A Case Study of Tibetan Educators in India and Nepal: Constructing Community in Diaspora

A CASE STUDY OF TIBETAN EDUCATORS IN INDIA AND NEPAL: CONSTRUCTING COMMUNITY IN DIASPORA by Matilde Bernabei BSc Engineering, Queen‟s University 1988 BEd, University of British Columbia, 1991 MA, Simon Fraser University, 2001 DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY In the Faculty of Education © Matilde Bernabei 2011 SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY Spring 2011 All rights reserved. However, in accordance with the Copyright Act of Canada, this work may be reproduced, without authorization, under the conditions for Fair Dealing. Therefore, limited reproduction of this work for the purposes of private study, research, criticism, review and news reporting is likely to be in accordance with the law, particularly if cited appropriately. APPROVAL Name: Matilde Bernabei Degree: Doctor of Philosophy Title of Thesis: A Case Study of Tibetan Educators in India and Nepal: Constructing Community in Diaspora Examining Committee: Chair: Dr. Diane Dagenais Prof. ___________________________________________ Dr. June Beynon Senior Supervisor Prof. Emerita ___________________________________________ Dr. Kelleen Toohey Supervisor Prof. Assoc. Dean ___________________________________________ Dr. Kumari Beck Internal External Examiner Assistant Prof. ___________________________________________ Dr. Tsering Shakya External Examiner University of British Columbia Date Defended/Approved: March 10, 2011 ii Declaration of Partial Copyright Licence The author, whose copyright is declared on the title page of this work, has granted to Simon Fraser University the right to lend this thesis, project or extended essay to users of the Simon Fraser University Library, and to make partial or single copies only for such users or in response to a request from the library of any other university, or other educational institution, on its own behalf or for one of its users. 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Simon Fraser University Library Burnaby, BC, Canada Last revision: Spring 09 STATEMENT OF ETHICS APPROVAL The author, whose name appears on the title page of this work, has obtained, for the research described in this work, either: (a) Human research ethics approval from the Simon Fraser University Office of Research Ethics, or (b) Advance approval of the animal care protocol from the University Animal Care Committee of Simon Fraser University; or has conducted the research (c) as a co-investigator, collaborator or research assistant in a research project approved in advance, or (d) as a member of a course approved in advance for minimal risk human research, by the Office of Research Ethics. A copy of the approval letter has been filed at the Theses Office of the University Library at the time of submission of this thesis or project. The original application for approval and letter of approval are filed with the relevant offices. Inquiries may be directed to those authorities. Simon Fraser University Library Simon Fraser University Burnaby, BC, Canada Last update: Spring 2010 ABSTRACT This research explores identity processes and approaches to professional practice of Tibetan educators working within schools administered by the Tibetan Government-in-exile (TGIE) in India and Nepal. Since 1960, schools administered by the TGIE have been centrally involved in the diaspora‟s efforts to support the physical and cultural survival of individuals, and of the community as a whole. Schools attempt to support the development of youth who identify both as global citizens, and as Tibetans whose practices are consistent with historical values. Sociocultural theories of identity and community, agency and history-in- person, post-structural theories of globalization, and theories of liberatory pedagogy, are utilized to interpret data from open-ended interviews with 29 educators. Educators‟ perceptions of their personal histories within the Tibetan diasporic struggle, their views on their positioning in relation to the rest of the world, and their processes of negotiating and making sense of responsibilities they associate with their work are investigated. Analysis reveals differing perspectives of four generations. The generations are distinguished by their circumstances in their early years: those born before or during their family‟s 1959 exodus from Tibet, those born in refugee iii camps in the 1960s, those born in the early years of refugee settlements in the 1970s, and New Arrivals who escaped from Tibet in the 1980s. Personal histories, current circumstances, globalization, and hoped-for futures, frame the contexts in which educators shape and implement their professional practices. Notions of personal and community empowerment and liberatory pedagogy are apparent as educators work with youth to promote particular futures for their community. Five decades of change globally and within Tibetan communities in India and Nepal, have altered the daily lives of Tibetans and generated shifts in the futures educators can imagine. These changes are reflected in an increasingly global outlook amongst Tibetan teachers (and students), and tension in the community struggles to define and maintain Tibetan national identity in diaspora. Efforts of educators to support and maintain cultural continuity and community affiliation for new generations of youth are fraught with challenges, necessitating creativity and innovation in vision and in practice. Keywords: Tibetan refugees; diaspora; education; identity; community construction; South Asia iv DEDICATION For the people of Tibet may Peace, Wisdom, and Freedom prevail. And For my mother, Wilma Grundmann Bernabei (1934 to 2006) and, Aunt Rena (Claire) Eisenbeil (1926 to 2004). Their tenaciousness gumption and laughter live on in their children and grandchildren. And For my father, Richard Bernabei (1933 to 1979), who would have been proud. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am deeply appreciative of the Tibetan Government-in-exile‟s Department of Education (DoE) in Dharamsala, India, for permission and access for me to carry out this research, and for the wisdom and dedication the DoE staff bring to their work. Mr. Chung Tsering, Research Officer at the DoE, has for many years been a consistent and steady friend and colleague. His heartfelt concern for Tibetan people, and his belief in their capacity to thrive in any context, has been an inspiration. He and others at the DoE provided extraordinary support to me in this research, and other endeavours. Mr. Karma Chungdak, Director of Sambhota Tibetan Schools Administration (STSA), has also been an extraordinary support, and a source of inspiration. He is a visionary who never rests in his work toward facilitating the education and empowerment of Tibetan children and youth. I wish to extend heartfelt appreciation to Mr. Wangchuk Tsering, who, in 2005, was His Holiness the Dalai Lama‟s Representative in Kathmandu, Nepal. His kindness, support, and encouragement, were essential to the success of my research in Nepal. I also thank Palden (India) and Tashi Tsering (Canada) for their support, advice, and assistance with translation. Too many Tibetan educators and community members to list by name provided guidance and support, and I am deeply appreciative and indebted to vi them all. They generously offered their time, insight, and expertise. Their profound commitment to the education of Tibetan children, and their hope for a more peaceful and compassionate world for all beings, has taught me to be a better teacher, and, I hope, a better person than I was before I met and worked with them. I sincerely appreciate the guidance, advice, and encouragement provided by my supervisory and examining committees. All committee members are exemplary scholars, and extraordinary people, who I feel honoured to have worked with. In particular, this work would not have been possible without the caring guidance and support of Dr. June Beynon, Senior Supervisor. Her professional support and encouragement helped me to believe that my ideas

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