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Critical Rare Earths, National Security, and U.S.-China Interactions A Portfolio Approach to Dysprosium Policy Design
David L. An
C O R P O R A T I O N Dissertation
Critical Rare Earths, National Security, and U.S.-China Interactions A Portfolio Approach to Dysprosium Policy Design
David L. An
This document was submitted as a dissertation in September 2014 in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the doctoral degree in public policy analysis at the Pardee RAND Graduate School. The faculty committee that supervised and approved the dissertation consisted of Brian Chow (Chair), Charles Wolf, Jr., and Deborah Elms.
PARDEE RAND GRADUATE SCHOOL The Pardee RAND Graduate School dissertation series reproduces dissertations that have been approved by the student’s dissertation committee.
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Published 2015 by the RAND Corporation 1776 Main Street, P.O. Box 2138, Santa Monica, CA 90407-2138 1200 South Hayes Street, Arlington, VA 22202-5050 4570 Fifth Avenue, Suite 600, Pittsburgh, PA 15213-2665 RAND URL: http://www.rand.org/ To order RAND documents or to obtain additional information, contact Distribution Services: Telephone: (310) 451-7002; Fax: (310) 451-6915; Email: [email protected] Dedication
For my father, who modeled a life defined by the rarest mix of virtues: fierce love, unbounded grace, profound gratitude, and unrelenting perseverance. Love you dad.
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Table of Contents
Dedication ...... iii Abstract ...... xi List of Figures ...... xiii List of Tables ...... xv Abbreviations and Acronyms ...... xvii Acknowledgements ...... xxi Executive Summary ...... xxiii Research Introduction ...... xxiii Dysprosium Supply Risk – Politics, Economics, and Geology ...... xxiii Dysprosium Material Importance: The NdFeB Permanent Magnet ...... xxiv Dysprosium, the Most Critical Rare Earth ...... xxiv U.S. Policy Options for Increasing Resiliency ...... xxv Three Sweet Spot Optimal Portfolios for Three Budget Ranges ...... xxv Chapter 1 – Introduction ...... 1 Introduction ...... 2 Research Findings ...... 2 The Policy Challenge ...... 2 Policy Solution ...... 3 Policy Relevance ...... 5 Research Contribution ...... 6 Contribution 1 – Consolidated Dysprosium Narrative ...... 6 Contribution 2 – New Criticality Reduction Planning Framework...... 7 Contribution 3 – Sweet Spot Portfolios for Dysprosium Criticality Reduction ...... 7 Practical Policy Planning Benefits ...... 7 Dysprosium Criticality ...... 8 Criticality Defined ...... 8 Dysprosium Is Most Critical ...... 9 Roadmap of Research Chapters ...... 10 The Policy Challenge – Chapters 2, 3, and 4 ...... 11 The Policy Solutions – Chapters 5, 6, and 7 ...... 11 Chapter Summary ...... 11
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Chapter 2 – The Politics and Economics of Rare Earth Elements ...... 13 Introduction ...... 14 China’s Path to Rare Earth Dominance ...... 15 China’s Geological Endowment ...... 15 Beijing’s Push on Rare Earths Industry Development ...... 17 Rare Earths as a “Geopolitical Lever?” ...... 26 The Cost of Rare Earth Monopoly ...... 27 Beijing’s Seller’s Remorse...... 29 China’s Controversial Way Forward ...... 31 Environmental Protection Laws ...... 32 Consolidation ...... 33 Export Restrictions ...... 34 Acquisitions of Rare Earth Supply Capacities Abroad ...... 36 Stockpile ...... 37 Is China’s Policy of Rationalization Rational? ...... 38 Country Responses to China’s Rare Earths Policy ...... 39 The European Union ...... 41 Japan ...... 42 South Korea ...... 44 Australia ...... 44 Canada ...... 45 Chapter Summary ...... 45 Chapter 3 – Applications and Geological Properties of Rare Earth Elements ...... 47 Introduction ...... 48 Rare Earth Applications ...... 49 Major Applications of REEs ...... 50 Rare Earth Properties ...... 53 Light and Heavy Rare Earth Elements ...... 55 Mineralogy ...... 58 Rare Earth Mining and Processing ...... 61 Mining ...... 61 Processing ...... 64 Chapter Summary ...... 68
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Chapter 4 – Dysprosium Supply and Demand Projections ...... 69 Introduction ...... 70 Projection Objectives ...... 70 Projection Assumptions ...... 71 Price Volatility ...... 71 Compounded Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) ...... 74 Dysprosium Demand Requirement ...... 75 Applications ...... 75 Projections A, B, and C ...... 77 Dysprosium Supply Capacity...... 80 Non-Chinese Supply Capacity ...... 80 Projections D and E ...... 83 Projections F, G, and H ...... 85 Dysprosium Shortfall ...... 87 Shortfall Projections ...... 87 Chapter Summary ...... 89 Chapter 5 – Methods for Policy Assessment and Portfolio Optimization ...... 91 Introduction ...... 92 Policy Objectives, Costing, and Effectiveness Scoring ...... 92 Policy Objective: Fulfilling Statutory Requirements by Criticality Reduction ...... 92 Policy Implementation Cost ...... 94 Policy Effectiveness ...... 94 Application of Criticality Reduction Planning ...... 100 Three Scenarios ...... 101 Optimization Model ...... 102 Note on Criticality Metric’s Ordinal and Cardinal Properties ...... 104 Chapter Summary ...... 106 Chapter 6 – U.S. Policy Options ...... 108 Introduction ...... 109 U.S. Government Actions ...... 110 The Cost of Inaction ...... 110 Congressional Activity ...... 111 Executive Branch Activities...... 112
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Policy Effectiveness Scoring Review ...... 120 Policy Area 1 – Supply Chain Development ...... 122 Background to Policy Area 1 ...... 122 Domestic Upstream Development ...... 123 Midstream Separation and Processing R&D...... 129 DoD Midstream and Downstream Development ...... 132 Comprehensive Recycling Initiative ...... 136 Policy Area 2 – Functional Substitute R&D ...... 150 Background to Policy Area 2 ...... 150 Functional Substitute R&D ...... 153 Policy Area 3 – Trade Restrictions ...... 156 Background to Policy Area 3 ...... 156 Export Restrictions on China’s Import-Dependent Materials ...... 161 Import Restrictions on Chinese Rare Earths ...... 165 Policy Area 4 – Contingency Planning ...... 168 Background to Policy Area 4 ...... 168 Traditional Stockpiling ...... 170 Buffer Stock Inventory ...... 172 Chapter Summary ...... 174 Chapter 7 – U.S. Policy Strategy ...... 176 Introduction ...... 177 Optimal Policy Portfolios ...... 178 Policy Portfolio Infeasibility Regions ...... 178 Cost-Effectiveness Trade-Off Curve ...... 179 Policy Utility of the Cost-Effectiveness Trade-Off Curve ...... 181 Sweet Spot Portfolios ...... 183 Portfolio Policy Composition...... 187 Portfolio Robustness Testing ...... 189 Breakeven Analysis ...... 189 Cost Premiums and Lowered Policy Success Probabilities ...... 191 Incorporating Policy Area 4 – Contingency Plans ...... 194 Chapter Summary ...... 196 Chapter 8 – Conclusion ...... 198
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Introduction ...... 199 A New Planning Framework and Tool ...... 199 Dysprosium Supply Risk ...... 200 Dysprosium Material Importance: The NdFeB Permanent Magnet ...... 201 Dysprosium, the Most Critical Rare Earth ...... 201 The Policy Options for Reducing Dysprosium Criticality ...... 202 Three Sweet Spot Optimal Portfolios for Three Budget Ranges ...... 203 Advocating for the Sweet Spot Portfolios ...... 204 Conclusion ...... 206 Appendices ...... 207 Appendix A – Military Applications of Permanent Magnets ...... 208 Appendix B – Advanced Non-Chinese Rare Earth Projects ...... 209 Appendix C – China, Just Another Brick in the Wall? ...... 210 Appendix D – DoE Technology Readiness Level (TRL) Scale...... 213 Appendix E – DoE Commercial Readiness Level (CRL) Scale ...... 214 Appendix F – Complete R&D3 Level Descriptions and Probabilities of Success ...... 215 Appendix G – Selected Legislative Activity ...... 217 Appendix H – H.R. 3304 FY2014 NDAA Excerpts ...... 226 Appendix I – H.R. 761 National Strategic and Critical Minerals Production Act of 2013 ...... 228 Appendix J – CMI Research Focus Areas ...... 232 Appendix K – CMI Research Publications ...... 234 Appendix L – DMEA Trusted Foundry Program ...... 237 Appendix M – The WTO Panel Process ...... 239 Appendix N – Other Potential Contingency Plan Options ...... 240 Extra Buys ...... 240 Reduced Exports ...... 240 Citations and References ...... 242
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Abstract
In recent decades, China has become the world’s principal source of rare earths extraction, processing, and manufacturing of its derivative goods. China’s monopoly is partly a result of its rich geological endowment, particularly of the “heavy” rare earths that are increasingly valuable in green energy and military technology applications. The country’s rapid industry consolidation, however, has been abetted by unfair policies such as export restrictions that subsidized domestic producers. Furthermore, Beijing has indicated a tight-fisted disposition, intent on reserving its rare earths for domestic consumers and preferring that trade partners “find their own sources.” This dissertation examines how the U.S. can pursue a portfolio of policies to reduce American vulnerability to the supply disruption of one critical heavy rare earth, dysprosium. Intended primary for U.S. policy makers, the study first provides a consolidated narrative of the interplay of politics, economics, and geology of rare earths in general and dysprosium in particular. It then systematically evaluates the effectiveness and costs of a roster of new and incumbent policies. A new strategic planning framework leverages mixed-integer linear programming to concoct policy portfolios that maximize U.S. resiliency to dysprosium supply disruptions at given budget levels. This enables a trade-off analysis comparing the portfolios’ vulnerability reduction effectiveness against their costs. This analysis culminates with a recommendation of the portfolio that balances fiscal feasibility with acceptable vulnerability reduction. The hope is that the method and research findings will also serve as a generalizable template for mitigating the criticality of other vulnerable rare earths and materials.
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List of Figures
Figure 1.1 – Dysprosium Is the Most Critical Element in the Medium-Term ...... 9 Figure 1.2 – Alonso et al. (2012) Projected REEs Demand Distribution ...... 10 Figure 2.1 – 2013 REEs Global Reserves (147 million tonnes) ...... 16 Figure 2.2 – Global Distribution of REEs Deposits ...... 16 Figure 2.3 – China’s Rare Earths Mining Deposits ...... 17 Figure 2.4 – REO Production 1994 to 2013 ...... 18 Figure 2.5 – Value of Rare Earths Across the Value Chain ...... 19 Figure 2.6 – Ratio of FOB China Average Price to China’s Domestic Price ...... 20 Figure 2.7 – China’s Share of the Rare Earth Supply Chain ...... 21 Figure 2.8 – Ratio of China’s Permanent Magnet Exports to Ore Exports ...... 22 Figure 2.9 – Evolution of High Performance Permanent Magnets ...... 24 Figure 2.10 – Chinese Monthly Rare Earth Oxide Exports to Japan in 2010 ...... 26 Figure 2.11 – China’s REOs Reserve Estimate ...... 30 Figure 2.12 – China is the Primary Consumer for All Rare Earths Applications ...... 31 Figure 2.13 – China’s Proposed Rare Earth Regional Districts ...... 34 Figure 2.14 – China REO Export Quotas ...... 35 Figure 2.15 – Chinese Consumption Has Increased Three-Fold Since 2000 ...... 37 Figure 3.1 – Rare Earth Elements ...... 54 Figure 3.2 – Rare Earths Are Not Necessarily Rare ...... 55 Figure 3.3 – Heavy Rare Earths Cost Significantly More Than Light Rare Earths ...... 58 Figure 3.4 – Rare Earth Processing Steps from Extraction to Product Integration ...... 67 Figure 4.1 – Convergent and Divergent Cobweb Cases of Commodity Price and Quantity ...... 73 Figure 4.2 – Contemporary Raw Materials Hype Cycle ...... 74 Figure 4.3 – Dysprosium Oxide Demand Projections Under Differing Assumptions ...... 80 Figure 4.4 – Global Dysprosium Oxide Deposits and Their Ore Grade Ranges ...... 81 Figure 4.5 – Dysprosium Oxide FOB China Price ($/kg >99% Purity) (Constant 2014 USD) ...... 82 Figure 4.6 – Global Dysprosium Supply Capacity Projections ...... 85 Figure 4.7 – Global Dysprosium Oxide Supply Capacity ...... 87 Figure 4.8 – Dysprosium Demand Satisfaction Rates and Shortfall Estimates ...... 89 Figure 5.1 – Raw Material Criticality Matrix ...... 95 Figure 5.2 – R&D3 Research Probability of Success ...... 98 Figure 5.3 – Hypothetical Expected Criticality Change From Notional Policy Package ...... 100 Figure 6.1 – Raw Material Criticality Matrix ...... 121 Figure 6.2 – Deterrents to Mining Investments in Potential Non-Chinese Dysprosium Supplier Countries (Survey of Mining Business Leaders) ...... 125 Figure 6.3 – Historical Examples of Time Required to Obtain Permits, Construct, and Commission Mines in the U.S...... 125 Figure 6.4 – Bokan Mountain and Bear Lodge Project Development Schedules ...... 127 Figure 6.5 – Recyclate Availability in an Idealized Growth Curve of Commodity ...... 139 Figure 6.6 – Tonnage Difference in Shortfall Reductions from Aspired CRI Implementation ...... 147 Figure 6.7 – Percentage Difference in Shortfall Reductions from Aspired CRI Implementation ...... 147 Figure 6.8 – Hypothetical Projection with NdFeB Magnet Substitution ...... 154
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Figure 6.9 – Chinese Rare Earths Exports Have Fallen Below Quota Levels ...... 160 Figure 6.10 – Select Examples of Chinese Import-Reliant Raw Materials ...... 162 Figure 6.11 – Major Producers of Top Chinese Import-Reliant Materials ...... 163 Figure 7.1 – Costs for Maximizing Criticality Reduction Under Threshold Constraints ...... 179 Figure 7.2 – Best Possible Criticality Reduction (Effectiveness) for Given Budget ...... 181 Figure 7.3 – Optimized Unique Policy Portfolios for Each Threshold Constraint ...... 184 Figure 7.4 – Optimal Portfolios With High Marginal Cost-Effectiveness ...... 184 Figure 7.5 – Dysprosium Criticality Matrix of Sweet Spot Portfolio Effectiveness ...... 186 Figure 7.6 – Effectiveness-Cost Ratios of Policy Options ...... 189 Figure 7.7 – Difference in Sum Criticality Reduction (Effectiveness) with Sober Assumptions ...... 193 Figure 7.8 – Sweet Spot Portfolios and Stockpiling: Total Costs and Effectiveness Ranges ...... 195 Figure 8.1 – Sweet Spot Portfolios’ Effect on Dysprosium Criticality Reduction by 2030 ...... 206 Figure Appendix L.1.1 – Trusted Supplier Accreditation Process ...... 238
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List of Tables
Table 1.1 – Policy Areas and Policy Options ...... 3 Table 2.1 – The Emigration of U.S. Permanent Magnet Manufacturing ...... 23 Table 2.2 – Estimation of China’s Illegal REEs Mining in 2010 ...... 29 Table 2.3 – Chinese Export Duties on REEs in 2012 ...... 36 Table 2.4 – Summary of Active Government Policy Categories Relating to Rare Earths As of 2012 ...... 41 Table 3.1 – LREEs and HREEs Consumption by Industry Sector ...... 50 Table 3.2 – Individual REE Consumption Percentage By Industry Sector/Subsector ...... 50 Table 3.3 – Examples of Rare Earth Applications in U.S. Military Systems ...... 53 Table 3.4 – REE and HREE Classifications ...... 57 Table 3.5 – Rare Earths-Bearing Minerals ...... 60 Table 3.6 – REEs Extraction Methods ...... 61 Table 3.7 – Aspirational Rare Earth Mine Development Schedule ...... 63 Table 3.8 – Selected lead times of global mining projects ...... 64 Table 4.1 – Supply and Demand Projection Assumptions ...... 75 Table 4.2 – Dysprosium-based Permanent Magnet Applications Share in 2010 ...... 76 Table 4.3 – Method and Data for Dysprosium Demand Requirement from Wind Turbines ...... 79 Table 4.4 – Method and Data for Dysprosium Demand Requirement from Electric Vehicles ...... 79 Table 4.5 – Projected Non-Chinese Dysprosium Oxide Supply Capacities ...... 84 Table 4.6 – Shortfall Projection Guide ...... 88 Table 5.1 – Bauer et al. (2011) Criticality Rating for Dysprosium ...... 96 Table 5.2 – R&D3 Level Descriptions and Probabilities of Success ...... 98 Table 5.3 – Notional Policy Contributions to Sub-Dimensions of Criticality Matrix ...... 100 Table 5.4 – Ex-Ante Criticality Scores for S.I, S.II, and S.III ...... 102 Table 5.5 – Policy Options Cost and Effectiveness Summary Template...... 103 Table 5.6 – Quartile Percentage Range Equivalence of Criticality Metric Scores ...... 106 Table 6.1 – Recently Proposed U.S. House and Senate Bills Pertaining to rare Earths ...... 112 Table 6.2 – Selection of Department of Energy Research Programs Related to Rare Earths ...... 115 Table 6.3 – Description of Projects Funded by REACT ...... 116 Table 6.4 – U.S. Rare Earth Deposits and Their Statuses ...... 124 Table 6.5 – Mining Investment Climate of U.S. States with Rare Earth Reserves ...... 126 Table 6.6 – Domestic Upstream Production Effectiveness ...... 129 Table 6.7 – Potential New Methods of Separating and Extracting REEs ...... 130 Table 6.8 – Midstream Separation and Processing R&D Effectiveness ...... 132 Table 6.9 – DoD Downstream Accreditation Effectiveness ...... 135 Table 6.10 – DoD Trusted Foundry Effectiveness...... 136 Table 6.11 – Rare Earth Recycling Rates ...... 141 Table 6.12 – Rare Earth Magnet Recycling Methods ...... 142 Table 6.13 – e-Wastes Collected in the 25 States with e-Recycling Programs ...... 145 Table 6.14 – Dysprosium Permanent Magnet Applications ...... 146 Table 6.15 – Comprehensive Recycling Initiative Effectiveness ...... 149 Table 6.16 – Comparison of Permanent Magnets ...... 151 Table 6.17 – DoE Functional Substitute Technology Research ...... 152
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Table 6.18 – Functional Substitute R&D Effectiveness ...... 155 Table 6.19 – Export Restriction Effectiveness ...... 165 Table 6.20 – Annual Cost Assumptions, Estimates, and Present Value of Total Implementation Cost ... 165 Table 6.21 – Import Restriction Effectiveness ...... 167 Table 6.22 – Base Case Scenario Projected Rare Earth Shortfalls ...... 169 Table 6.23 – Expected Net Present Value of Traditional Stockpiling Cost FY 2014 – FY 2029 ...... 171 Table 6.24 – Assumptions and Variable Descriptions for Traditional Stockpiling Cost Calculations ..... 172 Table 6.25 – Expected Net Present Value of Buffer Stock Inventory ...... 173 Table 6.26 – Assumptions and Variable Descriptions for Buffer Stock Inventory Cost Calculations ..... 173 Table 6.27 – Summary of Policy Options Costs and Effectiveness ...... 175 Table 7.1 – Differing Threshold Constraint Explain Discrepancies in Optimal Portfolios ...... 181 Table 7.2 – Summary of Sweet Spot Portfolio Effectiveness ...... 186 Table 7.3 – Optimized Policy Portfolios ...... 188 Table 7.4 – Calculation of Policy Effectiveness-Cost Ratio ...... 188 Table 7.5 – Breakeven Analysis of Sweet Spot Portfolio Composition ...... 191 Table 7.6 – Policy Options Costs and Effectiveness with Sober Assumptions ...... 192 Table 7.7 – Differences in Policy Selection between Sweet Spot Portfolios and Sober Assumption Portfolios ...... 193 Table 8.1 – Summary Chart of Sweet Spot Portfolios ...... 204 Table Appendix C.1.1 – Illustrative list of rationales for export restrictions in TPRs ...... 211
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Abbreviations and Acronyms
AlNiCo Aluminum Nickel Cobalt AESA Active Electronically Scanned Array AREPI Advanced Rare-Earth Projects Index ARPA-E The Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy AVIC Aviation Industry Corporation BGS British Geological Survey BIS Bureau of Industry and Security CAGR Compounded Annual Growth Rate CBO Congressional Budget Office CFL Compact Fluorescent Lamps CHPS Combat Hybrid Power System CMI Critical Materials Institute CRL Commercial Readiness Level CREE Critical Rare Earth Element CRI Comprehensive Recycling Initiative Criticality score of policy for a given scenario &