ reports on their This study used British Educational Research Association background, piano learning and teaching experiences, were (BERA, 2011) guidelines and obtained ethical approval by the also examined. In the piano lessons, teacher-student pairs advisory committee of the UCL Institute of Education, were asked to choose a memorized piece from their current University College London. All the participants received an repertoire. The chosen piano pieces were one movement of a information leaflet describing the nature of this research and classical sonata: (a) Mozart Piano Sonata No.16 in C major, the confidentiality of this study. Although participation in this K.545, 2nd movement, in case study A; (b) Beethoven Piano study was voluntary, participants had their travel expenses Sonata No.9 in E major, Op.14 No.1, 1st movement, in case reimbursed. Participants had the opportunity to ask the study B; and (c) Mozart Piano Sonata No.2 in F major, K.280, researcher questions about the study in advance. They also 1st movement, in case study C. All students also brought the signed a consent form before taking part in the study. respective scores to the lessons so that their teachers could check the musical notation whilst they were playing. The B. Participants average duration of each lesson was 55 minutes. The interval The participants (n = 6) in the study were three piano between the first and second lessons was 4 days in case study teachers and one of their piano students (principal or second A, 9 days in case study B, and 7 days in case study C. These instrument) in higher education in Brazil. At the time the data lesson interval differences do not appear to have interfered was collected (between November 2013 and February 2014) with the results of this study. Each piano lesson was video the piano teachers had an average age of 49, while the average recorded using two digital cameras: one camera captured the age of the piano students was 26. Teachers had an average of interaction between the participants and the other camera 25 years’ teaching experience. Participants had to fall into the focused on what was happening on the additional PC screen. following criteria to be part of thes study: (a) be teacher- student pairs in higher education; (b) have worked on a E. Analysis regular weekly one-to-one basis for at least one term; and (c) A multi-method qualitative analysis was adopted in this have chosen a memorized piece from their current repertoire study. Video QDA involved the thematic analysis of the to work on in two piano lessons with the technology system. videoed lessons for: (1) the nature of feedback; (2) the The three pairs chose to work on one movement of a classical pedagogical uses of technology-mediated feedback; and (3) sonata. The researcher also participated in this study by additional auditory feedback accordingly with the musical playing the facilitator role with the technology system in two behaviour. MIDI QDA encompassed the qualitative analysis piano lessons. The three pairs are called case studies A, B and of the performance-related data which was available on the C. Students in case study B and C were principal instrument computer screen after being recorded on the DAW software. piano students whilst the student in case study A was a second Interview QDA involved the thematic analysis of the instrument piano student. interview data by complementing the findings of the two main sources: video and MIDI. A triangulation of data collection and analysis was conducted in order to ensure trustworthiness

44 and assure quality criteria in this qualitative research study participants were playing the piano; (2) and post-hoc for the (Guba, 1981; Shenton, 2004). moments where participants listened back to their recorded performance-related data. Additional auditory feedback III. RESULTS involved auditory feedback which was not commonly found Findings of the video QDA suggested that the nature of in one-to-one piano lessons: this was post-hoc feedback which interpersonal feedback (between teacher and student) is verbal was combined with visual feedback. Additional auditory and non-verbal feedback. Types of verbal feedback were feedback varied in three aspects: (a) performer (the student, related to the following behaviours: providing information, the teacher, or both); (b) the musical excerpt (the bar group of the musical structure of the piano piece); and (c) the version giving direction, and asking questions. Types of non-verbal st nd feedback were linked with the following behaviours: head and of the recorded performance data (1 version, 2 version, etc.). body movements, hand gestures, pointing (to the music score MIDI QDA focused on the pedagogical uses of additional or computer screen), playing and singing. Types of verbal and visual feedback in piano lessons with the application of non-verbal feedback were related with three main areas: technology-mediated feedback. Findings of MIDI QDA music, performance and technology. Music regarded the suggested that visual feedback could be: in real-time (Figure 1) aspects of musical notation, and musical structure of the piece. and post-hoc (Figure 2). Real-time or post-hoc visual Performance was linked to aspects of the musical performance feedback use involved seeing the piano-roll visualization of such as dynamics, articulation, melodic and rhythmic the performances for enhancing piano learning and accuracy, phrasing and pedalling. Technology was related to performance whilst playing/recording or seeing/playing back the MIDI parameters, i.e. MIDI note colours, sizes, the performance-related data. Real-time feedback use asynchrony, key velocity number, MIDI recording version, happened for two purposes: (a) individual experience: when and digital piano use. the student used it for their own learning needs; and (b) shared Video QDA focused on the pedagogical technology- experience: when both teacher and student used it for a mediated feedback uses which were facilitated by the particular lesson focus. Post-hoc feedback use was available researcher in the piano lessons. Results of this video QDA to participants when the researcher played the previously suggest that pedagogical uses of this technology system can recorded performance-related data back to participants. Post- be: (1) in real-time; (2) post-hoc in the original tempo; (3) hoc feedback use happened in three categories: (a) shared post-hoc at a slower tempo; and (4) silent post-hoc (without experience purpose when the teacher was working alongside auditory feedback). Real-time feedback use was available to student with visual feedback combined with auditory feedback; participants when participants played the digital piano whilst (b) silent mode purpose (visual feedback only); and (c) the researcher recorded the performance-related data. Post-hoc attentive listening purpose. Findings of the MIDI QDA feedback use was available to participants when the researcher suggest that additional visual feedback can make the lesson played the previously recorded performance-related data back focus clearer for the following parameters: articulation, to participants. Post-hoc feedback use involved listening back dynamics, melodic and rhythmic accuracy, as well as pedal to the performance-related data or/and seeing the piano-roll use. An example of a musical excerpt and the respective visualization of the performances for enhancing piano additional visual feedback in real-time and post-hoc of the learning and performance. Post-hoc feedback could be: (a) in performance-related data generated by the technology system the original tempo when the performance-related data was is given below. played back exactly the same as it was played/recorded; and at a slower tempo when the performance-related data was played back at half speed of the original tempo. Post-hoc feedback could also be: (a) normal when auditory feedback was available; and (b) silent when auditory feedback was not available (visual feedback only). The three case studies used post-hoc feedback in the original tempo. However, some pedagogical uses of technology-mediated feedback were particular to each case study. Real-time feedback use for individual experience and silent post-hoc feedback use was a characteristic of case study A. Real-time feedback for shared experience featured in case study B. Post-hoc feedback use at a slower tempo was an observed characteristic of case study C. Figure 1. Musical excerpt of Mozart Piano Sonata No. 16 in C Video QDA for musical behaviours examined pedagogical major, K. 545, second movement, bars 1-4 uses of additional auditory feedback across case studies. Auditory feedback which was available in lessons was systematically analysed through the use of the Study Your Musical Practice (SYMP) software developed by Demos & Chaffin (2009) for individual musical practice. In this study, the SYMP software template was customized for musical behaviours (playing and listening back) in piano lessons with the application of technology-mediated feedback. Findings of this video QDA suggested that additional auditory feedback could be: (1) in real-time for the moments where the

45 IV. CONCLUSION Visual feedback generated by technology was used pedagogically in higher education piano studios. The pedagogical uses of additional visual feedback encompassed: in real-time and post-hoc which are not commonly available in one-to-one conventional piano lessons. In line with Welch et al. (2005) in the singing studio context, real-time visual feedback generated by technology can benefit piano learning and teaching since the teacher can assess student performance in real-time whilst it has been played and recorded. Welch et al. (2005)’s study have discussed the use of real-time visual Figure 2. DAW software screenshot for the real-time visual feedback for enhancing particular musical performance feedback use in case study A parameters and specific voice parameters. This study suggests that real-time visual feedback can enhance piano learning and performance for articulation, and melodic accuracy. Findings of this study complement those of previous research in RTVF instrumental and vocal learning (Brandmeyer, 2006; Sadakata et al., 2008; Welch, 1983, 1985b; Welch et al., 2005). In this current study, performance- related data can be recorded, saved, stored and also played back so that the teacher and the student can compare recorded data and discuss this according to their lesson focus. This study also complements previous piano-related studies (Benson, 1998; Daniel, 2001; Riley, 2005; Tomita & Barber, 2008), particularly those studies (Riley, 2005; Tomita & Barber, 2008) which suggested the use of MIDI protocols

and piano roll based on perspectives of piano students when Figure 3. DAW software screenshot for the post-hoc visual attending a demonstrative workshop showing its benefits. The feedback use in case study A pedagogical uses of visual feedback, in the form of piano roll visualization of the correspondent performance, were explored in piano studios with teacher feedback alongside student Interview QDA investigated the perspectives of performance in this study. participants on several aspects: ideal lesson, the pedagogical Visual feedback uses in higher education piano studios uses of real-time visual feedback, post-hoc auditory feedback augmented intrapersonal feedback not only in terms of and post-hoc visual feedback, and musical performance auditory feedback (Banton, 1995; Finney, 1997) but also in parameters which could be worked on when this technology terms of proprioceptive feedback (Brown & Palmer, 2012; was used in piano lessons. As a preliminary stage, teachers Wöllner & Williamon, 2007) since students became more across case studies reported their aim in teaching the students conscious-aware of their own piano learning and performance. to listen to themselves, i.e. to listen to their performances Metacognitive knowledge (Hallam, 2001), self-regulatory perhaps as the teachers do. Findings of interview QDA skills (Nielsen, 2001), and sense of self (Damasio, 2000) suggested that the use of technology-mediated feedback in might have been augmented since they function as internal piano lessons has enhanced conscious-awareness of the pieces. processes for the intrapersonal feedback of the individual. Teachers and students reported that post-hoc feedback use However, visual feedback uses seemed to depend on the level was beneficial since students listened to their performances of interaction between the individual and technology, as well solely instead of listening and playing at the same time as as their preferences in using either auditory or visual feedback. happens in a conventional one-to-one piano lesson. A change The pedagogical uses of visual feedback were in the learning process was noticed by both students and demonstrated to have similar and different characteristics teachers. The use of technology-mediated feedback made the from a one-to-one conventional piano lesson, which is in line lesson foci clearer and well-defined, and also made the with Savage (2007). Similar characteristics are related to the learning process quicker. However, students and teachers types of verbal and non-verbal feedback linked to music disagreed when they reported on the changes in the teaching notation and performance which are commonly available in approaches. Students noted that the use of this technology piano lessons (Benson & Fung 2005; Burwell 2010; Hamond system brought a change to the piano studio environment, 2013; Siebenaler 1997). Different characteristics are related to since it allowed them to focus on listening immediately after the type of verbal and non-verbal feedback on technology playing the piano piece rather than playing it and listening at aspects which can also be associated with music notation and the same time. In contrast, teachers did not perceive a change performance and promote associative learning (Brown & in their teaching styles since they were focusing on aspects Palmer, 2012; Mathias et al., 2015). These similar and which they usually work on alongside students in different characteristics of the pedagogical uses of visual conventional piano lessons such as articulation, dynamics, and feedback might have impacted the different views of students phrasing, as well as use of the technology system. and teachers on the changes in teaching approaches, even though a change in the learning process was agreed.

46 Future research is needed in order to explore the Brown, R. M., & Palmer, C. (2012). Auditory-motor learning application of this new pedagogical tool in a longitudinal influences auditory memory for music. Memory & Cognition, study. Other aspects which can also be investigated are: the 40(4), 567-578. doi: 10.3758/s13421-011-0177-x frequency of use of the technology system, the Burwell, K. (2010). Instrumental teaching and learning in Higher Education. (PhD). University of Kent, Canterbury. appropriateness of repertoire, the level of expertise of the Creech, A., & Gaunt, H. (2012). The changing face of individual student, and the stage of the learning process (i.e. sight- instrumental tuition: Value, purpose and potential. In G. reading, memorisation, etc.). McPherson & G. Welch (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Music In conclusion, visual feedback generated by technology Education (Vol.1, pp. 694-711). Oxford: Oxford University can optimize traditional one-to-one piano pedagogical Press. approaches. Outcomes of this research might benefit and Damasio, A. (2000). The feeling of what happens : body and emotion impact a student’s self-study and performance monitoring in the making of consciousness. London: Heinemann. prior to a live performance, digital piano instrument learning Daniel, R. (2001). Self-assessment in performance. British Journal of and performance, and evaluation of teacher’s feedback Music Education, 18(3), 215-226. Demos, A. P., & Chaffin, R. (2009). A software tool for studying effectiveness. music practice: SYMP (Study Your Music Practice). Poster presented at the European Society for the Cognitive Sciences of ACKNOWLEDGMENT Music (ESCOM), Jyväskylä, Finland. Retrieved from I am very grateful to the participants of this study. I thank http://musiclab.uconn.edu/wp- very much Professor Graham F. Welch and Dr. Evangelos content/uploads/sites/290/2013/10/DemosESCOM-Poster.pdf Himonides of the UCL Institute of Education, University [Last accessed 23/08/2016] College London for the knowledge and experience shared as Finney, S. A. (1997). Auditory feedback and musical keyboard performance. Music Perception, 15(2), 153-174. my supervisors during my PhD journey. I also acknowledge François, A. R. J., Chew, E., & Thurmond, D. (2007). Visual the scholarship I received from the Brazilian government feedback in performer-machine interaction for musical CAPES (Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de improvisation. Paper presented at the NIME07, New York, NY. Nível Superior) which funded four years of full-time Retrieved from international tuition and maintenance fees as a PhD student in http://www.nime.org/proceedings/2007/nime2007_277.pdf [Last the UK. acessed 23/08/2016] Gibson, J. J. (1968). The Senses Considered as Perceptual Systems. REFERENCES London: Allen & Unwin. Guba, E. G. (1981). Criteria for assessing the trustworthiness of Acitores, A. P. (2011). Towards a theory of proprioception as a naturalistic inquiries. Educational Communication and bodily basis for consciousness in music. In D. Clarke & E. Technology, 29(2), 75-91. Clarke (Eds.), Music and consciousness: Philosophical, Hallam, S. (1998). Instrumental teaching: a practical guide to better psychological, and cultural perspectives (pp. 215-231). Oxford: teaching and learning. Oxford: Heinemann. Oxford University Press. Hallam, S. (2001). The development of metacognition in musicians: Annett, J. (1969). Feedback and human behaviour: the effects of implications for education. British Journal of Music Education, knowledge of results, incentives and reinforcement on learning 18(1), 27-39. doi: 10.1017/S0265051701000122 and performance. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Hamond, L. (2013). Feedback on elements of piano performance: Banton, L. J. (1995). The role of visual and auditory feedback during Two case studies in higher education studio. In A. Williamon & the sight-reading of music. Psychology of Music, 23(1), 3-16. doi: W. Goebl (Eds.), Proceedings of the International Symposium on 10.1177/0305735695231001 Performance Science 2013 (pp. 33-38). Brussels: European Benson, C. (1998). The effects of instructional media on group piano Association of Conservatoires. student performance achievement and attitude. (D.M.A.), Hamond, L. (2017). The pedagogical use of technology-mediated University of Texas, Austin. feedback in a higher education piano studio: an exploratory Benson, C., & Fung, C. V. (2005). Comparisons of teacher and action-case study. (PhD), University College London, Institute student behaviors in private piano lessons in China and the of Education, London. United States. International Journal of Music Education, 23(1), Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. 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47 http://nime.org/proceedings/2013/nime2013_240.pdf [Last accessed 23/08/2016] Mozart, W. A. (1938). Sonaten für Klavier zu zwei Händen [Piano Sonatas], K. 545 [Piano score]. Leipzig: Peters (Original work published 1788). Retrieved from http://imslp.org/ on 21/12/2015. Riley, K. (2005). Understanding piano playing through students’ perspectives on performance analysis and learning. American Music Teacher, 54(6), 33-37. Sadakata, M., Hoppe, D., Brandmeyer, A., Timmers, R., & Desain, P. (2008). Real-time visual feedback for learning to perform short rhythms with expressive variations in timing and loudness. Journal of New Music Research, 37(3), 207-220. doi: 10.1080/09298210802322401 Savage, J. (2007). Reconstructing music education through ICT. Research in Education, 78(1), 65-77. Schmidt, R. A., & Lee, T. D. (2011). Motor control and learning : a behavioral emphasis. (5th ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Schwartz, M. S., & Andrasik, F. (2003). Biofeedback: A practitioner's guide. New York, NY: Guilford Press. Shenton, A. K. (2004). Strategies for ensuring trustworthiness in qualitative research projects. Education for Information, 22(2), 63-75. Siebenaler, D. J. (1997). Analysis of teacher-student interactions in the piano lessons of adults and children. Journal of Research in Music Education, 45(1), pp. 6-20. Tomita, Y., & Barber, G. (2008). New technology and piano study in higher education: Getting the most out of computer-controlled player pianos. British Journal of Music Education, 13(2), 135- 141. doi: 10.1017/S0265051700003107 Welch, G. F. (1983). Improvability of poor pitch singing: experiments in feedback. (PhD). Institute of Education, University of London, London. Welch, G. F. (1985a). A schema theory of how children learn to sing in tune. Psychology of Music, 13(1), 3-18. Welch, G. F. (1985b). Variability of practice and knowledge of results as factors in learning to sing in tune. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 85, 238-247. Welch, G. F., Howard, D. M., Himonides, E., & Brereton, J. (2005). Real-time feedback in the singing studio: an innovatory action- research project using new voice technology. Music Education Research, 7(2), 225-249. doi: 10.1080/14613800500169779 Wiener, N. (1961). Cybernetics: or, control and communication in the animal and the machine. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Wöllner, C., & Williamon, A. (2007). An exploratory study of the role of performance feedback and musical imagery in piano playing. Research Studies in Music Education, 29(1), 39-54. doi: 10.1177/1321103X07087567

48 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

Investigating the Development of Joint Attentional Skills in Early Ontogeny Through Musical Joint Action

Marvin Heimerich1, Kimberly Severijns2, Sabrina Kierdorf, Kevin Kaiser, Philippe Janes, Rie Asano Department of Systematic Musicology, University of Cologne, Germany [email protected], [email protected]

enhancement of joint attention. “Gaze targeting” (social gaze) ABSTRACT was chosen as it allows us to control for other types of social gaze that are not part of joint attention. In contrast, “Rocking”, Background “clapping” and “singing” (musical gestures) indicate musical Joint attention is a set of non-verbal, communicative interactive behavior. By examining the relation between the behaviors (“joint attentional skills”), which are proposed to two categories social gaze and musical gestures, it is possible emerge in early ontogeny during the period of 9 to 15 months to investigate whether children’s interactive behaviors are (Carpenter et al., 1998). It is an important basis for joint linked to an enhancement of joint attentional skills. In action, i.e. coordinating attention and intention to act mutually addition to presenting and discussing the design of our coding to bring about a change in the environment (Knoblich & scheme, we report results from our first application of this Sebanz, 2008). Although the emergence of joint attention has coding scheme. been extensively studied through examining joint attentional skills in early ontogeny, research on their possible Conclusions enhancement alongside the children’s social cognitive To the best of our knowledge, our study is the first development is rare. Especially, research on a possible empirical study investigating the developmental trajectory of enhancement exceeding the period of the development of joint attention by examining a possible enhancement of joint social cognitive mechanisms like empathy and Theory of attention through gaze following in a natural musical joint Mind is still missing. action setting. Furthermore, if there is an enhancement of joint We hypothesize that joint attention, scaffolding social attention, we are able to report on a possible correlation interaction as well as higher level social cognitive between enhanced joint attention and increasing social mechanisms, enhances alongside further social cognitive interaction through musical gestures. Although joint attention development. forms the basis for musical joint action, the nature of a possible relationship between enhanced joint attention and Aims social interactive behavior is still unclear. The goal of our current study is to investigate whether joint attentional skills show enhancement in the later course of Keywords development, namely after 15 months of age. Additionally, social interaction; development; joint attention; gaze; our study aims at investigating if this enhancement potentially musical joint action; structured observation corresponds to increasingly more complex social interactions such as making music together. REFERENCES Carpenter, M., Nagell, K., Tomasello, M., Butterworth, M., Moore, Method C. (1998). Social Cogntion, Joint Attention, and Communicative An observational study was conducted with children of Competence from 9 to 15 Months of Age. Monographs of the different age-groups (1.5–2.5 y; 3–4 y; 5–6 y) in a musical Society for Research in Child Development, 63(4), 1-174. joint action setting (music education for young children) in Falck-Ytter, T., Thorup, E., & Bolte, S. (2015). Brief report: Lack of which children were free to move, sing and clap together processing bias for the objects other people attend to in 3-year- olds with autism. J Autism Dev Disord, 45(6), 1897-1904. under the guidance of a tutor. Structured observation in a Knoblich, G., Sebanz, N. (2008). Evolving intentions for social musical joint action setting allows us to examine children’s interaction: from entrainment to joint action. Philosophical nonverbal interactive behavior in an ecologically valid group Transactions of Royal Society B, 12(36), 2021-2031. interaction environment independently of their language skill. Results Joint attentional skills and non-verbal interactive behavior are coded in terms of two categories: social gaze (gaze targeting and gaze following) and musical gestures (rocking, clapping, and singing). “Gaze following” was chosen as a code because it is a key component of joint attention (Falck- Ytter et al., 2015) and easily observable in a natural interactive setting. A possible quantitative increase in coding “gaze following” (Social gaze) would portend an

49 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

How the Rhythm is Actually Performed in the First Movement of the Beethoven’s Seventh Symphony Dasaem Jeong1, Juhan Nam2 Graduate School of Culture Technology, KAIST, Republic of Korea [email protected], [email protected]

ABSTRACT The first movement of Beethoven’s Seventh Symphony uses a characteristic rhythm pattern throughout its main section. We analyzed 62 recordings of this movement by semi-manual method aided by audio signal processing to examine how accurately this rhythm pattern was performed in selected excerpts. The result showed that only few recordings performed this rhythm accurately as Figure 1. “Amsterdam” rhythm it is notated. In most of the cases, the rhythm was not accurate and its characteristic as a compound meter was diluted. We found that the Though this rhythm seems relatively easy to play, some rhythmic accuracy was mainly varied by musical texture of excerpts. conductors pointed out that the rhythm can be easily distorted Some conductors like Karajan, C. Kleiber, and Gardiner performed if the musicians do not pay enough attention in this symphony. the rhythm more accurately than the others in most of the excerpts. Gunther Schuller introduced his own classification of various The analysis result says that the recordings of American orchestras recordings according to rhythmic accuracy. He insisted that showed lower rhythmic accuracy than Austro-German orchestras or only Carlos Kleiber and Jeffrey Tate’s recording achieved the early music orchestras. rhythmic precision constantly through the whole movement (Schuller, 1997). This analysis is a surprise considering that I. INTRODUCTION the Seventh symphony is frequently performed all around the Despite that few scholars like Nicolas Cook (Cook, 1999) world and has been recorded for numerous times. Normal del and José Antonio Bowen (Bowen, 1996) argued the Mar also mentioned that there is a danger of “degeneration” of importance of music performance analysis, there was not the Amsterdam rhythm especially in the measure 195 to 200, enough research on music performance analysis in the where the strings play this rhythm repeatedly (Norman, 2002). musicology area. One of the reason is that there is no The difficulty of playing the Amsterdam rhythm causes a quantitative representation of the performance. In case of characteristic difference in the performances and thus music analysis, scholars analyze and debate about the music provides interesting examples for studying rhythm using the score, which consists of quantitative and objective performance in orchestra music. Also, this movement contains information. But there is no proper standard way to measure a lot of homorhythmic texture, which make the onset the characteristic of each performance. The question of detection much easier and more correct. Furthermore, the measuring still lies on the performance analysis. Amsterdam rhythm appears in different instrumentation and Unlike other musical characteristics, the rhythm is a articulation throughout the movement. Therefore, we can relatively easy feature to measure from an audio recording. By survey several factors that effect on rhythm performance by detecting note onsets from a recording, one can analyze the analyzing recordings of this piece. rhythmic characteristic of the performance. Recent research Please note that the goal of this research is not evaluating applied an onset detection algorithm for estimating swing the artistic value of performances. We do not want to argue ratios in jazz recordings (Dittmar, 2015). The research that the rhythm should be always performed strictly as it is analyzed the swing ratio of professional jazz drummers based notated. In this research, we use the term “rhythmic accuracy” on the onset timing of ride cymbal. This approach can be also only in a mathematical context, not in an aesthetic context. applied to classical music, if rhythmic ratio is an important factor of performance. II. METHODS Beethoven’s Seventh symphony is well known for its Our first approach was applying automatic onset detection constant use of characteristic rhythmic pattern. Each of the algorithms that was introduced by Duxbury, Sandler, and movements, especially the first, second, and fourth movement, Davies (2002), and Dittmar, Pfleiderer, and Müller (2015). repeats the characteristic rhythmic patterns obsessively. The The first one suggested an onset function based on subband main vivace section of the first movement is in six-eight time, decomposition of spectral energy. The research also proposed and starts with the specific rhythm pattern as below, also a smoothing scheme for calculating the transient difference of known as an “Amsterdam rhythm”. This rhythm is a variation spectral energy. The second research employed spectral of a crotchet followed by a quaver, which is a typical rhythm energy difference for detecting onsets. The goal of this pattern in six-eight time. research was estimating swing ratios of jazz drummers, and the authors proposed two methods to calculate a swing ratio:

50 calculating based on onset detection, and employing log-lag auto-correlation function. We have applied these algorithms to recordings of the

Beethoven’s symphony, but the results were not enough reliable because of two reasons. First, the onsets of orchestral Figure 2. Three different types of Amsterdam Rhythm in the sound are not sharp enough to determine exact onset time. The first movement of Beethoven's Seventh Symphony orchestral instruments have softer attacks compare to a piano or a drum set. Also, though orchestra musicians are trained to The selected excerpts are explained in below. The score play the music in synchronous way, it is physically impossible reduction was done by the first author based on Bärenreiter for all players to play notes at the exactly same moment. edition of the score. During the analysis, we found some cases that show a separation of an onset played in tutti. Second, because of the fast tempo, an onset interval is too short to be detected separately. Dull onset peaks and short onset intervals make the log-lag autocorrelation function impossible to distinguish an onset of semiquaver and quaver. Above all, detecting every onset with perfect precision and accuracy in fully-automatic way is unachievable even with the state-of-art algorithm. Figure 3. Excerpt (i) Therefore, based on the onset detection functions, we found every onset in semi-manual way. We used temporal The excerpt (i) is the beginning of Vivace, which is from difference of spectral energy within certain frequency range, measure 63 to 66, and the very first part that plays this as same with the research of Dittmar (2015) for the onset rhythmic pattern. In this excerpt, only the flute and oboe solo detection function. First, we calculate the short-time Fourier plays the rhythm at the beginning and other woodwind transform (STFT) of selected audio clip, which can be instruments join later. We omitted last three notes because represented as !(#, %), where # and % denotes index of time many recordings include tempo rubato in this section. window and frequency bin respectively. Then, we derive log- STFT like ' #, % ≔ log(1 + . ∙ ! #, % ), with a proper constant . ≥ 1 . The transient sound in onset part can be estimated from the difference between time frames in this log- STFT. Instead of using the difference between only adjacent frames, we also consider the difference be following the previous research (Duxbury, Sandler & Davies, 2002). The Figure 4. Excerpt (ii) onset detection function 123 # can be represented as below: = 8 ' # − 7, % 123 # = ' #, % − . The excerpt (ii) is from measure 195 to 200, which is the 9:; 7 beginning development section. Only the strings play the >:; We plot this onset detection function of the audio clip, Amsterdam rhythm with the repeated pitch. then estimate the onset positions on the graph. After marking the onsets, we listen to the audio-clip with tick sounds at the marker positions in slow playback speed so that we can refine the onset position. This procedure is repeated until we consider that the onset positions are well synchronized with the actual audio clip. Then we measure the length of each note, Figure 5. Excerpt (iii) and (iv) and calculated rhythm ratio ? ≔ (@AB + @CD)/@D from each set of three notes that form the Amsterdam rhythm (Figure 1). If The excerpt (iii) is from measure 205 to 206. In this the music is performed exactly as notated in the score, the excerpt, the entire woodwind instruments and horns play the rhythm ratio ? becomes 2. Amsterdam rhythm, while the second violin plays another accompaniment rhythm. III. EXPERIMENT The excerpt (iv) is from measure 211 to 212, which is Among the first movement of the Seventh Symphony, we almost same with the third excerpt except that there is no selected eleven different excerpts that contain the Amsterdam accompaniment by the second violins and the wind rhythm, so that we can examine the difference in rhythm instruments play the different pitch. performance according to the instrumentation and rhythm pattern. There are three different types of rhythm, which can be represent as Figure 2.

Figure 6. Excerpt (v)

51 The excerpt (v) is from measure 217 to 219. Here, the strings and woodwinds play the rhythm (a) alternately.

Figure 7. Excerpt (vi) Figure 12. Excerpt (xi)

The excerpt (vi) is from measure 250 to 253. In this The last one, excerpt (xi) is from 445 to 447, which is the excerpt, the strings and the woodwinds with horns play the ending part of the movement and also the very last part that rhythm B alternately. plays the Amsterdam rhythm. We have selected 62 recordings, which include 44 conductors and 34 orchestras. To examine the influence of a conductor or an orchestra on the rhythm performance, we included multiple recordings by the same conductor or orchestras. The selected recordings are listed at the end of the paper. We have implemented an audio-to-audio alignment Figure 8. Excerpt (vii) algorithm by Ewert, Müller and Grosche (2009) to auto- matically find the playing position of each excerpt in each recording. The excerpt (vii) is from 254 to 255, in which the whole orchestra plays the rhythm (b) simultaneously. IV. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

A. Influence of musical characteristics on the rhythm ratio We calculated the rhythm ratio and compared them according to the excerpts. The box plot on the Figure 13 Figure 9. Excerpt (viii) shows the average rhythm ratio ? of selected recordings for each excerpt. The performed rhythm ratio was lower than The excerpt (viii) is from 268 to 271, where the whole ideal value 2 for most of the recording in every excerpt. As we strings play the rhythm B in different pitch. expected, the rhythm ratios were clearly different according to the musical characteristics of the excerpts.

Figure 10. Excerpt (ix)

The excerpt (ix) is from measure 423 to 426, where the entire orchestra plays rhythm A simultaneously. Figure 13. Box plot of measured rhythm ratio of 62 recordings according to the excerpts. Most of the recordings showed lower rhythm ratio than it is notated. Also, there are clear differences of rhythm ratios between each excerpt.

The most accurately performed excerpt was the excerpt (v), in which the strings and woodwinds play the rhythm (a) alternately, so that none of the orchestra plays the rhythm Figure 11, Excerpt (x) continuously. Compare to the other excerpts that contains repetitive rhythm (a) played by strings or woodwinds (e.g. The excerpt (x) is from 432 to 437. Here, strings and excerpt (ii), (iii), (iv)), the excerpt (v) was performed more woodwinds with horns play the rhythm (c) alternatively. accurately. The similar results with the rhythm (b) can be examined by comparing the result of excerpt (vi) and (vii). This result suggests that orchestra musicians may play this

52 rhythm more accurately if they do not play it repetitively higher rhythm ratio in the excerpt (iv), but these performances without rest. added additional string accompaniment pattern of excerpt (iii) On the other hand, the most inaccurate part was the into the excerpt (iv), so that there were no differences in excerpt (x), where the strings and woodwinds play the rhythm musical text except the pitch. alternately, but in rhythm (c) that starts from the upbeat. This The result also shows that the excerpt only performed by upbeat characteristic is the main difference between the the strings (excerpt (ii) and (viii)) showed a lower rhythmic excerpt (v) and (x), except that the (x) includes horns. We accuracy compared to the excerpt performed by the found in the excerpt (x) that the most of the recordings play woodwinds (excerpt (i), (iii), and (iv)) or the entire orchestra this upbeat quaver much longer than it is notated, so that the (excerpt (f), (i)). This result implies that string players have length of the quaver is almost half of the beat, rather than third more difficulties in playing the Amsterdam rhythm repeatedly. of it. This suggests that the musicians had a certain tendency In addition, the excerpt (viii) showed the lowest deviation of 2 6 to play this upbeat pattern in , instead of . Though this kind rhythm ratio between the recordings. The deviation of rhythm 4 8 ratio may indicate how much a conductor or an orchestra can of tendency exists throughout the whole 6 section, it is most 8 make an effect on performing the rhythm. The large deviation definite in this upbeat pattern. in the result of excerpt (iii) implies that the rhythm ratio in We found that musicians tend to perform rhythm (a) more this excerpt can be affected by whether a conductor or an accurately than rhythm (b) by comparing three tutti excerpts, orchestra is aware and conscious of this rhythm issue. On the (vii), (ix), and (xi). In these excerpts, every instrument in other hand, the low deviation of rhythm ratio at the excerpt (g) orchestra plays the rhythm (b) in the (vii) and (xi), and the may suggest that a conductor or an orchestra has a tendency of rhythm (a) in the (ix). The rhythm ratios of excerpt (vii) and not being aware of the rhythm issue at this part, or an (xi) are similar by and large. But the ratio of (ix) is higher orchestra has a difficulty on playing this rhythm accurately than the other two. In rhythm (a), the first note is dotted regardless of their awareness and effort to play rhythm quaver, while it is separated into a quaver followed by a correctly. semiquaver rest in rhythm (b). Therefore, many conductors and orchestras tends to play rhythm (a) tenuto, and rhythm (b) B. Influence of musicians on the rhythm ratio staccato. The result of rhythm ratio indicates that this subtle We made two hypotheses about musician’s influence on change in articulation can have an effect on the timing of the rhythm ratio. The first hypothesis is that an overall rhythm following notes, the semiquaver and the quaver; the musicians ratio throughout this movement is a musician’s own tended to play the third note of the rhythm set bit earlier than characteristic. If the hypothesis is correct, the multiple it is notated when the first note of set is played staccato. recordings of a conductor or an orchestra will show similar This tendency can be also verified by comparing excerpt rhythm ratio to each other. The second hypothesis is that some (v) and (vi). Though there are other different factors that there conductors or orchestras pay more attention on performing the are additional horns or each rhythm pattern is followed by rhythm so that they can play it more accurately than the others additional crotchet on the next beat in excerpt (vi), we can still in the most of selected excerpt. If this hypothesis is reasonable, assume that the difference in articulation is an important we would find a statistically meaningful difference between factor to explain this result. the result of a certain musician and the others. Influence of conductors. Figure 15. shows the distribution of mean BPM and rhythm ratio across the eleven excerpts of each recording. Each data point denotes a single recording. We highlighted a few of the conductors included in our test set more than once. As shown in the figure, the recordings of Gardiner, Celibidache, Böhm, Furtwängler, Abbado, and Szell showed the similar rhythm ratio for both times. We have included four recordings of Karajan, Kleiber and Rattle respectively, and their standard deviation of rhythm ratio (0.0497, 0.0443, 0.0457) was smaller than the deviation of the Figure 14. Rhythm ratio difference between the excerpt (iii) and entire recording set (0.0720). On the other hand, Thielemann’s (iv). The excerpt (iii) is marked with circles and the excerpt (iv) is two recordings made standard deviation of 0.0781, which is marked with triangles. larger than the entire recording set. We verified the heteroscedasticity in mean rhythm ratio of recordings by same conductor compare to recordings by other The difference caused by musical texture can be observed conductors using Levene’s test, which is less sensitive to by comparing the result of excerpt (iii) and excerpt (iv) as departure from normality. Since there are too few samples per shown in Figure 14. We can infer the effect of the string conductor, we failed to find statistically meaningful ( J < accompaniment on the rhythmic accuracy of woodwind 0.05) difference in variance of mean rhythm ratio. If we lower instruments from this comparison. The most of the recordings the standard (J < 0.2), there are three conductors (Böhm, that performed excerpt (iii) with a high rhythmic ratio (r > 1.9) Furtwängler, Gardiner) whose two recordings had smaller showed a ratio decrease about 0.2 or more at excerpt (iv). This variance compare to variance of the other recordings. To indicates that their high rhythmic accuracy at the excerpt (d) determine whether this hypothesis is reasonable, we need was largely derived from the accompaniment of the second more recordings by the same conductor. violins, which divide the rhythm with semiquavers. There were two recordings (Salonen and Pletnev) that showed

53 The result is shown in Figure 17. Here we could not find clear correlation between the orchestra and the rhythm ratio. The recording with the VPO showed higher rhythm ratio than the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra (BPO) or the Philharmonia Orchestra (PO) under Karajan’s baton, but also showed lower rhythm ratio than the BPO with Abbado, and the PO with Thielemann. The recordings of Böhm and Furtwängler showed almost same average rhythm ratio regardless of the orchestra. One of the possible reasons for this irregularity is that there are about 30 years of gap between Karajan and Abbado or Thielemann’s recordings.

Figure 15. Scatter plot of analysis result of the recordings using mean value of rhythm ratio and tempo across the excerpts. Each data point indicates a single recording.

We examined the second hypothesis, that some conductors perform the Amsterdam rhythm more accurately than others in most of the excerpts, by using a Wilcoxon rank sum test. We used a recording’s ranking of rhythm ratio in each excerpt compare to the other recordings, instead of absolute value of rhythm ratio. This assumes that some conductors will rank high in most of the excerpts. We avoided using absolute value of the ratio because the ratio varies greatly depending on the excerpt, so that the within-group variance becomes similar to Figure 17. Scatter plot of recordings of the selected conductors, the between-group variance when comparing the result of whose recording with VPO was included in our experiment set. each recording. We checked every conductor whether they show meaningful difference in ratio rankings by the one-vs- But in statistical analysis, we could find a certain level of rest method. heteroscedasticity (p<0.15) in mean rhythm ratio of VPO and BPO’s recordings compare to the other recordings. This indicates that within-group variance of VPO or BPO is lower than variance of the entire recording sets, which is same with the argument of the first hypothesis. For more confident result, we need additional recordings of the same orchestra. We can apply the same Wilcoxon rank sum test to verify the second hypothesis on orchestras. But the problem is that orchestra and conductor variables were severely entangled so that we cannot separate them each other. For example, the Orchestre Révolutionnaire et Romantique is only conducted

by Gardiner, and also Gardiner conducted only this orchestra Figure 16. Box plot of Ranking of rhythm ratios from excerpts in our training set. There are same relations in Jansons and according to conductors. 10 conductors that showed meaningful Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra, and Vänskä and difference with the other recordings are presented. High numeric Minnesota Orchestra. value of ranking denotes high rank. Hence, we tried a combination of orchestra to compare each other. We made five orchestra groups as the Table 1. There were ten conductors who showed statically meaningful difference in the ratio ranking; Celibidache, Table 1. Classification of orchestra groups. Refer the end of the Karajan, Kleiber, Gardiner, and Vänskä ranked high while paper for the abbreviations. Dudamel, Herreweghe, Jansons, Szell, and Walter ranked low for the most cases. Therefore, we can conclude that the second Number of Groups Orchestras hypothesis is reasonable in case of conductors. Recordings Austro- BPO, BRSO, BvSO, LGO, MPO, 30 1) Influence of orchestras. To examine the influence of an German NDR, SkB, SkD, VPO orchestra on the rhythm ratio, we compared some recordings USA CO, CSO, LAP, NBC, NYP, MO, 12 of the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra (VPO) to the PdO, PSO recordings of other orchestras, but conducted by the same UK LSO, MC, PO, RPO, 5 conductor. We analyzed eight conductors who recorded the Early Music AAM, AE, AoE, ORR 5 Seventh Symphony with several orchestras including the The Others The rests 10 Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra.

54 orchestras in America showed low accuracy compared to Austro-German orchestras or early music orchestras. However, there were clear limitations caused by limited recording set. We need to analyze more recordings to clearly verify the influence of a conductor or an orchestra on performing the Amsterdam rhythm. Another limitation was that our research was only focused on numerical length ratio of notes, and did not consider other factors that might affect human perception of the rhythm, like an articulation or dynamics of each note of the performance. We hope our Figure 18. Box plot of ranking of rhythm ratio according to the research can be further improved with future research. orchestra group. There was statically meaningful difference between the Austro-German group and USA group or Early REFERENCES Music group and USA group. Beethoven, L. (2000). Symphony No. 7 in A major op. 92, Kassel, Germany: Bärenreiter We compared the distribution of ratio rankings in each Cook, N. (1999). Analysing performance and performing analysis. In excerpt by the orchestra groups. The box plot of the result is N. Cook and M. Everist (Eds.), Rethinking music (pp. 239-61), presented in Figure 18. Oxford: Oxford University Press. The result of Wilcoxon rank sum test showed that there are Dittmar, C., Pfleiderer, M., & Müller, M. (2015). Automated statistically meaningful (J < 0.05) differences between the Estimation of Ride Cymbal Swing Ratios in Jazz Recordings. In orchestras in the USA and Austro-German orchestras, the Proceeding of International Society of Music Information early music orchestras orchestras, or the Others group. The J- Retrieval (ISMIR) (pp. 271-277). value of difference between the Austro-German groups and Del Mar, N. (2002). Conducting Beethoven Volume 1 The Symphonies. New York: Oxford University Press Inc. the Others was 0.0548. The early music orchestra group also Duxbury, C., Sandler, M., & Davies, M. (2002, September). A showed certain level of difference with the Others group (J = hybrid approach to musical note onset detection. In Proceding of 0.0654). Digital Audio Effects Conference (DAFX,’02) (pp. 33-38). The entanglement of conductors and orchestras on Ewert, S., Müller, M., & Grosche, P. (2009). High resolution audio recordings still existed in this group classification. The synchronization using chroma onset features. In Proceeding of conductors of Austro-German orchestras and orchestras from IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal the USA were clearly separated. There were only two Processing (ICASSP) (pp. 1869-1872). IEEE. conductors, Bernstein and Solti, who made recordings with Schuller, G. (1997). The Compleat Conductor. New York: Oxford both Austro-German orchestra and American orchestra. But if University Press Inc. Bowen, J. A. (1996). Tempo, duration, and flexibility: Techniques in we consider the orchestra’s selection of conductor as a the analysis of performance. Journal of Musicological Research, characteristic of the orchestra, this analysis gives a meaningful 16(2), 111-156. result. American orchestras tended to play the Amsterdam rhythm less accurately than the other orchestras, especially the List of Recordings used in the experiments Austro-German orchestras, whether it comes from natural Conductor, Orchestra (Abbreviation) [Label Recording_year] characteristic of musicians in American orchestras, or their (Kleiber denotes Carlos Kleiber, not Erich Kleiber) tendency to perform with the conductors who usually perform Abbado, Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra (BPO) [DG 1999] / Abbado, Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra (VPO) [DG 1987] / Barenboim, Berlin Staatskapelle (SkB) [Warner 1999] / Bernstein, this rhythm less accurately. To establish a exact reason for this New York Philharmonic (NYP) [DG 1990] / Bernstein, VPO [DG 1978] / Blomstedt, Dresden difference, we need more recordings of different orchestra Staatskapelle (SkD) [Brilliant Classics 1975] / Böhm, VPO [DG 1972] / Böhm, BPO [DG 1958] / Boulez, NYP [1975] / Boyd, Manchester Camerata (MC) [Avie 2007] / Brugge, Orchestra of group conducted by a same conductor. the 18th Century (OoE) [Philips 1988] / Celibidache, Stockholm Philharmonia Orchestra [Arkadia 1969] / Celibidache, Munich Philharmonic Orchestra (MPO) [EMI] / Chailly, Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra (LGO) [Decca 2008] / Clutens, BPO [EMI 1960] / Dohnanyi, Cleveland V. CONCLUSION Orchestra [Telarc 1987] / Dudamel, Simon Bolivar Youth Orchestra [DG 2006] / Furtwängler, BPO [DG 1943] / Furtwängler, VPO [EMI 1950] / Gardiner, Orchestré Révolutionnaire et We analyzed 69 recordings of the first movement of Romantique (ORR) [DG 1992] / Gardiner, ORR [SDG 2011] / Haitink, London Symphony Beethoven’s Seventh Symphony, and analyzed how the Orchestra (LSO) [LSO 2005] / Harnoncourt, Chamber Orchestra of Europe [Teldec 1990] / Herreweghe, Royal Flemish Philharmonic [Pentatone 2004] / Hogwood, Academy of Ancient specific rhythm pattern called “Amsterdam” rhythm was Music (AAM) [L’oiseau-Lyre 1989] / Honeck, Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra (PSO) actually performed in the eleven selected excerpts. The result [Reference Recordings 2014] / Immerseel, Anima Eterna (AE) [Zig Zag 2006] / Jansons, Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra (BRSO) [BR Classic 2008] / Jochum, BPO [DG 1952] / showed that the rhythm was performed quite differently from Karajan, SkB [DG 1941] / Karajan, Philharmonia Orchestra (PO) [EMI 1951] / Karajan, VPO as it is notated so that its characteristic as a compound meter [Decca 1959] / Karajan BPO [DG 1962] / Kleiber, VPO [DG 1975] / Kleiber, Bavaria State Orchestra (BvSO) [Orfeo 1982] / Kleiber, Amsterdam Concertgebouw Orchestra [Philips, 1983] is diluted. The performance of the Amsterdam rhythm varied / Kleiber, BvSO [Memories Excellence 1986] / Klemperer, PO [Documents 1966] / Krivine, Le largely depending on the musical texture of the excerpt. Chamber Philharmonique [Naïve 2010] / Leibowitz, Royal Philharmonic Orchestra (RPO) [1961] / Masur, LGO [Philips 1972] / Monteux, French National Orchestra [Music & Arts 1952] Musicians tended to play this rhythm less accurately when / Ormandy, Philadelphia Orchestra (PdO) [1964] / Pletnev, Russian National Orchestra [DG they repeat this rhythm continuously. Playing the first note of 2006] / Rattle, VPO [EMI 2002] / Rattle, BPO [Digital Concert Hall 2008] / Rattle, BPO [Digital Concert Hall 2012] / Rattle, BPO [Digital Concert Hall 2015] / Salonen, Los Angeles the rhythm pattern tenuto instead of staccato made the rhythm Philharmonic (LAP) [DG 2006] / Scherchen, VPO [Tahra 1954] / Solti, VPO [Decca 1958] / more accurately. Also, the result showed that the strings are Solti, Chicago Symphony Orchestra (CSO) [Decca 1972] / Szell, NYP [West Hill Radio Archive 1943] / Szell, CO [Sony 1959] / Tate SkD [EMI 1986] / Thielemann, PO [DG 1996] / less probable to play the rhythm accurately. By analyzing the Thilemeann, VPO [C Major 2009] / Toscanini, NBC Symphony Orchestra (NBC) [RCA] / Vänskä, Minnesota Orchestra (MO) [BIS 2008] / Walter, NYP [Music & Arts 1951] / Wand, result according to conductors and orchestras, we founded that NDR Symphony Orchestra (NDR) [RCA 1987] / Zinman, Tonhalle Orchestra Zürich [Arte some conductors performed this rhythm more accurately than Nova 1997] others. Another interesting analysis was that recordings by

55 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

The Effect of Socio-Cultural Identity on Musical Distaste

Elizabeth Kunde1, Kate Leonard, Jim Borling Radford University, Virginia, USA [email protected]

boundaries and depth of the relationship between musical ABSTRACT distaste and personal identity. Background Keywords Many researchers strive to know what music people enjoy. musical distaste, music therapy, socio-cultural identity While that aspect of music is clearly important, this one-sided view excludes characteristic musical taste that is just as REFERENCES pertinent: musical distaste. Ackermann (2016) examined Ackermann, T. (2016). "I don't like that!" - Why and what for musical dislike in a series of 21 interviews. The results of we dislike music [poster presentation]. International these interviews suggested that musical distaste is an Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology important aspect in the affirmation of personal identity. The SysMus16, Jyväskylä. following research will expand on Ackermann’s work by Gammond, P. (n.d.). Country music. Oxford Companion to looking directly at socio-cultural identity and musical distaste. Music. Hevner, K. (1936). Experimental studies of the elements of Aims expression The researchers attempted to determine if socio-cultural in music. American Journal of Psychology, 48, 246-268. identities are partially defined by music that the individual Middleton, R. and Manuel, P. (2015). Popular music. Grove dislikes. Music Online. Method Moore, A.F. (2002). Classic rock (ii). Grove Music Online. The participants, who were recruited from two universities Neal, J.R. (2012). Country music. Grove Music Online. and the surrounding area in southwestern Virginia, USA, Tellegen, A., D. Watson, and L. A. Clark (1999). On the completed surveys detailing their socio-cultural identity and dimensional background, and his/her musical taste. Then five excerpts and hierarchical structure of affect. Psychological Science, from the American genres of country (Gammond, n.d.) (Neal, 10, 297-303. 2012), rap (Wilton, n.d.) (Toop, Cheney, & Kajikawa, 2012), Toop, D., Cheney, C., & Kajikawa, L. (2012) Rap. Grove pop (Middleton & Manuel, 2015), classic rock (Moore, 2002) Music (Vallee, 2013), and heavy metal (Walser, n.d.) (Wilton, n.d.) Online. were played and participants completed six surveys to Vallee, M. (2013). Classic rock. Grove Music Online. determine any positive or negative responses to the music as Walser, R. (n.d.). Heavy metal. Grove Music Online. well as levels of dislike for each excerpt. Wilton, P. (n.d.). Heavy metal. Oxford Music Online. Wilton, P. (n.d.). Rap. Oxford Music Online. Results It appears there is a correlation between personal identity and musical distaste in some individuals; the trend appears to be strongest in participants between ages 18 and 27. This age group, when they responded negatively to a song, seemed to be more likely to write that the reason was because of negative familial ties, negative socio-political views on the song’s associated culture, or an inability to relate to or align with the culture of the music. Other age groups when responding to disliked music, wrote more about the music itself as opposed to the associated cultures. Conclusions There appears to be a correlation between musical distaste and personal identity especially in the generation that was born in the 90s. However, research that implements different recordings, different music, better quality delivery systems, and more in-depth forms of data collection such as both a survey and interview are essential to further establish the

56 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

Modes of Listening to Chinese Pentatonicism in Parisian Musical Modernity

John Lam Chun-fai Department of Music, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, China [email protected]

ABSTRACT II. METHOD

How can we listen to modernist manipulations of the anhemitonic Taking into consideration sketch materials housed at the pentatonic scale, which was referred to as ‘gamme chinoise’ Bibliothèque national de France and Paul Sacher Stiftung, I (Chinese scale) in early twentieth-century Paris? This study proposes scrutinised pentatonicism in selected passages from three multiple listening pathways by revealing creative approaches to the representative pieces bearing extra-musical associations with scale at different levels of a musical structure. Drawing on music- theoretical underpinnings and cross-cultural capacities of the scale, China and devised listening models based on analytical this paper scrutinises three representative Parisian pieces bearing readings. Set-theoretical approaches were adopted where extra-musical associations with China and devises modes of listening appropriate. based on analytical readings. It is found that creative approaches range from alteration of dominant ninth chord as pentatonic harmony The selected passages were as follows: (Ravel) and exploitation of pentatonicised octatonic space (Schmitt) to formulation of pentatonic network (Stravinsky). Historically- A. Maurice Ravel: ‘Asie’ from Shéhérazade (1903), bars 83– informed analyses and listening pathways based on the two 87; pentatonic scale-steps – minor third and whole tone – impact on our aural perception of culturally encoded techniques, shed light on cross-cultural dynamics between China and France, and contribute B. Florent Schmitt: ‘Le parapluie chinois’ from Une semaine toward a theory of Chinese pentatonicism in Parisian musical du petit elfe Ferme-l’œil (1912), bars 27–34; modernity. C. Igor Stravinsky: Introduction to Act I of Le rossignol Keywords: Music theory and analysis; pentatonicism; China; Paris; (1908–14), bars 36–43. modernity III. RESULTS I. INTRODUCTION

In view of an expanding scholarship on music-theoretical A range of creative approaches to the Chinese scale were underpinnings and cross-cultural capacities of the anhemitonic unravelled as follows: pentatonic scale, this paper integrates perspectives from both A. Alteration of dominant ninth chord as pentatonic harmony directions in the quest of advancing our understanding of what (Ravel) early twentieth-century Parisian musicians characterised as ‘gamme chinoise’ (Chinese scale). Not only does my B. Exploitation of pentatonicised octatonic space (Schmitt) investigation share the spirit of important Anglophone and French studies (Kopp 1996; Picard 2001; Day O’Connell C. Formulation of pentatonic network (Stravinsky) 2009) by proposing modes of listening to pentatonic practices, but it also advances the efforts of existing Sino-French cultural studies (Tchen 1974; Tao 2001) by placing a special IV. DISCUSSION focus on Parisian musical modernity. Taking a cue from what Marcel Proust (1913) referred to A. Alteration of dominant ninth chord as pentatonic as ‘emploi exclusive de la gamme chinoise’ (exclusive harmony (Ravel) employment of the Chinese scale), this paper probes into the little-understood reception of Chinese pentatonic scale in early The key to understanding the pentatonicism of the passage twentieth-century Paris and places at its focal point novel under scrutiny (Figure 1) lies in a chord mediating the manipulations of the scale. The key questions are: what transition from triadic to pentatonic harmonies. The chord in analytical evidences can be drawn from different levels of a point is placed at the word ‘Chine’ and stands out in a bar musical structure? How can these findings guide our framed by double bar-lines (bar 85). The mediating role of the understanding of and listening to Chinese sounds? ‘Chine’ chord is, I suggest, attributed by its double identity – triadic and pentatonic – which stems from the preceding ninth chord and the ensuing pentatonic harmonies.

57 In the two bars before the ‘Chine’ chord, the three-note and (025) through the four octatonic nodes facilitates an figure, C#-D#-F#, is featured in the vocal melody (‘Je extensive exploitation of the octatonic-III space. In a sense, voudrais voir la Perse, et l’Inde’) and the harmony (right hand the octatonic space is pentatonicised. of the piano). In the two bars after the ‘Chine’ chord, another three-note figure, D-F-G, is featured in the vocal melody (‘sous les ombrelles’) and the top line of the accompaniment.

Figure 1. ‘Asie’, bars 84–87.

The two figures – C#-D#-F# and D-F-G – are both (025) sets, but they are contextualised differently: the former set is heard in a ninth chord (B-D#-F#-(A)-C#) while the latter set in harmonies derivable from the pentatonic scale (Bb-C-D-F-G). In this light, the ‘Chine’ chord can be viewed as a chromatically heightened ninth chord (C-E-G-Bb-D) which is slightly altered (C-F-G-Bb-D) in order to accommodate all the five notes of the Bb pentatonic scale. The set-class (025), Figure 2. ‘Le parapluie chinois’, bars 26–34. highlighted in the ‘Chine’ chord (right hand of the piano), forms the basis of the chord’s triadic-pentatonic nature and contributes to its mediating role. C. Formulation of pentatonic network (Stravinsky)

Embedded in the orchestral fabric of the passage under B. Exploitation of pentatonicised octatonic space scrutiny (Figure 3) are two ascending lines of strings marked (Schmitt) flautando. Stravinsky’s sketch for these eight bars shows that the string lines were conceived as a cascade of thirds A cultivation of an octatonic sound world with pentatonic (Taruskin 1996), which, I propose, can be viewed as an sets is at work in the passage under scrutiny (Figure 2). The intricate pentatonic network. passage is mainly built around two pentatonic set-classes – (0358) and its subset (025) – retrievable from the Chinese- In the sketch, eight thirds are drafted at a perfect fourth inspired theme, yet not a single note involved falls outside the higher and with halved values. Beamed four by four, the octatonic scale starting with F# and G, or what Pieter van den thirds present a two-by-two harmonic pattern of minor third Toorn (1983) designated as ‘octatonic collection III’. and major third. If the upper and lower notes of each harmonic thirds are considered separately, it can be observed At the start of this passage (bars 27–28), the theme based that each of the two layers is made up of a linear pattern of on the tetrachord, A#-C#-D#-F#, is heard with two other minor third and major second, or (025) in set-theoretical terms. layers of the same tetrachord. It is restated literally at a minor A reading of the first two consecutive sets of the upper layer – third above as C#-E-F#-A (bars 29–30), and accompanied by Bb-C#-Eb-F#-Ab – reveals the orthographically veiled (025) in the form of ornamented percussive chords. The theme presence of the black-key pentatonic scale. If the is then transposed yet a minor third higher as E-G-A-C (bars characteristic intervallic pattern is extended until the first 31–33) and fragmented to produce (025). Up to this point, the harmonic third is reached again, a series of twelve pentatonic music has been organised at three of the four minor-third scales would be formed along the circle of fifths. The orderly related octatonic nodes – F#, A and C – which are inferable yet out-of-phase transitions of pentatonic spaces in the two from the changes of key signature. Further T3 operations in layers interact with each other and transform their respective quick succession (bar 34) bring (025) to the last node Eb and pentatonic sonorities. In this light, an underlying pentatonic finally back to the starting node F#. The circulation of (0358) network lurks behind the cascade of thirds.

58

Figure 3. Introduction to Act I of Le rossignol, bars 36–43.

V. CONCLUSIONS

Preliminary research shows that creative approaches to the Chinese scale under discussion drew on the pentatonic set- class (025). The two pentatonic scale-steps integral to this set- class – minor third and whole tone – are fundamental to our understanding of and listening to Chinese pentatonicism in Parisian musical modernity.

REFERENCES

Day-O’Connell, Jeremy. (2009). Debussy, Pentatonicism, and the Tonal Tradition. Music Theory Spectrum 31(2), 225–61. Kopp, David. (1997). Pentatonic Organization in Two Piano Pieces of Debussy. Journal of Music Theory 41(2), 261–87. Lorent, Catherine. (2012). Florent Schmitt. Paris, Bleu nuit éditeur. Orenstein, Arbie. (1975). Ravel: Man and Musician. New York: Columbia University Press. Orledge, Robert. (1982). Debussy and the Theatre. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Picard, François. (2001). Modalité et pentatonisme: deux univers musicaux à ne pas confondre. Analyse Musicale 38, 37–46. Proust, Marcel. (1913). Du côté de chez Swann. Paris: Grasset. Tao, Ya-bing. (2001). Mingqingjian de zhongxi yinyue jiaoliu. (Musical Exchanges between the East and the West in the Ming and the Qing Dynasties). Beijing, Dongfang chubanshe. Taruskin, Richard. (1996). Stravinsky and the Russian Tradition: A Biography of the Works through Mavra. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Tchen, Ysia. (1974). La musique chinoise en France au XVIIIe siècle. Paris: Publications orientalistes de France. Van den Toorn, Pieter. (1983). The Music of Igor Stravinsky. New Haven: Yale University Press.

59 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

An Experience-Sampling Study to Investigate the Role of Familiarity in Involuntary Musical Imagery Induction

Rebecca Lancashire Department of Music, University of Hull, United Kingdom [email protected], [email protected]

Recent scientific literature has refrained from the use of the ABSTRACT term “earworm”, considering it an insufficient description of Despite its prevalence in Western society, little is known about why the phenomenon, and potentially even ‘misleading’ (Liikkanen, certain songs get stuck in our heads or the intrinsic musical features 2012b). Accordingly, for the purpose of this report I shall refer which contribute to their potential as involuntary musical imagery to the phenomenon only as INMI. Despite being considered an (INMI). This paper considers the use of Experience-Sampling integral part of our musical mind, there is a dearth of empirical Methods to explore the role of familiarity in inducing INMI. Eighteen knowledge on the subject. As Bailes (2002) suggests, this may participants of varying musical expertise were provided with four be due to the private and internal nature of the phenomenon, prescribed musical stimuli, three of which had been selected for their which has led to significant methodological problems, and as low INMI potential according to the melodic analysis software such, psychological methods of examining the phenomenon are FANTASTIC (Müllensiefen, 2009), and requested to listen to each necessarily restricted to indirect research techniques making piece a minimum of once per day for a seven-day period. Over the INMI experiences onerous to substantiate. following week, participants continued with their listening but were An expanding body of literature has begun to examine the also signaled randomly three times per day to fill out an experience- traits that predispose an individual toward experiencing INMI sampling form (ESF), which contained open-ended questions and (Beaman and Williams, 2013; Beaty et al., 2013; Floridou, scaled items relating to both listening and imagery experiences. Williamson and Müllensiefen, 2012; Müllensiefen, Jones, Jilka, Participants reported imagining the prescribed stimuli for 11% of all Stewart and Williamson, 2014), and the circumstances under recorded episodes. A significant link was also found between musical which INMI is most likely to occur (Floridou and Müllensiefen, experience and INMI occurrence and focus. The results indicate that musical training can make a listener more susceptible to INMI 2015; Hemming, 2009; Liikkanen, 2012a; Williamson et al., induction, even when the intrinsic features of the piece are not 2012). Through grounded theory analysis, Williamson et al. conducive to leading to INMI. This paper will contribute to existing (2012) composed a list of eight dominant themes that describe research on the extra-musical factors which may lead to or trigger the circumstances of INMI episodes: Recent, Repeated, INMI episodes, and through a more detailed analysis of the intra- Association, Recollection, Anticipation, Affective state, musical features which evoked INMI episodes in these participants it Dreams and Mind wandering. These eight themes were then may be possible to develop a more comprehensive method of assessing further grouped into four abstract categories, with musical the INMI potential of a piece analytically. exposure (“recent” and “repeated”) being considered the most prevalent trigger for INMI. It has been shown that the brain has a tendency to loop the I. INTRODUCTION latest tune processed, and therefore it is the most recently Music is a ubiquitous experience that prevails even in acquired or activated memory of music that is most likely to be silence. Musical experiences can persist introspectively, experienced as INMI (Bailes, 2007; Kvavilashvili and Mandler. without the need for an external stimulus. The ‘inner hearing’ 2004). This implies a strong recency effect for INMI. of a mental representation of music is known as musical Incidentally, self-report studies have revealed that recent imagery (Bailes, 2002). Musicians may use voluntary musical exposure to a tune is generally the most regularly reported imagery (VMI) to aid with performance preparation or cause of INMI experiences in diary and questionnaire studies composition. However, musical imagery may also occur (Bailes, 2015; Floridou and Müllensiefen, 2015; Hemming, spontaneously, which is often referred to as an “earworm” (a 2009; Jakubowski, Farrugia, Halpern, Sankarpandi and Stewart, direct translation of the German word Ohrwurm), in which we 2015; Williamson et al., 2012). However, researchers do state involuntarily revive the auditory image of a piece in the that other factors are also likely to be of significance. absence of an external source (Bailes, 2007; Brown, 2006; Repeated exposure is also a significant factor in influencing Sacks, 2007), which may then go on to repeat outside of INMI, with Bailes (2002) going as far as to say that ‘familiarity conscious control (Beaman and Williams, 2010). Involuntary with the music is key to imagery definition’. Beaman and musical imagery (INMI), which is sometimes referred to as Williams (2010) found that all reported earworms came from “stuck song syndrome” (Levitin, 2006), is especially prevalent music that had been previously familiar to the participants, and within Western society, with 33.2% of a recent survey it is generally understood that the greater the individual’s indicating that they experienced INMI daily, whilst 89% familiarity with the music, the greater the likelihood of it reported experiencing the phenomenon at least once a week stabilizing in the mind as a mental representation. The more we (Liikkanen, 2012b). are exposed to a stimulus, the stronger our memory for it will be, and as such, musical imagery is thought to reflect high

60 familiarity with the music (Clynes and Walker, 1986). It is also provide an immediate response, rather than a retrospective unusual to experience entirely novel music as INMI, denoting report, without parting them from their current location and the important link between INMI and familiarity. activity. The contiguity of sampling experience in real time Despite the commonality of INMI, the question of which prevents the distortions involved when asking people to report certain songs get stuck in our heads is still not well understood. retrospectively. This is due in part to the fact that there are an array of both extra- and intra-musical factors which contribute to a song’s B. Participants INMI potential, and very few studies have explored the latter. Eighteen participants were recruited through response to an Anecdotal evidence indicates that musical works differ in their email advertisement for the study which was sent out to several intrinsic ability to induce INMI, yet we are still lacking a British universities. The study consisted of five men and comprehensive method to assess the INMI potential of a piece thirteen women, aged from 18 to 72 (M = 29.06 years; SD = analytically. Recent research has however begun to identify the 13.55). It is likely that the gender imbalance observed may be musical features which tend to be recurrent in the majority of attributed to general trends which reflect significant differences INMI pieces (Jakubowski et al., 2016). The most commonly between men and women in their willingness to participate in found characteristics were simple, repetitive patterns, small ESM studies. Previous research indicates that women are more melodic intervals and longer note durations. These likely to volunteer, and also display greater response rates to characteristics are also fundamental in creating melodies that signals, than men (Hektner, Schmidt and Csikszentmihalyi, are easy to sing, even for non-musicians. Subsequently, these 2007). Two-thirds of the sample also reported prior exposure to findings led Williamson and Müllensiefen (2012) to propose musical training to some extent, which may reflect their that ‘INMI episodes are essentially your brain singing’. willingness to participate, as the study was advertised as ideal Margulis (2013) suggests that when music is familiar to you, for music enthusiasts who engage in daily listening. it encapsulates expectations of how the piece will progress and Participants were grouped according to their responses to a develop. This may explain why INMI candidates also tend to selection of questions taken from the Goldsmith’s Musical contain a certain amount of predictability. However, not all Sophistication Index (GMSI; 2014). The group of ‘musicians’ music we are exposed to conforms to conventional and familiar were primarily experts in the field (n = 6; five females, one patterns of style, form and harmonic structure. It remains to be male; mean age = 28; SD = 8.29), those with some ‘musical seen whether music that should not be considered conducive to experience’ were either hobbyists or had a history of musical emerging as INMI due to its unpredictable and unfamiliar training earlier in life (n = 6; four females, two males; mean age nature could potentially by induced in listeners if they were = 32.67; SD = 20.51), and the ‘non-musicians’ had no exposed to such music regularly. experience of formal musical training (n = 6; four females, two The primary aim of the present study was to explore the role males; mean age = 26.5; SD = 10.46). that familiarity plays in the potential of a piece to emerge as INMI, and whether familiarity and regular exposure can negate C. Materials the intrinsic features of the music to produce INMI. A preliminary investigation was used to determine the features of Participation in the study required the use of a mobile pieces with high INMI potential, through use of the melodic telephone, which participants were instructed to carry with analysis software FANTASTIC (Feature ANalysis Technology them at all times. Ideally the telephone was set to silent-vibrate Accessing STatistics [in a Corpus]; Müllensiefen, 2009). Based mode, or a single-tone notification. The message read ‘Please on the findings from this preliminary analysis, four pieces were complete form’ and also included an identification stamp to selected as musical stimuli for this study. Three of these pieces facilitate easier tracking of contact times. scored very low on their INMI potential when analysed Experiencing sampling forms were sent to participants computationally, and the current model is said to have an 80% along with a consent form, demographic questionnaire and success rate on predicting whether a tune has the latent listening diary, which they were asked to complete and return. potential to be INMI. Through exposing participants to these Participants were also provided with an information sheet about three unfamiliar musical stimuli, along with an additionally the study. This sheet also contained the definition of INMI: unfamiliar baseline piece, over a period of seven days, we can ‘The experience whereby a (usually) short section of music begin to examine through use of experience-sampling methods comes into the mind, unintentionally, without effort, and then whether it is possible to induce INMI episodes of these pieces tends to repeat without conscious control (i.e. “tune on the despite their apparently incongruous intra-musical brain”)’ so as to help participants identify this phenomenon characteristics. when it occurred. 1) The stimuli. Four short pieces of piano music were used II. METHOD in this study, all of which were composed in the twentieth century: Philip Glass’s Etude No. 3; Scriabin’s Poeme- A. Design Nocturne, Op. 61; the first of Arnold Schoenberg’s Three Piano Pieces, Op. 11; and Luciano Berio’s Rounds, for piano solo. All To investigate these research questions, a mixed methods four pieces were unfamiliar to the participants at the onset of design was employed. Experience-sampling methods (ESM) the study. The Glass was chosen as a baseline with which to combined the approaches of observational field study with self- compare participants’ responses to the other three stimuli, due report diary. The method allows individuals to record thoughts to its sense of stasis and repetitive nature. The Scriabin is less and feelings extemporaneously in a real naturalistic conventional, and despite relying on traditional sonata environment, through self-report forms with open-ended and principles, draws heavily on chromaticism and the mystic chord. scaled items. The method is direct, allowing respondents to

61 The Schoenberg marks an important milestone in the evolution a cross-section of data at any particular time episode. of the composer’s compositional style as one of his first free Participants were requested to complete a form as soon as they atonal works, however, conventional features of form, melody, received the signal, or at the next convenient moment if this rhythm and texture are maintained. The Berio also adheres to a was not possible. typical ternary form structure, but the textural and rhythmic features are much more complex. Although the piece is atonal, III. RESULTS AND DATA ANALYSIS there is a discernible pitch centre in the work. Compliance rate for the study was high (99%), with a total 2) The Experience Sampling Form (ESF). The ESF of 374 completed ESFs, called “episodes”, being recorded. For consisted of three primary sections and is closely based on that analysis of general trends and emerging patterns, all completed used by Bailes (2002), comprising both open-ended and closed forms were used with any unanswered questions being questions, as well as Likert rating scales, which were designed discounted in the analyses. For more detailed analyses, any to be analysed in conjunction with each other. The form was ESFs completed more than 30 minutes later than the time of the designed to take no more than a few minutes to complete to signal (13%) were discounted, leaving a collection of 325 minimise disruption to daily activities. Respondents were responses (86% of all possible returns). Of these 325 responses, requested to note both the time they were contacted and the imagery episodes were isolated, and a particular focus assigned time they completed the form in order to monitor any to those relating to the prescribed stimuli. discrepancies and so that data could be discounted if the As experience was semi-randomly sampled throughout the response was delayed. Part A of the form gathered information week, it was possible to calculate the amount of time spent in about the participant’s location and current activities. Part B each musical state. These results are a general measure of the concerned the hearing of real music, whilst Part C inquired overall prevalence of INMI experiences in general, and for the about any imagery experienced. In both Part B and Part C prescribed stimuli, during a seven-day period. Participants respondents were asked to rate, on a scale of 1–7, their levels reported hearing music in 33% of episodes, and imagining of concentration on the music, the importance of the music to music in 26% of episodes, which leaves 41% of episodes in the moment and whether they would have preferred to hear which music was neither heard nor imagined. Results are alternative music or no music. Free descriptive responses were shown in Figure 1, where a distinction has been indicated also invited to highlight any other important or noticeable between INMI relating to the prescribed stimuli (11%), and features of the music. Participants were also questioned as to those episodes in which participants experienced INMI of other, whether they had recently heard the music they were imagining, unrelated music (15%). and invited to provide a potential reason for the episode. Likert scales were also used to assess the vividness (scale of 1–7) of various musical dimensions. Hearing Imagining Non-prescribed D. Procedure The study was conducted in two stages over a two-week Imagining Prescribed period, with each stage lasting seven days. Prior to the start of None the study, participants were provided with a WAV file of each of the musical stimuli, along with a listening diary and a demographic questionnaire. On day one, participants were requested to listen to each of the musical stimuli whilst completing their demographic questionnaire, which had a section for participants to record their preference and liking for the pieces, as well as comment on whether any of the music was familiar to them. Over the rest of stage one participants were instructed to listen to each of the pieces a minimum of once per day. Listening did not have to be focused and did not Figure 1. Distribution of musical episodes (N = 374) need to occur all in one session, or in the order the tracks were presented. The listening diary allowed participants to track how many times they listened to each piece on each day. Within this global measure of the prevalence of INMI, there In preparation for stage two of the study, which commenced was great individual variation. The participant who immediately following stage one, participants were provided experienced the least INMI did so for 11% of the time, while with an electronic copy of the ESF, allowing them to print as another participant reported imagining music as much as 44% needed or fill it out electronically from a mobile device. The of the time. Previous studies have provided evidence to support information sheet presented to all interested participants had an association between musical imagery and musical outlined the procedure of the study, including the potential experience, and therefore it was to be expected that those contact hours of the study, during which time phones should be participants categorized as ‘musicians’ reported more imagery switched on and set to silent-vibrate mode. Call times were episodes (M = 38%) than those with little (M = 27%) or no between 9am and 9pm each day, for seven consecutive days. musical experience (M = 24%) (Fig. 2). One call would be made within every four-hour block. Calls were made in quick succession to each participant (starting with a different participant each time). Participants were called within 90 seconds of each other to allow for an examination of

62 prescribed piece, all participants have been considered as one 1.4 group. Table 1 shows the results of a Spearman’s rank 1.2 correlation test, and it can be seen that only the piece by Philip Glass produced a significant correlation (.440, p < .05), which 1 shall be explored in more depth later in this paper. The correlation with the occurrence of non-prescribed stimuli was 0.8 also significant (.684, p < .001) which may be due to a response bias. 0.6 General trends between prescribed stimuli and familiarity (indicated by the data point in the study) can be seen in Figure 0.4 4, which also highlights certain anomalies in the data set, which Estimated MarginalMeans 0.2 may have caused skew in the correlational analysis.

0 7 Other music Musician Some Non-Musician 6 Prescribed stimuli Experience 5 Figure 2. Estimated Marginal Means for imagery based on 4 musical experience 3 A repeated measures ANOVA was carried out on the number of INMI episodes with a within-subjects factor of 2

‘piece’ and a between-subjects factor of ‘musical experience’ episodes of No. INMI 1 which showed a significant main effect of musical experience 0 (F(2,15) = 10.931, p < .001) on the piece imagined. Post-hoc 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 tests using Games-Howell comparisons revealed significant Contact Point differences between musicians and those with some musical experience (mean difference = 0.3667, p <.05) and also Figure 4. Correlation between familiarity and all INMI between musicians and non-musicians (mean difference = episodes for prescribed pieces

0.5667, p <.01). However, the difference between non- musicians and those with some musical experience was not For each prescribed imagery episode, vividness ratings were found to be significant. recorded for the musical dimensions of melody, timbre, Musical experience was further shown to be related to not harmony, expression, dynamics, and texture. Ratings were only the prevalence of INMI episodes, but also to the type of collated and a mean value for each dimension per prescribed music imagined (Fig. 3). Musicians generally displayed more stimuli was calculated. These data were analysed with a one- episodes of the prescribed stimuli than the other two groups, way ANOVA and the result was significant (p < 0.001). and INMI induction of certain pieces only seemed to be Melody and expression are rated as being the most vivid possible in those with musical experience, which is likely to be dimensions of musical imagery overall, with timbre being rated due to the intrinsic characteristics of the work. as the least vivid. Figure 5 illustrates the resultant hierarchy of vivid features (1 = absent, 7 = very vivid), averaged across all participants. Despite having a clear melodic line, dynamics and 4 Musician texture were the most prominent features of the Schoenberg, Some 3.5 which may be due to the atonal nature of the piece. The Non-musician complexity of the Berio is evident here, as participants 3 struggled to develop a vivid image of any of the dimensions, 2.5 with the exception of dynamics. Further discussion of how 2 intrinsic characteristics relate to the likelihood of the piece to emerge as INMI will be discussed subsequently. 1.5 1 7 Glass

Estimated MarginalMeans Schoenberg 0.5 6 5 Scriabin 0 Berio 4 3 Piece imagined 2 Figure 3. Estimated Marginal Means for each piece 1 Mean Vividness Rating based on musical experience 0 For the purpose of exploring the relationship between familiarity and occurrence of INMI episodes relating to the Musical Dimension Figure 5. Vividness of Imagery for Musical Dimensions within the Prescribed Stimuli (Scale 1–7)

63 Table 1. Spearman’s rho correlation for familiarity and prescribed INMI occurrence

Day Glass Schoenberg Scriabin Berio Other Sum of prescribed pieces Spearman’s rho Day Correlation 1.000 .440 -.133 .396 -.429 .684 .376 Coefficient Sig. (2-tailed) . .046 .564 .076 .053 .001 .093 N 21 21 21 21 21 21 21

of five of these responses stated that imagery was experienced An aim of the study was to determine the relationship of as a reaction to the experiment. imagined to heard experiences of music. Two questions on the ESF addressed this question directly: ‘Had you actually heard IV. DISCUSSION the music since the last time you were contacted?’ and ‘If A summary of the finding from the completed ESFs implies possible, please explain why you might have been imagining a strong association for familiarity and INMI more generally, that particular music’. In response to the first of these, 53% said as participants were able to name the majority of their imagery, ‘yes’ and 47% said ‘no’. This question only related back in time and also regularly reported having heard the piece recently to the last call received and it is possible that hearings of music prior to experiencing it as a form of musical imagery. In this less recently, such as within the last week, might also have an study, over half of all INMI episodes (53%) resulted from important influence on the music imagined. The second having heard the music since last being contacted, which question allowed for a more open-ended explanation for the provides strong support for what is known as the most recent possible occurrence of particular music to account for this. activation hypothesis. Cognitive psychologists use the concept Results in Figure 6 have been categorized according to the eight of serial position to explain this phenomenon, and lab-based dominant themes that form the illustrative model of themes studies provide support for the recency effect, showing that a proposed by Williamson et al. (2012). piece which has been heard aloud more recently is more likely 50 to become INMI than a piece heard less recently (Hyman et al., Prescribed music 45 2013; Liikkanen, 2012b). Although recent exposure is the Non-prescribed music dominant trigger for INMI, other research has also supported 40 the importance of repeated exposure. Beaman and Williams 35 (2010) suggest that only ‘overlearned’ pieces are likely to 30 appear as INMI. However, the researchers do not define the 25 point at which a piece of music is considered overlearned, 20 although it is possible that this may differ from person to person, which may explain the individual differences evident between

Percentage(%) 15 participants in this study, and the rate at which they began to 10 experience INMI episodes of the prescribed pieces. Margulis 5 (2005) suggests that expectations begin to arise after the ‘fourth 0 or fifth time’ of listening, whilst Byron and Fowles (2015) found that participants who were exposed to a previously unfamiliar song six times were more likely to experience the song as INMI. Experience-sampling commenced after seven consecutive days of listening to the prescribed stimuli, with the Named trigger for INMI episode assumption that all participants would have heard each piece a

Figure 6. Frequency of reported triggers for INMI minimum of seven times at this point, and subsequently could

episodes for both prescribed and non-prescribed music be considered “familiar” with them. However, the results from

this study evidently indicate that the relationship between

familiarity and INMI is much more complex, given that Having heard the piece of music recently was the most participants varied greatly in both the frequency of their INMI common reason provided for subsequently imagining it. Across episodes, and the pieces that they experienced. all episodes, respondents were able to name the majority of A large portion of the research on INMI suggests that their INMI episodes (95%). This suggests a high level of memory is a significant factor in its emergence. Shouse (2001) familiarity with the original music, which also suggests an suggested that INMI results from the memory process of association between hearing and subsequently imagining a ‘chunking’ and that the mental repetition we experience is a particular piece of music. Repeated exposure to a piece was the means of retaining the information. INMI can be constructed second most reported trigger for INMI episodes, and was from long-tern memory, but also relies on the phonological particularly valid with relation to the prescribed stimuli. loop – a short-term memory system in the auditory cortex. Participants also reported ‘association’ as being a common However, Kellaris (2008) proposed that only certain pieces of trigger for imagining one of the prescribed stimuli, and free music are capable of arousing the brain’s attention and forcing descriptive responses revealed that for several participants they the song to repeat in the phonological loop, and it is this likened the prescribed stimuli to other familiar pieces in an repetition which is essential for INMI, or what Kellaris has attempt to familiarize themselves with them and gauge a better labelled, the “cognitive itch”. The most significant understanding of the works. Only 10% of responses overall predisposing factors identified were: accessibility, diatonicism reported ‘anticipation’ as a trigger for INMI. However, four out

64 and melodic contour (Francès, 1988). Based on these features (Crowder, 1989), and thus we may conclude that people can it is possible to see why the pieces by Scriabin, Schoenberg and only veridically imagine sounds which they can physically Berio did not produce a significant correlation between produce. Data from the Likert scales in Part C of the ESF familiarity and INMI occurrence. Generally, works by these revealed that those who reported experience of piano training composers are not easily accessible, especially for those with did in fact report stronger vividness for timbre, and also texture, little or no musical training. Atonality makes it difficult for than those who played other instruments. Vocalists, or those listeners to develop expectations about how a piece will with choral experience, also tended to display a greater progress, due to a lack of tonal hierarchy or harmonic awareness of the melodic content of the Schoenberg, as progression. Furthermore, the complex rhythms and disjunct indicated in their free descriptive responses to the open-ended motion in Berio makes both pulse and melody hard to discern. question about noticeable features of the imagery episode. Although a lyrical melody is evident in Schoenberg, a tonal However, it is worth noting that the overall sample size was hearing is hard to sustain. Those who did experience INMI of relatively small and therefore some of these findings lack these works tended to have a reasonable level of musical generalizability as they are based only on a small number of experience, allowing them to experience more complete episodes. episodes, which became more musically embellished as Previous experience-sampling studies have used varying familiarity also increased. For those who could not access the ranges of signals per day, and therefore it could also be argued intrinsic working of the pieces, priming of the memory that more cues were needed in order to gauge an accurate networks in listening to music was unlikely to occur, and impression of the week. However, results from this study do therefore the original stimuli was unlikely to be encoded or correspond with previous research which suggest there is recalled. approximately 35-45% chance of hearing music when signalled. This study found a significant association between musical Unusually, this study also saw a significant increase in imagery experience and INMI, both with regards to the prevalence and episodes relating to non-prescribed pieces over the duration of also which pieces were likely to be imagined. Musicians the week which may relate to general trends of increased generally tended to experience more INMI episodes than the listening as a consequence of the study. This data may reflect other two groups, and they were also the only group to report demand characteristics, as awareness of the investigator’s episodes relating to all four prescribed stimuli. The Berio, interest in INMI experiences might have encouraged which was considered the most complex of the pieces, was only participants to exaggerate their real imagery experiences or the experienced as INMI by musicians. However, musicians and process of introspection may have resulted in a more conscious those with some musical experience did not differ with regards awareness of imagery experiences than usual. Nonetheless, to the Glass, which may suggest that the complexity of the experiencing-sampling is advantageous due to the breadth and music is a significant factor in INMI occurrence. More depth of data it produces, and it being the closest possible simplistic and repetitive works tend to be accessible to all, method to observing real-time experiences. whereas the intrinsic features of both the Berio and Schoenberg The melodic analysis software used in this study proved too complex for any form of schema to develop in the (FANTASTIC; Müllensiefen, 2009) relied on pitch range and minds of those with no musical experience. It is important to pitch entropy, but did not examine any other features in order note however that musical training is also likely to have to assess INMI potential. However, ratings for vividness of enabled descriptions of musical dimensions and experiences musical dimensions reveal that for certain works, other features that may prove more challenging for a non-musician. were more veridical. The pieces used in this study do not Although there is still no definitive evidence explanation of represent music as a whole, and the atonal nature of the works why INMI occurs, this research has provided a new insight into mean that a more comprehensive analytical method of what may now be considered a tripartite system, consisting of assessing INMI potential needs to consider other significant situational, extra-musical and intra-musical factors that compositional features not represented within the single-line contribute to creating INMI episodes. Thus far, pitch-based melodic analysis implemented in FANTASTIC, such as features tend to be the most veridical and have been reported to harmonic content or chord structure of the music, articulation, influence INMI more than other musical dimensions, which and expressive timing, which could contribute to the INMI demonstrates the appropriateness of the expression “tune on the nature of a piece. brain”. Francès (1988) specifically highlighted the importance One of the main reasons that INMI is such a difficult concept of melodic contour, and previous research has shown that adult to explain resides with the fact that the likelihood of a piece listeners remember familiar music in terms of their intervallic becoming INMI is influenced by a wide array of factors, and structure, focusing on the interval between adjacent notes, having heard it recently is just one of these. Based on the results, rather than the specific pitches themselves (Hannon and it would appear that regular exposure to music and familiarity Trainor, 2007). The two features used in analysis of the can too induce INMI, however, this may differ dependent on prescribed pieces were pitch range and pitch entropy. However, individual differences, such as musical experience. Future as the pieces lack a distinct melody, this analysis may not be research may look at extending this study to include a larger thorough enough to support a conclusion as to whether the sample size and more regular signals, whilst also reworking the piece has INMI potential or not. Timbre was reported as the ESF in a way that it may gauge a more in-depth exploration of least vivid dimension in imagery. This constraint may be the situational, extra-musical and intra-musical factors attributed to the vocal system’s lack of capacity to stimulate influencing an INMI episode at any one time. different timbres. Furthermore, research has shown that imagined music for an instrument which the listener plays may retain timbral vibrancy in a way that it may not for others

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66 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

Factors Influencing Discrimination of Emotional Expression Conveyed Through Music Performance

Chloe Stacey MacGregor1, Daniel Müllensiefen2 Department of Psychology, Goldsmiths, University of London, England [email protected], [email protected]

those of others (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). EI is typically ABSTRACT separated into two constructs for the purpose of measurement; Previous research has shown that levels of musical training and ability EI, measured using cognitive ability tests, and trait EI, emotional engagement with music are associated with an individual’s assessed via self-report methods (Petrides, Frederickson & ability to decode the intended emotional expression from a music Furnham, 2004). In keeping with a recent study of emotion performance (Akkermans & Schapiro, 2016). The present study aims decoding in music (Akkermans & Schapiro, 2016), a self- to go further and investigate the contribution of auditory perceptual report measure of trait EI was used within the current research. abilities to decoding performance as measured by a new effective Differences in recognition of emotion within speech prosody emotion discrimination task (EDT). The first experiment investigated have previously been linked to EI (Trimmer & Cuddy, 2008), features that influenced the difficulty of the stimulus items (length, melody, instrument, target-/comparison emotion) in order to produce suggesting its potential importance in terms of musical a short calibrated version of the EDT and ensure an optimal level of emotion decoding ability. Furthermore, Resnicow, Salovey difficulty. The second experiment then assessed the contribution of and Repp (2004) found a positive correlation between EI and individual differences measures of emotional intelligence as well as a test of emotion recognition, in which participants’ rated pitch and duration discrimination abilities. Findings displayed basic emotions conveyed through piano pieces. This evidence performance on the EDT was correlated with level of emotional therefore indicates that differences in EI may explain variation intelligence. This research therefore contributes to the understanding in music-perceived emotion. of the origins of individual differences in musical emotional abilities. Another element of emotional ability that should be taken into account is emotional contagion (EC), which refers to I. INTRODUCTION ones’ tendency to be influenced by, or unconsciously mimic, The emotional experience associated with music is widely others’ emotional states (Doherty, 1997). EC has mostly been acknowledged to be one of the main reasons why so many investigated in relation to facial expressions (Juslin & people regularly engage in musical activities (Juslin & Laukka, Västfjäll, 2008), though contagion from vocal expression has 2004). Music is often used in a constructive manner, to also been found to occur (Neumann & Strack, 2000). On the express emotion through composition and performance, or to basis of such evidence, as well as the aforementioned notion evoke or regulate an emotional state through listening; this has that music’s emotional quality may be derived from its proven to be extremely beneficial in the field of therapy and similarities to vocal expression (Juslin & Laukka, 2003), it has has also been influential in other areas such as film and been speculated that EC may occur in music listening through marketing (Juslin & Sloboda, 2011). Due to the vast range of the internal mimicking of a perceived expression (Juslin, practical applications, the amount of research contributing to Liljeström, Västfjäll, & Lundquist, 2009). This is backed up an understanding of emotional processes in relation to music by neuroimaging research conducted by Koelsch, Fritz, has increased considerably over the last few decades, most of Müller & Friederici (2006); activation was found within which has focused especially on the expression and induction mirror-neuron systems believed to be involved in vocal of musical emotions (Thompson, 2009). Despite this, production when participants listened to music. It is thought questions still remain as to how individual differences in that this could suggest the mimicking of emotions expressed emotional, musical and perceptual skills may affect the ability by music (Juslin & Västfjäll, 2008). This implies that EC may to perceive emotion in music (Taruffi, Allen, Downing & play a role in the ability to categorize emotions in music. Heaton, 2017). Though a high level of emotional ability is likely to result It been suggested that the perception of musical emotions in a consistent level of emotion processing throughout may vary between individuals, just as recognition of facial different modalities, it is arguable that emotional ability may and vocal expressions has been found to vary according to vary specifically in relation to music. Therefore, it is individual differences (Taruffi et al., 2017; Palermo, necessary to consider an individuals’ typical level of O’Connor, Davis, Irons & McKone, 2013). The current study emotional engagement with music, alongside more general therefore aims to investigate whether differences in emotional, measures of emotional ability, when investigating factors musical and perceptual abilities may account for variation in influencing emotion recognition. Emotional engagement with perceived musical emotion. music can be measured using the Goldsmiths Musical One potential factor that may influence emotion Sophistication Index (GOLD-MSI) (Müllensiefen, Gingras, recognition is emotional intelligence (EI): the ability to Musil, & Stewart, 2013), a self-report tool that allows for the categorize, express and regulate one’s emotions, as well as assessment of a wide range of musical skills and behaviours.

67 This subscale was used in a recent study, which found that which tests an individuals’ ability to perceive emotions in level of emotional engagement with music predicted level of music using a simple response format. Secondly, to further accuracy when decoding emotions in music (Akkermans & examine individual differences in EI, EC, musical training and Schapiro, 2016). Level of emotional engagement with music, emotional engagement, in relation to their influence on as measured using the emotions subscale of the GOLD-MSI, perceived emotion in music, and finally, to extend previous may therefore influence recognition of a conveyed expression research by investigating the contribution of low-level in music. auditory ability to emotion decoding performance. In pursuit Musical ability has also been explored in relation to of achieving these aims, two experiments were carried out. emotional ability. The idea that musical expertise may Experiment 1 consisted of a preliminary EDT, in which two enhance emotional skills seems plausible, when taking into excerpts of the same melody were presented that differed only account other cognitive advantages found to result from in terms of emotional expression. Excerpts differed between training (Schellenberg, 2005). In accordance with this, it has trials in terms of features such as: length, instrument, melody, been suggested that enhanced musical and acoustic processing, target emotion and comparison emotion. The effect of these acquired through musical training (Kraus & Chandrasekaran, features on the item difficulty was assessed, not only to gain a 2010), may lead to superior performance in emotion better understanding of the cognitive processes underlying recognition tasks (Taruffi et al., 2017). Research has provided task performance but also to optimally calibrate overall test supportive evidence for this claim; accurate categorisation of difficulty and thus being able to form a shorter test of emotion musical emotions was found to be associated with the amount discrimination. The refined EDT was formed of excerpts that of musical training an individual had received (Lima & Castro, were shortest in length, and featured only one of the two 2011). On the other hand, some studies have demonstrated melodies from the preliminary task. This task was then little difference between the emotion decoding abilities of utilized within experiment 2, along with measures of musicians and non-musicians (Trimmer & Cuddy, 2008). individual differences and perceptual ability. Therefore, further investigation is required to establish whether a relationship exists between musical training and II. EXPERIMENT 1 recognition of emotion in music (Taruffi et al., 2017). If we are to assume that superior emotion recognition METHOD ability may result from enhanced perceptual processing, it follows that fundamental differences in auditory perception A. Participants may also influence recognition ability. The pitch and duration 33 participants were recruited through advertisement on of musical events are important cues for interpreting social network platforms and the Goldsmith’s research emotional expression in speech and music (Juslin & Laukka, participation scheme. Participants ranged from 18-80 years of 2003; Lima et al., 2016), meaning that differences in age, (M = 37.06, SD = 22.65), and included 21 females, 10 perceptual sensitivity may be predictive of differences in males and 2 individuals who preferred to withhold gender emotion perceived in music. information. The current study was granted ethical approval by Goldsmith’s Research Ethics Committee. The current research is based upon a recent replication (Akkermans & Schapiro, 2016) of a study carried out by B. Materials & Stimuli Gabrielsson and Juslin (1996). The original study investigated 1) Melody recordings. For the EDT, melodies B and C expressive cues involved in communication of emotion in from Gabrielsson and Juslin’s (1996) study were employed. music. A production-recognition paradigm was used to Melody B is a Swedish folk melody, while Melody C was accomplish this; firstly, a flutist, violinist and vocalist were composed specifically for use within their research (see recorded performing three melodies in order to convey a Figure 1). certain emotional expression (happy, sad, angry, fearful, Hereafter, Melody B will be referred to as melody 1, and tender solemn or without expression). These performances melody C as melody 2. The musical extracts utilized in the were analysed in terms of musical characteristics that current study were re-recordings of the stimuli used by contributed towards the overall expression. Listening Gabrielsson and Juslin (1996) and were validated through experiments were then carried out in which participants were their comprehensive study. In addition, the replication study asked to identify the emotions expressed within each carried out by Akkermans and Schapiro (2016) validated the performance. Results indicated that expressive intentions were re-recorded versions of the stimuli. In this study, only usually identified correctly, and a higher decoding accuracy recordings that conveyed angry, happy, sad and tender was displayed for basic emotions, in accordance with Juslin’s expressions on piano, violin or voice were used, as findings (1995) hypothesis that basic emotions would be easiest to indicated these were the most accurately perceived by communicate. In the replication study, emotional and musical listeners (Akkermans & Schapiro, 2016). skills were assessed in regard to their influence on decoding 2) Editing. Recordings were edited in order to establish a accuracy (Akkermans & Schapiro, 2016); accuracy was found greater variation of difficulty between items in the EDT. This to be associated with participants’ level of musical training was achieved by splitting audio files into musically and emotional engagement. meaningful phrases using Adobe audition CC. Melody 1 was The present investigation aimed to further explore what split into 4, 4 bar phrases, while melody 2 was split into 6, 2 might make one individual better at decoding emotions bar phrases; all possible combinations of consecutive conveyed through music than another. Thus, the main sequences of phrases were produced. These excerpts were objectives for the current study were: firstly, to develop a then paired in terms of their main musical features, but not in short and effective Emotion Discrimination Task (EDT), terms of emotional expression. Pairs of clips were then

68 merged to create one mp3 file using SoundeXchange software, Correct responses were scored with a value of 1 and with a buzzer inserted in-between. Thus, 1116 items were incorrect with 0. The total correct response rate was 83.4%. produced that featured two clips with the same melody, 1) Target emotion. A chi-square test of independence was instrument and phrases, but differing emotional expressions. used to investigate the relationship between target emotion (happy, angry, sad, tender) and performance in the EDT

(correct, incorrect response). The relationship between these variables was found to be statistically significant, χ2(3, 693) =

15.12, p = .002, with an effect size of φc=.15. Findings indicated that questions featuring sad as the target emotion were most likely to be answered correctly, while those with B tender as the target emotion were the least likely to elicit a correct response, as shown in Table 1. Table 1. Cross-Tabulation of Target Emotion and Task Performance. Target Response 2 Emotion Correct Incorrect χ φc

C Angry 183 24 15.12** .15 (88.4%) (11.6%) Happy 150 42 (78.1%) (21.9%) Sad 147 19 (88.6%) (11.4%) Figure 1. Notation, melodies B & C (1 & 2) Tender 98 30 (76.6%) (23.4%) 2 3) Emotion discrimination task. The EDT consisted of 112 Note. ** = p ≤ .01. χ represents chi-square statistic. φc represents items, of which 36 were randomly presented to participants. phi coefficient. Responses were collected using a two-alternative forced Percentages appear in parentheses below frequencies. choice format (2-AFC). 2) Length. A chi-square test of independence was 4) Depression screening. The Patient Health Questionnaire performed to examine the association between length of (PHQ-9), a short, self-administered survey, was used to assess melody (one phrase, two phrase, three phrase) and EDT performance (correct/incorrect response). The relationship current depression severity (Kroenke & Spitzer, 2002). This between these variables was significant, χ2(2, 693) = 9.43, p measure consists of 9 items, directly related to the diagnostic = .009, while the effect size was small, φ = .12. Results criteria within the DSM-IV. c displayed that extracts of only one phrase in length were least C. Procedure likely to elicit a correct response, as can be seen in Table 2. This experiment was conducted online, thus participants Table 2. Cross-Tabulation of Item Length and Task Performance. gained access to Qualtrics via a URL; this allowed for Length Response automatic administration of the information sheet, consent 2 Correct Incorrect χ φc form, depression screening, EDT, demographics form and debrief. For the EDT, participants were told that they would One 154 47 9.43** .12 hear two versions of a melody at a time, which would differ in Phrase (76.6%) (23.4%) terms of emotional expression and that they should indicate Two 251 40 which version they felt was most representative of the Phrase (86.3%) (13.7%) emotion in each question. Participants were exposed to 21 Three 173 28 audio clips, and instructed as follows: ‘Please listen to the phrase (86.1%) (13.9%) 2 following clips and select which one sounds happier to you. Note. ** = p ≤ .01. χ represents chi-square statistic. φc represents Select 1 for the clip heard before the buzzer, or 2 for the clip phi coefficient. Percentages appear in parentheses below frequencies. heard after the buzzer.’ This task took around 15-20 minutes to complete. Three further chi-square tests of independence were conducted to assess the relationship between task performance RESULTS (correct, incorrect response), and comparison emotion (angry, happy, sad, tender), instrument (piano, violin, voice) or From the initial sample of 78 participants, 35 participants melody (1,2); none of the findings were statistically were excluded from analysis, as they had not fully completed significant. Additionally, a logistic regression was performed; the experiment. Additionally, 10 participants were excluded as musical feature variables were assessed as independent their scores were above the typical cut off point (≥10) in the variables with regard to their ability to predict EDT depression screening (Manea, Gilbody & McMillan, 2012). performance. This analysis confirmed the findings of the chi- A. Musical Features square tests.

69 III. EXPERIMENT 2 duration, while for the second they were asked to identify which was higher in pitch. Each test took around 3 minutes to METHOD complete. After the online individual differences measures and the in-lab auditory experiments had been completed, A. Participants participants were thanked and debriefed. 45 participants (26 female) were recruited, partly through advertisement on social media, and partly in exchange for RESULTS participation in other studies. The majority of participants From the initial 60 responses, data from three participant’s were students from Goldsmiths, University of London, was excluded from analysis as they had not completed the ranging from 20-50 years of age (M = 24.71, SD = 5.86). This individual difference test battery, while 12 participants were study gained ethical approval from Goldsmiths Research excluded as a consequence of high scores in the depression Ethics Committee. screening (≥10). B. Materials & Stimuli A. Individual differences 1) Individual difference measures. The Goldsmiths Musical Total correct responses were calculated as a measure of Sophistication Index (GOLD-MSI), was used to assess EDT performance, which ranged from 17-25 out of 28 (M = musical behaviours and skills using a self-report questionnaire 21.38, SD = 1.81). Active engagement was excluded from (Müllensiefen et al., 2013). This inventory consists of 5 sub- analysis, due to the high correlation with emotional scales, of which 3 were used; these measured musical training, engagement found in Experiment 1. For the psychoacoustic emotional engagement with music and active engagement measures, an auditory threshold estimate was produced for with music. each block of trials. Out of the two blocks completed within The Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire Short Form each test, the lower threshold was retained for analysis. For (TEIQue-SF) was administered, in order to measure EI via duration tests, thresholds ranged from 258.36 - 330.03 ms (M self-report (Petrides, 2009). = 282.28, SD = 14.9), while for pitch discrimination, Emotional contagion was measured using the Emotional thresholds ranged from 330.76 - 349.07 Hz (M = 334.34, SD = Contagion Scale (Doherty, 1997), which consists of 15 self- 4). For a complete outline of the descriptive statistics obtained report items, including hypothetical scenarios such as ‘When for each measure, see Table 3. someone smiles warmly at me, I smile back and feel warm Correlational analyses were carried out to distinguish inside.’ whether the individual difference and perceptual measures 2) Emotion discrimination task. The refined EDT was were associated with EDT scores. Emotional intelligence (M comprised of 28 items, 8-23 seconds in length, which = 4.99, SD = .61) and EDT performance were positively contained only one phrase and featured only melody 1. correlated, r(45) = .27, p = .04, one-tailed (as shown in Figure Responses were collected using a 2-AFC format. 2). None of the other personality traits or perceptual ability 3) Auditory perception tasks. Psychoacoustic tests were differences were significantly correlated with performance. also employed to establish participants’ ability to discriminate duration and pitch. These were run using two experiments from the Maximum Likelihood Procedure (MLP) toolbox on MATLAB 2013b (Grassi & Soranzo, 2009): namely, pitch discrimination complex tone and duration discrimination complex tone. Experiments were set up so that 2 blocks of 20 trials were completed per test, and responses were collected using a 3-AFC format. Default settings, as specified by the MLP toolbox, were otherwise maintained. Participants carried out both the new EDT and psychoacoustic tests using AKG- K451 headphones and responses were collected using a computer keyboard and mouse. C. Procedure

For this experiment, both the short EDT and Figure 2. Graph to display correlation between EDT score and psychoacoustic tests were completed separately to the emotional intelligence. r denotes Pearson’s correlation individual difference measures, in a silent, controlled setting. coefficient. If participants had not taken part in Experiment 1, they were asked to complete the individual difference measures, either In addition, a multiple regression was performed to before or after the in-lab tests took place. At the beginning of establish whether EI, EC, musical training, emotional each part of this study, participants were provided with an engagement with music, pitch threshold and duration information sheet and consent form. threshold predicted EDT performance. Backwards elimination was used to discard variables that were not significantly For the short EDT, participants received the same instructions as were provided in the first experiment; this task contributing to the model (p < .05). The sixth model arrived at took approximately 8-10 minutes. Following this, participants through this process indicated that emotional intelligence took part in two psychoacoustic tests; for each test, they were displayed a trend in the prediction of EDT performance, R² told that they would hear three tones per trial. For the first, = .07, adjusted R² = .05, F(1, 43) = 3.24, p = .08, as outlined they were asked to distinguish which tone was longer in in Table 4.

70 Table 3. Descriptive statistics. Experiment 2. M SD Range EDT score 21.38 1.81 17-25 Emotional intelligence 4.99 .61 3.7-6.2 Emotional contagion 50.24 8.63 33-65 Musical training 22.11 5.26 13-39 Emotional engagement 29.09 4.34 16-36 Pitch discrimination 334.38 4.1 330.76-349.07Hz Duration discrimination 280.53 14.19 258.36-330.03ms differences in emotion recognition ability in the music domain (Resnicow et al., 2004). Additionally, this experiment extends Table 4. Regression Model of Total EDT Score. B SE β p previous findings, by demonstrating that EI is associated with Constant 21.14 .3 <.001 perception of emotional expression in musical extracts EI .48 .3 .27 .08 featuring instruments other than piano. Therefore, the results from experiment 2 support and extend previous findings, Note. B represents unstandardized regression coefficient. SE indicating that the ability to recognize emotional expressions represents standard error of B. β represents standardized regression coefficient. EI=Emotional Intelligence. conveyed through music may be an important aspect of EI. Based on this evidence the claim that emotional ability IV. DISCUSSION impacts upon the perception and identification of emotions in music seems to be reasonably justified. Although, in contrast Primarily, the focus of Experiment 1 was to identify to this conclusion, results indicate that the emotions subscale features that contributed to the difficulty of task items; item of the GOLD-MSI and the emotional contagion scale were not difficulty was influenced by how many phrases were featured associated with EDT performance. The findings from the in the musical extract, and which emotion participants were present experiment appear to be inconsistent with this required to identify. Extracts featuring ‘tender’ as a target rationale as well as the findings from previous studies emotion or only one phrase of the melody appeared to be the (Akkermans & Schapiro, 2016). This either indicates that most difficult, when looking at the percentage of correct typical emotional engagement with music does not impact responses per item (refer to Tables 1 & 2). Therefore, results upon emotion recognition ability or that a larger sample size provide support for the hypothesis that features of musical may be required to establish an effect. The latter would appear excerpts may contribute to the overall difficulty of individual the most plausible explanation meaning that further testing is task items. necessary in order to establish the concurrent validity of the The main aim of Experiment 2 was to determine factors EDT. that might influence the ability to discriminate performer- It was suggested by Juslin & Västfjäll (2008) that intended expressions of emotion in music. It was expected emotional responses to music might occur through internal that those with a high level of emotional, musical and mimicking of emotions expressed in music. The current perceptual skills would display superior discrimination ability. results do not appear to support this claim, as emotional While skills such as emotional intelligence were found to be contagion was not associated with emotion recognition ability, positively associated with discrimination ability, there was no though this could be due to the study of perceived emotional evidence to suggest that musical or perceptual abilities had a expression as opposed to ‘felt’ emotions (Gabrielsson, 2001). significant impact on performance; therefore the original Conceptually, it is arguable that EC is more involved with hypothesis was not fully supported. emotions evoked by music, than emotions perceived in music, Nevertheless, the present study presents a first step towards which could account for the discrepancy in results. It may, the creation of a short and effective EDT and secondly, has therefore, be more appropriate to study EC with regard to aided the investigation of individual differences in emotional, individual differences in emotions evoked during music musical and perceptual abilities that may have contributed to listening. variation in task performance. Experiment 1 results were used The hypothesis that musical expertise may have a positive to establish a shorter test, which was found to be an effective influence on the ability to perceive intended expressions in measure of emotion discrimination ability, on the basis that music was not supported by the current experiment; there was mean level of task performance in Experiment 2 was at 76% no evidence to suggest that musical training influenced EDT and therefore half way between chance level (50%) and performance. These findings are a result of a low level of perfect discrimination. The refined EDT was further validated musical training within the current sample, according to by Experiment 2 results, displaying that discrimination ability normative data from the GOLD-MSI (Müllensiefen, Gingras, was associated with, and to some extent predicted by, level of Musil, & Stewart, 2014). Further investigation with a larger EI. These findings are also of importance, as they contribute proportion of musically trained participants is required to to an understanding of the factors that might influence the clarify the effect of musical training on the ability to ability to recognize emotions conveyed through music discriminate emotions conveyed by music. performance. In accordance with findings relating to musical ability, no Emotional intelligence typically refers to a capacity to significant relationship was established between pitch or recognize one’s own emotions and those of others; thus, it is duration discrimination ability and the recognition of a possible that the ability to perceive emotions in music relies musically conveyed expression. It could be argued that this is on similar emotional processes. This backs up previous an unexpected result, as pitch and duration are both expressive findings that individual differences in EI relate to individual cues used within the interpretation of musical and vocal

71 emotional expression (Juslin & Laukka, 2003). Although, ACKNOWLEDGMENT Filipic, Tillmann and Bigand, (2010) found that emotion This research was conducted in collaboration with Jessica judgments were not affected by basic acoustic features; they Akkermans and Renee Schapiro, MSc graduates (provided suggest that perception of musical emotion is based on the stimuli) from Goldsmiths, University of London and Peter interpretation of a complex combination of features, as has Harrison, PhD student (edited sound clips) from Queen Mary also been found in studies of facial expression. This would University of London. account for the finding that psychoacoustic abilities did not influence performance on the EDT. REFERENCES From a broader perspective, the finding that emotional abilities such as EI, previously found to be related to Akkermans, J., Schapiro, R. (2016). 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73 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

A Health Course for Music Students: Design, Implementation and Evaluation

Raluca Matei*1, Jane Ginsborg*2, Stephen Broad#3, Juliet Goldbart†4 *Centre for Music Performance Research, Royal Northern College of Music, UK #Research and Knowledge Exchange, Royal Conservatoire of Scotland, UK †Faculty of Health, Psychology and Social Care, Manchester Metropolitan University, UK [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

control group or another comparable intervention is needed to ABSTRACT infer causality. Background Keywords The Health Promotion in Schools of Music (HPSM) project health promotion course, behaviour change, music students has recommended the implementation of undergraduate health courses for music majors (Chesky, Dawson, & Manchester, REFERENCES 2006). Few such courses have been evaluated to date. On this Chesky, K.S., Dawson, W.J., & Manchester, R. (2006). Health basis, a health promotion module was designed and promotion in schools of music: Initial recommendations for implemented at the Royal Northern College of Music, in schools of music. Medical Problems of Performing Artists, 21, Manchester. 142-144.

Aims To design, run and evaluate a health and wellbeing module for first-year students, as part of their core curriculum, lasting six months, starting from October 2016. Method A health and wellbeing module was designed based on a critical appraisal of the literature, consideration of HPSM recommendations and the availability of staff members and preparation. Lectures and seminars covered a range of topics, including tools for better practice and time management, information on musicians’ health and wellbeing, anatomy, hearing loss and music performance anxiety (MPA). Self- report data on a variety of health-related issues, behaviours and attitudes were gathered, both before (T1) and after the module was delivered (T2). Quantitative data were analysed using the Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test. Semi-structured interviews were conducted at T2. Results Although positive affect was lower at T2 than T1 (Z = - 3.434, p < 0.001), causal inferences cannot be made. Improved scores were found for perceived knowledge of effective practising strategies (Z = -4.325, p < .001); effective rehearsal strategies (Z = -3.842, p < .001); learning and memorizing strategies (Z = -2.649, p < .01); ergonomics and posture (Z = -2.450, p = .014); MPA (Z = -4.972, p < .001); behaviour change techniques (Z = -3.671, p < .001); resources for healthy music-making (Z = -4.520, p < .001); sound intensity levels associated with hearing loss (Z = -2.090, p < .01); and awareness of risk factors for performance-related musculoskeletal disorders (PRMDs) (Z = -3.091, p < .01). Thematic analysis of interview data is underway. Conclusions Increases in perceived knowledge and awareness of some relevant health-related topics were noted at T2. However, a

74 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

A Theory of the Musical Genre: The Three-Phase Cycle

Pablo Mendoza-Halliday Programa de Doctorado en Música UNAM, Mexico [email protected]

ABSTRACT II. COGNITIVE CATEGORY, TAXONOMIC

Musical genre is a form of categorization that groups musical entities, CLASS, OR CULTUAL UNIT? such as musical works, which share affinity criteria. However, the way In scientific literature concerning categorization, there has we use the category and theorize about it depends on how we define been a tendency to treat the terms “category” and “class” as the concept of musical genre. Current musicological theories propose equal. Nevertheless, it is precisely these concepts that make the genres to be sets, with properties defining their boundaries; or difference. Classes are groups that have close definitions. They cognitive categories profiled through cognitive processes involving work as sets and follow the logic of set theory. Within this logic, perception, memory, imagination and intuition; or cultural units that sets have necessary and sufficient conditions of membership; emerge through intersubjective negotiations among semiotic codes. hence, it is either absolute or null: an element “is” o “is not” The theory here explained claims that musical genre can part of a set. However, Lofti Zadeh (1965) extended the set simultaneously be a cognitive category, a cultural unit, and a logic theory to include fuzzy sets: sets with degrees of taxonomical class; they work as phases of a cyclic dynamic that covers membership. If musical categories are open concepts, they have the entire concept of genre. Set theory can explain the properties of no clear definitions. Their boundaries are fuzzy due to their sets while cognitive categories need to be explained with cognitive nature as symbolic forms. theories such as prototypes and family resemblances. This study aims for a broader definition of genre that solves some of the Classes are organized by means of taxonomies. inconsistencies of current genre theories. Taxonomies are structured through a stable conceptual system that sets the rules for classification. For example, if an element I. INTRODUCTION has certain properties of membership, it is part of a set X; if another element has different properties of membership, then it To talk about music is to talk of categories. Our way to is not part of set X, but of set Y. There can even be a vertical communicate concepts about music makes use of categories organization of levels of inclusiveness; this implies that an that describe music or represent its features. Moreover, music element of set X can also be part of a bigger set with a broader itself becomes categories when we refer to what we hear. One definition. of the most common categories used to represent music is the With the definition of classes and rules that govern the musical genre. taxonomy, neither the classes nor the taxonomy are tied to a Genre theorists have defined genre in multiple ways. A particular context. Classification, under this logic, can be classic definition by Swales (1990) says that: “a genre pursued in any time, place, culture or any particular state. It is comprises a class of communicative events, the members of a question of pure logic, not of cognition (although the which share some set of communicative purposes”. The relationship between pure logic and cognition is a major topic musical genre is thus a category that groups musical entities or in my doctoral dissertation). This is what differentiates events, such as “musical works”, which share one or several classification from cognitive categorization. criteria of social compatibility, contextual affinity and By means of cognition, categorization does not work with symbolic truth of aesthetic nature. Genre creates meaning in closed definitions because grouping depend of the cognitive communication: it guides toward attitudes, conjectures and capacities, such as perception, memory, imagination and expectations around the cultural artefact or the musical fact as intuition. These groups do not work as sets and are not bound social phenomena. within set logic. Instead, they work through family However, there are different ways to look at categories. resemblances, as Wittgenstein (1953) claims. Something is part Cognitive scientists, such as Rosch (1978) and Lakoff (1987), of a category because it resembles another thing in some way, distinguish between what they call “classical categories”, and it does not matter if other things are part of the category defined by the properties shared by all their members, and because they resemble in another way. Although these “prototype-based categories”, defined by cognitive models. categories have fuzzy limits, these boundaries cannot be fully The discussion on this topic has tend to focus on which model explained by fuzzy logic since the categories are achieved by seems to be the right one. Applied to the musical genre, the means of cognition, with all the limitations implied by question would be: Is the genre a classical category or a cognitive capacities and context. The best way to understand cognitive category? I claim that this discussion is misleading these categories is through prototype-effects, as explained by the real subject, because both types of categories operate at Rosch (1978). different levels. What we need to do, if we want to understand According to Rosch’s theory, cognitive categories tend to the full complexity of musical genre, is to investigate how become defined in terms of prototypical instances that contain musical categories operate within these levels.

75 the most representative attributes of the category. Category III. CONCLUSION: THE THREE-PHASE membership is therefore a judgement according to the degree CYCLE of typicality with respect to the prototype. Now, which one of the category models suits the best for Social conventions aim to create the conceptual stability the concept of musical genre? The answer is both of them. A that is necessary for taxonomy formations. Hence, social genre can be conceived as a taxonomic class or as a cognitive conventions are a necessary step to convert the intersubjective category. As classes, genres have close definitions according to categorization process into a classification, relying then on an the conceptual systems that structure the musical taxonomy established taxonomy and not on volatile contexts or under which they operate. Being sets, the “membership” of a experiences. Furthermore, these taxonomic classes, into which musical event in a genre depends on the conceptual model that genres are converted, are as well part of the knowledge used to establishes definitions. As open concepts, genres have fuzzy keep categorizing music. boundaries that can be analyzed through fuzzy set theory. So finally it completes a cycle: when someone ‘thinks’ Moreover, genres can be modelled using artificial intelligence music, or uses a musical genre he starts a categorization process to create automatic classification systems, such as those that involves his cognitive capacities and experiences. Within achieved for Music Information Retrieval. these are his knowledge and experiences with musical On the other hand, genres can also stand for cognitive taxonomies, that is, genres as classes. When these resulting categories. When someone categorizes a piece of music, neither categories have been socialised, there is a negotiation process the category nor the musical properties that lead the to accept the ones that work fine for most people (within the categorization process are taken for granted. The properties of community) and reject the ones that do not get into agreement. the musical event depend on cognitive capacities, context The agreements are achieved by semantic codes that can (whether social, historical, or emotional) and signification. furtherly be translated into conventions that define the genres. These variables can produce diverse categorizations on a same With definitions, genres become part of musical taxonomies event, even contradictory among them. that are used for further categorization processes and therefore The conceptual models we use to deal with musical the cycle continues. experiences determine the categorization process using both musical competences and knowledge mediated through culture. Genre, as a cognitive category, is projected mainly in the music Cognitive Cultural identification cognitive processes, which deal with perception, Category Unit memory, imagination and intuition. These categories have graded membership and fuzzy borders. We can analyze the family resemblances that structure genres as prototype effects. The spectrum of possible categories include those that are part Taxonomic of musical taxonomies (the ones we could call “official” Class genres), and categories that are not part of shared taxonomies among musical communities, which originate from a subjective Figure 1. The three-phase cycle of genre relationship with music. Genre theorists such as Miller (1984) This cycle can also lead to transformation and call these categories de facto genres. reconfiguration of genres. As social conventions, genres “are The decisions by which one categorizes something into born” and “die”, as Fabbri (2006) says; but as taxonomic some genre rely, firstly, on one’s experience and knowledge. classes, they are immanent, and changes over time are just Nevertheless, to work as a category they need to be socialized attachments to their historical definitions. so people within a musical community can find agreements for the use of the genres. According to Fabbri (2006), musical REFERENCES genres are cultural units, which are types of musical events, regulated by semiotic codes that associate a plane of expression Aucouturier, J.J. & Pachet, F. (2003). Representing Musical Genre: A to a plane of content. Semiotic codes can be interpreted as State of the Art. Journal of New Music Research, 32 (1), 83-93. socially accepted norms, although mostly tacit. These norms Barsalou, L.W. (1992). Frames, concepts, and conceptual Fields. In can only be relevant if they are conventionalized. Lehrer, A. & Kittay, E.F. (Eds.). Frames, Fields, and Contrasts: Lopez Cano (2006) follows this assertion by saying that the New essays in semantic and lexical organization (pp. 21-74). musical genre is the result of signification operations and both Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. intersubjective and contextual negotiations. For a genre to be a Fabbri, F. (2006). Tipos, categorías, géneros musicales. ¿Hace Falta social category, it needs to pass through this process of una teoría? Conference at the VII Congress of the International Association for the Study of Popular Music, Latin American assimilation of conventions within a musical community. branch, IASPM-AL, “Música popular: cuerpo y escena en la The difference of cultural units with cognitive categories is América Latina”. La Habana: Casa de las Americas. that the former are formed as cognitive types while the later Goehr, L. (1992). The Imaginary Museum of Musical Works. An Essay involve semiotic types that deal with intersubjective in the Philosophy of Music. Oxford: Oxford University Press. negotiations. Still they are context dependant and that is what Jakob, E.K. (2004). Classification and Categorization: A Difference differentiates them from taxonomic classes. However, that Makes a Difference. Library Trends, 52 (3), 515-540. accepting that genres can work as cultural units is not evidence Lakoff, G. (1987). Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things, What that deny the category models of genres as cognitive categories Categories Reveal about the Mind. Chicago: University of and taxonomic classes. Chicago Press. López-Cano, R. (2006). ‘Asómate por debajo de la pista’: timba

cubana, estrategias músico-sociales y construcción de géneros en

76 la música popular. Lecture at the VII Congress of the International Association for the Study of Popular Music, Latin American branch, IASPM-AL, “Música popular: cuerpo y escena en la América Latina”. La Habana: Casa de las Americas. Miller, C.R. (1984). Genre as Social Action. Quarterly Journal of Speech 70, 151-167. Nattiez, J.J. (1990). Music and Discourse: Towards a Semiology of Music. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Rosch, E. (1978). Principles of Categorization. In E. Rosch & B.B. Lloyds (Eds.), Cognition and Categorization (pp.27-48). Hilsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Swales, J.M. (1990). Genre Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wittgenstein, L. (1953). Philosophical Investigations. New York: Macmillan. Zadeh, L. (1965). Fuzzy Sets. Information and Control, 8, 338-53. Zbikowski, L. (2002). Conceptualizing music: cognitive structure, theory, and analysis, AMS studies in music. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

77 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

Musical Forces Can Save Analysts from Cumbersome Explanations

Jaco Meyer School of Music and Conservatory, North-West University, South Africa [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Background Results The solo flute composition Syrinx, or La Flûte de Pan as it In my analysis of Debussy's Syrinx I found that the theory was originally titled, by Claude Debussy (1862-1918) is of musical forces is a useful music analytical tool that can be regarded as one of the most important solo compositions in employed in order to avoid cumbersome explanations in flute literature. Comprehensive and contradictory literature written music analyses. This analytical tool can also be on this composition, the original manuscript, analyses, and employed in many other compositions or employed to interpretations of the composition exist. Analyses of Syrinx in simplify existing written analyses. Analyses in which the literature were done using a wide variety of analytical theory of musical forces were employed also open up approaches, including less conventional approaches like alternative ways to interpret compositions and create Gestalt perception and spectral analysis of flute tone quality. opportunities for new topics of discussion. Most of the authors provide cumbersome explanations in their analyses and a popular topic of discussion in these analyses is Conclusions hierarchies and interactions of musical tones in Syrinx. The presentation of a musical analysis of Debussy's Syrinx Aims can be simplified when musical forces are employed as an The aim of this paper will be to show how existing analyses analytical tool to describe music phenomena. of Syrinx can be reinterpreted in terms of Larson's theory of Keywords musical forces. It is important to mention that it is not the aim or in the scope of this article to evaluate or criticise these musical forces; analysis; Syrinx analyses, but rather to show how these analyses can be understood differently and provide new insights when it is reinterpreted in terms of Larson's theory of musical forces. Method The vast majority of these cumbersome explanations can be explained simpler in terms of Steve Larson's (2012) theory of musical forces. I will use this theory as a method of analysis in this paper. Larson's theory of musical forces states that there are stable and unstable tones in tonal music. Unstable tones are then attracted toward more stable tones due to the interaction of musical forces. These musical forces are: musical gravity: the tendency of an unstable tone to descend to a more stable tone; musical magnetism: the tendency of an unstable tone to ascend or descend to the closest stable tone; and musical inertia: the tendency of a musical pattern to continue in the same fashion it started. I will present instances from existing analyses of Debussy's Syrinx as a case and an analysis of Syrinx in terms of musical forces as another case. The two cases will then be compared to show how the cumbersome explanations and arguments of the one case can be explained simpler by using the other case as an exemplar.

78 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

Measuring Rhythmic Abilities: The Development of a Computer-Based Test to Assess Individual Differences in Beat Keeping

Robyn Moran1, Richard Race2, Arielle Boneville-Roussy3 School of Education, University of Roehampton [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

than untrained, and achieving significantly higher scores on ABSTRACT the beat-perception test. No gender or age differences were found. Background Although psychological investigations of rhythm have Conclusions increased in recent years, few studies have addressed the The results demonstrate that the BAT is an effective tool matter of rhythmic ability. There is no universally accepted for discriminating between different levels of beat keeping definition of what it entails and, despite the existence of a ability and the subject is worthy of further investigation. In number of tools for measuring a variety of different aspects of addition the software prototype proved to be a viable rhythm perception and performance, a standardised instrument platform, which could be extended in future to assess for measuring rhythmic ability across a comprehensive range rhythmic ability on a much broader range of dimensions. of dimensions has yet to be developed. Keywords Aims rhythm; rhythmic ability; individual differences; beat This study investigates individual differences in beat keeping; computer-based test keeping and developed a prototypical computer-based instrument to administer experimental tasks and capture REFERENCES performance data. The research set out to address the questions of how widely individuals differ in terms of their Iversen, J. R., & Patel, A. (2008). The Beat Alignment Test (BAT): beat-keeping abilities and how successfully the tasks and Surveying beat processing abilities in the general population. In measures used in the test identify individual differences in K. Miyazaki, Y. Hiraga, M. Adachi, Y. Nakajima, & M. Tsuzaki beat keeping. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 10th international conference on music perception ad cognition (ICMPC 10). Sapporo, Japan (pp. Method 465-468). Adelaide, Australia: Causal Productions The test was based on the Beat Alignment Test (BAT) Cycling74, (2016). [online] Available at: https://cycling74.com/products/max/ (Iversen and Patel, 2008), which was implemented in its original form, using the software authoring environment Max/MSP (Cycling74, 2017), and to which was added a novel offbeat-tapping task and a feedback section. The overall test consisted of a ten item questionnaire, three metronome- tapping tasks, four offbeat tapping tasks, twelve music tapping tasks, thirty-six beat perception tasks, and an eight item feedback section. The software recorded participants' tap times, which were made by pressing the spacebar on the keyboard. It was administered to 70 college students with and without musical training (66% female, mean age 18.5) and the tapping data were analysed for accuracy and variability. Results Results showed that, whilst the majority of people performed with high degrees of accuracy when tapping to a metronome, there was a greater range of performance in terms of variability. Similarly, the majority of people were successful in tapping the offbeat and this task produced a much wider range of performance. The tasks involving tapping and listening to musical excerpts produced the widest range of individual differences. Significant differences were found between the performance of individuals with and without musical training for all the tasks, with musically trained participants tapping more accurately and less variably

79 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

Selling Madness: How Mental Illness Has Been Commercialised in the Music Business Ekaterina Pavlova Department of Music, King’s College London, England [email protected]

intend to provide evidence of the high level of profitability of ABSTRACT the ‘mad musician’ gimmick'. Furthermore, I will consider the prominence of gendered madness in the contemporary music As history shows, madness has fascinated human minds for centuries. business. All in all, my analysis will allow me to demonstrate I reveal how this fascination has led to the establishment and, at times, that in the music business studies madness should be placed dangerous exploitation of the ‘mad musician’ gimmick - a profitable commonplace in the music industry. After a historical outline of social alongside more obvious and widely discussed tropes such as definitions of madness, I determine the trope’s contemporary gender and sexuality. relevance and profitability through an analysis of contrasting 20-21st- century case studies. I build a multidimensional narrative addressing II. FROM ASYLUMS TO CHARTS: A BRIEF not only how these case studies were marketed, but also ethical and HISTORY sociological issues arising from evocations of mental illness and Diverse factors, such as advances in medicine and suicide, gender and genre attributions, and the role of music journalism sociocultural changes, have contributed to the fluidity of the in systematic, occasionally post-mortem exploitation of mentally ill definition of mental illness. In music, varied attitudes towards musicians. By undertaking this research, I intend to demonstrate that madness came to occupy the whole vast equilibrium between in music studies 'madness' should be placed alongside other more fascination and condemnation. As this section will show, each obvious tropes, such as sexuality, and studied in conjunction with its infinite commercial potential granted by its socially constructed, fluid of the presented definitions has strong selling points and definition. commercial potential gained through the audience’s deep interest in transgressions of societal standards. I. INTRODUCTION Amongst the most popular and earliest mentions of madness is Plato’s ‘divine madness’, which portrays inspiration as an The concept of madness is socially constructed and, uncontrollable product of the genius (Hyland, 2008, p. 70). A therefore, fluid. As Walser quotes Roy Porter, mental illness good example of this concept’s application to music is the 19- challenges the discourse of the normal (Walser, 1993, p. 122), century German Lied. Its ideology connected one’s subjectivity, which is dependent upon the status quo. As a result, any the nature, and the sublime, linking a creative human being to behaviour can be labelled as ‘abnormal’ if it does not conform the forces unattainable by ‘ordinary’ individuals. An artist, in to the society’s expectations and does not fit within the this case, is separated from the rest of the society through a set prescribed framework of societal norms of the times. A of extraordinary qualities - extraordinary and, therefore, commonplace in the music business, such behaviour can be fascinating. In the music business, this model has been widely easily regarded as theatrical, as it draws attention to itself used to establish the gimmick of the true artist: lonely, gifted through its irrationality and inexplicability and showcases the and cursed by inspiration and talent, separated from the society individual’s uniqueness and ‘otherness’. through their ‘otherness’ but still an appropriate candidate to In this research paper, I aim to show how mental illness has speak for the society.1 This very ‘otherness’ also justifies the been commercialised in the music industry. First, my narrative artist’s transgression of social norms: if they are not like us, will focus on the key stages in the history of our fascination how can we expect them to be? with mental health issues in order to outline various social Madness as a medical condition has also come to be seen as definitions of madness. This will allow me to analyse the a fascinating spectacle praised for its theatricality. Bethlem, formation of the audiences’ relationship with madness and England’s first hospital for the mentally ill, remained open for explain how and why mentally ill musicians came to be seen as public visitors for five centuries (Andrew et al., 1997, p. 152). a fascinating spectacle and, consequently, a profitable Later, in 19th-century Germany, after the emergence of commonplace in the music industry. Then, these definitions psychiatry, fascination was accompanied by fear, as musicians, will serve as a springboard for the analysis of two case studies such as Robert Schumann, evoke madness in their works which have successfully commercialised mental illness: (Rosen, 1995, pp. 646-648). Developments in psychiatry were Nirvana’s ‘Lithium’, eventually followed by Kurt Cobain’s not unnoticed by the 20th-century artists either, when many suicide, and Evanescence’s ‘Lithium’. To assist the analysis, artists, such as Pink Floyd, Alice Cooper, and David Bowie other case studies, ethical issues, genre attributions, the nature supported the anti-psychiatry movement. The movement of the established artist-audience relationship and the response criticised inhumane methods of medicinal treatment and of music journalists will also be addressed. By doing so, I questioned biological causes of mental illness. Instead, mental

1By this observation, I also refer to the fact that people seek to identify themselves with songs’ protagonists.

80 illness was perceived as ‘the product of social circumstances’ album Nevermind (1991). Eshom’s description of lithium sets or even as a mere failure of an individual to conform to the the scene for Nirvana's song: ‘a “miracle” drug that supposedly social norms (Spelman, 2012, pp. 1-3). erases all negative and sad feelings’, used to treat mood At first, sociocultural factors were ignored by psychiatry. A disorders and ADD (Attention Deficit Disorder) (Eshom, 1999, men-run discipline in a patriarchal society, it gave rise to p. 13). Cobain’s protagonist indeed seems to experience all of another artistic trope – female hysteria. In The Female Malady, the above-mentioned. Despite rather cheerful exclamations Showalter describes how femininity, female sexuality and (‘hey, hey, hey’, ‘I’m not sad’), he expresses rather disturbing nonconformity were equated to insanity. This way, what was a ideas (‘I killed you, I’m not gonna crack’) and resorts to normal behaviour for men was seen as pathology in women, inadequate and unsound solutions to his emotional crisis (‘I’m resulting in an unequal female-to-male patient ratio. Soon, the so lonely but that’s okay I shaved my head’). The sections with artistic potential was acknowledged: Charcot, one of the repeated ‘I’m gonna crack’ could either symbolise a greatest theorists in the realm of neurology, turned his female relationship struggle or a bipolar disorder – a struggle between patients’ hysteria into a public spectacle so theatrical that many the two sides of his personality. contemporaries believed that it was staged, while his female It is not surprising to find a reference to Nirvana in such an patients established a kind of a performing career within the ‘unmusical’ book. Nevermind, sometimes described as ‘the asylum (Showalter, 1987, pp. 145-154). album of a generation’, has brought Geffen Records alone $80 The mad musician gimmick proves to be more promising for million dollars (Frith et al., 2001, p. 204). One of the causes of some genres than others. Rock and heavy metal employ such success is the album’s vivid depiction of adolescent ‘otherness’ as an ideology, often taking it to extremes. This has frustration (Frith et al., 2001, p. 204) - the discourse with which, led to accusations by music scholars (e.g. Stuessy’s The Heavy in one way or another, any young person can identify. At that Metal User’s Manual)2 and even trials (e.g. Judas Priest, 1990, point, depression and frustration with life had been approaching Walser, 1993, pp. 139-147) 3. In America, in 1985, the Parents’ one of its historical peaks in the USA: 13.6 suicides per 100,000 Music Resource Center (PMRC) was established with the aim people aged 15-24 (1994), with a particular rise in the 15-19 to launch a music censorship campaign protecting young group (from 5.9 per 100,000 in 1970 to 11.1 in 1990) (Evans et people from dangerous or adult content, chiefly targeting rap al., 2012, p. 434). Although it is hard to estimate the exact and heavy metal (Walser, 1993, pp. 137-138). Such reception number of people who suffered from various types of mental may lead to a conclusion that rock and metal are often illness, both diagnosed and undiagnosed, it is clear that at the understood as ‘madness’ on their own. After all, depression and time when ‘Lithium’ was released it openly addressed a suicide – two rather prominent metal discourses – immediately growing trend – and an enormous audience. With Kurt encourage medical treatment. Here an ethical issue arises: Cobain’s suicide in 1994, young people all over the world saw performed by youth idols, such hits as ‘A Tout le Monde’ their idol jumping to the ultimate solution, which by that time (Megadeth, 1994), ‘Last Resort’ (Papa Roach, 2000) and had spread like a disease amongst the American youth. The ‘Suicide Solution’ (Ozzy Osbourne, 1980) may become story, however, did not educate the corporations and the press dangerous and even manipulative when heard by someone on the dangers of selling mental illness. On the contrary, it already considering such a ‘last resort’. While it is easy to allowed for even more systematic exploitation (Frith et al., object to this assumption (for example, see Walser, 1993, p. 2001, p. 204), giving a real-life feel to Cobain’s lyrics and stage 147), it is much harder to disconnect a mere mention of suicide persona. and self-harming from the notion of mental illness. It is important that in the 1994 media reports surrounding Consequently, a parallel can be drawn between rock and metal Cobain’s suicide we see neither an individual who gradually subcultures (e.g. famously prone to self-harming goths or lost his struggle with depression nor a typical rock star death. antisocial punks) and mental illness. In this case, mental illness Instead, journalists presented the news as a story of a noble is an ideology, a genre’s ‘religion’, which forms not only the death of the true artist who could not take the pressure of audience’s musical taste but also their lifestyle. Rock and metal corrupting ‘mainstream’ (Leonard, 2007, pp. 70-71). This way, underline the importance of madness as a trope - so successful the fluidity of the definition of mental illness was exploited at in the music industry that an entire genre and its numerous its best: from a medical diagnosis further complicated by subgenres’ ideology can be based on it. This also allows one to Cobain’s substance abuse, his suicide was elevated to the status suggest that ‘otherness’ – any type of it – is the key prerequisite of ‘divine madness’. of the success of the mad musician gimmick, while ‘divine Without any doubt, such transformation may increase sales, madness’, ‘medical madness’ and ‘female hysteria’ are mere but it victimises the artist and attaches a romantic image4 to the examples of numerous possibilities of the trope’s realisation. extremely problematic discourse of drug and alcohol addiction, and mental illness. Furthermore, the publicity surrounding such case studies renders them representative of the current status III. LITHIUM: TWO CASE STUDIES quo and inspires a dangerous identification of the entire In Lithium: What You Should Know, Eshom starts his strictly generation with the fate of their idols. As much as it raises scientific prose with a reference to the song ‘Lithium’ - one of concern, it could possibly contribute to an increase of suicide the singles released by Nirvana (1992) from their second studio and depression rates. With the death of Cobain, his self-

2Joe Stuessy’s “The Heavy Metal User’s Manual”, which 4It is an old perception that gifted musicianship – or artistry in accused heavy metal lyrics of being violent. general – always somehow leads to the ultimate sacrifice. 3According to the suit, Stained Glass (1978) contained ‘subliminal messages’ which inspired fans to commit suicide.

81 branding strategy was altered and applied posthumously as a changes, once again, demonstrate that madness, unlike female commercial master plan. As Jones points out in his ‘Better off sexuality, is an extremely flexible commercial trope which has Dead’, after Cobain’s death Billboard noticed a significant rise remarkably easily adapted to changes in gender politics. in sales of Nirvana albums, while one author in Entertainment However, the ethical issue remains the same: like sexuality, Weekly described Cobain as ‘a licenser’s nirvana’ (Jones, 2005, madness is rather vulnerable in the eyes of parental censorship, p. 8). All in all, it leads to two conclusions: first one is that in should campaigns like PMRC target it. terms of commercial success being ‘better off dead’ is not a purely classical music phenomenon, and second that an artist’s V. CONCLUSION mental illness has become a selling point and a profitable In this research paper, I have outlined how and why mental commonplace in the music business, in particular, when it illness has become a profitable commonplace in the music culminates with a suicide. business. I have demonstrated the application and the Later, the title ‘Lithium’ was adopted in 2006 by the commercial success of the mad musician gimmick by looking American alternative metal band Evanescence. Destroying old at a number of case studies. I have also considered gender and gendered madness stereotypes, the female protagonist faces a genre attributions, as well as social and ethical aspects of the similar struggle, although despite her illness causing her lover’s trope’s application. drinking problem, she refuses to take lithium. All conclusions drawn in this research suggest that madness It seems unlikely that the band’s focus on lithium was not can indeed be awarded the title of a music business trope. There affected by Nirvana’s song. Despite the gothic image and are many other numerous examples of its commercial success, frequent references to death in Evanescence’s lyrics, their and whether they evoke sympathy for the mentally ill, present ‘Lithium’ is not a definite ideological counterpart to Nirvana’s. the world through the eyes of the mentally ill, or both, the Rolling Stone, in fact, insisted that Evanescence’s ‘Lithium’ is findings I have presented suggest that this trope is not prone to an ode to Kurt Cobain (Sheffield, 2006), so is it an attempt to ‘running out of steam’. First of all, it is largely defined by the evoke sympathy or even ‘save’ Cobain in retrospect? Or simply social order, which in its turn is in a state of constant flux. to adopt Cobain’s commercial success by applying a similar, Secondly, it demonstrates the society’s reaction to the social dangerously romantic gimmick? However, unlike Cobain’s order. Finally, as the history has shown, its commercial success protagonist, Amy Lee’s protagonist rejects lithium treatment, has been granted by the actual existence of mental illness which which in real life still could be followed by deterioration and has challenged the human mind for centuries. suicide. The band does not suggest a possibility of a magical cure, as the minor mode ending seems to imply the tragic ACKNOWLEDGMENTS outcome. Whatever was their goal, the gimmick of a mentally I wish to thank Ruard Absaroka who taught me for my ill individual facing side effects of lithium has made its return intercollegiate Music Business module at SOAS and provided in 2006, becoming US Billboard 200’s no. 1 and selling the advice I needed to write this paper and take the first steps 447,000 copies in the first week (Billboard, 2006). in my research into music and madness. IV. IS COMMERCIALISED MADNESS I also wish to thank Katerina Koutsantoni (King’s College London) whose interdisciplinary module ‘A Beautiful Mind: GENDERED? Art, Science and Mental Health’ helped me to discover my It seems that the historically crucial trope of female hysteria passion. has lost its social pertinence, and gendered madness is no longer relevant enough to be widely employed. A lot of REFERENCES rumours surround the stage persona of Lady Gaga, who, Andrews, Jonathan, Briggs, Asa, Porter, Roy, Tucker, Penny, through explicit self-branding, shocks her audience with a Waddington, Keir (1997). The History of Bethlem. London and provocative style and music. In an interview to Daily Mail, she New York: Routledge. has confessed that her costumes are inspired by her suffering Billboard (2006, November 10). Retrieved February 20, 2017, from from a mental illness earlier in life (Cogan, 2013). A rather http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/56996/evanescence- familiar story of depression and drug abuse, it allows to suggest zooms-by-killers-to-take-no-1. that the rise of feminism and gender equality has laid the Cogan, Judy (2013, November 5). ‘I Heard Voices in My Head: Lady Gaga Says She Uses Outrageous Costumes to Deal with Her groundwork for the annihilation of gendered attributions of ‘Insanity’ as a Youngster’. Retrieved February 20, 2017, from madness. One could also argue that Nirvana’s ‘Lithium’ http://www.dailymail.co.uk/tvshowbiz/article-2487854/Lady- presents a kind of male hysteria, and so do many other world- Gaga-used-costumes-deal-insanity-youngster.html. famous hits depicting abnormal or antisocial behavior amongst Eshom, Daniel (1999). Lithium: What You Should Know. New York: males (one the most explicit ones is Rammstein’s ‘Mein Teil’, The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. which presents a true cannibalism story of two men meeting for Evans, Dwight L., Foa, Edna B., Gur, Raquel E., Hendin, Herbert, the purpose of one eating the other) (Wiederhorn, 2004). At the O’Brien, Charles P., Seligman, Martin E. P., Walsh, Timothy, eds. same time, the music business has made female madness more (2012). Treating and Preventing Adolescent Mental Health masculine: the life of Courtney Love, as an example, is not Disorders: What We Know and What We Don’t Know. Oxford: Oxford University Press. particularly different from the life of her husband (Leonard, Frith, Simon, Straw, Will, Street, John, eds. (2001). The Cambridge 2007, pp. 77-82). Female hysteria as a gender defining trope Companion to Pop and Rock. Cambridge: Cambridge University was also rendered irrelevant though the rise of ‘agender’ artists Press. (e.g feminine males), while the perception that musicians are Hyland, Drew A. (2008). Plato and the Question of Beauty. Indiana: already outside social norms has made irrelevant the whole Indiana University Press, 2008. reason why female hysteria came to being. Such historical

82 Jones, Steve (2005). ‘Better off Dead’. In Steve Jones and Joli Jensen (Eds.), Afterlife as Afterimage: Understanding Posthumous Fame (pp. 3-16). New York: Peter Lang Publishing, Inc. Leonard, Marion (2007). Gender in the Music Industry. Ashgate Publishing, 2007. Rosen, Charles (1995). The Romantic Generation. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Sheffield, Rob (2006, October 5). ‘Evanescence: The Open Door’. Rolling Stone. Retrieved February 20, 2017, from http://www.rollingstone.com/music/albumreviews/the-open- door-20061005. Showalter, Elaine (1987). The Female Malady: Women, Madness and English Culture, 1830-1980. Virago Press. Spelman, Nicola (2012). Popular Music and the Myths of Madness. Ashgate Publishing. Walser, Robert (1993). Running with the Devil: Power, Gender, and Madness in Heavy Metal Music. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press. Wiederhorn, Jon (2004, December 28). ‘German Cannibal Helps Rammstein Write New Single’, MTV. Retrieved February 20, 2017, from http://www.mtv.com/news/1495200/german- cannibal-helps-rammstein-write-new-single/.

83 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

Experiences and Appraisals of Musical Awe

Landon S. L. Peck Faculty of Music, University of Oxford, United Kingdom [email protected]

ABSTRACT Keywords awe; music psychology; emotions Background A proposed model for the emotion of awe created by REFERENCES Keltner and Haidt (2003) suggests that one may perceive awe Keltner, D., & Haidt, J. (2003). Approaching awe, a moral, spiritual, when encountered with a stimulus that is both vast and and aesthetic emotion. Cognition & Emotion, 17(2), 297-314. requires change in existing schemas. Additional hedonic doi:10.1080/02699930302297 appraisals of threat, beauty, ability, virtue, and supernatural Konečni, V.J. (2005). The aesthetic trinity: Awe, being moved, causation are thought to shape this experience. Alternatively, thrills. Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts, 5(2), 27-44. awe has been proposed as an aesthetic reaction to the sublime, Scherer, K. R. (2001). Appraisal considered as a process of multi- comprised of joy and fear, and only when experienced with level sequential checking. In K. R. Scherer, A. Schorr, & T. thrills/chills and being moved does the emotion emerge Johnstone (Eds.), Appraisal processes in emotion: Theory, (Konečni, 2005). methods, research (pp. 92-120). New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Aims The aims of this study were to gather experiences of musical awe to empirically test proposed appraisal models, evaluate commonalities in experiences, and derive a better characterization and understanding of musically-induced awe. Method Questionnaires based on the Geneva Appraisal Questionnaire (Scherer, 2001) were collected from the general public. Participants were asked if they have felt awe (defined as ‘a combination of appreciation of beauty surprise and possibly fear’) in response to music and to describe their experience. Finally, based on their own experiences of musical awe, participants rated theoretical appraisal factors by way of psychometric scales. Results Results showed an overwhelming association with the term ‘awe’ when classifying powerful emotional moments experienced from music. Participants’ vivid recollections described highly intense yet pleasurable chill-inducing experiences with beautiful and often virtuosic. Increased enjoyment and engagement with the music was also found while few participants related their experience to that of fear. Conclusions Musical awe was found to be an uncommonly occurring complex emotional experience that is not perceived as terrible or fearsome but has retained its sense of grandeur and power. These positive associations suggest that musically-induced awe may be a particular illustration of the sublime that emphasizes vastness, beauty and virtuosity that is closely related to states of being moved. Future studies building on the analysis of this questionnaire will continue to investigate the causes and effects of awe-inducing music.

84 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

Investigating the Improvisers’ Perspective Using Video-Stimulated Recall

Keith Phillips Royal Northern College of Music, UK [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Background There have been a number of studies and ethnographies investigating the complex creative activity of improvisation. Two important recurring themes are the use of multiple strategies (Norgaard, 2011) and the importance of prospective auditory imagery. Comparatively few studies have focused on the privileged role of auditory imagery strategies in validating improvisation as a creative practice, however. Aims The aim of the study is to obtain accounts of musicians’ experience of idea generation in improvisation, with a focus on strategy use and the role of auditory imagery. Participants are also invited to talk about why they improvise and what they value in the practice. Method Six participants who self-identified as improvisers (1 female, mean age = 29 years, range = 30 years) were each video recorded whilst improvising to a backing track. Immediately after the improvisation, participants were asked to offer a commentary on their video during semi-structured interviews. These were then transcribed and a thematic analysis carried out (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Results Thematic analysis of the data is in progress, but preliminary results indicate the use of multiple strategies, including music- theoretic, motor and imagery-driven approaches. There is also evidence of sketch planning (Norgaard, 2011), and the importance of auditory imagery. Conclusions Although any conclusions must be tentative until the analysis is complete, the use of auditory imagery was important to these improvisers and motivations for improvising were bound up with concepts of freedom and creativity. It is possible that the privileged status of auditory imagery in improvisation is related to these ideas. Keywords improvisation; auditory imagery; video-stimulated recall

REFERENCES Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative research in psychology, 3(2), 77-101. Norgaard, M. (2011). Descriptions of Improvisational Thinking by Artist-Level Jazz Musicians. Journal of Research in Music Education, 59(2), 109-127. doi:10.1177/0022429411405669

85 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

Infant Spontaneous Motor Tempo

Sinead Rocha1, Victoria Southgate, Denis Mareschal Centre for Brain and Cognitive Development, Birkbeck, University of London [email protected]

arm length and parent leg length to infant SMT, revealed that ABSTRACT infant age (β = -.459, p = .012) and parental height (β = .413, p = .013) were the only significant predictors. The overall Background model fit was R2= .266. Spontaneous Motor Tempo (SMT), or the interval between Conclusions self-paced repetitive movements, is known to slow with age (McAuley, 2006), and preferred tempo correlates with body We find that infant SMT becomes faster with age. This can size, with larger bodies preferring slower rhythms (Mishima, be explained by the fact that younger infants are still learning 1965; Todd, Cousins & Lee, 2007; Dahl, Huron, Brod & how to control their limbs to make continuous and targeted Altenmüller, 2014). Rate of locomotion is a hypothesised movements. Indeed, infants also get more regular with age. Our results are the first to suggest a U-shaped, rather than factor underlying these links. Studying the development of linear, relationship between age and SMT. SMT in infants, whose primary experience of locomotion is of Whilst tempo does not seem influenced by own body size, being carried by their caregiver, may help us to parse the we see a relationship between infant SMT and parental height, contribution of experience of locomotion from one’s own such that infants with taller parents drum more slowly than biomechanical features, to better understand what may ‘set’ infants with shorter parents. We suggest that infants’ self- our SMT. produced rhythm may be influenced by their parents’ walking tempo, and particularly by the vestibular information they Aims receive when being carried on the caregiver’s body. The current study therefore aimed to i) be the first to create a measure of infant SMT, ii) elucidate the relationship Keywords between SMT and age over the first two years of life, iii) development; rhythm; Spontaneous Motor Tempo; measure the relationship between infant SMT and own body locomotion size, and iv) measure the relationship between infant SMT and parental body size. REFERENCES In line with existing literature, we predicted that infant Dahl, S., Huron, D., Brod, G., & Altenmüller, E. (2014). Preferred SMT would slow with age, and would correlate with dance tempo: does sex or body morphology influence how we anthropometric features, such that larger babies would show a groove?. Journal of New Music Research, 43(2), 214-223. slower SMT. However, as infants are often carried by their McAuley, J. D., Jones, M. R., Holub, S., Johnston, H. M., & Miller, caregiver, we also predicted that SMT may be linked to N. S. (2006). The time of our lives: life span development of passive experience of the parent’s rate of locomotion, such timing and event tracking. Journal of Experimental Psychology: that infants with larger parents would exhibit slower SMT. General, 135(3), 348. Mishima, J. (1965). Introduction to the Morphology of Human Method Behaviour: The Experimental Study of Mental Tempo. Tokyo: 170 infants (M = 12.3 months, SD = 6.5 months) took part Tokyo Publishing. in a spontaneous drumming task for up to five minutes. We Todd, N. P. M., Cousins, R., & Lee, C. S. (2007). The contribution of recorded the sound wave of their drumming and computed the anthropometric factors to individual differences in the perception mean inter-onset-interval to give the SMT for each infant, and of rhythm. obtained demographic and anthropometric information. Infants had to perform at least four sequential hits to be included for analyses, leaving 115 infants with useable data. Results Contrary to our hypothesis, we found that infant SMT negatively correlated with age, such that older infants were faster (r(114) = -.279, p = .003). Older infants were also more consistent drummers, with a negative correlation between age and the Relative Standard Deviation (RSD) of drumming (r(114) = -.217, p = .021). Infants who did not show a consistent SMT (RSD more than one SD above the mean) were excluded from further analyses. On the remaining 94 infants, a linear regression assessing the contribution of infant age, infant arm length, infant leg length, parent height, parent

86 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

Investigating Beat Perception and Sensorimotor Synchronisation in People With and Without Parkinson’s Disease

D. C. Rose1, L. E. Annett, P. J. Lovatt Department of Psychology and Sport Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, United Kingdom. [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Background Keywords Studies have shown that beat perception is impaired in Parkinson’s; sensorimotor synchronisation; music; beat people with Parkinson’s disease (PD), demonstrating the role perception, spontaneous motor tempo of the basal ganglia in temporal processing and movement automation (Grahn & Brett, 2007; 2009). Certain types of REFERENCES external auditory cues may provide a compensatory Cameron, D. J., Pickett, K. A., Earhart, G. M., & Grahn, J. A. (2016). mechanism for people with PD enabling entrainment, perhaps The effect of dopaminergic medication on beat-based auditory dependent on perceptual ability for rhythm, potentially timing in Parkinson’s disease. Frontiers in neurology, 7. mediated by previous music and dance experience (Cameron Grahn, J. A., & Brett, M. (2007). Rhythm and beat perception in et al., 2016). This may explain why some, but not all, people motor areas of the brain. Journal of cognitive neuroscience, with PD benefit from music and dance-based therapeutic 19(5), 893-906. interventions (Nombela et al., 2012). Grahn, J. A., & Brett, M. (2009). Impairment of beat-based rhythm discrimination in Parkinson’s disease. Cortex, 45(1), 54–61. Aims http://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2008.01.005 Müllensiefen, D., Gingras, B., Musil, J., & Stewart, L. (2014). The The aims of this study are threefold: musicality of non-musicians: an index for assessing musical 1. To establish whether there is a link between sophistication in the general population. PloS one, 9(2), e89642. perception and production abilities in people with Nombela, C., Hughes, L. E., Owen, A. M., & Grahn, J. A. (2013). PD. Into the groove: Can rhythm influence Parkinson’s disease? 2. To explore how the modality of entrainment might Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 37(10), 2564–2570. affect measures of sensorimotor synchronisation. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.08.003 3. To explore how naturalistic instrumental music excerpts compare to basic auditory entrainment stimuli (metronome) at different tempi. Method This is a three-way mixed design study. The between- subjects factor is Group (PD and Age Matched Controls). There are two within-subjects factors: Stimuli (Music/Metronome) and Modality (of physical entrainment). Tempi (range 779 ms – 417 ms) is an independent variable nested within Stimuli. Modality includes finger tapping, toe tapping and marching up and down ‘on the spot’ as a proxy for dancing. The finger tapping condition enables comparison with other studies. The toe tapping and ‘marching’ are included as naturalistic movements associated with music and dancing. The Beat Alignment Test, a measure of beat perception, from the Gold Musical Sophistication Index (Müllensiefen et al., 2014) has also been included. Instrumental naturalistic musical stimuli with an easily identifiable tactus has been developed though pilot testing. An estimate of preferred beat period will also be collected for all three modalities. Results Data collection is currently underway and preliminary results will be presented.

87 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

The Effect of Auditory Feedback on Motor Sequence Learning in Novices

Suzanne Ross*1, Elvira Brattico*, Maria Herrojo-Ruiz#, Lauren Stewart* *Center for Music in the Brain, Aarhus University and the Royal Academy of Music Aarhus/Aalborg, Denmark #Goldsmiths, University of London, UK [email protected]

our preliminary results demonstrate that this effect is reversed ABSTRACT for novices. Recall was less accurate in the latter half of the 4- bar sequence for participants who learned with auditory Background feedback compared to participants who learned without Is learning to play music a purely motoric process, or does feedback. Specifically, the recency effect is diminished in the the auditory feedback contribute to learning and memory of auditory feedback group. This might mean that auditory motor sequences? In musicians, absence of auditory feedback feedback interferes with motor sequence learning in novices. has no effect on performance of well-learned music. It does, Further analysis will elucidate whether this result persists in however, affect learning, with musicians making fewer errors the full sample. after learning new music with sound compared to learning without sound (Finney & Palmer, 2003). Pfordesher (2005) Keywords previously found no effect of auditory feedback absence on learning; memory; serial position; recall; recency effect learning in novices; however, this study allowed participants in the no-sound condition to hear feedback for three trials REFERENCES before removing it. We therefore address this confound by Finney, S. A., & Palmer, C. (2003). Auditory feedback and memory fully withholding auditory feedback in one condition. for music performance: sound evidence for an encoding effect. Memory & Cognition, 31(1), 51–64. Aims Pfordresher, P. Q. (2005). Auditory feedback in music performance: We aim to explore the effect of presence or absence of the role of melodic structure and musical skill. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance, auditory feedback on motor sequence learning in musical 31(6), 1331–1345. novices. We hypothesise that learning with or without auditory feedback will have a differential effect on immediate recall and recall after a 24-hour consolidation period. Method Data collection is currently ongoing, and we plan to recruit 50 novices with less than 3 years of musical training, none of which occurred in the past 10 years. In this task, participants learn to play a simple 4-bar melody on a MIDI piano. Half of participants learn with sound and half learn without sound. Participants repeat the melody from beginning to end for 10 minutes, and are then tested on recall after 5 minutes (immediate) and 24 hours, with test conditions congruent to the learning condition (i.e. with or without sound). Results Preliminary results are presented for N = 16 participants (8 per condition). Model comparison showed that the model with an interaction between test (test/retest), condition (sound/no- sound) and bar (1-4) was the best-fitting model: X2(10) = 69.43, p < .001, R2 = .87. Tukey-corrected post-hoc tests showed a significant difference between conditions at bar 3, t(48) = 3.67, p = .013 and bar 4, t(48) = 4.37, p = .002 in the immediate test, and between conditions at bar 3, t(48) = 7, p < .001 and bar 4, t(48) = 6.3, p < .001 in the 24-hour test, with the auditory feedback condition having lower accuracy scores overall. Conclusions Whereas previous research showed that auditory feedback may enhance learning in musicians (Finney & Palmer, 2003),

88 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

Performing Auspiciousness and Inauspiciousness in Parai Mēlam Music Culture in Jaffna, Sri Lanka

Pathmanesan Sanmugeswaran Department of Anthropology, University of Kentucky [email protected]

ABSTRACT Results Parai mēlam music is often identified as an inauspicious as Background it is, in particular, commonly performed for funeral rituals of Parai mēlam1 music occupies a significant position in high castes in Jaffna. Parai mēlam performers are from a low Jaffna Tamil culture, and has not been discussed much caste, namely the paraiyar community. “Structural ethnomusicologically and anthropologically in terms of caste replication” and “downward displacement” (McGilvray 1983) purity – pollution and religiosity (Valarmathi 2009; in addition to “pollution” and “purity” (Dumont 1980) have Jeyakantha 2005; Dumont 1980). For two reasons, parai characterized the nature of inauspiciousness of parai mēlam music and performers. Due to the low caste identity, ritual mēlam music is identified as an inauspicious type as follows: pollution and superior consciousness of pēriya mēlam music (1) funeral is an inauspicious ritual in Jaffna Saiva ritual and karnatic music (South Indian classical music) (Terada tradition. As parai mēlam music takes place in a funeral ritual, 2005; Dumont 1980), this music and its performers are seen as this music is recognized as an inauspicious; (2) people untouchables, despite performance being mandatory for high- consider this music as an inauspicious because performers caste funeral rites. Unlike wedding or puberty rituals, Jaffna (paraiyar) are from the so-called low caste category and Tamil Hindus identify the funeral as an inauspicious ritual. knows as untouchable. Although the performers argue that Thus, Jaffna Tamil Hindu rituals are seen in two folds: this music is a part of the Tamil music culture, the dominant auspicious rituals and inauspicious rituals. This categorization caste people in Jaffna always recognize this instrument and its influences Jaffna Tamil Hindus to perceive the music with this music as inauspicious because the performers belong to a low- dichotomy. Uniqueness of this musical tradition acquaints caste category in the Jaffna caste system. Also, this drum is duality of auspiciousness and inauspiciousness in composing seen as a funeral drum. In the Hindu ritual context, funeral rhythms. It is the only musical tradition that holds dual ritual is an inauspicious ritual. Even though parai mēlam positions in religious related and non-religious related fields. performance contributes to the funeral and religious rituals, it is often called inauspicious. However, there is no intensive Conclusions ethnomusicological study on Jaffna parai mēlam music People are sometimes not practicing with this drum because culture, questioning why it is so? As an ethnomusicological it is inauspicious due to the performers being of low caste and study of Jaffna parai mēlam music is a broad area of study, its association with the funeral ritual. Symbolic and cultural this paper focuses on performing auspiciousness and expression of parai mēlam is most significant in caste and inauspiciousness in parai mēlam music. religious contexts in Jaffna. In world drum tradition, the parai Aims mēlam music has a long history, but unfortunately this performing art is diminishing due to various factors. Different This study aims to study the position and placement of dialogues and perspectives are built on this tradition and some parai mēlam music in Tamil culture in the context of argue the need to discourage learning and performing parai changing modern Jaffna Tamil Hindu society. How do mēlam while others wish to encourage it. Reputed temples members of the Jaffna Tamil community decide what is still maintain this music because it is always mandatory for auspicious and inauspicious? How are the music rhythms high-caste funeral rituals. created, performed, taught, and continued? Keywords Method auspiciousness; inauspiciousness; parai mēlam music; This study uses ethnographic research methods such as Jaffna Tamil culture; ethnomusicology participant observation, semi-structured interviews, and key- informant interviews in addition to ethnomusicological References perspectives and methods. I gathered qualitative data from the Dumont, L. (1998). Homo Hierarchius. New Delhi: Oxford fieldwork conducted among the paraiyar community at Jeyakanthan, R. (2005). Performing Tradition of Parai. Unpublished different villages in Jaffna. dissertation, Department of Music, University of Jaffna. Jaffna: University of Jaffna

McGilvray, D.B. (1983). Paraiyar Drummers of Sri Lanka: Consensus and Constraint in an Untouchable Caste. American Ethnologist, 10 (1), 97-115. USA: Blackwell 1A double headed cylindrical drum played with two sticks. Valarmathi, M. (2009). Parai. Chennai: Amrudha Publishers. 1

89 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

Social Surrogacy: How Music Provides a Sense of Belonging

Katharina Schäfer*1, Tuomas Eerola# * University of Jyväskylä, Finland # Durham University, United Kingdom [email protected]

did not seem as important in the other two domains. In all ABSTRACT three domains, identification with and feeling understood by the performer (music) or character(s) (TV, movies, and Background literary fiction) were identified as relevant ways, how media As social animals, we have a need to form and maintain may provide company and comfort. strong interpersonal relationships. If direct social interaction is not possible, we resort to social surrogates which provide Conclusions temporary substitutes for direct interaction (Gardner, Pickett, Music is used as temporary substitute for social interaction, & Knowles, 2005). Those surrogates can have different forms: but it acts differently from TV, films, or literary fiction. Some people like to immerse themselves into narratives (Gabriel & Young, 2011) while others prefer the virtual Keywords company of TV characters (Derrick, Gabriel, & Hugenberg, social surrogacy; music; TV; literature; interpersonal 2009). Previous research suggests that also music could be relationships used as social surrogate (e.g. Lee, Andrade, & Palmer, 2013), but there is no consensus about the ways through which music REFERENCES listening might provide company. Derrick, J. L., Gabriel, S., & Hugenberg, K. (2009). Social surrogacy: How favored television programs provide the Aims experience of belonging. Journal of Experimental Social The aim of this study was twofold. First, we wanted to Psychology, 45(2), 352–362. know, if music is used as temporary substitute for social Gabriel, S., & Young, A. F. (2011). Becoming a Vampire Without interaction at all. Second, it was tested, if music listening Being Bitten. Psychological Science, 22(8), 990–994. conveys company in similar ways like literary fiction Gardner, W. L., Pickett, C. C., & Knowles, M. L. (2005). Social Snacking and Shielding: Using Social Symbols, Selves, and (Gabriel et al., 2011) or TV programs (Derrick et al., 2009). Surrogates in the Service of Belonging Needs. In The social Method outcast: Ostracism, social exclusion, rejection, and bullying (pp. 227–242). In order to explore the ways through which media provide Lee, C. J., Andrade, E. B., & Palmer, S. E. (2013). Interpersonal company, 30 statements about possible ways music, TV, and Relationships and Preferences for Mood-Congruency in fiction could provide social surrogacy were compiled. The Aesthetic Experiences. Journal of Consumer Research, 40(2), statements were inspired by a comprehensive analysis about 382–391. the psychological functions of music listening (Schäfer, Schäfer, T., Sedlmeier, P., Städtler, C., & Huron, D. (2013). The Sedlmeier, Städtler & Huron, 2013). The dominant part of the psychological functions of music listening. Frontiers in statements was derived from typical manifestations of social Psychology, 4, 1–33. surrogates suggested by previous investigations in the domains of literature (Gabriel et al., 2011) and TV (Derrick et al., 2009). Additionally, statements about media as reminders of real relationship partners were added (Gardner et al., 2005). The statements were adjusted to fit the domains of music, TV, and, literature. Over 300 participants, mostly from Skandinavia, rated their agreement to the statements across the three domains in an online survey. To identify separate facets of social surrogacy, a factor analysis was conducted for each domain separately. Results The results suggest that music is used as temporary substitute for social interaction. Regarding the ways through which music listening might provide company, music’s ability to remind us of meaningful life events and significant others plays a key role in this process. The aspect of reminiscence

90 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

Estimation of Time in Music: Effects of Tempo and Familiarity on the Subjective Duration of Music Theresa Schallmoser1, Siavash Moazzami Vahid, Richard Parncutt University of Graz, Austria [email protected]

but will be considered in further investigation, for example at ABSTRACT a post-study to validate our choice of stimuli categories. Other considerable influences, like complexity and arrangement of Background stimulus items – how the interval is filled – (Jones, 1990) still Our perception of time is open to manipulation in different create further questions on which role the music itself plays at ways. Two similar events with the same duration can be estimating durations while listening. judged to have different lengths based on their properties. According to Ornstein (1969) and Boltz (1991) this difference Keywords comes from different factors such as the complexity of the music perception; time perception; estimation of duration; events or our familiarity with them. In the case of musical information processing; tempo; familiarity stimuli, Jones and Boltz (1989) considered equally long tunes with more tones as getting perceived as longer, which led us REFERENCES to our hypothesis regarding tempo. Boltz, M. (1991). Time estimation and attentional perspective. Perception & Psychophysics, 49(5), 422-433. Aims Jones, M. (1990). Musical events and models of musical time. In The current study investigates the manipulation of R.A. Block (Ed.), Cognitive models of psychological time (207- perceived durations of musical pieces through changing the 240). East Sussex: Psychology Press. inner-musical parameters tempo and familiarity. Additionally, Jones, M. & Boltz, M. (1989). Dynamic Attending and Responses to musical expertise of listeners was observed in two groups, on Time. Psychological Review, 96/3, 459-491. Ornstein, R. (1969) On the experience of time. Baltimore, MD: suspicion that musically trained individuals may be more used Penguin. to estimate durations in music than non-musicians. Method Both groups of respectively 10 subjects rated the duration of musical pieces of different categories of familiarity and tempo on a rating scale after listening. We chose short passages (10 seconds) of various styles of music and divided into slow, medium and fast but also into familiar and non- familiar musical stimuli by ourselves. We did not concentrate on the styles of music, but tried to vary as much as possible. Familiar music was considered as familiar to a western culture listener. Unfamiliar music was unfamiliar in musical culture, instrumentation or sound. Our tempo categories were not chosen by bpm, but rather based on our impression of pace and speed of the rhythm. Regarding the groups, musicians were students of musical instruments and non-musicians did not play an instrument for less than two years in their lives. Results Statistical analysis by 3-way ANOVA showed an effect of the different tempo categories, namely that faster music is perceived as longer than slower music (p < .001). Significant effects of the familiarity and the expertise variables were not found. In general, both groups of participants tended to underestimate the length of the stimuli. Conclusions The amount of information perceived in a certain period of time seems to have an influence on time perception also in music. Possible effects of familiarity cannot be ruled out yet,

91 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

Urban Traffic Safety While Listening to Music – Views of Listeners and Non- Listeners

Eva Schurig Department of Sociology, Philosophy and Anthropology, University of Exeter, UK [email protected]

young adults, which is very low compared to the risk that ABSTRACT texting harbours for car drivers (ca. 23, 24% increased risk of The health and safety of the population is an important topic which being involved in an accident) (Olson et al., 2009). requires adapting measures to the development of new technologies While it is more obvious why cyclists who listen to mobile and their use. One aim of this doctoral research was to investigate music might be risking more accidents (they have a higher mobile music listening in relation to health and safety. Using travel speed, and more and closer interactions with vehicles interviews and shadowing, the opinions and behaviours of mobile- on the road than pedestrians), studies concerning distracted music listeners have been studied, while a second study asked non- behaviour of pedestrians who listen to music over headphones users of portable listening devices about their views. Results show come to a variety of conclusions. Neider et al. (2010), Nasar that mobile music listeners are aware of the negative effect music et al. (2008) and Walker et al. (2012) agree that music listening over headphones in public could have on them, namely the listening devices are prone to be less dangerous in traffic than danger of missing signals from their environment. All interviewees using a mobile phone. In different experimental and have strategies to deal with this issue in different ways. Non-listeners observational conditions, they each come to the separate are conscious of risks, too, since one of their main concerns is the conclusion that listening to music is as unsafe as not using a inability of listeners to notice auditory stimuli and react appropriately device at all, or even increases cautionary behaviour (see and quickly in traffic. Walker et al., 2012). Therefore, they suggest treating mobile I. INTRODUCTION listening devices differently than mobile phones when thinking of strategies to increase pedestrian safety. Most people choose to listen to music using portable As opposed to this, Lichenstein et al. (2012) analysed listening devices (Krause & North, 2014), which is not very media reports of accidents in relation to the use of headphones surprising, considering how many people can be seen in the (although a causal relationship could not be proven with this streets wearing headphones. However, opinions differ on method) in a retrospective study. They found that 70% of whether this behaviour is safe for the user and the surrounding these accidents were fatal, and that most victims involved people. were under 30 years old (67%). Their conclusion is that Ever since the dawn of the Walkman in 1979, there have headphone use can be potentially dangerous in traffic, been worries about the detrimental effects it could have on the especially when auditory cues are necessary to stay safe. The listener and others, especially regarding sociability (e.g., Bull, danger, the researchers say, is the “environmental isolation” 2000; Flynn, 2014; Prior, 2013). With the spread of a growing and “inattentional blindness” (ibid., p. 290), i.e. the inability variety of portable listening devices, those worries are to perceive auditory stimuli, and distraction. increasingly expanding to include the safety of listening to In their study of street-crossing behaviour in a virtual music over headphones in urban traffic (Neider et al., 2010; environment, Schwebel et al. (2012) came to a similar Lichenstein et al., 2012). While it is not an offence in some conclusion. When comparing music listening, texting, and countries to use portable listening devices while cycling as talking on a phone in a condition where pedestrians had to long as the listener is not "deemed not to have proper control cross a virtual street, listening to music turned out to be the of their vehicle or to be driving without reasonable most dangerous, even more dangerous than texting. consideration for others" (PNLD, n.d.), other countries have Participants talking on the phone had the least accidents in forbidden cyclists to listen to music over headphones (Bergal, this experiment. Schwebel et al. also explain this through the 2015). The state of Utah went a step further and is fining necessity of auditory cues to stay safe in certain situations. pedestrians $50 for “distracted walking” near the railways While an increasing amount of studies show the dangers (Henderson, 2014). This includes talking and texting on the involved with mobile music listening in public, the application phone as well as listening to music over headphones of this information and the everyday behaviour of mobile (Davidson, 2012). music listeners has not been considered in most of these A study carried out in the Netherlands (Goldenbeld et al., quantitative studies. There are many anecdotes in newspapers 2012) discovered that the proclivity to listen to music while and online forums about the behaviour of mobile music cycling reduces with age, starting at 76% for teenagers and listeners in traffic (over 11m results in a Google search), but decreasing to 14% for over 50-year-olds. When taking into most of them are just that – anecdotes. Hardly any of them consideration how often the different age groups had bicycle have any scientific foundation and are based on own crashes, analysis showed that using portable electronic experiences and speculation. To change this and gain more devices (phones and music listening devices) increased the insight into the views of different parties involved, i.e. risk of having an accident by 1,6 to 1,8 for teenagers and listeners and non-listeners, preliminary research was carried

92 out as part of more extensive studies about mobile music III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION listening. The aim was to discover how much the music When talking about moving around the city wearing listeners are aware of potential danger in traffic, and what headphones, many of the music listening participants seemed their strategies are to circumvent harm. To understand if and to be aware of the fact that it could be quite dangerous to be in how these strategies are perceived by passers-by, non-listeners traffic and not be able to hear much. However, the were asked about their opinions, too. interviewees always appeared to have an opinion or a specific II. METHODS strategy to deal with this. Thomas (20 years old), for example, does not rely on his hearing, but trusts a different sense Two separate studies were carried out in the context of this altogether: doctoral research. In the first study, eleven mobile music listeners (4 female, 7 male, aged 20-42, of 9 different I don't hear the traffic. I look. I use my eyes rather than ears, nationalities) were recruited through word of mouth, because I think ears can mess you up a bit? You know, you can hear advertisement at the author's workplace outside of university, something that's not there, but you can't not see something that's not and snowballing. The second study was advertised on there. Do you know what I mean? university and church noticeboards, Facebook, the author's workplace and word of mouth. Eleven non-users of mobile This behaviour agrees with the observations of Walker et listening devices responded (10 female, 1 male, aged 28-76, al. (2012) who found that especially men tended to display a of 4 different nationalities). more cautionary behaviour when crossing streets while The first study consisted of three separate stages. At the listening to music compared to no music. Whether this beginning, an interview was carried out with the listeners to increases safety remains to be seen, because, as Goldenbeld et get to know them and their music listening behaviours. After al. (2012) discovered, young cyclists in the Netherlands have completing a short demographic questionnaire, questions the highest risk of being involved in an accident due to use of regarding their musical preferences, the use of their portable portable electronic devices, even though they reported that listening devices (e.g., how is it organised, when and why is it they pay more attention to traffic when using these devices. used) and their reactions to certain situations (e.g., traffic, The researchers conclude from this, that this compensatory social situations) were asked. Interviews lasted between 20 behaviour is not enough to increase safety. minutes and an hour. Anne (21 years old), on the other hand, says that she is very Several days later the participant and the researcher met sensitive to noise and listening to music actually helps her again. The aim was for the researcher to follow the participant move through traffic. Additionally, she prefers cycling on the around (i.e. shadow them) while they displayed their usual pavement, which makes it a bit less dangerous: music listening behaviour in a normal, everyday environment, i.e. the streets and shops of a small city in England. The 'Cause I don't like to cycle on the roads. I think, as long as I can hear method for this was adapted from DeNora (2003), who had the noise around me and, to be honest, I find most other noises so shadowed her participants while they went shopping. Both the loud even when I have my music playing at a level that I find pleasant, I can still hear everything else. researcher and the participant in her study were equipped with an audio recorder which recorded their thoughts that were Anne is very sensitive to stimuli from her environment, spoken out loud. Since speaking out loud would disrupt the which makes it difficult for her to manage sound and the music listening experience, and focussing on the environment information she perceives. For this reason, she uses her would take the attention from the music, this approach was portable listening device like an “audio-visual pair of modified for this study. Here, only the researcher carried an sunglasses” (Bull, 2007, p. 32), which keep the incoming audio recorder, which was used to take down impressions of stimuli to a minimum and help her concentrate on what is the environment and to occasionally approach the participant important, therefore keeping her safer than she would be and ask them about the music they were listening to and the without her headphones. reasons for that. This way the disruptions were kept to a An altogether different way to cycle while listening to minimum and an as natural as possible experience was music is chosen by Max (42 years old). He is very much ensured. Pictures of the environment were taken to have a aware of the danger he is facing while listening to music in point of reference for the analysis. traffic, but he decides to do it anyway. His reasoning for that, Because interruptions were limited, another interview was however, does not lie within himself, but is part of a bigger carried out immediately after the shadowing to talk about the way of living, a kind of lifestyle that comes with riding his experience and about behaviour that was noticed and that bike, the BMX. Max believes that when he uses his BMX, he needed clarification. is freed of certain rules and can show behaviour that would Interviews were also carried out with the participants of the not be accepted otherwise, like cycling on the pavement. second study. They were asked about their general music According to Max, listening to music in traffic is very listening behaviour, the reasons why they do not use mobile dangerous, but it seems that, since he sees himself as exempt listening devices, and their impressions of and experiences from particular rules in traffic because of his bike, he can with people who do. cycle somewhere where listening to music is not as All the interviews were transcribed and coded according to dangerous, and can therefore “afford” to listen to music over Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis using NVivo. headphones while cycling. Ethical approval for these studies was obtained by the Ethics Committee of the University of Exeter. All the names E: Ok. And how do you work out if there's a car? mentioned here are pseudonyms.

93 M: Em by using my gut feeling (laughs). I must admit that I might be headphones in public can be unsafe, especially in regard to a bit dangerous there. (Max) being able to hear signals from the environment. Comparing these two positions, it seems that more studies are necessary Even though Max wears a helmet to increase his safety, it is to verify the effectiveness of the safety measures that mobile understandable why non-listeners worry about the risk cyclists music listeners use. A variety of questions arise from these who listen to mobile music are facing. Steven (29 years old, studies, e.g., how safe are cyclists who listen to music while non-listener) concludes, that if cyclists wear helmets to stay wearing a helmet compared to cyclists without either? Is safe, they are compromising this gained safety if they were to listening to music while cycling on the pavement, albeit listen to music, too: illegal in many countries, less dangerous than cycling on the road? How much can visual cues compensate for auditory I don't have a helmet, but lots of people have a helmet and they also cues from the environment when trying to stay safe? These have headphones. I'm like - come on, you're kind of losing the .. if and many other queries should be considered in future studies. you're wearing a helmet to be safe, then maybe the headphones aren't a good idea.

IV. CONCLUSION While non-listeners especially worry about cyclists who In summary, this research offered an insight into the use mobile listening devices, they observe that the danger is opinions and behaviours of mobile music device users and closely connected to the volume the music is listened at: non-users. All the interviewees are conscious of risks involved with listening to music in an urban environment and Sometimes I wonder about safety. Like, especially when you cycle. especially cycling is seen as particularly dangerous. Strategies But I guess it depends on if you're used to and if you keep the music are employed to lower potential risks when cycling while like super loud or at a normal volume. (Agatha, 28 years old) listening to music, but these are scarcely noticed by non- listeners, although it is observed that there are different However, not only cycling, but walking while listening to factors, e.g., volume of the music, that could influence how music over headphones can be dangerous, too. Annabel (28 much a music listener perceives from their environment. years old, listener) is aware that listening to music can take An approach for the future would be to ask music listeners your attention from what is important, especially in and non-listeners alike, where their opinion on the danger of environments where other people are present: mobile music listening derived from. This could lead to an analysis of the effectiveness of media communication. So sometimes I think you zone out and it's kind of sometimes it can be Additionally, it would be interesting to include more dangerous, because you have to make sure that when you get to participants across several cultures in a similar study to roads and stuff, you're looking left and right or you bump into discover whether the present results are only the opinions and someone or you'd probably be less aware of your environment by having the headphones in. Most of the time. behaviours of these particular interviewees, and whether there are any correlations with different traffic situations, i.e. more While using portable listening device does require or less cycling routes, urban versus rural traffic, or less monitoring a screen constantly, the concern about being regulated traffic in different countries. involved in serious accidents through inattentiveness is still What this study shows, however, is that it is not enough to very valid. Even in the short time it takes to look for a new investigate the danger of mobile music listening in traffic per song to listen to, an accident could happen: se, but that it should be considered what the users actually do and what measures they employ to increase their safety, If they're changing the music on their iPhone or something they're because there are different nuances in behaviour that make actually not aware of what they're walking into. You know, could certain situations more or less dangerous. This has not been have an accident, it's quite dangerous. (Julia, 61 years old, non- reflected in studies so far. listener) REFERENCES As opposed to this, an argument, that Neider et al. (2010) Bergal, J. (2015, November). Cities and States Try to Crack Down would subscribe to, might be that listening to music leaves on Distracted Bicycling. The Pew Charitable Trusts. Retrieved you free to partake in your environment, and is therefore less 17.06.2017, from http://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and- dangerous than looking at the screen of a smartphone: analysis/blogs/stateline/ 2015/11/17/cities-and-states-try-to-crack-down-on-distracted- I think you are more distracted if you just keep looking on your bicycling mobile phone, like what people do. Because when you have the Bull, M. (2000). Sounding Out the City. Personal Stereos and the headphones you still look around, there's nothing you have to look Management of Everyday Life. Oxford: Berg. at. (Maria, 53 years old, non-listener) Bull, M. (2007). Sound moves. iPod culture and urban experience. Routledge: London. Although none of the interviewees deny the danger that is Davidson, L. (2012, March). 'Distracted walking' by rails may now bring fines. The Salt Lake Tribune. Retrieved 29.05.2017, from associated with mobile music listening in urban traffic, there http://archive.sltrib.com/story.php?ref=/sltrib/politics/53811747- are different strategies that help listeners navigate the streets 90/board-distracted-fines-ordinance.html.csp as safely as possible even while listening to music. However, DeNora, T. (2003). After Adorno. Rethinking music sociology. the interviewed non-listeners were barely aware of these Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. strategies, because they were hardly ever mentioned, and the Flynn, K. (2014, November). How To Listen To Loud Music On general consensus was that listening to music over Headphones Without Hurting Your Ears. The Huffington Post.

94 Retrieved 21.06.2016, from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/11/24/loud-music- headphones_n_6174340.html Goldenbeld, C., Houtenbos, M., Ehlers, E., and Waard, D. de (2012). The use and risk of portable electronic devices while cycling among different age groups, Journal of Safety Research, 43 (1), 1– 8. Henderson, T. (2014, December). Too Many Pedestrians Injured by Looking at Their Phones. Governing. Retrieved 29.05.2017, from http://www.governing.com/topics/transportation-infrastructure/too- many-pedestrians-injured-by-looking-at-their-phones.html Krause, A. E., and North, A. C. (2014). Music listening in everyday life: Devices, selection methods, and digital technology, Psychology of Music, 44 (1), 129-147. Lichenstein, R., Smith, D. C., Ambrose, J. L., and Moody, L. A. (2012). Headphone use and pedestrian injury and death in the United States: 2004–2011, Injury Prevention, (18), 287–290. Nasar, J., Hecht, P., and Wener, R. (2008). Mobile telephones, distracted attention, and pedestrian safety, Accident Analysis & Prevention, 40 (1), 69–75. Neider, M. B., McCarley, J. S., Crowell, J. A., Kaczmarski, H., and Kramer, A. F. (2010). Pedestrians, vehicles, and cell phones, Accident Analysis & Prevention, 42 (2), 589–594. Olson, R. L., Hanowski, R. J., Hickman, J. S., & Bocanegra, J. (2009). Driver distraction in commercial vehicle operations (No. FMCSA-RRR-09-042). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Transportation DOT, Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration PNLD (n.d.). Q724: Can I listen to my MP3 or iPod player whilst driving a car or riding a bicycle? Retrieved 18.02.2017, from https://www.askthe.police.uk/Content/Q724.htm Prior, N. (2013, December). The iPod zombies are more switched on than you think. The Conversation. Retrieved 11.10.2016, from http://theconversation.com/the-ipod-zombies-are-more-switched- on-than-you-think-21262 Schwebel, D. C., Stavrinos, D., Byington, K. W., Davis, T., O'Neal, E. E., and de Jong, D. (2012). Distraction and pedestrian safety. How talking on the phone, texting, and listening to music impact crossing the street, Accident Analysis & Prevention, 45, 266–271. Walker, E. J., Lanthier, S. N., Risko, E. F., and Kingstone, A. (2012). The effects of personal music devices on pedestrian behaviour, Safety Science, 50, (1), 123–128.

95 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

Infectious Grooves: High-Groove Music Drives Auditory-Motor Interactions

Jan Stupacher1, Guilherme Wood, Matthias Witte Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, Austria [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Background Numerous studies indicate that rhythm perception not only involves auditory, but also motor-related brain areas. Music with a strong groove (i.e., highly movement-inducing music) is thought to be especially powerful in engaging neural auditory-motor links. Aims A TMS study by Stupacher, Hove, Novembre, Schütz- Bosbach and Keller (2013) showed that high-groove music compared to low-groove music resulted in higher excitability of the primary motor cortex in musicians, but lower excitability in non-musicians. We tested whether the use of near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) – a method to examine hemodynamic changes in the brain – leads to equivalent results.

Method Figure 1. Mean (+/- 1 SE) of musicians’ and non-musicians’ changes Twelve musicians and 14 non-musicians listened to 15 s in oxy-Hb concentration over (pre-)motor and supplementary motor music clips without moving. The current preliminary analysis areas for the two songs with the highest and lowest subjective groove was reduced to the two songs that received the highest and rating. lowest groove rating1. We analyzed changes in oxygenated (oxy) hemoglobin (Hb) concentration over (pre)-motor and Limitations supplementary motor areas in a time window of 3-9 s after Compared to the low-groove song “Ray Dawn Balloon”, stimulus onset. the high-groove song “Superstition” is more familiar, which Results might also have affected the changes in oxy-Hb concentration. An ANOVA on the changes in oxy-Hb concentration with the factors groove (low, high) and musical expertise Keywords (musicians, non-musicians) revealed no significant main Musical expertise, sensorimotor links, motor system, effects but a tendency for an interaction (F(1,24) = 4.20, rhythm perception, near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) 2 p = .051, ηp = .15; Figure 1). In musicians, oxy-Hb was increased with high-groove compared to low-groove music REFERENCES (t(11) = 2.28, p = .044). No such effect was found in non- Bangert, M., Peschel, T., Schlaug, G., Rotte, M., Drescher, D., musicians (p > .5). Hinrichs, H., ... & Altenmüller, E. (2006). Shared networks for auditory and motor processing in professional pianists: Evidence Conclusions from fMRI conjunction. Neuroimage, 30, 917-926. In musicians, but not in non-musicians, listening to high- Stupacher, J., Hove, M. J., Novembre, G., Schütz-Bosbach, S., & groove music compared to low-groove music increased brain Keller, P. E. (2013). Musical groove modulates motor cortex activity in motor-related areas. These results are largely in line excitability: A TMS investigation. Brain and Cognition, 82, 127- with the findings of Stupacher and colleagues (2013) and 136. suggest that the higher activation of musicians’ motor-related brain areas with high-groove music might be a result of well- developed auditory-motor links that can be strengthened by musical training (e.g., Bangert et al., 2006).

1“Superstition” by Stevie Wonder (high-groove) and “Ray Dawn Balloon” by Trey Anastasio (low-groove)

96 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

Interoception in Musicians’ Flow

Jasmine Tan1, Joydeep Bhattacharya2 Goldsmiths, University of London [email protected], [email protected]

ABSTRACT Keywords Musicians, music performance, flow experience, Background interoception, HEP Flow is a state in which an individual is intensely engaged with a skill-matched challenging activity and the experience is intrinsically rewarding. People often report a different bodily sensation during flow, most commonly a sense of effortless movement and a merging of action and awareness. However, the nature of interoception, i.e. the brain perceiving the bodily sensations, during flow is not yet characterized. Aims We investigated the degree of interoception in musicians’ flow experience by the heartbeat-evoked potential (HEP), an event-related potential (ERP) reflecting cortical processing of the heartbeat. Methods 40 musicians were instructed to play a self-selected musical piece that did induce flow. Further, they also played two other self-selected musical pieces that did not induce flow but were matched with the flow-inducing piece either in challenge (non-flow equal challenge) or in liking (non-flow equal liking). These non-flow inducing pieces were selected to differentiate the contributions of two different aspects of flow, namely that it involves a challenging task matched to the player’s ability and it is also an experience that is intrinsically rewarding. EEG and ECG signals were continuously measured. The HEP was extracted in the period immediately after musicians stopped playing, and subsequently compared across the three conditions.

Results The HEP differed notably between the three conditions. Compared to the two non-flow states, flow state was associated with a stronger lateralisation effect: the HEP was more negative specifically over the left frontal electrodes for the flow condition. Comparing the two non-flow states, the HEP was more negative for non-flow equal challenge at the earlier latency but equal liking became more negative at the later latency (i.e. after 280 ms). As more negative HEPs are usually associated with better interoception, these results suggest that flow is linked with stronger interoception. Conclusions We demonstrate that the cortical processing of heartbeat is significantly modulated by the flow experience in musicians, providing a novel insight into the brain-body interaction during flow.

97 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

Affective Priming Effects Between Music and Language in Bilinguals’ First and Second Language

M. S. Tenderini *1, T. M. Eilola*2, E. de Leeuw#3, M. T. Pearce†4 *School of Biological and Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, England #School of Language, Linguistics and Film, Queen Mary University of London, England †School of Electric Engineering and Computer Science, Queen Mary University of London, England [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

preceding the target could either have congruent or incongruent ABSTRACT valence. The first experiment examined responses to word- targets primed by music, while the second examined responses Background to music-targets primed by words. Reaction times (RT) and the This project investigated connections between the electrophysiological neural response (N400 component) were perception and processing of emotion in music and language. analysed with respect to the congruence of the stimulus pair and Previous research has shown interactions in emotional language (L1, L2). processing of music and language by means of the affective priming paradigm (Goerlich et al., 2012). Here this research is Results extended to examine differences in priming between bilinguals’ The RT results supported our hypothesis: While music first (L1) and second, later acquired (L2) language. primed words of both languages, there was a difference Aims between the L1 and L2 when priming the musical stimuli. The L1 words primed the musical excerpts; the L2 words however The main question was whether emotional responses to did not. EEG-data will be presented at the conference. music, primed by affective words, differs between the L1 and the L2. In accordance with literature showing that late Conclusions bilinguals often report their L2 to be perceived as less The behavioural results suggest decreased integration of emotional (Dewaele, 2008) we hypothesised that L2 words emotional information communicated by L2 compared to L1 would have weaker priming strength than L1 words on words. Conversely, music has a consistent priming effect affective judgements of musical stimuli. Music on the other across L1 and L2. hand is hypothesised to prime affective responses equally in both languages. Keywords affective priming; bilinguals; N400 Method Single words (L1/L2) with a positive (e.g. ‘friend’) or REFERENCES negative (e.g. ‘war’) valence were presented together with Dewaele, J. (2008). The emotional weight of I love you in musical excerpts with positive or negative valence (see Figure multilinguals’ languages. Journal of Pragmatics, 40, 1753–1780. Goerlich, K. S., Witteman, J., Schiller, N. O., Heuven, V. J. Van, 1 ). Fifty German-English late bilinguals evaluated the second stimulus (target) as positive or negative while the prime Aleman, A., & Martens, S. (2012). The Nature of Affective Priming in Music and Speech. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, Evaluation of target 24 (8), 1725–1741. Prime Target Vieillard, S., Peretz, I., Gosselin, N., Khalfa, S., Gagnon, L., & Bouchard, B. (2008). Happy, sad, scary and peaceful musical

excerpts for research on emotions. Cognition & Emotion, 22(4), 720–752.

SOA

RT Congr uent vs. short RT Incongruent long RT

Figure 1. Affective priming paradigm with a music prime and a written word target. The presentation of the target stimulus is terminated by the evaluation of the participant; SOA = stimulus onset asynchrony, musical excerpt from Vieillard et al. (2008).

98 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

Using Zygonic Theory to Model Expectations in Repeated Melodic Stimuli

Hayley Trower1, Adam Ockelford2, Arielle Bonneville-Roussy3 University of Roehampton, London, UK [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

that uniquely incorporates the common behaviour of repeated ABSTRACT listening to the same pieces of music. Background Keywords The disruption of melodic expectations can generate melodic expectation; zygonic; perception; cognition; emotional pleasure even when the listener is familiar with a repetition musical piece and knows what is coming next. The zygonic model of musical understanding (Ockelford, 2012) proposes REFERENCES that this is a result of the interplay between different forms of Ockelford, A. (2012). Applied musicology: using zygonic theory to expectation that arise from a) previously heard musical inform music education, therapy, and psychology research. structures encoded schematically that provide a general Oxford University Press. indication about the future, b) current musical structures that Thorpe, M.., Ockelford, A., Aksentijevic, A. (2012). An empirical offer a secondary source of general implication, and c) exploration of the zygonic model in music. Psychology of Music, previously heard musical structures encoded veridically, 40(4), 429-470. providing specific knowledge about upcoming events, Himonides, E. (2011). Mapping a beautiful voice. Journal of Music, Technology and Education, 4(1), 5-25. however more empirical evidence is required to support this idea within the context of musical repetition. Aims The first aim was to determine the degree of interaction between a), b), and c) during listening to familiar music by measuring expectations in response to a repeating melody. The second aim was to incorporate those measurements into a model of musical understanding that considers ‘rehearing’ musical pieces, by extending the theoretical underpinnings set out by Thorpe et al. (2012), and introducing a revised version of the zygonic model. Method Forty-three adult listeners were presented with a twenty-six note diatonic piano melody four times during each of two sessions. Repetitions of the (initially novel) stimulus were separated by a distractor. Participants made note-by-note expectancy ratings for each stimulus presentation by using a touch sensitive apparatus known as a CReMA (Himonides, 2011) which transmits MIDI data to a connected laptop. Results Analysis is ongoing. Initial results show that although schematic expectations are consistent with each stimulus repetition, veridical expectations are affected incrementally, representing an increase in perceived familiarity with each stimulus repetition. Furthermore, the relationship between schematic and veridical expectations appears to be ‘reset’ during the period of rest. Conclusions A discussion will be couched in relation to the revised zygonic model of expectation, providing insight into the way that familiar music retains moments of expressivity. Results will contribute towards a comprehensive model of expectation

99 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

Can Individuals be Trained to Imagine Musical Imagery? A Preliminary Study

Michelle Ulor1, Freya Bailes2, Daryl O’Connor3 School of Music, University of Leeds, United Kingdom [email protected], [email protected], 3d.b.o’[email protected]

ABSTRACT REFERENCES Rood, L., Roelofs, J., Bögels, S. M., & Alloy, L. B. (2010). Background Dimensions of Negative Thinking and the Relations with Psychologists have studied imagery-based therapy for Symptoms of Depression and Anxiety in Children and anxiety, but with a strong emphasis on visual imagery rather Adolescents. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 34(4), than imagery for other modalities (e.g. auditory imagery). 333-342. Based on the evidence that anxiety is influenced by negative thoughts (Rood, Roelofs, Bögels & Alloy, 2010), voluntary musical imagery could be offered as an alternative. To test this idea, it is important to look at which methods would be best at training people to imagine music and assessing their abilities at doing so. Thus this study seeks to investigate these methods. Aims To examine the feasibility of training individuals to imagine music. Method Three stages of the study take place over five days; training, practising and testing. During training, the participants learn to imagine music (self-selected pieces) using a volume fader task. Participants listen to their pieces, then lower the fader as soon as they are able to continue the music in their minds, raising it as necessary to check their mental image. Next, the participants practice imagining music in response to six text message prompts from the experimenter (sent periodically throughout the day), and additionally complete experience sampling method diary entries after each attempt. Finally, the participants’ ability to imagine music is assessed using a spot task, involving exposure to their self- selected pieces interpolated with silent gaps. During the silent gaps, the participants imagine what they believe would be heard, then decide whether the piece was reintroduced at the correct position. Results Indices of success in imagining music will be analysed, including beat tapping accuracy and spot task scores. Conclusions This study will determine the possibility of training people to imagine music. If positive significant results are produced, this method can be tested as therapy for anxiety. Keywords voluntary musical imagery; anxiety

100 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

“Let the Music Flow in You”: Music Listening, Health and Wellbeing in Everyday Life

Joy Vamvakari University of Edinburgh, UK [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Background Conclusions This paper discusses music listening behaviours in relation These findings highlight the association between music to wellbeing in everyday life. Music listening is pervasive listening behaviours and aspects of wellbeing in everyday life, (MacDonald, 2013) and can address diverse aims (DeNora, as an intricate, complex form of self-care. 2013). While the field of music, health and wellbeing has Keywords attracted increasing interest (MacDonald et al., 2012), there is need for further research, in order to understand the outcomes music listening; subjective health; wellbeing; and motivations of music listening for wellbeing purposes, crowdsourcing; survey research; international within contemporary contexts. REFERENCES Aims DeNora, T. (2013). Music Asylums: Wellbeing through music in This study focuses on the associations between music everyday life (Music and Change: Ecological Perspectives listening behaviours and wellbeing measures in the series). Surrey: Ashgate Publishing Ltd. MacDonald, R.A.R. (2013). Music, health and well-being: A review. international general population. As a secondary aim, it International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well- explores the potential of online crowdsourcing for music being, 8, pp. 206-235. psychology research. MacDonald, R.A.R., Kreutz, G. & Mitchell, L. (eds.) (2012). Music, Health and Wellbeing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Method

This study uses an online survey distributed through the crowdsourcing platform CrowdFlower to a diverse sample of the international, general population. The survey focuses on two themes: music listening behaviours and subjective health and wellbeing, using Likert scale self-report measures. Furthermore, the survey includes open-ended questions exploring the individual experience of music listening in relation to wellbeing and self-care practices. Results The participant sample (N = 215) comprises of 69% male, 30% female and 1% non-binary participants, from a wide age range (18-42) and 46 nationalities, while 33% of the participants reported facing physical/mental health difficulties. The statistical analysis highlights the association between demographic factors, music listening behaviours and wellbeing measures. For example, the positive influence of music listening on wellbeing is associated with music listening frequency; participants who reported strong positive influence engage in music listening more frequently (chi- squared test, χ2 = 62.75, df = 6, p < .001), as a cause or result of their awareness of this positive influence. Furthermore, themes and individual experiences emerging from the qualitative data, coded through thematic analysis, are discussed, regarding particular ways that music listening helps, and why and when it is ineffective.

101 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

Study of Emotion Perception for Indian Classical Raga Music

Makarand Velankar*1, Parag Kulkarni#2 *PhD Student, PICT and Assistant Professor Cummins College, Savitribai Phule Pune University, India #Iknowletion Research labs pvt ltd., Pune, India [email protected], [email protected]

main features of ICM. Raga music in ICM is covered by many ABSTRACT books in detail with noticeable contribution in the context of computational musicology. Indian Classical Music (ICM) has a long tradition and people from The ICM performance in Khyal form usually has music various cultural backgrounds are fascinated by it. Each performance of a given raga in ICM is supposed to create a common mood among rendition in 3 parts: first alap, followed by vilambit or the listeners. We have selected all clips of instrument flute in order to Madhya laya and finally drut laya. In alap, raga notes are eliminate the effect of timbre and lyrics on perceived emotions. For played or sung with slow tempo to build the atmosphere at the our initial experiments, we have selected 2 ragas. The 3 clips selected beginning. During alap, there is no rhythm accompaniment. in each raga were one with fast rhythm, one with medium rhythm Vilambit laya means slow tempo, Madhya laya means and one with alap which is arrhythmic. We have obtained total 240 medium tempo and drut laya means fast tempo. responses with 40 responses per clip during 6 different sessions. We have discussed the emotion and raga correlation with Each session was planned with 2 clips per session with same tempo performers and some seasoned listeners. Most of them were of different raga. The sessions were planned to eliminate the effect of agreeing to specific emotional feel associated with the raga. possible ordering of music clips. Listeners provided rating for 13 different emotions on a numeric scale of 0 to 100 for musical clip. Some of them expressed an opinion that they can reach at the The results are presented using different statistical data charts along highest level of happiness with a meditative feeling after with the analysis of data. The critical findings about the expression listening to their favorite artist/ raga in ICM. creation are presented with support of data. These initial experiments Like every human being raga has its own name and revealed strong evidence of raga association with the specific individual characteristics. Raga can be classified according to emotion for novice listeners. time of playing or moods created from them. Raga- bhava or mood is the expected atmosphere created or experience of I. INTRODUCTION listeners to a raga rendition. It is very difficult to express it in ICM has a long history. It has evolved to its present form words and is matter of personal experience according to many over at least 600 years. The khyal form of vocal music and seasoned listeners and the performers. instrumental presentation mimicking vocal styles are We have chosen 2 ragas - Marubihag and Marwa for our relatively recent developments in ICM. In vocal music, the initial experiments. They are perceived to create different lyrics in the song are associated with possible meaning. In emotional atmospheres. Marubihag is supposed to create case of instrumental music one can eliminate possible effect happy and excited emotion whereas Marwa is supposed to of lyrics on emotion perception. create sad and depressed emotion. The work presented here is Instrumental classical music has numerous variants the extension of our own work done before. considering different instruments. ICM instruments are Ethnomusicologists around the world are also exploring traditionally classified into different types based on sound association between music and felt emotions. Martin Clayton production method such as wind instruments, string made the following points in his article “Musical experience instruments, vitata instruments etc. Popular string instruments depends on our attention primarily on auditory information are Sitar, Sarod, Santoor, Sarangi etc. Popular wind and perhaps in the extent to which sound information is instruments are bamboo flute or Basuri, Shahanai, understood in a non-linguistic mode. Each individual Harmonium etc. Vitata instruments like Tabla, Pakhwaj etc perceives and decodes the information differently. Thus the generally used for taal or rhythm in ICM. meaning or experience is always experience to someone.” He We have selected one wind instrument Bansuri or Bamboo further states that “We need to recognize that musical Flute for our experiments. Bansuri has also long history and is experience is meaningful in a variety of ways, that these ways also associated with lord Krishna in Hindu religion. In recent are interconnected and that the relationships between different years, artists like Pandit Pannalal Ghosh, Pandit Hariprasad dimensions of meaning are important”. Chaurasiya etc. are the main contributors for popularizing The feeling or expression or emotion created by music in Basuri among ICM listeners. different listeners, or even the same listener at different times, Raga in ICM is a framework with certain rules about notes may vary. The response of a listener depends on many factors to be played, their sequence, their prominence etc. In a such as cultural background, upbringing, current emotional framework of raga, we have many bandishes or melodies state of the listener and individual likes and dislikes as factors composed by different composers. These different related to individuals. The response is also dependent on the compositions in the same raga along with enormous attention of the listener towards timbre of voice or instrument, possibilities for improvisation during presentation are the notes played, tempo and rhythm in the clip. Meaning or expression from music can be entirely different depending on

102 the focus of the listener. Our aim was to catch possible considering the goal to catch emotions. Since perceived common expression for the specific raga for different emotions are subjective, complete agreement among listeners perceived emotions. is unlikely. Ground truth is generally obtained by averaging the opinions of the subjects. II. AIM Although it is difficult to catch the common expressions IV. METHODOLOGY from any music form, we have attempted to find, as far as it is We decided to use novice listeners as subjects in our possible, the common expression created by ICM on Indian experiments to understand the expression created from a raga. listeners with almost similar cultural background. All the Seasoned listeners have their predefined mindsets built listeners in the experiments were young Indians with age through listening to raga music for years and knowledge of group of 18-20 years studying in the college. convention. We have selected all clips of bansuri in order to Considering the viewpoints and findings by researchers, eliminate possible impact of timbre variation. We have the emotional experience is generally subjective and different discussed with Pandit Keshav Ginde, a renowned bansuri for individuals. We have attempted to validate the hypothesis player, about the emotions associated with ragas and his own as “Each raga is associated with specific mood” by listening experience while presenting specific ragas. We discussed experiments for novice Indian listeners with no or little about features of bansuri performances and perceived background of ICM. feedback from the listeners. He advised us about suitable Our main aims in this pilot study for 2 selected ragas are, duration and experiment conduction considering the listener’s • Identify Raga association with distinct emotional age and background. musical appeal. We selected 3 clips of each raga with naming convention • Study of effect of tempo variations on different as A, M and D corresponding to alap (no rhythm emotion perceptions. accompaniment), Madhya laya(medium tempo) and drut laya(fast tempo) respectively. For 2 different ragas 6 clips are III. LITERATURE SURVEY named as A1and A2 for alap clips, M1 and M2 for Madhya Emotional modeling and conceptualization has been laya clips and D1and D2 for drut or fast tempo clips. attempted by many researchers to capture emotional response Generally duration of alap and fast tempo is small as of music from the listeners. Emotions were clustered in 8 compared to Madhya or Vilambit laya in the raga performance. categories by Hevner for representing perceived music by We selected all clips of duration around 2 to 3 minutes listeners. Different approaches proposed in the literature regardless of the duration of the corresponding section of the mostly refer to either emotion categorization or using valence- performance. We selected the clip durations of 2 to 3 minutes arousal dimensional approach. considering the attention span of novice listeners and an In emotion categorization approach, subjects or listeners estimate of the minimum time required to embark the emotion. report emotions in specific category such as happy or sad etc. Before the actual sessions, we did experimental sessions Listeners can express emotions in their own words or they are with one clip per session without any feedbacks to understand asked to rate given emotions on the scale from low to high. the patience and get feedback to design the actual experiments. This approach has advantage as it is easy for listeners to report After getting initial feedback about possible patience of ratings and specific emotions experienced in their own words. novice listeners to listen ICM, we decided to play 2 melodies It is likely that sometimes listeners unable to express their per session with a gap of about 5 minutes for the 6 sessions emotions in proper words and can lead to false emotional done. We decided to observe effect of same tempo and interpretations. different raga notes on same set of listeners. We conducted In dimensional approach, listeners select some position on total 6 listening sessions with 20 listeners in each session and emotion dimension axis. This position is associated with some playing 2 clips per session. number to identify intended emotion. Valance arousal Sessions planned with clips combination and sequence as circumflex model proposed by Russell is a dimensional model shown below. As one can notice sessions 1 and 2 used same used widely. Two dimensional model with X axis as Valance clips but the order of playing of clips was changed to to represent emotion as positive or negative and arousal to eliminate possible effect of order in the perceived emotions. represent intensity on Y axis as high or low for specific Similar logic is reflected in sessions 3, 4 and 5, 6. emotion. It divides the plan in 4 different quadrants. Three dimensional models are also proposed but they lag in Session 1: A1 followed by A2 visualization aspects and issues related to annotations from Session 2: A2 followed by A1 subjects. Two dimensional models are better compare to three Session 3: M1 followed by M2 dimensional models considering the simplicity aspect. Session 4: M2 followed by M1 Musical piece may have changing emotions over a Session 5: D1 followed by D2 timeline as listeners may perceive different emotions Session 6: D2 followed by D1 corresponding to different musical sections or segments of same musical clip. Annotation by listener over a timeline by Since most of the listeners were in the age group of 18-20 selecting musical segment and stating experienced emotion is with almost no exposure to ICM, we kept an open mind about another approach used by researchers. This approach is also the outcome of the sessions. We gave them a brief termed as expert approach. introduction before the session, explaining the objective of Annotation methods used to record emotions are time session and how to fill the feedback forms. This exercise consuming and do have certain flaws. No design is perfect helped us to bring the mind sets of all listeners into a common

103 mode of listening and to experience the emotion created from Request is more prominent feeling in Marwa compare to the clip. Marubihag and Happy is protuberant in Marubihag compare The feedback consisted of 2 parts. First part contained to Marwa. Poor rating for exciting feeling indicates that alap questions about personal musical background and information form does not excite the listeners. about the listeners. In the second part, we asked them to rate 13 different emotions on the scale of 0 to 100. For example MB M extremely happy can be 100 and very sad can be 0 for the emotion “happy”. After rating about individual emotions, Meditative listeners expressed their listening experience with rating their Pure enjoyment association with parameters timbre, melody and Touching rhythm in the rank 1 to 3. This gives us possible attention or Request influencing features of music for emotions perceived. We also Love held personal discussions with some of the listeners to Surrender understand the effectiveness of the session and understand Huge their view points about listening music. The exercise of Gentle discussion after session has given us insight into thought Graceful processes of youth and their perceived emotions and Peaceful expectations from ICM. Satisfaction V. RESULTS Exciting Happy We have presented comparative data for 2 ragas Marubihag and Marwa [referred as MB and M respectively in 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 figures and tables. Figures 1 to 3 shows comparative average responses for Alap, Madhya laya and Drut for different Figure 2. Comparison of Madhya laya clips M1 and M2 emotions on the numeric scale of 0 to 100. We have shown data in the range 30 to 85 as all average responses were in this Comparative average rating of 40 responses per clip range. Each figure represents average rating response related recorded in session 3 and 4 are shown in figure 2. This session to each emotion to both ragas. We can analyze different had Madhya laya or medium tempo musical clips with rhythm emotional parameters at different tempos for 2 ragas. Table 1 accompaniment. We can observe that peaceful is most represents responses of user counts in percentage about the prominent emotion for both ragas. Marubihag is perceived as comparative perception of specific emotions to each raga. more pure, gentle, graceful and happy compare to Marwa. Table 2 represents enjoyment rating matrix to understand Marwa perceived to have more surrender, love and liking and possible attention parameters. satisfaction feel compare to Marubihag.

MB M MB M Meditative Meditative Pure Pure Touching Touching Request Request Love Love Surrender Surrender Huge Huge Gentle Gentle Graceful Graceful Peaceful Peaceful Satisfaction Satisfaction Exciting Exciting Happy Happy 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85

Figure 1. Comparison of alap clips A1 and A2 Figure 3. Comparison of drut clips D1 and D2

Comparative average rating of 40 responses per clip Comparative average rating of 40 responses per clip recorded in session 1 and 2 are shown in figure 1. This session recorded in session 5 and 6 are shown in figure 3. This session had alap musical clips of 2 ragas without any rhythm had drut laya or fast tempo musical clips with rhythm association. We can observe that meditative and peaceful are accompaniment. We can observe that peaceful is most most prominent emotions related to alap music for both ragas. appealing emotion for Marwa compare to Marubihag.

104 Marubihag is perceived as more exciting, huge and graceful experiments. It would be interesting to extend the experiments compare to mawa. Marwa perceived to have more surrender, for different cultural backgrounds to see the effect of culture love and satisfaction feel compare to Marubihag. in the emotion perception of raga. This average response for each emotion perceived can be Marubihag is perceived as more happier and graceful than misleading as it only represents the average ratings by user. Marwa. Marwa is perceived as creating a stronger feeling of Thus we have decided to observe relative response of each request, touching and peacefulness than Marubihag. Other user for different emotions. Table 1 shows the percentage of emotions as Pure, Huge, Gentle and meditative for which we 240 relative responses for each emotion reported as same have strong support in both ragas can be perceived as effect of perception in both ragas, perceived more in Marubihag and quality of sound or can be a reaction of genre or both. Fast Marwa respectively. Figures in bold indicates percentage of tempo seems to be the most important factor in creating listeners with majority perceptions. Pure, love, surrender, “excitement”. Marwa is perceived as sadder and more huge and exciting feeling is observed at same level by pleading as compared to Marubihag. This is most prominent majority of listeners. Marwa is perceived as more touching, in their responses to alap and Madhya laya clips. Rhythm adds request and peaceful feel compare to Marubihag. Marubihag more excitement and faster tempo perceiving towards the is perceived as graceful and happy compare to Marwa. happier mood whereas slow temp with the reflection of sad mood. However, experiments reveal strong evidence of raga Perceived Perceived Perceived association with the specific mood. Emotions same in more in more in Another interesting observation is statistical data can be both Raga Marubihag Marwa misleading at times. The average absolute mean values for Meditative 33.33 17.5 49.17 each emotion related to each raga shown in charts does not Pure 54.17 25.83 20 reflect raga-wise comparative data. Table 1 with subject-wise Touching 22.5 24.17 53.33 comparative information can be more useful to compare raga Request 22.5 12.5 65 emotions. Due care needs to be taken for representation of Love 62.5 27.5 10 data and drawing conclusions in such multivariate data Surrender 52.5 22.5 25 Huge 65 15 20 analysis. It would be interesting to further explore data in Gentle 35 37.5 27.5 Table 2 about enjoyment rating matrix to classify and analyze Graceful 27.5 52.5 20 possible effect of attention of listener on emotions. Peaceful 15 30 55 We have plans to conduct similar sessions with clips of Satisfaction 35 35 30 different ragas, and other sessions with clips in the same raga Exciting 57.5 22.5 20 with wider range of instruments to verify our observations Happy 30 55 15 about raga and observe inter-instrumental differences. We are of the view to conduct sessions with clips of different duration Table 1: Raga wise comparison in percentage response to verify our assumption about the minimum time span required to affect the emotion of the listener. All these Listeners also provided information about the enjoyable exercises will help us to verify our assumptions and parameters as what they like more on the rating scale of 1 to 3. observations. Our exercise can be useful for musicologist or We have provided parameters as Timbre and melody for first researchers working in the area of music emotion recognition. 2 sessions with 80 responses. 58% rated timbre at rating 1 and remaining 42% rated melody at rating 1. Enjoyment rating ACKNOWLEDGMENT matrix for sessions 3 to 6 is shown in table 2 for 160 We wish to convey our sincere thanks to Dr. H.V. responses as it had additional component as rhythm. This Sahasrabuddhe and Pandit Ginde for valuable guidance and to information is useful to understand possible attention and all students who participated and provided feedback about the liking of listeners. perceived emotions during the listening ICM sessions.

Parameter Timbre Melody Rhythm REFERENCES Rating 1 38.75 36.25 25 Rating 2 30 47.5 22.5 S. Rao & P.Rao (2014). An overview of Hindustani classical music in the context of computational musicology. In Journal of new Table 2: Enjoyment rating Matrix music research volume 43, Issue 1 March 2014. M. Velankar & H. Sahasrabuddhe(2012). A pilot study of Hindustani Table 1 represents better comparative perceptions for each music sentiments in 2nd Workshop on Sentiment Analysis where emotion in selected 2 ragas. Table 2 corresponds to rating AI meets Psychology (SAAIP 2012) Dr. Martin Clayton (2001). Towards a theory of musical meaning in matrix representing percentage of listeners with attention British Journal of ethnomusicology vol-10/I. rating to musical parameters as timbre, melody and rhythm. Pandit Vishnunarayan Bhatkhande (1957). Kramik pustak malika- part 1 to 6 Hathras: Sangeet Karyalaya 1st edition. VI. CONCLUSION Y. Yang & H. Chen (2012). Machine Recognition of music emotion: Raga association with specific emotion is a non-trivial task. A review in ACM Transactions on Intelligent system and Many musical dimensions such as timbre, tempo, rhythm etc. Technology, Vol 3, No 3. May 2012 influence the listener perception. Isolating effect of melody of Mathieu Barthet, David Marston, Chris Baume, Gy¨orgy Fazekas, Mark Sandler (2013). Design and Evaluation of semantic mood raga to associate emotions to raga is difficult. Subjects with models for music recommendation, ISMIR 2013 same Indian cultural background were participated for the

105 Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

Reproduction of Western Music Rhythms by Cameroonian School Children

Gesine Wermke*1, Andreas C. Lehmann#2, Phillip Klinger#3, Bettina Lamm†4 *Institute of Music Research, Julius-Maximilian University of Würzburg, Germany #University of Music Würzburg, Germany †Faculty of Human Sciences, Learning and Development, University of Osnabrück, Germany [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Information about the children’s musical behaviour (musical ABSTRACT experience, musical background) was also collected. The audio-visually recorded data were auditory analysed by Background two musically trained judges according to meter, speed and Rhythm is present in all musical cultures, though its rhythm patterns. distinctive characteristics might be culture-specific, and even tapping to a beat might reveal the participants culture-specific Results biases or perception. Yet the design of experiments regarding Different reproduction patterns of the 4/4- and 6/8-stimuli rhythm perception and production are generally Eurocentric. were observed and categorized: Hence, participants from non-Western music cultures might 1. At least one sample of the original rhythmic stimuli be at an advantage for some tasks and at disadvantage for was reproduced. others. Developing a culture-neutral approach would be 2. Small variations in meter, speed or rhythm pattern desirable. were produced. 3. After reproducing the first bar, different variants of Aims the subsequent rhythms followed. This study was designed to identify patterns of rhythmic 4. Rhythm variations that occurred in at least two reproduction based on sensori-motor synchronization (SMS); children. we investigated strategies of Cameroonian (Nso) children to 5. Individual children’s variations. synchronize a rhythmic motor pattern (finger tapping) with The reproductions of the ¾ triplet (Bolero; see Figure 1) externally perceived typical Western music stimuli. showed four different results: Cameroonian Nso parents typically establish rhythmic vocal 1. No reproduction of at least one original sample was and motor patterns characterized by crossmodal and observed. interpersonal synchronicity with their infants (Demuth, Keller, 2. Several variations of individual children of all ages & Yovsi, 2012; Keller, Otto, Lamm, Yovsi, & Kärtner, 2008). deviated from the original stimuli (Figure 1, red While some primitive forms of SMS appear to exist at birth colour). (Provasi, Anderson, & Barbu-Roth, 2014), children of 11 3. Furthermore, the Bolero rhythm was grouped years and above are recognized to exhibit stable SMS skills according to different gestalt perceptions by 84% of (Schlaug, 2001). all subjects (Figure 1, all colours but red and orange). 4. A variation of the presented rhythm, which was Method reoccurring in the reproduction of several children Fifty-five (26 female) Nso children aged 11-15 years (Figure 1, orange colour) participated in this study, which was undertaken in the city of Kumbo (North Cameroon). An age-matched sample of German children is currently under investigation for comparison. Following extant research by Hasselhorn and Lehmann (2015) and Kopiez, Langner, & Steinhagen (1999), rhythms Figure 1. Variants of rhythm reproduction and grouping in the ¾ triplet with different meter (3/4, 4/4, 6/8) and different speeds (72 rhythm of every child. Key: Gender: 1 = female; 2 = male; Age in years bpm, 80 bpm, 90 bpm, 110 bpm) were generated using Red: The reproduction patterns of individual children deviated from the Ableton (V. Live 8.0.9). Every sample was looped six times. original stimuli; Orange: A variation of the presented rhythm, which was In the experiment at least five stimuli were randomly selected reoccurring in the reproduction of several children; Green: Grouping: from the item pool for each participant. Reproduction started with a Group of two; Blue: Reproduction of the second The stimuli were presented to each child via headphones, bar of the original rhythmic stimuli; Violet: Grouping: Reproduction of two different parts of the original stimuli: group of two and group of long-short- which were connected to a mp3-player with speakers. The short-short/ group of shorts; Pink: Grouping: Reproduction of three different children were instructed to reproduce the rhythm with their elements of the original stimuli: group of two, group of long-short-short-short preferred hand (finger) or a pencil. The stimulus was first and group of several shorts presented (participants might or might not tap along), then the Conclusions children continued tapping after the presentation terminated. Trying to apply a culture-neutral analysis, several versions of the original stimuli were observed independent of age

106 and/or musical experience. For the 4/4- and 6/8-stimuli a smaller inter-individual variability was observed compared to the ¾-triplet (Bolero) stimulus. Whether the observed patterns were caused by culture-specific experience can be ascertained once the comparison data of German pupils is collected (cf. poster presentation at conference). A quantitative temporal analysis of the performances is warranted to validate the judges’ findings. Keywords Rhythm, finger tapping, children, cross-culture, gestalt grouping

REFERENCES Demuth, C., Keller, H., & Yovsi, R. (2012). Cultural models in communication with infants – lessons from Kikaikelaki, Cameroon and Muenster, Germany. Journal of Early Childhood Research, 10(1), 70–87. doi:10.1177/1476718x11403993 Hasselhorn, J., Lehmann, A. (2015). Leistungsheterogenität im Musikunterricht. Eine empirische Untersuchung zu Leistungsunterschieden im Bereich der Musikpraxis in Jahrgangsstufe 9. In J. Knigge & A. Niessen (eds.), Theoretische Rahmung und Theoriebildung in der musikpädagogischen Forschung, 163-176. Münster: Waxmann. Keller, H., Otto, H., Lamm, B., Yovsi, R., & Kärtner, J. (2008). The timing of verbal/vocal communications between mothers and their infants: a longitudinal cross- cultural comparison. Infant Behavior & Development, 31(2), 217–226. doi: 10.1016/j.infbeh.2007.10.001 Kopiez, R., Langner, J., & Steinhagen, P. (1999). Afrikanische Trommler (Ghana) bewerten und spielen europäische Rhythmen. Musicae Scientiae, 3, 139-160. doi: 10.1177/102986499900300201 Provasi, J., Anderson, D., & Barbu-Roth, M. (2014). Rhythm perception, production, and synchronization during the perinatal period. Frontiers in Psychology, 5. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01048 Schlaug, G. (2001). The Brain of Musicians. A Model for Functional and Structural Adaptation. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 930, 281–299. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2001.tb05739.x

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Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Students of Systematic Musicology (SysMus17), London, UK, September 13-15, 2017. Peter M. C. Harrison (Ed.).

Analysing the Implications of Music Videos on Youths’ Listening Experience

Johanna N. Wilson University of Jyväskylä, Finland [email protected]

ABSTRACT Keywords Music video, youth, perception, interpretation, emotion Introduction Previous research has analysed the psychological functions REFERENCES of music listening during adolescence and young adulthood, Laiho, S. (2004). The psychological functions of music in adoles- particularly in respect to its use for affect regulation (Laiho, cence. Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 13(1), 47-63. 2004; Saarikallio & Erkkilä, 2007). However, little research Saarikallio, S., & Erkkilä, J. (2007). The role of music in adolescents' exists that analyses the effect of music videos (MVs) in re- mood regulation. Psychology of Music, 35(1), 88-109. spect to these functions of listening. MVs require the subject to pay attention to both audio and visual materials, and as a result, some emotional responses may arise from MV watch- ing that do not occur in music listening alone. Aims

This is an exploratory study which aims to provide new insights into youths’ experiences with MVs. The study will examine how they divide their attention between the music and the video. To what extent this affects their emotional engagement with the music when no video is present is considered, as well as whether individual differences such as personality type and music listening habits effect these outcomes. Method

The study consists of open-ended questions and survey measures. The questionnaire asks participants about their experience with MVs, the contexts they watch them in, and whether or how the video affects their perception or interpretation of the music. Whether the video enhances or weakens their emotional outcomes in subsequent listenings is also of interest. Individual differences concerning personality and music listening habits are explored using three surveys: B-MMR, HUMS and a ten-item Big Five personality scale. Participants are Canadian high school students, university students, and young adults between the ages of 14 to 24. Results Data are currently being collected. Conclusions It is expected that MVs may affect the listener’s emotional engagement and perception of the music in subsequent listens, however this will depend on whether the video is in line with their subjective interpretation of the music’s meaning. Furthermore, individual differences such as personality type, age, and reasons for listening may determine whether these outcomes have positive or negative implications on the individual.

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Neural Music Language Models: Investigating the Training Process

Adrien Ycart1, Emmanouil Benetos2 Centre for Digital Music, Queen Mary University of London [email protected], [email protected]

ABSTRACT Conclusions This study will be a first step towards implementing a Background neural music language model (MLM). It will later be Automatic music transcription (AMT) is the problem of integrated with state-of-the-art acoustic models to make a full converting an audio signal into some form of music notation. AMT system; experiments will be carried out in future work It remains a challenging task, in particular with polyphonic on how MLMs can improve AMT performance. music (Benetos et al., 2013) In most AMT systems, an acoustic model estimates the Keywords pitches present in each time frame, and a language model Automatic music transcription, neural networks, music links those estimations using high-level musical knowledge to language models, polyphonic music prediction build a binary piano-roll representation. While the former task has been widely discussed in the literature, the latter has received little attention until quite recently (Raczyński et al., REFERENCES 2013; Sigtia et al., 2015). Benetos, E., Dixon, S., Giannoulis, D., Kirchhoff, H., & Klapuri, A. (2013). Automatic music transcription: challenges and future Aims directions. Journal of Intelligent Information Systems, 41(3), We aim to investigate the use of recurrent neural networks 407-434. Raczyński, S. A., Vincent, E., & Sagayama, S. (2013). Dynamic (RNN) as language models for AMT to estimate the Bayesian networks for symbolic polyphonic pitch probability of pitches present in the next frame, given the modeling. IEEE Transactions on Audio, Speech, and Language previously observed. Most of the existing literature focuses on Processing, 21(9), 1830-1840. the architecture; here we will investigate the training process. Sigtia, S., Benetos, E., & Dixon, S. (2015). An end-to-end neural More precisely we will consider how the choice of the time network for polyphonic music transcription. IEEE Transactions steps, the choice of the training set, and various data on Audio, Speech, and Language Processing, 24(5), 927–939. augmentation techniques can influence their predictive power. Hochreiter, S., & Schmidhuber, J. (1997). Long short-term memory. Neural computation, 9(8), 1735-1780. Method Korzeniowski, F., & Widmer, G. (2017). On the Futility of Learning We will train a simple Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) Complex Frame-Level Language Models for Chord Recognition. arXiv preprint arXiv:1702.00178. architecture (Hochreiter & Schmidhuber, 1997) with polyphonic MIDI data, taken from a classical piano music 1 dataset . The performance of the resulting RNN will be ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS compared in terms of prediction accuracy and cross-entropy. AY is supported by a QMUL EECS Research Studentship. EB We will compare time steps in physical time and in fractions is supported by a RAEng Research Fellowship (RF/128). of a beat, similarly to a study by Korzeniowski and Widmer

(2017). We will investigate the influence of various types of training data (different genres, composers, artificial data). We will also assess how data pre-processing (cutting the training sequences into smaller chunks) and data augmentation (transposition, time-stretching) can improve the results. Results This research is ongoing; most results have yet to be obtained. The first results suggest that time-steps in milliseconds perform better in terms of prediction because self-transitions are more frequent, but do nothing more than a simple smoothing. On the other hand, time-steps of a sixteenth note perform worse on prediction, but they allow to better model tonality and meter.

1www.piano-midi.de

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