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2006 Osvaldo Lacerda: His Importance to Brazillian Music and Elements of His Musical Style Carlos Eduardo Audi

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COLLEGE OF MUSIC

OSVALDO LACERDA: HIS IMPORTANCE TO BRAZILIAN MUSIC AND

ELEMENTS OF HIS MUSICAL STYLE

By

CARLOS EDUARDO AUDI

A Treatise submitted to the College of Music in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Music

Degree Awarded: Fall Semester, 2006

Copyright © 2006 Carlos Eduardo Audi All Rights Reserved

Figure 1. Carlos Audi and Osvaldo Lacerda, 10 July 2006

ii The members of the Committee approve the treatise of Carlos Eduardo Audi defended on November 6, 2006.

______Evan Jones Professor Directing Treatise

______Dale Olsen Outside Committee Member

______Michael Allen Committee Member

______Bruce Holzman Committee Member

The office of Graduate Studies has verified and approved the above named committee members.

iii

To my wife Adriana, my daughter Carolina, and my parents Ademir and Clélia who I love so dearly.

iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank Dr. Evan Jones, treatise director, for his guidance, insightful expertise, and words of encouragement. I also would like to thank the other committee members – Dr. Dale Olsen, Dr. Michael Allen, and Mr. Bruce Holzman – for their help with this project. Finally, I want to express my gratitude to Osvaldo Lacerda who so graciously opened his house for an interview and whose talent has greatly enriched the music of Brazil.

v TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Examples ...... viii Abstract...... xii

INTRODUCTION ...... 1

I. OSVALDO LACERDA’S BIOGRAPHY ...... 4

Musical Formation...... 4 Professional Career ...... 6 Prizes, Awards, and Recognitions ...... 8

II. MUSICAL NATIONALISM IN BRAZIL ...... 11

Folk and Popular Music...... 11 European Contribution...... 12 African Contribution...... 13 Amerindian Contribution...... 14 Nationalist Art-Music ...... 16 Sigismund von Neukomm ...... 16 Carlos Gomes...... 16 Brasílio Itiberê Cunha...... 17 Alexandre Levy...... 17 Alberto Nepomuceno...... 18 Luciano Gallet...... 22 Mário de Andrade ...... 22 Heitor Villa-Lobos...... 24 Mozart Camargo Guarnieri...... 26

III. LACERDA’S IMPORTANCE TO BRAZILIAN MUSIC ...... 29

Lacerda as a Composer ...... 29 Nationalist Heritage ...... 29 Lacerda’s Musical Style...... 30 Lacerda’s Ideas ...... 31 Lacerda as a Teacher...... 32 Lacerda as a Promoter of Brazilian Music...... 33

IV. NATIONALISTIC ELEMENTS OF LACERDA’S MUSICAL STYLE...... 35

Melody ...... 35 Gregorian Modes ...... 36 Mixolydian Mode...... 36 Lydian Mode...... 38 “Northeast” Mode ...... 40

vi Dorian Mode ...... 41 Pentatonic Scale...... 44 Hexatonic Scale ...... 51 Descending Melodic Contour ...... 51 Large Melodic Intervals...... 54 Narrow-Ranged Melodies...... 55 Melody Ending Note other than the Tonic ...... 58 Rhythm...... 63 Syncopation...... 63 “Brasileirinho” ...... 63 Habanera-Derived Syncopation...... 73 Ostinato and Repeated Notes...... 77 3+3+2 Rhythmic Pattern...... 85 Polyphony ...... 87 Country Thirds (Terças Caipiras) ...... 88 Melodic Bass of the Guitar ...... 91 Counterpoint and Thematic Variations of the Flute ...... 97 Harmony: Modulation to the Subdominant Minor in Minor Mode...... 99

V. NON-NATIONALISTIC ELEMENTS OF LACERDA’S MUSICAL STYLE ...... 102

Camargo Guarnieri’s Influence...... 102 Augmented Sixth Chords...... 102 Absence of Key Signature ...... 112 Atonalism and Twelve-Tone Music...... 112 Villa-Lobos’ Influence...... 115 Unresolved Dissonances ...... 116 Incomplete Chords...... 122 Bitonality...... 123 Impressionism...... 124 Whole-Tone Scale...... 125 Quartal Sonorities ...... 128 Planing ...... 130 Pedal Point ...... 134

CONCLUSION...... 138

APPENDICES: A: Human Subject Approval...... 140 B: Human Subject Consent Form ...... 141

BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 142

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ...... 148

vii

LIST OF EXAMPLES

Example 1. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, First Movement, mm. 1-5 ...... 15 Example 2. Lampião Tava Dormindo...... 37 Example 3. Lacerda, Pequena Suíte, “Sanfoneiro em Ré,” mm. 1-10 ...... 38 Example 4. Lacerda, Lídio, mm. 1-10 ...... 39 Example 5. Lacerda, Pequena Suíte, “Sanfoneiro em Re,” mm. 29-40...... 39 Example 6. Guarnieri, Ponteio e Dança, mm. 39-48 ...... 40 Example 7. Lacerda, Three Miniatures for Percussion, “Embolada,” mm. 5-12...... 41 Example 8. Lacerda, Pequena Suíte, “Sanfoneiro em Ré,” mm. 17-33 ...... 42 Example 9. Lacerda, Pequena Suíte, “No Balanço,” mm. 15-24 ...... 43 Example 10. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, First Movement, mm. 1-8 ...... 44 Example 11. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, First Movement, mm. 70-80 ...... 45 Example 12. Lacerda, Cançoneta, mm. 1-7...... 48 Example 13. Lacerda, Piano Study No. 4, mm. 1-2 ...... 48 Example 14. Lacerda, Lídio, mm. 8-12 ...... 49 Example 15. Lacerda, Pequena Suíte, “No Balanço,” mm. 1-14 ...... 50 Example 16. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, First Movement, mm. 62-5 ...... 51 Example 17. Lacerda, Toada, mm. 1-9...... 52 Example 18. Lacerda, Poemeto Erótico, mm. 1-10...... 53 Example 19. Lacerda, Lídio, violin 1, mm. 1-19...... 54 Example 20. Lacerda, Pequena Suíte, “Modinha,” mm. 4-12...... 55 Example 21. Lacerda, Oboe Sonata, First Movement, mm. 44-57...... 56 Example 22. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, First Movement, mm. 1-6 ...... 57 Example 23. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Second Movement, mm. 61-4...... 58 Example 24. Lacerda, Poemeto Erótico, mm. 21-2...... 59 Example 25. Lacerda, Poemeto Erótico, mm. 35-9...... 59 Example 26. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, First Movement, mm. 41-3 ...... 59 Example 27. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, Second Movement, mm. 35-44...... 60 Example 28. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, Second Movement, mm. 49-54...... 61

viii Example 29. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, Third Movement, mm. 51-63...... 62 Example 30. Sambalelê, mm. 1-8...... 64 Example 31. Lacerda, “Sambinha Dodecafônico,” mm. 1-10...... 65 Example 32. Lacerda, O Menino Doente, mm. 18-25 ...... 66 Example 33. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, First Movement, mm. 5-16 ...... 66 Example 34. Lacerda, Pequena Suíte, “Modinha,” mm. 4-15...... 68 Example 35. Lacerda, Pequena Suíte, “Sanfoneiro em Ré,” mm. 5-8 ...... 69 Example 36. Lacerda, Pequena Suíte, “Sanfoneiro em Ré, mm. 35-43 ...... 69 Example 37. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, First Movement, mm. 66...... 70 Example 38. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Second Movement, mm. 27-8...... 70 Example 39. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Second Movement, mm. 41-55...... 71 Example 40. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Second Movement, mm. 56-63...... 72

Example 41. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Second Movement, mm. 99-102...... 72 Example 42. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Third Movement, mm. 52-4...... 73 Example 43. Lacerda, Three Miniatures for Percussion, “Embolada,” mm. 5-16...... 74 Example 44. Lacerda, Toada, mm. 13-20...... 75 Example 45. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, First Movement, mm. 1-8 ...... 76 Example 46. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, First Movement, mm. 99-106 ...... 77 Example 47. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, Third Movement, mm. 1-10...... 78 Example 48. Lacerda, Lídio, mm. 1-7 ...... 79 Example 49. Lacerda, Pequena Suíte, “No Balanço,” mm. 1-7 ...... 80 Example 50. Lacerda, Pequena Suíte, “Sanfoneiro em Ré,” mm. 1-8 ...... 81 Example 51. Lacerda, String Quartet No.2, Second Movement, mm. 41-50 ...... 81 Example 52. Lacerda, Three Miniatures for Percussion, “Embolada,” mm. 17-24...... 82 Example 53. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Second Movement, mm. 1-11...... 83 Example 54. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Second Movement, mm. 76-85...... 84 Example 55. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Third Movement, mm. 28-29...... 85 Example 56. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Third Movement, mm. 74-6...... 85 Example 57. Lacerda, “Sambinha Dodecafônico,” mm. 1-10...... 86 Example 58. Lacerda, String Quartet No.2, First Movement, mm. 1-8 ...... 87 Example 59. Lacerda, Mass for Two Voices, “Credo,” mm. 1-9...... 89

ix Example 60. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, First Movement, mm. 9...... 89 Example 61. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, Second Movement, mm. 46-51...... 90 Example 62. Lacerda, Pequena Suíte, “Sanfoneiro em Ré,” mm. 5-8 ...... 91 Example 63. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Third Movement, mm. 8-11...... 91 Example 64. Lacerda, Segunda Valsa, mm. 4-13...... 92 Example 65. Lacerda, Poemeto Erótico, mm. 7-14...... 93 Example 66. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, First Movement, mm. 13-20 ...... 94 Example 67. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, Second Movement, mm. 23-30...... 95 Example 68. Lacerda, Pequena Suíte, “Modinha,” mm. 1-12...... 95 Example 69. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, First Movement, mm. 96-103 ...... 97 Example 70. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, First Movement, mm. 5-16 ...... 98 Example 71. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, First Movement, mm. 68-78 ...... 98 Example 72. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, Third Movement, mm. 1-10...... 99 Example 73. Lacerda, Pequena Suíte, “Valsinha Sincopada,” mm. 1-17 ...... 101 Example 74. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, Second Movement, mm. 27-31...... 103 Example 75. Lacerda, Pequena Suíte, “Modinha,” mm. 1-4...... 104 Example 76. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, First Movement, mm. 31-2 ...... 105 Example 77. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Third Movement, mm. 12-7...... 106 Example 78. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, First Movement, mm. 12-5 ...... 107 Example 79. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, First Movement, mm. 96-100 ...... 108 Example 80. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Second Movement, mm. 99-105...... 109 Example 81. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Third Movement, mm. 32-5...... 109 Example 82. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Third Movement, mm. 66-7...... 110 Example 83. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Fourth Movement, mm. 175-8 ...... 110 Example 84. Lacerda, Piano Study No. 6, m. 1...... 111 Example 85. Lacerda, Piano Study No. 8, m. 1...... 112 Example 86. Lacerda, “Sambinha Dodecafônico,” mm. 1-10...... 115 Example 87. Lacerda, Sonata for oboe and piano, First Movement, mm. 139-140 ...... 117 Example 88. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, First Movement, mm. 142-4 ...... 117 Example 89. Lacerda, Lídio, mm. 52-6 ...... 118 Example 90. Lacerda, Pequena Suíte, “Valsinha Sincopada,” mm. 1-4 ...... 119

x Example 91. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Second Movement, mm. 12-5...... 119 Example 92. Lacerda, Toada, mm. 80-3...... 120 Example 93. Lacerda, Segunda Valsa, mm. 28-31...... 121 Example 94. Lacerda, Sonata for oboe and piano, Third Movement, m. 135 ...... 121 Example 95. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Third Movement, m. 80 ...... 122 Example 96. Lacerda, Ária, mm. 74-6...... 123 Example 97. Lacerda, Segunda Valsa, mm. 28-31...... 124 Example 98. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Second Movement, mm. 12-4...... 124 Example 99. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, First Movement, mm. 96-9 ...... 126 Example 100. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Second Movement, mm. 36-40...... 126 Example 101. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Second Movement, mm. 103-5...... 127 Example 102. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Fourth Movement, mm. 45-6 ...... 127 Example 103. Lacerda, Ária, mm. 74-6...... 128 Example 104. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, First Movement, mm. 5-6 ...... 129 Example 105. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, First Movement, mm. 21-2 ...... 129 Example 106. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, First Movement, mm. 58-62 ...... 130 Example 107. Lacerda, Lídio, mm. 24-5 ...... 131 Example 108. Lacerda, Lídio, mm. 32-8 ...... 132 Example 109. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, First Movement, mm. 43-6 ...... 133 Example 110. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Second Movement, mm. 99-103...... 133 Example 111. Lacerda, Lídio, mm. 64-8 ...... 135 Example 112. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Third Movement, mm. 1-8...... 136 Example 113. Lacerda, Ária, mm. 70-6...... 137

xi ABSTRACT

Osvaldo Costa de Lacerda (b. 1927) is one of the most important composers of contemporary Brazilian music. His musical output has already reached over three hundred and fifty works in all areas including solo, chamber, orchestral, and vocal music. In addition, in the past sixty years, he has played a central role as a representative of Brazilian musical nationalism, as a music educator, and as an active promoter of national music and musicians. Lacerda also has achieved international stature, having his works published and performed in countries such as the United States, Germany, and England. This treatise discusses Lacerda’s ties to Brazilian nationalism by giving a historical background of the movement and showing the influence of some of its important figures such as Alexandre Levy, Alberto Nepomuceno, Mário de Andrade, Heitor Villa-Lobos, and Camargo Guarnieri on the composer’s ideas and musical style. The study also outlines Lacerda’s pedagogical career as a teacher and author of music theory books, and his membership in music organizations concerned with the spread and support of Brazilian music. This treatise then analyzes selected works by Lacerda – the string quartets, and pieces for cello, oboe, voice, percussion, and solo piano – to identify and demonstrate elements of his compositional style. These elements include melodic, rhythmic, polyphonic, and harmonic patterns present in Brazilian folk and popular music that are derived from European, African, and Amerindian music. Lacerda’s music also shows traits that can be traced back to the styles of Debussy, Guarnieri, and Villa-Lobos.

xii INTRODUCTION

Osvaldo Costa de Lacerda (b. São Paulo, 23 March 1927) is one of the most important composers of contemporary Brazilian music. His musical output has already reached over three hundred and fifty works in all areas including solo, chamber, orchestral, and vocal music.1 He has won many national composition competitions and, in 1972, was elected a life member of the Academia Brasileira de Música, an honor music society founded by Heitor Villa-Lobos (1887-1959). Lacerda also has achieved international stature, having his works published and performed in countries such as the United States, Germany, and England. Yet, with all these accomplishments, very little scholarship has been dedicated to demonstrate Lacerda’s importance in the Brazilian music scene, an importance that goes beyond his activities as a composer. In the past sixty years, Lacerda has played a central role as a representative of Brazilian musical nationalism (one of the most important artistic ideologies in Brazil), as a music educator (teaching composition, music theory, harmony, counterpoint, musical analysis, composition, and orchestration to generations of Brazilian musicians), and as an active promoter of national music and musicians through the various music organizations in which he has participated. Also, not enough is known about his compositional style because very little of his music has been analyzed in print. Only a few authors have commented on Lacerda’s music from an analytical perspective: Vasco Mariz, who commented superficially on some of Lacerda’s songs in his book A Canção Brasileira: Popular e Erudita;2 Cíntia Costa Macedo, who wrote about the composer’s Piano Studies in her master’s thesis;3 Alba da Silva, who wrote a technical and performance analysis on Lacerda’s Variações sobre uma Velha Modinha

1 Cíntia Costa Macedo, “Estudos para Piano de Osvaldo Lacerda” (Master’s thesis, Universidade de Campinas, Brazil, 2000), 172.

2 Vasco Mariz, A Canção Brasileira: Popular e Erudita, 5th ed. (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Nova Fronteira, 1985).

3 Macedo.

1 for clarinet and string orchestra;4 and Patricia Montgomery, who briefly described Lacerda’s five Piano Suites in her dissertation.5 The purpose of this study is to establish Osvaldo Lacerda’s relevance to Brazilian musical life and to identify some of the elements that make up his compositional style. It will demonstrate Lacerda’s ties to Brazilian nationalism by giving a historical background of the movement and showing the influence of some of its important figures such as Alexandre Levy, Alberto Nepomuceno, Mário de Andrade, Heitor Villa-Lobos, and Camargo Guarnieri on the composer’s ideas and musical style. The study will also outline his pedagogical career as a teacher and author of music theory books, and his membership in music organizations concerned with the spread and support of national music. Finally, in order to identify and demonstrate elements of Lacerda’s compositional style, this treatise will also analyze some of the composer’s works such as the four string quartets – String Quartet No. 1 (1952), Lídio (1979), Pequena Suíte (1994), and String Quartet No. 2 (1995) – two pieces for cello and piano – Cançoneta (1989) and Ária (revised in 2005) – three pieces for oboe and piano – Segunda Valsa (1974), Toada (1974), and Sonata (1986) – three songs – Poemeto Erótico (1951), O Menino Doente (1949), and Mozart no Céu (1991) – Três Miniaturas Brasileiras (1974) for percussion, and some of the Piano Studies (1960-76). These elements include melodic, rhythmic, polyphonic, and harmonic patterns present in Brazilian folk and popular music that are derived from European, African, and Amerindian music. Lacerda’s music also shows traits that can be traced back to the styles of Debussy, Guarnieri, and Villa-Lobos. With the exception of the Piano Studies, the music analyzed in this treatise consists of chamber works. The author made this choice because chamber music is one of the mediums in which Lacerda best expresses himself. According to Vasco Mariz, Lacerda has a “confessed propensity for chamber music.”6 Mariz also quotes Brazilian

4 Alba Valéria Vieira da Silva, “Estudo Técnico-Instrumental e Interpretativo das Variações sobre uma Velha Modinha de Osvaldo Lacerda” (Master’s thesis, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Brazil, 1999).

5 Patricia Montgomery, “The Latin American Piano Suite in the Twentieth Century” (D.M.A. diss., Indiana University, 1978), 95-99.

6 Mariz, História da Música no Brasil, 4th ed. (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Civilização Brasileira, 1994), 313.

2 composer Sérgio Vasconcellos Corrêa, who considers Lacerda to be “one of the best chamber music composers of Brazil.”7 In addition, these pieces are very good representatives of the composer’s creative career, as they were written or revised over a fifty-six-year span (1949-2005). Among these pieces, the reader will notice the preponderance of the string quartets in the music examples. As a cellist himself for over twenty years, the music that involves this instrument has a special personal appeal to the author. All translations from Portuguese in this treatise are the author’s.

7 Ibid.

3 CHAPTER I

OSVALDO LACERDA’S BIOGRAPHY

Musical Formation

Osvaldo Costa de Lacerda was born in the city of São Paulo, capital of São Paulo state, Brazil, on March 3, 1927. At the age of nine years old, he started his piano studies with Ana Veloso de Resende. His three sisters, his mother, Júlia, and his grandmother also played the piano.8 Afterwards, Lacerda continued his piano studies with Maria dos Anjos Oliveira Rocha and José Kliass.9 He studied harmony and counterpoint with Ernesto Kierski from 1945 to 1947.10 In this period, perhaps influenced by his mother who was an accomplished singer, he also had singing lessons with Russian teacher Olga Urbany Ivanov.11 Lacerda was basically a self-taught composer until 1952, when he met his first teacher, Camargo Guarnieri (1907-97). According to Lacerda himself, he had been composing since he was a little boy and never thought that a composer needed a guidance of “an experienced teacher.”12 In 1952 this belief changed when the São Paulo Municipal String Quartet (Quarteto de Cordas Municipal de São Paulo), known at the time as Haydn

8 Macedo, 108.

9 Enciclopédia da Música Brasileira: Erudita, Folclórica e Popular (São Paulo, Brazil: Art Editora Limitada, 1977), 402.

10 Ibid.

11 Macedo, 108, 110.

12 Osvaldo Lacerda, “Meu Professor Camargo Guarnieri,” in O Tempo e a Música. Editor: Flávio Silva (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Funarte, 2001), 57.

4 String Quartet, commissioned a work from him.13 This was his first major work and cost him a tremendous amount of effort. He wrote about the experience: “The results were satisfactory, but the strenuous composition process of the quartet caused me to realize my [technical] limitations.”14 He decided to ask nationalist composer Camargo Guarnieri for lessons, not only for his known pedagogical skills, but also because Lacerda felt a “tremendous affinity to his music, which reflects, so beautifully and deeply, the soul of our people.”15 Recognizing great talent in Lacerda, Guarnieri decided not to charge for the lessons. In exchange, he demanded that Lacerda put serious effort in his studies.16 His composition studies with Guarnieri lasted ten years, from 1952 to 1962. According to Lacerda, Guarnieri not only shaped his artistic personality, but also helped to launch his career as a composer.17 In November of 1953, in São Paulo, Camargo Guarnieri presented a recital with the works of Lacerda and other of his composition students. The recital was well publicized and received very positive attention from the public and the critics.18 In the next years, together with his composition studies, Lacerda entered the Largo São Francisco College of Law of the University of São Paulo, receiving his law degree in 1961.19 In 1963, Lacerda studied composition in the United States with Vittorio Giannini (New York) and Aaron Copland (Tanglewood) with the help of the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Fellowship.20 Upon his return to Brazil, Lacerda had viola lessons for a short period with Yohannes Oelsner, but did not continue his studies,

13 Ibid.

14 Ibid.

15 Ibid., 60.

16 Ibid., 61.

17 Lacerda, autobiographical sketch emailed to the author by the composer (30 April 2005), 1.

18 Marion Verhaalen, Camargo Guarnieri, Brazilian Composer: A Study of his Creative Life and Works (Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 2005), 27.

19 Lacerda, autobiographical sketch, 3.

20 David P. Appleby, The Music of Brazil (Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press, 1983), 170.

5 having neither time nor interest in mastering another instrument.21 At the end of the 1970s and beginning of the 1980s, the composer polished his orchestration skills with conductor Roberto Schnorenberg.22

Professional Career

The String Quartet No. 1 was one of the first compositions of his professional career. It was commissioned in 1952 by the São Paulo Municipal String Quartet. According to Lacerda, it was his first major composition.23 The recital of some of his works in 1953 together with other of Guarnieri’s students (Arlete Marcondes Machado, Ascendino Teodoro Nogueira, George Olivier Toni, and Sílvio Luciano de Campos) was a very important landmark in the beginning of his career.24 The second recital of Guarnieri’s students in 1962 helped to consolidate Lacerda’s growing reputation. This time his works were presented side by side with names well known in the current musical scene of the country such as José Antônio de Almeida Prado, Lina Pires de Campos, Marisa Tupinambá, Nilson Lombardi, Pérsio Moreira da Rocha, and Sérgio Vasconcellos Corrêa.25 Nowadays, Osvaldo Lacerda is one of the best known and respected Brazilian composers nationally and internationally. His publishers in Brazil include Artur Napoleão, Cultura Musical, Irmãos Vitale, Mangione e Filhos, Musicália, Novas Metas, Ricordi Brasileira, and Secretaria da Cultura, Ciência e Tecnologia (São Paulo); Musi Med and University of Brasília (Brasília); Funarte and Coomusa (Rio de Janeiro); and Vozes (Petrópolis). Lacerda’s publishers abroad include Gotthard Döring, Hans Gerig,

21 Macedo, 112.

22 Lacerda, autobiographical sketch, 1.

23 Lacerda, “Meu Professor,” 57.

24 Verhaalen, Camargo Guarnieri, 27.

25 Ibid., 28.

6 Moeck, Schott’s Söhne, Tonos and Zimmermann (Germany); Frangipani Press, Paul Price, Tempo Primo, and Panamerican Union (U.S.A.); and Saga (England).26 In addition to his composition activities, Lacerda has intensively contributed to the formation of generations of Brazilian musicians by teaching music theory, harmony, counterpoint, musical analysis, composition, and orchestration. For many years he was an assistant to the famous composer and composition teacher Camargo Guarnieri. Guarnieri’s prospective composition students had to undergo intensive harmony and counterpoint training with Lacerda prior to entering his class.27 In addition, for 23 years from 1969 to 1992, Lacerda taught at the Escola Municipal de Música de São Paulo,28 a state-funded institution that offers free instruction in orchestral instruments and music theory.29 His teaching activities also included the Santa Marcelina College, Course of Teacher Education of the São Paulo State Music Commission (1960-62 and 1969-70), First Sergipe Music Conference (1967), Second Ouro Preto Winter Festival (1968), International Music Course of Paraná (1966-70, 1975, and 1977), and other music festivals in several Brazilian cities such as Campinas, Ribeirão Preto, Franca, Pindamonhangaba, Presidente Prudente, Poços de Caldas, Londrina, and Natal.30 Another important pedagogical contribution of Lacerda is the publication of books in music training that are largely adopted in music schools in Brazil and Portugal. They include Compêndio de Teoria Elementar da Música, Exercícios de Teoria Elementar da Música, Curso Preparatório de Solfejo e Ditado Musical, and Regras de Grafia Musical.31

26 Lacerda, autobiographical sketch, 1-2.

27 José Maria Neves, Música Contemporânea Brasileira (São Paulo, Brazil: Ricordi Brasileira, 1981), 143.

28 Fundação Biblioteca Nacional do Ministério da Cultura do Brasil, “Osvaldo Lacerda,” http://www.bn.br/fbn/musica/oswaldolacerda/index.html (accessed July 10, 2005).

29 There, the author started learning the cello, his main instrument, in 1984, and attended Lacerda’s harmony, counterpoint, and musical analyses classes from 1984 to 1986.

30 Lacerda, autobiographical sketch, 3.

31 Ibid.

7 Prizes, Awards, and Recognitions

Over the years, Lacerda has won many prizes, awards, and recognitions, nationally and internationally. In 1962, he won the first prize in the National Composition Competition City of São Paulo (Concurso Nacional de Composição Cidade de São Paulo) with his Suíte Piratininga for orchestra. In the same year, with the same work, he placed first in the M.E.C. Radio Composition Competition of Symphonic Works (Concurso de Composição de Obras Sinfônicas da Rádio M.E.C.).32 Also in 1962, the composer was awarded the prize Best Revelation as a Composer (Melhor Revelação como Compositor) by the Rio de Janeiro Critics Association (Associação de Críticos do Rio de Janeiro).33 Lacerda was one of the Brazilian representatives in the Inter-American Composers Seminar held at Indiana University, and in the Third Inter-American Music Festival in Washington, D.C. in 1965.34 Two years later, he won the first prize in the Composition and Arrangement for Mixed Choir in Four Voices Competition (Concurso de Composição e Arranjos para Coro Misto a Quatro Vozes), promoted by the Federal University of Paraíba, with his work Poema da Necessidade for a Carlos Drummond de Andrade’s poem.35 The next year, Lacerda received the trophy “1968 Art Music Composer” from the Ordem dos Músicos do Brasil.36 In 1970, the Associação Paulista de Críticos Teatrais awarded the prize “Best Chamber Music Work of the Year” to Lacerda’s Piano Trio.37 After two years, he was elected a member of the Academia Brasileira de Música, a music honor society founded by Villa-Lobos on July 14, 1945.

32 Enciclopédia, 402.

33 Lacerda, autobiographical sketch, 2.

34 Gerard Béhague, “Lacerda, Osvado (Costa de),” The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, http://www.grovemusic.com (accessed September 22, 2005).

35 Enciclopédia, 402.

36 Lacerda, autobiographical sketch, 2.

37 Enciclopédia, 402.

8 Lacerda took up the chair number nine that belonged to Brasílio Itiberê da Cunha (1896- 1967), nephew of another composer of the same name, later mentioned in chapter 2.38 Lacerda’s Appassionato, Cantilena e Tocata for viola and piano received the prize “Best Chamber Music Work of 1975” by the Associação Paulista de Críticos de Arte (APCA).39 In 1981, APCA awarded the same prize for his Concerto for Piccolo and String Orchestra.40 In 1984, he won the first prize in the First National Competition of Compositions for Wind Instruments – French Horn and Bassoon (Primeiro Concurso Nacional de Composição para Instrumentos de Sopro – Trompa e Fagote), promoted by the Sindicato dos Músicos Profissionais do Município do Rio de Janeiro (Musicians Union of Rio de Janeiro City), for his work Três Melodias for bassoon and piano.41 APCA again awarded him the prize of “Best Chamber Music Work” for his Sonata for oboe and piano in 1986 and with the prize of “Best Symphonic Work” for his Cromos for piano and orchestra in 1994.42 In 1996, Lacerda was one of only about twenty composers selected to participate in Sonidos de las Americas, a festival in New York sponsored by the American Composers Orchestra.43 The year of 1997 was particularly rewarding for Lacerda as far as professional recognition is concerned. He received the “Grande Prêmio da Crítica” (Grand Prize of the Critic) from APCA. In July, he was the first Brazilian composer ever to be invited to participate in the Bar-Harbor Festival in Maine, U.S.A., where several of his compositions were performed with great success.44 Later, on November 4, he earned the Guarani trophy, sponsored by the Secretaria da Cultura do Estado de São Paulo, as the “Musical Personality of the Year.”45

38 Ibid., 831.

39 Lacerda, autobiographical sketch, 2.

40 Ibid., 2.

41 Ibid.

42 Ibid.

43 Ibid., 1.

44 Ibid., 4.

45 Ibid.

9 In January of 1999, Lacerda was invited as a composer of the Latin-American Music Festival sponsored by the Bard College at Annadale-on-Hudson, New York. The Manhattan Chamber Orchestra then performed his works under the direction of Richard Auldon Clark as part of the Trinity Church Concert Series, in New York City. 46 More recently, on March 29, 2004, the composer received the APCA prize “Best CD of 2003” for his CD Lembranças de Amor.47 In addition, over the years Lacerda received the following distinctions: Second Prize of the Ministério da Educação for his song Mandaste a Sombra de um Beijo;48 the medals Marechal Cândido Mariano da Silva Rondon and Brigadeiro José Vieira Couto de Magalhães, both sponsored by the Sociedade Geográfica Brasileira;49 and the title of Comendador da Ordem dos Cavaleiros da Concordia, given by the government of Spain.50

46 Ibid.

47 Ibid.

48 Vasco Mariz, Figuras da Música Brasileira Contemporânea, 2nd ed. (Brasília, Brazil: Universidade de Brasília, 1970), 91.

49 Lacerda, autobiographical sketch, 2.

50 Ibid., 3.

10 CHAPTER II

MUSICAL NATIONALISM IN BRAZIL

Osvaldo Lacerda’s importance to the Brazilian music scene is three-fold. As a composer he has given continuity to the nationalist music tradition (nationalism helped to define Brazil’s cultural individuality after the country’s independence from Portugal in the nineteenth century). As a teacher he has dedicated his life to the formation of generations of Brazilian musicians who are locally, nationally, and internationally active in the contemporary music panorama. Through his active membership in several music organizations over the years, he has promoted Brazilian music and musicians. His importance as a composer resides on the fact that he is a representative of Brazilian nationalism, one of the most important artistic movements in Brazil. This movement, according to Simon Wright, created a national identity to the Brazilian people who only recently (in the nineteenth century) had become independent from Portugal’s political and cultural dominance.51 Lacerda advocates nationalism through his compositions and his ideas. His music is rich in elements of Brazilian folk and popular music. He is also outspoken about his belief that composers need to write national music in order to stay in touch with their audiences and faithful to their cultural origins.

Folk and Popular Music

In order to understand Lacerda’s ties to nationalism and how some important figures influenced Lacerda’s ideas and musical style, it is important to take a historic perspective from the beginning of the movement in the nineteenth century. Brazil’s process of independence started with the Proclamation of Independence on September 7,

51 Simon Wright, Villa-Lobos (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 1-2.

11 1822, and ended with the Proclamation of the Republic on November 15, 1889, when the final tie to Portugal, namely the Brazilian monarchy lead by Don Pedro II, grandson of Portugal’s king Don João VI, was dissolved. A surge of nationalism then prompted artists and intellectuals to start organizing an aesthetic that would represent the Brazilian identity as an independent and sovereign nation. Gradually, it became clear that composers could achieve an authentic Brazilian sound by adopting elements from folk and popular music. These elements were basically influenced by the three cultures that merged for the creation of the country: European, African, and Amerindian. As Geritt de Jong notes, “These three racial strains also form the foundation upon which Brazilian folk music is built and developed.”52 Appleby points out that the early and frequent interracial marriages among these groups forced the amalgamation of the different cultures into what is today perceived as Brazilian culture.53 These three groups did not, however, contribute evenly. Mário de Andrade, an important researcher of Brazilian music, affirms that “The Amerindian [contributed] in small percentage; the African in a much larger percentage; and the Portuguese in great percentage.”54

European Contribution

José Maria Neves believes that Portugal influenced Brazilian music the most for being in the position of political dominance during the colonization of the country.55 For Andrade, “The entity of Brazilian popular music had direct bases in the Portuguese song and dance.”56 He also recognizes the Spanish influence, especially from Hispano- American Cuba and Montevideo through the introduction of habanera and tango to

52 Geritt de Jong, “Music in Brazil,” Inter-American Music Bulletin 31 (September 1962): 2.

53 Appleby, “A Study of Selected Compositions by Contemporary Brazilian Composers” (Ph.D. diss., Indiana University, 1956), 182.

54 Mário de Andrade, Ensaio Sobre a Música Brasileira (São Paulo, Brazil: Martins, 1962), 25.

55 José Maria Neves, Música Contemporânea Brasileira (São Paulo, Brazil: Ricordi Brasileira, 1981), 14.

56 Andrade, Música, Doce Música (São Paulo, Brazil: L. G. Miranda, 1933), 93.

12 Brazilian music.57 (The habanera-derived type of syncopation has an important role in Osvaldo Lacerda’s music style and is later discussed in more detail.) Andrade also mentions the musical influence from other parts of Europe with such dances as valse, polka, mazurka, and scottish.58 The most obvious European influence in Brazilian folk and popular music is tonality. Andrade affirms that, “In the vast majority of the musical documents of our people, European harmonic tonality persists.”59

African Contribution

African culture was introduced to Brazil through slavery. The large number of slaves brought from Africa strongly affected the music of the country. After Brazil’s discovery in 1500, the increasing demand for labor for mining and farming in Brazil prompted a large importation of African slaves.60 Luís Heitor Corrêa de Azevedo claims that, among the ten million slaves sold in the Americas between the sixteenth and the nineteenth centuries, “Brazil was by far the greatest purchaser.”61 Alan P. Merriam established that between the years of 1600 and 1700, forty thousand African slaves were imported into Brazil each year.62 This number increased to fifty thousand per year between 1700 and 1800 and reached the staggering amount of eighty thousand annually between 1831 and 1840.63 It is not surprising that Renato Almeida feels that “in everything that one characterizes as Brazilian music, one finds, clearly and strongly, the

57 Andrade, Ensáio, 25.

58 Ibid., 25.

59 Ibid., 51.

60 Alan P. Merriam, “Songs of the Afro-Bahian Cults: An Ethnomusicological Analysis” (Ph.D. diss., Northwestern University, 1951), 10-11.

61 Luís Heitor Corrêa de Azevedo, “Music and Musicians of African Origin in Brazil,” The World of Music 24/2 (1982): 53.

62 Merriam, 23.

63 Ibid., 24.

13 black influence.”64 According to Appleby, in the second half of the nineteenth century “European dances, such as the waltz, polka, mazurka, and the scottish, and importations such as the habanera and tango began to lose their original characteristics and to assimilate new Afro-Brazilian elements.”65

Amerindian Contribution

Neves believes that the Brazilian Amerindian culture at the time of the discovery was very fragile and largely assimilated European characteristics after the contact with the Portuguese, making it difficult to trace their original influence.66 Andrade speculates that perhaps the nasal quality of some popular chants and the “discursive rhythm of others are Amerindian contributions.”67 Appleby cites melodies with narrow pitch range as a characteristic of Amerindian music. He mentions the recordings that Roquette Pinto made in 1900 of music of several Brazilian Amerindian tribes. The music Pinto collected from the tribes that were more isolated deep in the jungle (and, therefore, had less contact with European music) had melodies composed of only four or five notes.68 Lacerda himself is conscious of how diluted the Amerindian influence in Brazilian culture is. He states, “The man of the Brazilian nation today is [culturally] closer to the Japanese and the Hungarian than to the Amerindian.”69 However, the three-note melody of the beginning of his String Quartet No. 1 suggests that the Amerindian narrow-range melody is perhaps part of the Brazilian vocabulary after all (Example 1). In this example, one notices that the second violin melody has only three notes, C, D, and E. The letters “pp”

64 Renato Almeida, História da Música Brasileira, 2nd ed. (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Briguiet, 1942), 9.

65 Appleby, Music of Brazil, 42.

66 Neves, 13.

67 Almeida, 8.

68 Appleby, “Study,” 184.

69 Lacerda, “Nationalism in Brazilian Music,” in Music in Brazil: Now (Brasília, Brazil: Ministério das Relações Exteriores do Brasil, 1974), 15-16.

14 above the second violin line in the first measure mean “principal part” (parte principal in Portuguese) and not “pianissimo,” indicating that this instrument has the melody.

Example 1. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, First Movement, mm. 1-6

15 Nationalist Art-Music

Several pivotal figures were important in the history of nationalism in Brazilian music and some of them had direct impact on Lacerda’s nationalist ideas and musical style.

Sigismund von Neukomm

Although the more methodical use of folk and popular music elements in Brazilian art-music started at the end of the nineteenth century, the first known piece of music to employ a folk melody was Amor Brasileiro, a capriccio for piano on a Brazilian lundú by Austrian composer Sigismund von Neukomm, who composed it on May 3, 1819. Neukomm was the music teacher of Don Pedro I, the first Brazilian emperor after the Proclamation of Independence.70 After this, the first traces of an emerging nationalist consciousness appeared in the works of Antônio Carlos Gomes (1836-1896) and Brasílio Itiberê da Cunha (1848-1913).

Carlos Gomes

Carlos Gomes was the most successful Brazilian opera composer of the nineteenth century. Almeida believes that the work of Gomes represents the first real step towards an authentic Brazilian music.71 Although his music style was very similar to the great Italian composers of the time and did not display explicit musical elements from Brazilian folk or popular music, some of his operas dealt with national social and political issues. As examples of Gomes’s national engagement, Azevedo cites the operas Il Guarany, based on José de Alencar’s novel about a Brazilian Indian, and Lo Schiavo

70 Appleby, Music of Brazil, 61.

71 Almeida, 423.

16 (The Slave).72 Another nationalist element in his work was the Portuguese text of his first opera, A Noite do Castelo (1861).73 Brasílio Itiberê da Cunha

Gerard Béhague affirms that amateur pianist Brasílio Itiberê da Cunha was the first Brazilian composer to use sporadic elements of popular music in his work. In his piano piece, A Sertaneja (composed in 1860 and published in 1869), da Cunha quoted the fandango from southern Brazil “Balaio, Meu Bem Balaio,” and tried to recreate the character of urban popular music.74 But the first Brazilian composers that are commonly regarded as nationalists were Alexandre Levy (1864-1892) and Alberto Nepomuceno (1864-1920) because, according to Lacerda, “[They were] the first composers who consciously and deliberately sought to endow their music with national characteristics.”75

Alexandre Levy

Alexandre Levy was “the first Brazilian art-music composer to take a definite interest in folk and popular music, and to use popular themes systematically in his most important works.”76 Levy was born in São Paulo in 1864. His father emigrated from France and founded the music store Casa Levy. Levy studied piano first with his brother, and then with Russian pianist Luis Maurice and French pianist Gabriel Giraudon.77 In May 1887, he traveled to Europe and studied in Paris with Debussy’s teacher, Emile

72 Azevedo, A Música Brasileira e Seus Fundamentos (Washington, D.C.: Pan American Union, 1948), 18.

73 Ibid.

74 Gerard Béhague, Music in Latin America: An Introduction (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1979), 117.

75 Lacerda, “Nationalism,” 12.

76 Béhague, “Popular Musical Currents in the Art Music of the Early Nationalistic Period in Brazil, Circa 1870-1920” (Ph.D. diss., Tulane University, 1966), 179.

77 Appleby, Music of Brazil, 84.

17 Durand.78 Upon his return to Brazil in November of the same year, he found the country in the midst of political unrest around the issues of the abolitionism and proclamation of the republic. According to Appleby, “the political climate [was] ripe for the expression of nationalist ideals in all the arts.”79 This situation clearly affected Levy’s mindset. In 1890 he wrote his Tango Brasileiro for piano, which is historically considered “the first known characteristic nationalist work written by a professional musician.80 It contains some

elements taken from urban popular music of the time, such as the rhythms ,

, and , which are variations of the basic habanera rhythm .81 One also notices in these examples the Afro-Brazilian syncopation known as

“Brasileirinho” syncopation . As later discussed in more detail, both rhythms – variations on the habanera and Brasileirinho syncopation – are important elements of Lacerda’s nationalist style. In the same year, Levy composed Suite Bresilienne for orchestra in four movements: Prelúdio, Dansa Rústica – Canção Triste, A Beira do Regato, and Samba. Prelúdio is based on the popular melody “Vem Cá Bitu,” and Samba uses the traditional tunes “Balaio, Meu Bem, Balaio” (already used by Brasílio Itiberê da Cunha in Sertaneja) and “Se Eu Te Amei,” popular in São Paulo.82

Alberto Nepomuceno

Azevedo states in his book A Música Brasileira e Seus Fundamentos, “One finds in Nepomuceno’s [music] a very Brazilian delicate sensibility.… It is a certain phrase gracefulness, at times passionate, other times playful, somewhat sensual, that

78 Ibid.

79 Ibid., 85.

80 Ibid.

81 Ibid.

82 Béhague, Music in Latin America, 118-9.

18 corresponds…to the imagination of our people.”83 Azevedo believes that Nepomuceno was the most influential composer in Brazil at the beginning of the twentieth century.84 Due to Alexandre Levy’s short life, Nepomuceno is considered the father of Brazilian musical nationalism and his work inspired the next generations of composers. His contributions include research in Brazilian folk and popular music, conscious incorporation of Brazilian elements in his compositions, large production of songs in the vernacular, promotion of national composers, and introduction of modern musical techniques to the Brazilian musicians and audiences. Nepomuceno was born in Fortaleza in 1864, where he started his piano studies with his father.85 After moving to Rio de Janeiro to further his music studies, he embarked to Europe in 1880. There, he studied organ and composition at the Santa Cecilia Academy in Rome, later at the Akademische Meister Schule and the Stern’schen Konservatorium (Berlin), and finally at the Paris Conservatory.86 According to Béhague, Nepomuceno’s discovery of the European nationalist schools and, especially, his friendship with Edvard Grieg while in Europe, convinced him to create national music for his own country.87 He returned to Brazil in 1895.88 Throughout his life, Nepomuceno collected and studied Brazilian folk and popular music. By doing so, he noticed some important recurring elements in Brazilian music, such as the lowered seventh scale degree (Mixolydian mode) and melodies ending in other scale degrees – mainly the third, fifth, or second – rather than the tonic.89 These elements are present in Lacerda’s music, as will be discussed later.

83 Azevedo, Música Brasileira, 25.

84 Ibid.

85 Nicolas Slonimsky, Music of Latin America (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1949), 137.

86 Béhague, Music in Latin America,120.

87 Béhague, “Popular Musical Currents,” 220.

88 Slonimsky, 137.

89 Béhague, “Popular Musical Currents,” 222-3, 259.

19 Nepomuceno incorporated in his music several aspects of Brazilian folk and popular music, from folk tunes to harmonic traits of the urban tango and rhythmic motives of African origin. The first movement of his Série Brasileira (1897), “Alvorada na Serra,” used the folk lullaby “Sapo-Jururú.”90 His piano piece Brasileira (1919) employs triads in parallel progressions as found in many of popular music composer Ernesto Nazareth’s tangos.91 Also, as Neves points out, Nepomuceno exploits the Afro- Brazilian rhythms so characteristic of many Brazilian popular music styles.92 One example is the first movement of his string quartet Brasileiro (1891), which displays the

rhythm motive , common in urban popular forms according to Béhague.93 Another example is the third movement of his Série Brasileira, “Batuque,” which makes use of African rhythmic elements and syncopations that, as observed by Béhague, will be extensively exploited by the twentieth-century composers.94 Nepomuceno strongly believed that composing songs in the vernacular was crucial in the process of creating a national music. He launched a campaign with the saying, “The people who do not sing in their own language do not have a fatherland (Não tem pátria o povo que não canta na sua língua).”95 Neves claims that Nepomuceno is the first Brazilian composer who systematically composed songs in Portuguese, with a significant production of over fifty such works. 96 Geritt de Jong believes that Nepomuceno strongly influenced the next generations of composers to write music to Portuguese texts.97 This influence is very clear in Lacerda’s vocal output. According to Lacerda’s catalog of works compiled by Macedo, since 1949 he has already composed, in

90 Béhague, Music in Latin America, 121-2.

91 Béhague, “Popular Musical Currents,” 259.

92 Neves, 22.

93 Béhague, “Popular Musical Currents,” 225.

94 Béhague, Music in Latin America, 121-2.

95 Béhague, “Popular Musical Currents,” 262.

96 Neves, 21.

97 Jong, 10.

20 the Portuguese language, ninety-six songs for voice and piano and twelve for voice accompanied by a variety of instruments, in addition to fifty-three works for choir, both accompanied and a capella.98 Béhague affirms that Nepomuceno was instrumental for Brazilian nationalism not only through his own works, “but also by stimulating the creation of genuine national music.”99 As director of the Popular Concerts Association from 1896 to 1906, he promoted the performance of popular composers such as Catulo da Paixão Cearense.100 In 1919 he presented the Cello Concerto No. 1 by then young composer Heitor Villa- Lobos, and also recommended him to the publisher Sampaio Araujo.101 Nicolas Slonimsky reports that in 1910, Nepomuceno conducted concerts of Brazilian music in Brussels, Geneva, and Paris, in an effort to make the country’s music known abroad.102 Following Nepomuceno’s example, as later discussed, Lacerda also has had an important role in the support and promotion of Brazilian music and musicians through his work in several music organizations. Finally, Nepomuceno’s importance to Brazilian music rests on his efforts to introduce modern music into the national scene. Twentieth-century Brazilian composers, including Lacerda, developed their styles by combining Brazilian elements and contemporary European techniques. As director of the National Institute of Music from 1902 to 1903, and again from 1906 to 1916, he partially translated Schoenberg’s Theory of Harmony to be included in the school’s curriculum.103 Also, he was one of the first to conduct works of such composers as Glazunov, Mussorgsky, Ravel, and Debussy in Brazil.104

98 Macedo, 121-141.

99 Béhague, “Popular Musical Currents,” 219.

100 Béhague, Music in Latin America, 120.

101 Béhague, “Popular Musical Currents,” 220-1.

102 Slonimsky, 138.

103 Béhague, “Popular Musical Currents,” 220.

104 Ibid.

21 Luciano Gallet

Another important figure in the establishment of nationalism in Brazil was composer Luciano Gallet (1893-1931), whose main importance resides on his research of folk music that served as basis for the nationalist composers, including Osvaldo Lacerda. His books Canções Populares Brasileiras (1924) and Estudos de Folclore (1934, posthumous publication) contain his harmonizations of folk themes that, according to Lacerda, “are among the best in Brazil.”105

Mário de Andrade

Mário de Andrade (1893-1945) was a pivotal figure in Brazilian nationalism. Lacerda states, “The affirmation of musical nationalism in Brazil is…indebted to the writer and music scholar Mário de Andrade.”106 As Neves says, Andrade was the movement’s “intellectual mentor.”107 Andrade taught music history and aesthetics at the São Paulo Conservatory of Drama and Music.108 In his writings and teachings, he synthesized the philosophy of nationalism and established aesthetic guidelines for the composition of works of national character.109 Andrade influenced all the following generations of Brazilian composers, including Lacerda. The composer asserts that “Andrade’s Ensaio Sobre a Música Brasileira (Essay on Brazilian Music) has been like a Bible” to him.110 Also, Camargo Guarnieri, Lacerda’s teacher for ten years, consciously developed his compositional style based on Andrade’s ideas.

105 Lacerda, “Nationalism,” 14.

106 Ibid.

107 Neves, 39.

108 Verhaalen, Brazilian Composer, 1.

109 Ibid.

110 Lacerda, “Constâncias Harmônicas e Polifônicas da Música Popular Brasileira e seu Aproveitamento na Música Sacra,” in Música Brasileira na Liturgia (Petrópolis, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Editora Vozes Limitada, 1969), 66.

22 Nationalist Philosophy Andrade was fully engaged in the process of creating a national culture at the beginning of the twentieth century. He passionately believed that Brazilian artists had a social obligation to actively produce art with a national character.111 He wrote, “The current period in Brazil, especially in the arts, is of nationalization.…Every Brazilian artist, who at this time makes Brazilian art, is an efficient being and has human value. Whoever makes international or foreign art is useless, null, and a great idiot.”112 For Andrade, national music meant music with elements of popular music. According to him, “Brazilian popular music is the most complete, most national, [and] strongest creation of our race, ever.”113 Thus, Brazilian composers had to look for the characteristics of “race” in popular music, because in popular music one can find the elements of the three cultures that originated Brazilian culture: Amerindian, African, and Portuguese (European).114 Andrade also believed that most people just knew a small part of the popular music of the country; therefore, research to uncover the wealth of Brazilian music heritage was also a duty of the Brazilian composer.115 Sarah Malia Hamilton explains that Andrade wanted composers to give an erudite transposition to the elements found in popular music without directly quoting folk tunes.116 This idea distinguished him from the nationalists of the first generation, such as Levy and Nepomuceno, who did include traditional tunes in their music, as seen earlier. Composers should, rather, recognize musical patterns, or “constants,” that give Brazilian folk and popular music its individual national character, and apply them in their work. These constants should be melodic, rhythmic, polyphonic, or harmonic.117 The use of

111 Andrade, Ensaio, 19.

112 Ibid., 18-9.

113 Ibid., 24.

114 Ibid., 29.

115 Ibid., 20.

116 Sarah Malia Hamilton, “Uma Canção Interessada: M. Camargo Guarnieri, Mário de Andrade and the Politics of Musical Modernism in Brazil, 1900-1950” (Ph.D. diss., University of Kansas, 2003), 97- 8. 117 According to Lacerda in interview with the author on 10 July 2006, Andrade was the first to use the term constant (constância in Portuguese) to define these music patterns.

23 Brazilian music constants is an essential part of Lacerda’s musical style, as later discussed in more detail. Andrade believed that unlike rhythm, melody, or polyphony, harmony in Brazilian popular music followed the European tonal system common to the music of many countries and, therefore, it did not have a national identity (with the exception of the modulation to subdominant minor in some pieces in minor key, which is a very common process in Brazilian popular music). 118 As far as harmony is concerned, Andrade left the door open for exploration. Modern and avant-garde techniques, Hamilton affirms, were acceptable as long as the music displayed elements of the Brazilian folk and popular tradition.119 Following this prescription, Lacerda’s music has employed traditional tonal harmony, impressionistic harmony, free atonalism, and twelve-tone serialism.

Week of Modern Art Another important contribution of Andrade to Brazilian nationalism was his help in organizing the Week of Modern Art in São Paulo in 1922. This event presented the work of artists in all areas (including music) who were engaged in the cultural nationalization of that time. It was very successful in publicizing the new aesthetic. According to Appleby, after the event “a gradual acceleration took place in the number of works expressing national elements.”120

Heitor Villa-Lobos

Heitor Villa-Lobos (1887-1959) was the most famous Brazilian nationalist composer. According to Lacerda, Villa-Lobos’ main contributions were bringing Brazilian music to an international audience and “[convincing] Brazilians of the possibility of cutting, once and for all, the umbilical cord that had always kept them

118 Andrade, Ensaio, 49.

119 Hamilton, 105-6.

120 Appleby, Music of Brazil, 116.

24 dependent on European music.”121 He consciously worked towards assimilating the elements of Brazilian folk and popular music into his own, inspiring other musicians to do the same.122 Appleby believes that, together with Andrade’s ideas, Villa-Lobos’ music offered the first “challenge to Europeanism in music.”123 Villa-Lobos started his musical studies with his father Raul, by playing the cello.124 Still young, he played guitar with chorões (groups of street musicians) developing the taste for popular music.125 Around 1900, soon after his father had died, Villa-Lobos traveled around Brazil for a few years, studying the musical styles of the different regions of the country.126 In an interview in 1958, the year before his death, Villa-Lobos said that his music was inspired by nature, “especially that of my country.”127 He believed that his music was very personal and unique.128 Also, he thought that the styles of Nepomuceno, Levy, Cunha, and others were not true nationalism for following traditional European models too closely.129 Despite the composer’s criticism of the first generation of nationalists, Béhague sees in early Villa-Lobos a strong European influence, especially from Debussy’s Impressionism and Stravinsky’s rhythmic energy.130 On the other hand, Jong recognizes that Villa-Lobos “exercised his talents in the uncovering of the various component

121 Lacerda, “Nationalism,” 13.

122 Ibid.

123 Appleby, Music of Brazil, 116.

124 Azevedo, Música, 30.

125 Ibid.

126 Ibid., 31.

127 Fernando Lopes-Graça, “Inquérito aos Compositores Brasileiros,” in Coletânia: Obras Literárias – Opúsculos Vol. 2 (Lisbon, Portugal: Caminho, 1984), 198.

128 Ibid., 198-9.

129 Neves, 27.

130 Béhague, Music in Latin America, 185, 243.

25 elements of the Brazilian cultural patterns,” and that his music is profoundly Brazilian in character.131 In addition to inspiring the Brazilian composers to trust their musical heritage, Villa-Lobos’ main influence on Lacerda was his innovative use of added notes, especially in cadences that, according to Lorenzo Fernandez, “were fruit of [Villa-Lobos’] long and patient observation.”132 The analysis of Lacerda’s music later in this dissertation will show instances of added chord dissonances that relate to Villa-Lobos’ contributions such as unresolved appoggiaturas and bitonality.

Mozart Camargo Guarnieri

Mozart Camargo Guarnieri (1907-1993) was born in Tietê, São Paulo. He started his music career by playing piano as a background for silent movies.133 According to Suzel Ana Reily, Guarnieri was mainly responsible for keeping musical nationalism relevant to the end of the twentieth century.134 Lacerda agrees and believes that this relevance is due to the great volume and quality of Guarnieri’s musical production.135 Guarnieri’s style and artistic philosophy came directly from Mário de Andrade’s influence. According to Marion Verhaalen, since 1928, when they met, Andrade’s nationalist ideas greatly influenced Guarnieri’s composing career.136 The strength of Guarnieri’s admiration for Andrade is symbolized by the fact that he named his first son Mário.137 At the first encounter, Guarnieri played his compositions Dança Brasileira and

131 Jong, 11,13.

132 Oscar Lorenzo Fernandez, “A Contribuição Harmônica de Villa-Lobos para a Música Brasileira,” Boletin Latino-Americano de Música 6 (April 1946): 284.

133 Jong, 11.

134 Suzel Ana Reily, “Brazil: Central and Southern Areas,” in The Garland Handbook of Latin American Music, edited by Dale A. Olsen and Daniel E. Sheehy (New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 2000), 256.

135 Lacerda, “Nationalism,” 13-4.

136 Verhaalen, Brazilian Composer, 1.

137 Ibid., 10.

26 Sonatina No. 1. 138Andrade was so impressed with Guarnieri’s talent that he decided to take the young musician under his wings and become his aesthetic mentor.139 Guarnieri’s nationalism comes from his belief that the composer is a result of his place in the world. According to him, “Prior to being an individual, a composer is a social being. He is conditioned by time, ethnic background, and environment.”140 He believes a composer is only relevant if his work reflects these influences, i.e., his national background. For Guarnieri, universal music is the sum of all national music. What one considers to be universal music is first of all national music. In the music of the great universal composers, their national origin is identifiable. A musical work can not become universally appealing if it is not based on national elements. Therefore, the musician’s role of enriching the universal music is to produce, to the best of his ability, national music.141 Hamilton recognizes two styles in Brazilian nationalist music as far as structure is concerned. One, represented by Villa-Lobos, is characterized by “spontaneity, flamboyance, and less attention to organic form.”142 The other, represented by Guarnieri, displays “more rigid concepts of structure and more deliberate reference to certain regional styles.”143 In this respect, Lacerda’s style was strongly influenced by Guarnieri. He affirms that the most important things that he has learned from Guarnieri are organization and formal integrity.144 Another important influence of Guarnieri on Lacerda was his critical position against twelve-tone music. Although Guarnieri maintained that he was open to modern musical techniques, he believed that a composer who used elements foreign to his

138 Ney Fialkow, “The Ponteios of Camargo Guarnieri” (D.M.A. diss., The Peabody Institute of the Johns Hopkins University, 1995), 2-3.

139 Ibid.

140 Lopes-Graça, 224-5.

141 Ibid.

142 Hamilton, 156.

143 Ibid.

144 Osvaldo Lacerda, interview by the author, 10 July 2006, São Paulo, Brazil.

27 environment would produce an artificial work.145 He was especially harsh in his criticism of twelve-tone music. On November 7, 1950, for example he published “Open Letter to Musicians and Critics in Brazil” (“Carta Aberta aos Músicos e Críticos do Brasil”) in which he called for the defense of national music and criticized twelve-tone music for being “essentially cerebral, anti-popular, anti-national, and having no affinity with the soul of the [Brazilian] people.”146 According to Ney Fialkow, Guarnieri’s radical position divided the Brazilian composers into two camps. One camp agreed with his ideas and the other embraced twelve-tone and other avant-garde techniques. The latter was lead by émigré German composer Hans Joachim Koellreutter (b. 1915).147 Lacerda used twelve- tone music only three times, either as a joke or to protest against the technique, as later discussed.148 One of the greatest accomplishments of Guarnieri was the creation and maintenance of a school of composition. In addition to Osvaldo Lacerda, he taught many Brazilian composers such as Marlos Nobre, Aylton Escobar, Raul do Valle, Sérgio Vasconcellos Corrêa, José Antônio de Almeida Prado, Ascendino Theodoro Nogueira, Dinorá de Carvalho, Nilson Lombardi, Kilza Setti, Lina Pires de Campos, Pérsio Moreira da Rocha, Eduardo Escalante, and others.149 Lacerda affirms that even those who opposed Guarnieri’s nationalist orientation unanimously praised Guarnieri’s school for its importance to Brazilian music life.150

145 Lopes-Graça, 224-5.

146 “Camargo Guarnieri: Meio Século de Nacionalismo,” Caderno de Música 7 (June/July 1981): 11.

147 Fialkow, 4.

148 Lacerda, interview by the author.

149 Sérgio Vasconcellos Corrêa, “Camargo Guarnieri and the Teaching of Composition,” in Music in Brazil: Now (Brasília, Brazil: Ministério das Relações Exteriores do Brasil, 1974), 30.

150 Lacerda, “Meu Professor,” 64.

28 CHAPTER III

LACERDA’S IMPORTANCE TO BRAZILIAN MUSIC

Lacerda is important to Brazilian music as a composer, a teacher, and a promoter of Brazilian music.

Lacerda as a Composer

Lacerda advocates nationalism through his music and his ideas. His compositions are rich in elements of Brazilian folk and popular music, treated in a contemporary manner. Lacerda is also outspoken about his belief that composers need to write national music in order to stay in touch with their audiences and be sincere with their culture.

Nationalist Heritage

Brazilian composer Sérgio Vasconcellos Corrêa sees in Lacerda’s work a direct progression of an aesthetic that started with Nepomuceno, and passed through Villa- Lobos and Guarnieri.151 Lacerda, according to Corrêa, “develops the melodic, rhythmic, and harmonic materials that he inherited from [these] Brazilian masters…by manipulating them with his modern creativity.”152 Lacerda’s affinity with nationalist music came naturally. He reports that, still as a child, trying his first compositions at the piano, his music was already “spontaneously Brazilian.”153 In 1949, Lacerda read for the

151 Mariz, História da Música no Brasil, 4th ed. (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Civilização Brasileira, 1994), 319.

152 Ibid.

153 Lacerda, “Meu Professor,” 60.

29 first time Mário de Andrade’s Ensaio Sobre a Música Brasileira.154 He told Cíntia Costa Macedo in an interview on May of 1998 that Andrade’s writings provided a theoretical, philosophical, and aesthetic basis for his music from that point on.155 In 1952, he started composition lessons with Camargo Guarnieri, who himself was enchanted by Andrade’s ideas. After ten years of study, Lacerda’s style became noticeably influenced by Guarnieri. Although Lacerda later studied with Vittorio Giannini and Aaron Copland, he considers Guarnieri his greatest influence.156 Vasco Mariz recognizes this fact when he describes Lacerda’s sophisticated nationalism as departing directly from Guarnieri’s style.157

Lacerda’s Musical Style

According to Béhague, “Lacerda’s music incorporates a subtle national idiom into a modern harmonic context.”158 This statement indicates that Lacerda’s style combines Brazilian elements and modern composition techniques. The nationalist elements in Lacerda’s music, as seen before, come from the great figures of Brazilian nationalism such as Levy, Nepomuceno, Andrade, and Guarnieri, as well as from his own research. These elements can be melodic (Gregorian modes, pentatonic and hexatonic scales, descending contour, large leaps, narrow-range tunes, and ending melody note other than tonic), rhythmic (syncopations, ostinatos and repeated notes, and 3+3+2 pattern), polyphonic (parallel thirds, guitar-like melodic bass, and flute-like counterpoint and variations), and harmonic (modulation to subdominant minor in minor mode pieces). Lacerda recognizes that the latter procedure is very frequent in Brazilian popular music,

154 Lacerda, “Constâncias,” 78.

155 Macedo, 112.

156 Lacerda, interview by the author.

157 Mariz, Figuras, 91-2.

158 Béhague, “Lacerda, Osvaldo (Costa de).”

30 especially in the urban music originated in Rio de Janeiro; therefore, it can be considered a nationalist element.159 As seen later, his non-nationalist elements were influenced by Guarnieri (use of augmented sixth chords, absence of key signature, atonalism), Villa-Lobos (chords with added notes, bitonality), and impressionism.

Lacerda’s Ideas

Defense of Nationalism Lacerda’s rationale to justify his nationalist style is his belief that music needs to contain elements of people’s common experiences to be understood. These experiences are shared by people who are immersed in the same cultural environment such as a community or a nation.160 He believes that, above all, a composer wants to be understood.161 In order to do so, he needs to shape his inspiration according to “the time and place in which he writes.”162 Lacerda urges the Brazilian art-music composer to use in their work elements from popular music that people can recognize as Brazilian – the so-called musical constants.163

Imported Composition Procedures Lacerda believes that Brazilian composers should be open to new compositional techniques in order to revitalize national music and keep it from stagnancy.164 This explains the fact that his music, although essentially nationalist with the use of Brazilian musical constants, has traits of impressionism and atonalism.

159 Lacerda, “Constâncias,” 78-80.

160 Ibid., 62.

161 Ibid., 64.

162 Ibid.

163 Ibid., 67.

164 Lacerda, “Nationalism,” 15-6.

31 On the other hand, Lacerda is concerned about the use of modern compositional techniques for their own sake, divorced from a national context. He sees this possibility as a threat to Brazilian culture. According to him, some composers, motivated by either a “cultural inferiority complex” or ignorance of the rich Brazilian musical heritage, make the mistake of trying to produce universal music without a national character.165 He believes that for a musical work to be universal it has to be national first.166

Lacerda as a Teacher

Lacerda has contributed extensively to the training of generations of Brazilian musicians by teaching music theory, harmony, counterpoint, musical analysis, composition, and orchestration.167 For many years he was an assistant to the famous composer and composition teacher Camargo Guarnieri. Guarnieri’s prospective composition students had to undergo intensive harmony and counterpoint training with Lacerda prior to entering Guarnieri’s class.168 In addition, Lacerda taught for 23 years (1969-92) at the Escola Municipal de Música de São Paulo, a state-funded institution that offers free instruction in orchestral instruments and music theory.169 His teaching activities also included the Santa Marcelina College, Course of Teacher Education of the São Paulo State Music Commission (1960-62 and 1969-70), First Sergipe Music Conference (1967), Second Ouro Preto Winter Festival (1968), International Music Course of Paraná (1966-70, 1975, and 1977), and other music festivals in several Brazilian cities such as Campinas, Ribeirão Preto, Franca, Pindamonhangaba, Presidente Prudente, Poços de Caldas, Londrina, and Natal.170 Another important pedagogical

165 Ibid.

166 Lacerda, “Constâncias,” 65.

167 Osvaldo Lacerda, autobiographical sketch, 3.

168 Neves, 143.

169 Fundação Biblioteca Nacional do Ministério da Cultura do Brasil. “Osvaldo Lacerda.” http://www.bn.br/fbn/musica/oswaldolacerda/index.html (accessed July 10, 2005).

170 Lacerda, autobiographical sketch, 3.

32 contribution of Lacerda is the publication of music theory books that are widely adopted by music schools in Brazil and Portugal. They include Compêndio de Teoria Elementar da Música, Exercícios de Teoria Elementar da Música, Curso Preparatório de Solfejo e Ditado Musical, and Regras de Grafia Musical.171

Lacerda as a Promoter of Brazilian Music

Osvaldo Lacerda has been intensively active in promoting Brazilian music and musicians through the various music organizations in which he has participated. At the age of eighteen, in 1945, he founded the Mobilização Musical da Juventude Brasileira (Brazilian Youth Musical Mobilization) where he served as director of the Department of Promotion of Brazilian Music from 1951 to 1952.172 In 1949, Lacerda founded, and directed until 1955, the Sociedade Paulista de Arte (São Paulo Art Society), an organization that presented new musicians in public recitals.173 His stepfather was the administrative director and he was the artistic director.174 Although the organization promoted international music, the composer fought to emphasize Brazilian music in its programs.175 Lacerda, along with other Guarnieri’s students, founded the Sociedade Pró- Música Brasileira (Brazilian Pro-Music Society) in 1961. He served as president until 1966, and again in 1984 when the Sociedade briefly re-opened. 176 This organization was also dedicated to promoting Brazilian music. From 1966 to 1970, Lacerda worked with the Comissão Nacional de Música Sacra (National Commission of Sacred Music) where he fought for the introduction of Brazilian music in the Catholic Mass.177 Since 1985, he

171 Ibid.

172 Ibid., 2.

173 Composers of the Americas: Biographical Data and Catalogs of their Works vol. 15. (Washington, D.C.: Organization of American States, 1969), 127.

174 Lacerda, interview by the author.

175 Ibid.

176 Ibid.

177 Fundação Biblioteca Nacional, “Osvaldo Lacerda.”

33 has been the president of the Centro de Música Brasileira de São Paulo (Brazilian Music Center of São Paulo).178 The composer was also a member of the Comissão Municipal de Música de Santos (Music Commission of the City of Santos) from 1965 to 1967. There, he organized the “Composition Competition for Voice and Piano” using poems by poets from the city of Santos. The competition was very successful and nationally promoted the poets of the city. 179 In 1967, Lacerda was the president of the Comissão Estadual de Música de São Paulo (Music Commission of the State of São Paulo). In this position, he organized the first Brazilian composition competition for symphonic band with great national acceptance.180

178 Mariz, História da Música, 312.

179 Lacerda, interview by the author.

180 Ibid.

34 CHAPTER IV

NATIONALISTIC ELEMENTS OF LACERDA’S MUSICAL STYLE

Nationalism is the most striking of Lacerda’s stylistic characteristics. Mário de Andrade’s writings are especially influential in the shaping of Lacerda’s nationalism. The composer declared, “Andrade’s Ensaio Sobre a Música Brasileira (Essay on Brazilian Music) has been like a Bible” to him.181 In this work, Andrade writes that the development of art-music depends upon “intelligent observation and use” of popular music elements.182 These elements are the musical constants or musical patterns present in popular music that are recognizable as national characteristics, and they include melody, rhythm, polyphony, and harmony. 183

Melody

To Lacerda, melody is the element that most characterizes popular music. Other elements such as rhythm and harmony, although also important, are secondary to melody. He stated, “Beautiful melody is in the people…I studied folk and popular melody a great deal so I could assimilate them.”184

181 Lacerda, “Constâncias,” 66.

182 Andrade, Ensaio, 24.

183 According to Lacerda in an interview with the author on July 10, 2006, Andrade was the first to use the term musical constant (constância musical in Portuguese).

184 Lacerda, interview by the author.

35 The melodic constants of Brazilian music present in Lacerda’s music are Gregorian modes, pentatonic and hexatonic scales, descending contours, large leaps, narrow-range, and non-tonic note endings.

Gregorian Modes

In an interview with Cíntia Macedo, Lacerda affirms that the use of Gregorian modes is very common in Brazilian popular music, especially in the music from the northeastern part of the country.185 In fact, according to Neves, modalism is so prevalent in Brazilian folk music that it is only natural for nationalist composers to turn to this resource.186 The first Jesuit missionaries arrived in Brazil in 1549.187 Jong explains, “Since choral and instrumental music needed in church ceremonies had to be created by these priests who had been trained in music, Gregorian chant naturally came to have marked influence on [Brazilian] folk music.”188 This is not only a Brazilian phenomenon. Béhague noticed the frequent occurrence of church mode in mestizo tunes of Latin America in general, where Jesuits and other Catholic missions were very active since the beginning of the Spanish and Portuguese colonization.189 The most common modes found in Brazilian folk and popular music are Mixolydian, Lydian, Dorian, and “Northeast” (a hybrid mode between Mixolydian and Lydian with lowered seventh and raised fourth scale degrees).

Mixolydian Mode The Mixolydian mode is probably the most common mode in Brazilian music. Alberto Nepomuceno had already noticed the common trait of the lowered seventh

185 Macedo, 80.

186 Neves, 79.

187 Ibid., 13-4.

188 Jong, 4.

189 Béhague, “Folk and Traditional Music of Latin-America: General Prospect and Research Problems,” The World of Music 24/2 (1982): 10.

36 degree through the analysis of some eighty folk songs and dances from his private collection.190 According to Macedo, the Mixolydian mode occurs frequently in the music of the northeastern part of Brazil. She cites as an example the folk tune Lampião Tava Dormindo (Example 2).191 This tune is based on the Mixolydian scale D-E-F#-G-A-B-C.

Example 2. Lampião Tava Dormindo

Azevedo offers an alternative explanation for the presence of the Mixolydian mode in Brazilian music. Rather than Gregorian chant, he believes that the scale with lowered seventh degree came from pentatonic African songs. As time passed, he explains, musicians added more notes and created the hexatonic and heptatonic scales. For lack of sense of the tonal leading tone, though, they perpetuated the use of the lowered seventh degree.192 There are numerous examples of Mixolydian mode in Lacerda’s music. Macedo affirms that Lacerda, in his Piano Study No. 2, superimposes G, Ab and C# Mixolydian scales. She observes that the composer manages to draw from traditional modalism of Brazilian music and, at the same time, to create a modern sonority, a “quasi atonalism.”193 She also claims that Lacerda’s Piano Study No. 11 presents the C Mixolydian mode.194

190 Béhague, “Popular Musical Currents,” 222.

191 Macedo, 44.

192 Azevedo, “Music and Musicians,” 57.

193 Macedo, 41.

194 Ibid., 100.

37 The fourth movement of Lacerda’s Pequena Suíte for string quartet (“Sanfoneiro em Ré”) also displays the use of the Mixolydian mode. The pitch collection throughout this passage is D-E-F#-G-A-C, characterizing the D Mixolydian scale. The low D in the viola and cello parts confirms this note as the tonic of the scale (Example 3).

Example 3. Lacerda, Pequena Suíte, “Sanfoneiro em Ré,” mm. 1-10

Lydian Mode In his book Pequena História da Música, Mário de Andrade wrote that the Hypolydian mode, or a “major” scale with raised fourth degree, is common in Brazilian popular music.195 This scale is what, however, modern music scholars call the Lydian mode.196 Lídio for string quartet by Lacerda is based on this mode (Example 4). The first

195 Andrade, Pequena História da Música, 9th ed. (Belo Horizonte, Brazil: Editora Itatiaia Limitada, 1987), 186.

196 Harold S. Powers, “Lydian,” The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, http://www.grovemusic.com (accessed January 15, 2006).

38 and last notes of the first violin melody are Fs and all the notes are natural, characterizing it as the Lydian mode in F.

Violin 1

Example 4. Lacerda, Lídio, mm. 1-10

Another example of Lydian mode is found in Lacerda’s Pequena Suíte, from measures 34 to 36. The cello line alternates between a high D and the notes of a descending Lydian mode scale in D: (D)-C#-B-A-G#-F#-E-D (Example 5).

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 5. Lacerda, Pequena Suíte, “Sanfoneiro em Ré,” mm. 29-40

39 “Northeast” Mode The Northeast mode (Modo Nordeste), so called for being common in the music of the northeastern part of Brazil, is a hybrid scale that contains the raised fourth degree of the Lydian mode and the lowered seventh degree of the Mixolydian mode. Camargo Guarnieri, Lacerda’s teacher, often used this mode in his Ponteios for solo piano.197 Verhaalen mentions Guarnieri’s Ponteio e Dança for cello and piano of 1946 as “a good example of use of the Northeast mode.”198 Here, the cello melody is based on the scale G- A-B-C#-D-E-F, which is the Northeast mode in G. The tonic G is confirmed by the insistence of the fifth G-D in the piano part (not seen in the example) on the downbeats of measures 42 to 47 (Example 6). In addition to its nationalist implications, Hamilton believes that Guarnieri was especially fond of this mode for its “harmonic ambiguity.”199

Cello

Example 6. Guarnieri, Ponteio e Dança, mm. 39-48

Lacerda incorporated the Northeast mode into his style, as heard in “Embolada,” the third movement of his Three Brazilian Miniatures for percussion. In this passage up to measure 10, the xylophone plays a melody based on the scale A-B-C#-D#-E-F#-G, characterizing the Northeast mode in A (Example 7).

197 Fialkow, 63.

198 Verhaalen, Brazilian Composer, 76.

199 Hamilton, 241.

40

Cymbals

Xylophone

Snare drum

Field drum

Example 7. Lacerda, Three Miniatures for Percussion, “Embolada,” mm. 5-12

In the fourth movement (“Sanfoneiro em Ré”) of his Pequena Suíte for string quartet he also uses this mode. The pitch collection of the passage up to measure 33 makes up the Northeast mode in D: D-E-F#-G#-A-B-C. The arpeggiation of the cello in D major shows that the note D is the tonic of the mode. The minor seventh, C natural, does not characterize this chord as a dominant seventh because it never resolves into a chord of G (Example 8).

Dorian Mode Lacerda is aware of the presence of the Dorian mode in Brazilian music and utilizes it frequently. He affirms, “The Dorian mode…as everybody knows is often present in the [Brazilian] northeastern folk music.”200 Macedo notices that Lacerda’s Piano Study No.7 is based on the Dorian mode. This piece in ternary form has its A part based on D Dorian and the B part in B Dorian.201

200 Lacerda, “Constâncias,” 69.

201 Macedo, 80.

41

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 8. Lacerda, Pequena Suíte, “Sanfoneiro em Ré,” mm. 17-34

In Lacerda’s “No Balanço,” from Pequena Suíte, the second violin states the melody of the B section in the Dorian mode. This melody ends in the note D in measure 23. All its notes are natural, characterizing the Dorian mode in D (Example 9).

42

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 9. Lacerda, Pequena Suíte, “No Balanço,” mm. 15-24

One finds another example of Dorian mode in Lacerda’s String Quartet No. 2, in the first theme of the first movement. In this passage, the viola melody is in the C Dorian mode (C-D-Eb-F-G-A-Bb). The only note in this melody that does not belong to that scale is the Db in the third measure. Lacerda disguises the modal quality of the theme by providing a highly chromatic counterpoint in the cello part. The note C is clearly the tonic of the viola theme as established by the initial note C and the C-minor arpeggio in measure 4 (Example 10). This theme is also restated in the recapitulation section of the movement. This time around, the statement of the theme is in B Dorian. It starts in the cello in the last quarter note of measure 72 and moves to the first violin in the third beat of measure 76 (Example 11).

43

Example 10. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, First Movement, mm. 1-8

Pentatonic Scale

Another nationalist element in Lacerda’s musical style is the pentatonic scale. This scale was introduced to Brazilian music through the influences of both native Amerindian and African peoples. Interestingly, both groups, although originally separated historically and geographically, based some of their music on the five-note scale.

44

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 11. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, First Movement, mm. 70-80

45 African Pentatonic Scale It is impossible to over-emphasize the African influence in the formation of Brazilian culture. Portugal, practicing the slave trade since the fifteenth century, started to import Africans to Brazil in 1538.202 In the following centuries, Brazil ended up being one of the greatest consumers of African slave labor in the Americas. Merriam reports that in 1768 there were nineteen blacks for each white in Bahia, which constituted the biggest market of slaves in colonial Brazil.203 Azevedo affirms that, due to making up a large portion of the Brazilian population, Africans exerted a great influence in the country’s “religion, language, folk traditions, culinary art, jewelry, [and] especially in the field of music.”204 The pentatonic scale was one of these influences. Azevedo reports that many melodies of African origin were based on the pentatonic scale; these were found in Bahia and studied by scholars Richard A. Waterman and Oneyda Alvarenga.205 Merriam analyzed Afro-Brazilian music originating from four different African groups – Ketu, Gêge, Jesha, and Congo Angola – and recognized the strong presence of the pentatonic scale in all of them. From the songs that he analyzed of the Ketu group (a group that came from the Yoruba tribe of Nigeria) sixty-eighty percent were pentatonic.206 All the songs that Merriam analyzed from the Gêge group (originating in Dahomey, presently the People’s Republic of Benin) were pentatonic.207 From the Jesha group (a group also from Nigeria) four of the five songs analyzed were based on the five-note scale.208 In the music of the group originated in the Congo-Angola area, Merriam found out that, although it contained songs composed of four, five, six, and seven-note scales, the pentatonic was the most commonly used scale.209

202 Appleby, The Music of Brazil (Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press, 1983), 4.

203 Merriam, 29.

204 Azevedo, “Music and Musicians,” 53.

205 Ibid., 57.

206 Merriam, 77.

207 Ibid., 160.

208 Ibid., 201.

209 Ibid., 236.

46 Amerindian Pentatonic Scale The contribution of the native Brazilian Amerindian to the pentatonic scale present in folk and popular music is harder to trace. According to Neves, the original Amerindian culture was fragile and rapidly assimilated European traits, losing much of its character.210 Azevedo claims that, through his analysis of the Brazilian Amerindian music that has been recorded and annotated throughout the centuries, some melodies, perhaps the purest and most ancient ones, are based on the pentatonic scale.211 The Pareci, Aparai, and Miranha tribes are especially notable for using this scale in their melodies.212

Pentatonic Scale in Lacerda’s Music In his Cançoneta for cello and piano, Lacerda writes an opening cello theme based on the pentatonic scale. In Example 12, the cello melody is based on the pentatonic scale G-A-B-D-E. Lacerda’s Piano Study No. 4 is another example of the presence of the pentatonic scale in his music. In the two opening measures (Example 13), Lacerda’s juxtaposes two pentatonic scales, one half-step apart from each other. The right hand plays the scale D- E-G-A-B, and the left hand plays the scale Db-Eb-Gb-Ab-Bb. Demonstrating his nationalist awareness, Lacerda comments about this piece in an interview with Cíntia Costa Macedo: “The melody of this Study [No. 4] is based on the pentatonic scale, which is one of the most primitive scales in music, in the same manner that it is used in Afro- Brazilian music.”213

210 Neves, 13.

211 Azevedo, Escala, Rítmo e Melodia na Música dos Índios Brasileiros (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Rodrigues e Cia., 1938), 24.

212 Ibid., 24-6.

213 Macedo, 60-1.

47

Example 12. Lacerda, Cançoneta, mm. 1-7

Example 13. Lacerda, Piano Study No. 4, mm. 1-2

Lacerda also employs the pentatonic scale in three of his four string quartets. In Lídio for string quartet, one can see a good example of a pentatonic scale in use (Example

48 14). In this example, the first violin plays a melodic passage based on the five-note scale D-F-G-A-C.

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 14. Lacerda, Lídio, mm. 8-12

In the first movement (“No Balanço”) of his Pequena Suíte for string quartet, there is another instance of this scale. In Example 15, the first violin states a melody based on the scale F-G-A-C-D from measures 2 to 7. The viola, then, plays a variation of the same theme, using the same pentatonic scale, up to measure 14.

49

Example 15. Lacerda, Pequena Suíte, “No Balanço,” mm. 1-14

Lacerda’s String Quartet No. 2 contains another instance of the pentatonic scale. In Example 16, the cello plays a downward melodic passage based on the scale F, G, A, C, D in measures 64 and 65.

50

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 16. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, First Movement, mm. 62-5

Hexatonic Scale

According to Eleanor Hague, “Among the [Black] population in Brazil, one finds often a six-tone scale, lacking the leading tone.”214 Andrade also noticed the hexatonic scale in his research and wrote that it had a “very interesting effect.”215 Merriam found out that twenty-five percent of the Ketu songs that he analyzed were based on the hexatonic scale.216 Lacerda incorporated this scale into his music style; Macedo affirms, for example, that he uses it in his Piano Study No. 10.217

Descending Melodic Contour

Andrade observed that the melodies of Brazilian folk and popular music have a tendency to exhibit a downward contour.218 Béhague concluded that the Brazilian

214 Eleanor Hague, Latin American Music: Past and Present (Santa Ana, California: The Fine Arts Press, 1934), 63.

215 Andrade, Ensaio, 45.

216 Merriam, 77.

217 Macedo, 96.

218 Andrade, Ensaio, 47.

51 nationalist composers understood this melodic pattern very early in the history of the movement. In his Ph.D. dissertation on Brazilian music from 1870 to 1920, for example, he states, “The descending melodic tendency…observed in popular music also characterizes most of the nationalist art compositions [of that period].”219 Lacerda’s Toada for oboe and piano offers a good example of this Brazilian melodic trait. In the passage offered as Example 17, the melody in the oboe part is composed of four descending sections, conferring an overall downward contour to the theme. The first descending melodic section starts on the first note of measure 1 and ends on the first note of measure 3 (F#). The second section starts on D in measure 3 and ends on the second F in measure 5. Another descending section starts on the note Bb of measure 5, ending on F# in measure 7. This is a variation of the first section. The fourth section is a variation of the second one. It goes from the note D in measure 7 to F in measure 9.

Example 17. Lacerda, Toada, mm. 1-9

219 Béhague, “Popular Musical Currents,” 274.

52 In his song Poemeto Erótico, Lacerda also employs a descending melodic contour. Not only the vocal phrase has a downward line, but the piano introduction also does, especially in the right hand part (Example 18).

Voice

Piano

Example 18. Lacerda, Poemeto Erótico, mm. 1-10

The theme in the first violin part in Lacerda’s Lídio is another example of this kind of melodic tendency. The melodic passage starting in measure 3 ends one octave lower in measure 10, confirming its descending general direction. After a quick upward

53 gesture in measure 11, the melody starts to descend again until its end in measure 19 (Example 19)..

Violin 1

Example 19. Lacerda, Lídio, violin 1, mm. 1-19

Large Melodic Intervals

Wide leaps are another melodic characteristic of Brazilian music. They were a common feature of nineteenth-century modinhas, according to Andrade, and could be larger than an octave.220 Modinha is a sentimental song favored by Portuguese and Brazilian composers in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.221 Renato Almeida reports that in the nineteenth century, the virtuoso Italian opera influenced the Brazilian modinha.222 This fact explains the wide leaps in the melody of the modinhas, as singers wanted to show off their vocal skills. There are good examples of melodic wide leaps in Pequena Suíte’s third movement, “Modinha,” by Lacerda. In Example 20 we see that the viola part has a leap of a seventh in measure 6 (E to D), a leap of a sixth in measure 10 (F to D), and a leap of a ninth in measure 11 (A to B).

220 Andrade, Ensaio, 45.

221 Béhague, Music in Latin America, 194.

222 Almeida, 16.

54

Viola

Example 20. Lacerda, Pequena Suíte, “Modinha,” mm. 1-12

Another example of this Brazilian melodic characteristic is present in Lacerda’s Sonata for oboe and piano, as seen in Example 21, where the oboe melody leaps an interval of a thirteenth in measure 46. There follow three leaps of a seventh, the first between measures 50 and 51 (G to F), the second between the measures 51 and 52 (E to D), and the third in measure 53 (Gb to F).

Narrow-Ranged Melodies

In addition to the pentatonic scale, another contribution of the Amerindian to Brazilian music may be narrow-ranged melodies. According to Azevedo, whereas native Brazilians assimilated the seven-tone scale from their early contact with Europeans,223 their songs rarely reach the range of an octave and at times only encompass the range of a third.224

223 Azevedo, Escala, Rítmo e Melodia, 31.

224 Ibid., 22, 31.

55

Oboe

Piano

Example 21. Lacerda, Sonata for oboe and piano, First Movement, mm. 44-57

Lacerda claims not to have used indigenous melodic constants in his music.225 On the other hand, however, he admits to having deeply studied Brazilian folk and popular songs in order to assimilate their melodic constants.226 Also, according to him, through his close contacts and study, making music with a Brazilian character became like second nature to him.227 Therefore, it is conceivable that Lacerda acquired this narrow-ranged melodic constant from Brazilian Amerindians, even though he is unaware of its indigenous origin.

225 Lacerda, interview by the author.

226 Ibid.

227 Ibid.

56 In Lacerda’s music, there are instances of narrow-ranged melodies that can very well be related to the melodic constant mentioned above. The beginning of his String Quartet No. 1, for example, displays such an instance when the second violin plays a melody composed of the notes C, D, and E, ranging only a major third (Example 22).

Example 22. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, First Movement, mm. 1-6

In a similar passage from Lacerda’s String Quartet No. 2, second movement (Example 23), the first violin also plays a melodic passage with a range of a major third and the same notes C, D, and E as in the previous example.

57

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 23. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Second Movement, mm. 61-4

Melody Ending Note other than the Tonic

According to Appleby, “[Brazilian] folk and popular melodies frequently end on tones other the first tone of the scale, with the third of the scale preferred.”228 Nepomuceno had already noticed this feature in the beginning of the nationalist movement.229Andrade believes that Brazilian musicians feel that the tonic is a little too weak and simple to be the end of a melodic phrase.230 Poemeto Erótico for voice and piano by Lacerda exemplifies this Brazilian constant (Examples 24 and 25). In measures 22 (Example 24) and 39 (Example 25), for example, the vocal melodies end on the note F, which is the fifth degree of the Bb major scale.

228 Appleby, Music of Brazil, 115.

229 Béhague, “Popular Musical Currents,” 222-3.

230 Andrade, Ensaio, 48.

58

Voice

Piano

Example 24. Lacerda, Poemeto Erótico, mm. 21-2

Voice

Piano

Example 25. Lacerda, Poemeto Erótico, mm. 35-9

Lacerda’s String Quartet No. 1 also exhibits several instances of melodies ending on notes other than the tonic. In the first movement, for example, the melody in the viola part ends in measure 43 on the note F#, which is the third degree, the mediant, of the key of D major. The cello supports the viola with a low D-A double-stop, confirming this key (Example 26).

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 26. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, First Movement, mm. 41-3

59 In the second movement of the same work, there are two melodies ending on the fifth degree (Examples 27 and 28). In both examples, the melodies in the first violin are in the key of G major and the ending notes are a D, or the dominant.

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 27. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, Second Movement, mm. 35-44

60

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 28. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, Second Movement, mm. 46-54

Another example of a melody ending on the fifth degree can be found in the third movement of the same quartet (Example 29), where the melody played by the second violin is clearly in D major as the cello’s D-major arpeggios in both first and last measures (measures 52 and 63) confirm. The last note of the melody in measure 63 is an A, the dominant of the key. The letters “pp” in measure 52 in the second violin part mean

61 here “principal part” (parte principal in Portuguese) and indicate the beginning of the melody. The half-bracket in measure 62 indicates the end of that melody.

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 29. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, Third Movement, mm. 51-63

62 Rhythm

African music was the greatest contributor to the Brazilian rhythmic repertoire. According to Merriam, African slaves brought their religious rituals to Brazil. Since slavery, these rituals contain songs and dances accompanied by a rich variety of percussion instruments.231 Appleby affirms, “The most obvious characteristic of Negro folk music [in Brazil] is…the wealth of its rhythmic resources, and abundance of its syncopations and ostinatos.”232 There are rhythmic patterns in Brazilian folk and popular music that have been recognized as constants. Some of these rhythmic constants that Osvaldo Lacerda incorporated into his nationalist style include Brasileirinho syncopation, habanera-derived syncopation, ostinato, quick repeated notes, and the 3+3+2 pattern.

Syncopation

Merriam notices that syncopations are very common in the songs of the Ketu and the Gêge African groups that he studied in Bahia. In these syncopations, the melodies are moved forward or backward in relation to the percussive beat in order to create melodic tension.233

“Brasileirinho”

The single most characteristic Brazilian rhythm is the syncopation , a sixteenth-note followed by an eighth-note, and followed by another sixteenth-note. It is so pervasive in the national music that Lacerda affirms it is known as Brasileirinho.234 A good example of a Brazilian folk tune that employs Brasileirinho is Sambalelê (Example 30).

231 Merriam, 42-5.

232 Appleby, “Study,” 193-4.

233 Merriam, 74-5, 160.

234 Lacerda, “Constâncias,” 73.

63

Example 30. Sambalelê, mm. 1-8

Béhague writes, “The systematization of the syncopation …has been verified in all new types of popular music which appeared [in Brazil] during the period 1870-1920.”235 Although it is commonly agreed that Brasileirinho is a rhythm of African origin, there is a controversy whether it is purely African or European transformed by African influence. Slonimsky, for example, explains, “The basic rhythm of many Brazilian melodies of Negro origin is a sixteenth-note, an eighth-note, and a sixteenth-note.”236 Montgomery has the same opinion by stating that this is the syncopation pattern of many Negro dances.237 On the other hand, according to Almeida, Mário de Andrade and Luciano Gallet believed that the Brasileirinho syncopation came from Portugal and, thanks to the popularity of African rhythms, became largely accepted in Brazil.238

Azevedo explains it this way: the Iberian rhythm in the 6/8 time signature,

when accompanied by the African percussion binary rhythm , became .239 In either case, Lacerda understands the importance of this syncopation to create music with national flavor. One example of his use of the Brasileirinho syncopation is his Sambinha Dodecafônico (Example 31), where Brasileirinho is in the vibraphone part in

235 Béhague, “Popular Musical Currents,” 273.

236 Slonimsky, 109-110.

237 Montgomery, 55.

238 Almeida, 11.

239 Azevedo, Música Brasileira, 9.

64 measures 4, 5, 8, and 9, and also throughout the example in the tom-tom and bass drum parts.

Vibraphone

Tambourine

Tom-tom

Bass drum

Example 31. Lacerda, Three Miniatures for Percussion, “Sambinha Dodecafônico,” mm. 1-10

Lacerda’s song O Menino Doente also displays this syncopation (Example 32). The vocal part contains Brasileirinho in the first half of measure 21 and in the second half of measure 23. Here, rather than the pattern sixteenth-, eighth-, sixteenth-note, the syncopation appears in the variation eighth-, quarter-, eighth-note. Interestingly, the vocal melody of this example is also an instance of melodic descending contour, which is another Brazilian musical constant earlier discussed. Three of the four string quartets by Lacerda also present instances of the Brasileirinho syncopation. In his String Quartet No. 1, first movement, the first and second violins play the syncopation in measures 8, 9, 12, 13, and 16. The viola has it in measures 7 and 11 (Example 33).

65

Voice

Piano

Example 32. Lacerda, O Menino Doente, mm. 18-25

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 33. Lacerda, Quartet No. 1, First Movement, mm. 5-16

66

Example 33 Continued

Lacerda uses Brasileirinho in two movements of his Pequena Suíte for string quartet. In the third movement, “Modinha,” this syncopation is in measures 6 and 8 of the viola part, in measure 9 of the cello part, and in measures 13, 14, and 15 of the first violin part (Example 34). In the fourth movement, “Sanfoneiro em Ré,” both violins play the syncopation in measure 8 in thirds (Example 35).

67

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 34. Lacerda, Pequena Suíte, “Modinha,” mm. 4-15

68

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 35. Lacerda, Pequena Suíte, “Sanfoneiro em Ré,” mm. 5-8

It appears again in measures 40 to 43, alternating between the first violin and the viola (Example 36).

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 36. Lacerda, Pequena Suíte, “Sanfoneiro em Ré, mm. 35-43

69 In his String Quartet No. 2, Lacerda employs the Brasileirinho syncopation in the first three movements. The first instance occurs in the first movement, measure 66, in the viola part (Example 37).

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 37. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, First Movement, mm. 66

The first time it appears in the second movement is in the viola part, in measure 28 (Example 38).

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 38. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Second Movement, mm. 27-8

It appears again in the cello part, every other measure, from measures 44 to 50, and in measure 51 (Example 39). In this example, the viola also plays the Brasileirinho syncopation in measure 52.

70

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 39. String Quartet No. 2, Second Movement, mm. 41-55

The other instances of Brasileirinho in this movement happen in the violins in measures 60, 61, and 63 (Example 40) and in all the instruments simultaneously in

71 measures 99, 101, and 102 (Example 41). In measure 102, a rest replaces the first sixteenth-note.

Violin 1

Violin 2

Example 40. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Second Movement, mm. 56-63

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 41. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Second Movement, mm. 99-102

In the third movement of the quartet, the Brasileirinho syncopation appears in the second violin in measure 53 and in the first violin in measure 54 (Example 42).

72

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 42. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Third Movement, mm. 52-4

Although Brasileirinho is the single most characteristic Brazilian rhythm, Lacerda used it sparingly in his works, and not continuously as one would encounter in a folk or popular Brazilian dance piece. This confirms Lacerda’s agreement with Andrade’s prescription for nationalist art-music compositions. Andrade warned against the excessive use of the syncopation, which, according to him, would make the music sound mundane and stereotyped.240

Habanera-Derived Syncopation Another syncopation that is characteristic of Brazilian folk and popular music is a derivation of the habanera rhythm. The basic habanera rhythm is composed of a dotted eighth-note, followed by a sixteenth-note and two eighth-notes . Influenced by the maxixe, a popular Brazilian dance of the late nineteenth century, the second and third notes became tied, producing the syncopation and its variation .241 Appleby points out that Alexandre Levy’s Tango Brasileiro (1890) for piano was one of the first nationalist compositions to employ habanera syncopation.242 Macedo notices that

240 Andrade, Ensaio, 38.

241 Montgomery, 55.

242 Appleby, Music of Brazil, 85.

73 Lacerda also uses the following variations of habanera syncopation in his Piano Study

No. 1: , , , and .243 The points in common of these motives are the habanera figure in the first part of the rhythm and a tied-over note to the beginning of the second part. Lacerda’s “Embolada,” from his Three Brazilian Miniatures for percussion, contains an example of his use of habanera syncopation (Example 43). In this example, the snare drum plays the syncopation by itself in measure 5 and one of its variations together with the other instruments in measure 13. Interestingly, the Brasileirinho syncopation also appears in measure 9 and 12 in the snare drum and in measure 12 in the xylophone.

Cymbals

Xylophone

Snare drum

Field drum

Example 43. Lacerda, Three Miniatures for Percussion, “Embolada,” mm. 5-16

243 Macedo, 25-6.

74 In Toada for oboe and piano, Lacerda uses habanera syncopation in combination with Brasileirinho to achieve a lively variety of rhythms. In the passage presented as Example 44, variations of habanera syncopation in the oboe part in measures 13, 14, 15, 17, and 19, and in the piano part in measures 17, 18, and 19 can be seen. Brasileirinho also appears in the oboe part in measures 16, 18, and 20, and in the piano part in measures 13 and 15.

Oboe

Piano

Example 44. Lacerda, Toada, mm. 13-20

Lacerda also makes use of habanera syncopation in two movements of his String Quartet No. 1. In the Prelude part of the first movement, “Prelúdio e Fuga,” the habanera presence is quite prominent. Example 45 shows the cello playing habanera syncopation from measures 1 to 7, while the viola has it in all the measures but 4 and 7 (in measure 7, the viola plays a Brasileirinho syncopation). The second violin plays habanera syncopation in measure 2.

75

Example 45. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, First Movement, mm. 1-8

Habanera syncopation is also important in the fugue part of the same movement, being one of the rhythms that comprise the fugue’s subject. In the first statement of the fugue’s subject (Example 46), which starts in measure 100 in the second violin part, a variation of the habanera rhythm appears in measures 100 and 104.

76

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 46. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, First Movement, mm. 99-106

In the same quartet, the third movement, “Dança,” also contains several instances of habanera syncopation. In Example 47, the inner parts (second violin and viola) provide a fast accompaniment to the melody of the first violin with the syncopation in question. The cello also plays habanera syncopation in measures 3, 4, and 5.

Ostinato and Repeated Notes

Another rhythmic element that is common in Brazilian folk and popular music is repetition, which can be either in the form of ostinato or quick repeated notes. Rhythmic repetition is an important component of both Amerindian and African music.

77

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 47. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, Third Movement, mm. 1-10

Ostinato Azevedo wrote, “The music of the Brazilian Indians … is built by constant repetition of a short motif, which is characteristically more rhythmic than melodic.”244 Appleby notices that ostinato is also one of the elements of African-originated folk music in Brazil.245 Osvaldo Lacerda incorporated ostinatos in his nationalist style. In fact, three out of his four works for string quartet include instances of ostinatos. Lídio displays usage. In Example 48, the second violin, viola, and cello provide an ostinato accompaniment for

244 Azevedo, Escala, Rítmo e Melodia, 17.

245 Appleby, “Study,” 193-4.

78 the violin from measures 1 to 6. The second violin has a one-measure accompaniment figure, and the viola and the cello have a two-measure accompaniment figure.

Example 48. Lacerda, Lídio, mm. 1-7

Lacerda’s Pequena Suíte contains ostinatos in two of its four movements. In the first movement, “No Balanço,” similar to the prior example, the second violin, the viola, and the cello accompany the first violin melody. As seen in Example 49, the same rhythm pattern is repeated in every measure from measures 1 to 7, although the harmony changes in measures 5 and 7.

79

Example 49. Lacerda, Pequena Suíte, “No Balanço,” mm. 1-7

In the fourth movement of the same work, subtitled “Sanfoneiro em Ré,” the cello plays a one-measure ostinato motif against a two-measure ostinato motif in the viola part from measures 1 to 8. Meanwhile, both violins play the theme (Example 50). In his String Quartet No. 2, second movement, Lacerda gives to the cello a two- measure ostinato figuration starting in measure 44. In this example of ostinato (Example 51), Brasileirinho is also found in the first measure of the rhythmic pattern.

80

Example 50. Lacerda, Pequena Suíte, “Sanfoneiro em Ré,” mm. 1-8

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 51. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Second Movement, mm. 41-50

81 Quick Repeated Notes According to Slonimsky, “The repetition of short and rapid notes is…very common in Afro-Brazilian music.”246 Lacerda uses repeated short notes in “Embolada” from his Three Brazilian Miniatures for percussion, where (Example 52) the xylophone plays the melody in sixteenth notes, repeating some notes two times (for example, the C# in measures 17 and 18), three times (A in measure 17 and G in measure 22), and four times (for example, the A in measure 19 and the D in measure 24).

Shaker

Xylophone

Agogô

Bass drum

Example 52. Lacerda, Three Miniatures for Percussion, “Embolada,” mm. 17-24

Lacerda employs quick repeated notes in his String Quartet No. 2 in the second and third movements. In the second movement, they appear first in the first violin part, where the first violin plays a sequence of quick sixteenth notes, starting in measure 2 of Example 53.

246 Slonimsky, 10.

82

Example 53. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Second Movement, mm. 1-11

83 In the next example, the cello plays a quick repeated-note figuration starting in measure 80 (Example 54).

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 54. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Second Movement, mm. 76-85

In the third movement of the same work, one finds two instances of quick repeated notes (Examples 55 and 56).

84

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 55. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Third Movement, mm. 28-29

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 56. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Third Movement, mm. 74-6

3+3+2 Rhythmic Pattern

Another rhythmic constant present in Brazilian music is the 3+3+2 rhythmic pattern. This pattern is a pulsation that corresponds to the sequence of 3+3+2 eighth notes, or . This pulsation was introduced into Brazilian music via either European or African influence, or both. According to Appleby, the 3+3+2 pattern is common to both Moorish Iberian and African music traditions.247 Fialkow, in his study of

247 Appleby, Music of Brazil, 153.

85 Guarnieri’s Ponteios for piano, noticed that this nationalist composer regularly used the 3+3+2 rhythmic pattern.248 In Lacerda’s “Sambinha Dodecafônico” from Three Brazilian Miniatures for percussion, the 3+3+2 rhythmic pattern is used, in this case with sixteenth notes rather than eighth notes (Example 57). In this example, the rhythm in question appears in the tambourine part in measures 2, 4, and 6, and in the tom-tom part in measure 10.

Vibraphone

Tambourine

Tom-tom

Bass drum

Example 57. Lacerda, Three Miniatures for Percussion, “Sambinha Dodecafônico,” mm. 1-10

In his String Quartet No. 2, Lacerda uses the 3+3+2 pattern and its reversed form, 2+3+3. The 2+3+3 pattern is seen in Example 58 in measures 3 and 7 in the viola part. The first section of the pattern (two eighth notes) is represented by the first quarter note of the measure. The slurs accomplish the second and third sections (three plus three eighth notes). In measure 8, the 3+3+2 pulsation is present in a subtle way. The first two sections (three plus three) are the two eighth-note-quarter-note units in the viola part. The third section (two eighth notes) is represented by the quarter note in the cello part.

248 Fialkow, 74-5.

86

Example 58. Lacerda, String Quartet No.2, First Movement, mm. 1-8

Polyphony

Andrade wrote, “The process of sound simultaneity that can display a greater national character is polyphony.”249 He was referring to the fact that, besides the modulation to the subdominant minor in some Brazilian popular pieces in minor mode, one cannot identify any harmonic process as a Brazilian constant. On the other hand,

249 Andrade, Ensaio, 52.

87 there are several polyphonic processes that are typical to the Brazilian musical tradition that are commonly used by nationalist composers. Lacerda mentions four of these polyphonic processes: the singing in thirds common to the music of the states of São Paulo and Minas Gerais, called country thirds (terças caipiras in Portuguese); the melodic bass of the guitar in many genres of popular music; the counterpoint and thematic variations that Brazilian flautists add to several types of popular music; and the typical counterpoint of certain band instruments.250 (The latter will not be discussed in this dissertation since no band music is being analyzed).

Country Thirds (Terças Caipiras)

According to Lacerda, the style of singing in parallel thirds is well recognized in the country music of the southeastern states of São Paulo and Minas Gerais, what he calls country thirds (terças caipiras).251 Larry Crook claims that, in the northeast of Brazil, melodies in parallel thirds are also common. They can be heard in the fifes of the zabumba ensemble, which is formed by pífano fifes and zabumba drums.252 Lacerda cites the “Credo” from his Mass for Two Voices as an example of country thirds (Example 59).253

250 Lacerda, “Constâncias,” 84.

251 Ibid., 85.

252 Larry Crook, “Northeastern Brazil,” in Music in Latin American Culture: Regional Traditions, edited by John M. Schechter (New York: Schirmer Books, 1999), 194, 199.

253 Lacerda, “Constâncias,” 86.

88

Voices I and II

Organ

Example 59. Lacerda, Mass for Two Voices, “Credo,” mm. 1-9

Another example of country thirds can be found in his String Quartet No. 1, first movement. In this brief passage given as Example 60, the two violins move in thirds. Another Brazilian musical constant in this example is Brasileirinho in the first half of the measure, also in the violins.

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 60. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, First Movement, mm. 9

89 The second movement of the same work offers another instance of country thirds. As presented in Example 61, from the middle of measure 49 to the end of measure 51, the two violins play the melody in parallel thirds, with only two exceptions: the fourth downbeat of measure 50 (interval of a sixth) and the second downbeat of measure 51 (interval of a fourth).

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 61. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, Second Movement, mm. 46-51

Lacerda used country thirds again in “Sanfoneiro em Ré,” from Pequena Suíte for string quartet. In Example 62, once again, the two violins play a melody in parallel thirds, from the second beat of measure 7 to the first beat of measure 8.

90

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 62. Lacerda, Pequena Suíte, “Sanfoneiro em Ré,” mm. 5-8

In his String Quartet No. 2, Lacerda makes use of parallel thirds in two examples, but this time in the counterpoint rather than in the melody. In Example 63, the second violin and the viola play a countermelody to the theme in the first violin (measure 10 and first note of measure 11).

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 63. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Third Movement, mm. 8-11

Melodic Bass of the Guitar

Lacerda wrote, “Our popular music guitarists developed extremely characteristic creation processes of melodic bass usage. [Their bass lines] not only… admirably accompany the main melody, but many times also constitute independent melodic lines

91 of highly expressive value.”254 He goes on to say that the melodic bass of the guitar is common to all regions of the country and is found in many different genres of popular music.255 There are two elements that characterize the melodic bass in the Brazilian music. The first is the frequent use of Brazilian syncopations, both Brasileirinho and habanera. The second element is stepwise movement, in either diatonic or chromatic scales, present mainly in the second half of the measure, providing a smooth melodic transition to the next measure. One of the genres that Lacerda mentions where melodic manifestations of the bass can be found is in the waltz. 256 In his Segunda Valsa for oboe and piano, for example, Lacerda makes use of this polyphonic Brazilian constant. In Example 64, the left hand of the piano provides a melodic counterpoint to the oboe melody, as a Brazilian popular guitarist would do. In all the measures, the bass line connects to the following measure by stepwise motion.

Oboe

Piano

Example 64. Lacerda, Segunda Valsa, mm. 4-13

254 Ibid., 88.

255 Ibid.

256 Ibid.

92

Example 64 Continued

Lacerda’s Poemeto Erótico displays another example of Brazilian melodic bass. In Example 65, the bass of the piano plays in counterpoint to the melody, in this case, with the rhythmic figuration of habanera syncopation.

Voice

Piano

Example 65. Lacerda, Poemeto Erótico, mm. 7-14

There are numerous examples of melodic bass in the guitar fashion in Lacerda’s string quartets. Measures 12 to 21 of his String Quartet No. 1, first movement, provide a

93 good example of how the composer employs this particular bass-line character (Example 66). Here, the cello provides a counterpoint to the melody in the first violin. Habanera syncopation is present, in the cello part, in measures 13, 15, 16, 17, and 19, enhancing the Brazilian character of the line.

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 66. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, First Movement, mm. 13-20

In the second movement of the same work, the cello plays a melodic counterpoint to the viola melody, while the first and second violins supply a chordal accompaniment, as seen in the excerpt given as Example 67.

94

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 67. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, Second Movement, mm. 23-30

Another example of melodic bass is found in “Modinha” from Lacerda’s Pequena Suíte for string quartet. In Example 68, the cello has the melody from the beginning to measure 4. In measure 5, the cello part becomes the counterpoint for the melody now played by the viola.

Example 68. Lacerda, Pequena Suíte, “Modinha,” mm. 1-12

95

Example 68 Continued

In his String Quartet No. 2, an instance of melodic bass is present in the first movement. In measures 98 and 99 of Example 69, the cello plays a chromatic counterpoint to the first violin melody. From measure 100, it provides a counterpoint to the viola melody. One notices Brasileirinho in the cello part in the first half of measure 99, and habanera syncopation in measures 100 and 101. Also, the cello’s stepwise motion, which melodically connects each measure, is clear.

96

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 69. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, First Movement, mm. 96-103

Counterpoint and Thematic Variations of the Flute

According to Lacerda, another polyphonic element typical of Brazilian music is the counterpoint and thematic variations played by the flute. He states that “our popular [music] flutists, who are as talented and creative as our guitarists, developed very characteristic processes of melodic variation and counterpoint in several genres of popular music.”257 He also says that agility is one of the main qualities of these melodies due to the nature of the instrument.258 The agility of the flute is translated into the

257 Ibid., 90.

258 Ibid.

97 addition of notes to a melody that will create one or more countermelodies within the same instrument’s line. The first violin part in Lacerda’s String Quartet No. 1, first movement, captures the essence of the Brazilian flutists’ invention as seen in the excerpts in Examples 70 and 71, where the theme presented by the first violin in measure 6 (Example 70), is varied in measure 69 (Example 71). While the theme notes are kept in the upper register of the variation, other notes are added in a lower register, creating polyphony within the same instrument’s line.

Violin 1

Example 70. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, First Movement, mm. 5-16

Violin 1

Example 71. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, First Movement, mm. 68-78

98 Another example of flute-like counterpoint is present in “Dança,” the third movement of the same string quartet. In Example 72, the first violin line, which is itself a counterpoint to the cello melody, creates the effect of two interactive melodies. From measures 1 to 4, for instance, the first, second, third, fifth, and seventh notes (A, B, A, A, C) correspond to one melody, while the fourth, sixth, and eighth notes (F#, E, E) correspond to a second melody.

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 72. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, Third Movement, mm. 1-10

Harmony: Modulation to the Subdominant Minor in Minor Mode

In comparison to the melodic, rhythmic, and polyphonic constants of Brazilian music, scholars and nationalist composers alike have had greater difficulty in identifying

99 the harmonic constants of the country’s folk and popular music. According to Andrade, the harmonic processes of Brazilian music are the same as the European ones, which themselves do not have a national identity.259 Lacerda agrees with Andrade, but recognizes that there is one harmonic procedure that is very frequent in Brazilian popular music, especially in the urban music that originated in Rio de Janeiro known as modinha. This procedure, which can be considered a harmonic constant, is the modulation to the subdominant minor in pieces in minor mode.260 Modinha, a type of Brazilian love song that originated in the colonial period, is likely the genre that solidified this procedure. According to Béhague, “Harmonically the modulation to the subdominant observed in a great number of modinhas became so widely used in popular forms that it may be regarded as an authentic national trait.”261 Lacerda’s music reflects this harmonic nationalist consciousness. His work is essentially based on the European tonal system and incorporates many instances of this particular modulation. Macedo, in her dissertation on Lacerda’s piano studies, identify examples of the modulation to the subdominant minor in two of his piano studies in minor mode. In Piano Study No. 5, there is a modulation to G minor in measure 12 from the original key of D minor.262 Also, Study No. 9 in F# minor modulates to its subdominant minor B minor in measure 33.263 Lacerda confirms both instances of the use of the Brazilian harmonic constant in an interview with Macedo in November of 1999.264 “Valsinha” from his Pequena Suíte displays another example of the modulation to the subdominant minor. In this piece, which is in the key of A minor, one notices the modulation to D minor in measure 13, which is accomplished through its dominant seventh chord (A-C#-E-G) in measures 11 and 12 (Example 73).

259 Andrade, Ensaio, 49-50.

260 Lacerda, “Constâncias,” 78-80.

261 Béhague, “Popular Musical Currents,” 66.

262 Macedo, 67.

263 Ibid., 90.

264 Ibid., 67, 91.

100

Example 73. Lacerda, Pequena Suíte, “Valsinha Sincopada,” mm. 1-17

Now that we have examined Lacerda’s nationalistic musical characteristics, we will analyze his non-nationalistic characteristics in the next chapter. Both of these forces constitute the elements of Lacerda’s musical style.

101 CHAPTER V

NON-NATIONALISTIC ELEMENTS OF LACERDA’S MUSICAL STYLE

Non-nationalistic elements are also significant to Lacerda’s musical style, especially those influenced by Guarnieri, Villa-Lobos, and impressionism.

Camargo Guarnieri’s Influence

Vasco Mariz claims, “Osvaldo Lacerda’s musical idiom is nationalist …departing from his master [Camargo Guarnieri’s]…”265 Indeed, Guarnieri exerted great influence in Lacerda’s nationalist style. After ten years of teachings, Guarnieri greatly helped Lacerda to acquire and to consolidate his nationalist elements discussed earlier. By analyzing Lacerda’s work, though, one comes to the conclusion that Guarnieri’s influence was beyond nationalist traits and included non-nationalist elements as well. Some of these non-nationalist elements are the consistent use of augmented sixth chords, absence of key signatures in his scores, and his relationship to atonalism and twelve-tone music.

Augmented Sixth Chords

One of Lacerda’s stylistic traits is his fondness for the augmented sixth sonority. An analysis of his string quartets shows a frequent use of augmented sixth chords in a rich variety of ways. Especially indicative of Guarnieri’s influence is the fact that Lacerda uses augmented sixth chords, more often the French augmented sixth (Fr+6), at cadence points

265 Mariz, Figuras, 91-2.

102 preceding the tonic chord instead of the dominant chord, as is more usual.266 The next example shows such an instance (Example 74). In this example, the last chord of measure 30 (Ab-C-D-F#) is a French augmented sixth chord that resolves into the tonic chord in the key of G minor (Fr+6/i – i). It happens that this augmented chord can also be interpreted in G minor as the dominant seventh, with diminished fifth, in second inversion. The dominant function of this chord is emphasized by the presence of a low D (fifth scale degree) in the third beat of measure 30 in the cello part. Fialkow in his dissertation on Guarnieri’s Ponteios for solo piano points out that “[A] harmonic feature…in Guarnieri’s Ponteios…[is] the cadential use of dominant seventh chords with altered fifth, either by diminution or augmentation.”267 It is conceivable that Guarnieri, as Lacerda’s teacher for ten years, influenced his pupil in favoring this harmonic procedure from time to time.

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Example 74. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, Second Movement, mm. 27-31

266 For a useful survey of non-standard uses of augmented sixth chords see Daniel Harrison, “Supplement to the Theory of Augmented-Sixth Chords,” Music Theory Spectrum 17/2 (1995): 170-95.

267 Fialkow, 104.

103 Another example of a French augmented sixth chord used as dominant is present in Lacerda’s “Modinha,” from his string quartet Pequena Suíte (Example 75). The last chord of measure 3 (G#-D-E-Bb) is a French augmented sixth chord that resolves into the tonic in A minor. One notices the unusual fact that the G# is the lowest note, which inverts the augmented sixth interval into a diminished tenth instead (G#-Bb). Lacerda’s intention of using this chord as a dominant is confirmed by the presence of the Neapolitan chord (D-Bb-D-F) on the first beat of measure 3. Commonly, the Neapolitan chord has the function of a pre-dominant sonority. In addition, similarly to the prior example, the cello plays the fifth scale degree (E) on the third beat of measure 3.

Example 75. Lacerda, Pequena Suíte, “Modinha,” mm. 1-4

104 One finds another Fr+6/i – i cadence in the key of A minor in Lacerda’s String Quartet No. 2, first movement. Here, in Example 76, the French augmented sixth chord Bb-G#-D-E is in the last quarter note of measure 31.

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Example 76. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, First Movement, mm. 31-2

Another passage that displays Lacerda’s affinity for the augmented sixth interval is present in the third movement of his String Quartet No. 2. The passage in Example 77 contains three French augmented sixth chords with resolutions. The first is on the second beat of measure 12 (A-Eb-G-C#). Its quick resolution is the last note D in the first violin, in the same measure. The second chord is in measure 13, second beat (E-Bb-D-G#). It has an even quicker resolution with the last note A of the measure, also in the first violin. The last French sixth resolution of the passage is longer and has a stronger cadential meaning. It is the chord D-F#-Ab-C spread out from the second beat of measure 14 to the last beat of measure 16. It resolves into the tonic of G minor in measure 17. At this point, the cello starts playing the main theme.

105

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Example 77. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Third Movement, mm. 12-7

In Lacerda’s String Quartet No. 2, one notices the composer’s experimentations with the augmented sixth sonorities through the expansion of the uses of the chord beyond its traditional role and configurations. In measure 14 of the first movement, there is an augmented sixth interval produced in the duet of the viola and the cello (Example 78). In this example, the augmented sixth interval Ab-F# is left without its normal resolution into the note G.

106

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Example 78. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, First Movement, mm. 12-5

In measure 99, an augmented sixth chord is again used as a cadence element, but this time in a new chord configuration (Example 79). The last chord of measure 99 contains the augmented sixth interval Db (C# enharmonic) -B that resolves into the tonic in the key of C minor in measure 100. Instead of one of the traditional forms of augmented sixth chords, though (Italian, French, or German), this is a whole-tone chord (A-B-C#-Eb). This chord shows Lacerda’s impressionist influence, later discussed in more detail. In the second movement of the same work, a sequence of French augmented sixth chords illustrates Lacerda’s experimentation with the augmented sixth chord and his affection for Impressionist procedures. The last chords of measures 101, 102, and 103 in Example 80 are French augmented sixth chords. Each of the chords in measures 101 and 102 can be heard to resolve into one of the notes in the following arpeggio (the augmented sixth Eb-C# of measure 101 resolves into the fifth of the chord G-B-D and the augmented sixth Bb-G# of measure 102 resolves into the fifth of the chord D-F#-A-C#). The French augmented sixth chord of measure 103 (F-A-B-D#) does not resolve in a traditional manner. The parallel progression of these chords is a typical impressionist procedure.268

268 The Harvard Dictionary of Music, s. v. “Parallel Chords.”

107

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Example 79. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, First Movement, mm. 96-100

Lacerda also changes the augmented sixth interval’s function. Its traditional function is to emphasize a tone by approaching it by a half step from both above and below. Instead, as in Example 81, the composer makes use of a French augmented sixth chord in an enharmonic modulation. In measure 32, a G-major chord with minor seventh (G-B-D-F) gives a hint of a cadence into a C chord. The note C# in the first violin in measure 33 seems to function as a lower neighbor to the D, but heard as Db it results in a French augmented sixth chord (G-B-Db-F). Instead of resolving into a C chord, Lacerda introduces an enharmonic modulation to F# minor in the second beat of measure 34. The F in the second violin from measure 33 becomes an E# in measure 34. The C# of the first violin moves to the viola, the B from the viola moves to the cello, and the G of the cello moves up a half step and becomes the first violin’s G#. This dominant seventh chord then resolves into the tonic of F# minor in measure 35.

108

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Example 80. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Second Movement, mm. 99-105

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Example 81. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Third Movement, mm. 32-5

109 Another unresolved augmented sixth occurs in measure 66 of the third movement, demonstrating that Lacerda favors this sonority for its own sake, regardless of functionality (Example 82). The French augmented sixth chord in the second half of the first beat of measure 66 (Bb-E-G#-D) does not resolve into an A chord, as it would be expected. The same example also contains a German augmented sixth chord at the end of measure 66 (Ab-C-Eb-F#). This chord resolves normally into a G-minor chord in the next measure.

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Example 82. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Third Movement, mm. 66-7

Finally, Lacerda employs a German augmented sixth chord in the last cadence of the piece. The German augmented sixth chord in measure 175 (Db-Ab-B-F) of Example 83 resolves into the tonic of C major in measure 177.

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Example 83. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Fourth Movement, mm. 175-8

110 One finds augmented sixth chords in Lacerda’s other works as well. Macedo points out two instances of this sonority in the composer’s Piano Studies. About Study No. 6, she wrote, “The intervals of a second in both hands in the first measure resemble an inverted French sixth chord, although, within an atonal ambience, the intended sonority is of dissonance with tritones between the notes D and Ab, and between E and Bb” (Example 84).269 Although Macedo discards this chord as a legitimate French augmented sixth, one can interpret this passage as another expansion of its traditional function. Lacerda treats the chord as having two augmented sixth intervals and resolves both of them linearly. He resolves the interval Fb (E enharmonic) –D into the D# in the fourth beat of the measure. He will then treat the interval Bb-Ab as another augmented sixth (Bb-G#) and resolve it into the note A in the left hand of the piano, also in the last beat of the measure.

Piano

Example 84. Lacerda, Piano Study No. 6, m. 1

Macedo also mentions the beginning of Piano Study No. 8, by saying “…the notes played simultaneously by both hands form chords that can be compared to the French sixth, but with three notes” (Example 85).270 Macedo is right in pointing out the augmented sixth sonority but the chords created in the first, third, and fifth sixteenth notes are in the Italian configuration, not French. They all resolve in the following note of

269 Macedo, 74.

270 Ibid., 83.

111 the piano left hand part, proving once more Lacerda’s fascination with the augmented sixth sonority.

Piano

Example 85. Lacerda, Piano Study No. 8, m. 1

Absence of Key Signature

In his doctoral dissertation, Fialkow wrote that after 1928 Guarnieri started to omit a key signature in his compositions.271 By analyzing a number of Lacerda’s pieces, it can be seen that the absence of key signature is one of his habits as well, especially in his music composed after 1952, the year that he started to study with Guarnieri. Poemeto Erótico for voice and piano is the only one of Lacerda’s pieces analyzed in this treatise that contains a key signature (two flats). It was composed in 1951, a fact that suggests that Guarnieri influenced Lacerda in writing music without a key signature, although the style of both composers is strongly tonal.

Atonalism and Twelve-Tone Music

Another way that Lacerda was influenced by Guarnieri is with his opinion about atonalism and twelve-tone music. Guarnieri’s idea was that, while free atonalism is acceptable as one of the technical tools available to nationalist composers, the stricter twelve-tone serial system has to be vigorously combated for being anti-national. This influence is reflected in Lacerda’s musical style.

271 Fialkow, 101.

112 Atonalism Concerning nationalist composition, Guarnieri’s mentor Mário de Andrade wrote, “Avant-garde tendencies… [are] acceptable, provided the music exhibits some element of the Brazilian musical tradition.”272 Guarnieri, although strongly adept in tonal styles, started to study atonalism in 1933.273 He said that during the years of 1933 and 1934 he had “a period of infatuation with atonalism.”274 Atonalism was then incorporated in his style as one of the harmonic options of his musical vocabulary. Appleby affirms that as recently as the 1970s, Guarnieri wrote non-tonal works, citing the composer’s Sonata for piano of 1972 and his Fifth Symphony of 1977.275 Following his master’s example, Lacerda also explored the atonal arena. Although his work is mostly tonal, he feels that free atonalism is a valid compositional tool.276 Lacerda states, “I use the harmonic system that will fit a specific composition. If I want to write a modal piece, I do it. If I want to write an atonal piece (free atonal, not twelve- tone) I do it. And if I want to write a piece with tonic and dominant in C major, I do it.”277 Macedo classifies Lacerda’s Piano Studies Nos. 2, 3, 6, and 8 as having an “atonal character.”278 According to Mariz, Lacerda “tried to conciliate nationalism and atonalism in his Inventions Nos.2 and 4 for solo piano,”279 while Caldeira Filho describes Lacerda’s Sonata for viola and piano of 1962 as having an “atonal ambience.”280

272 Hamilton, 105-6.

273 Ibid., 159.

274 Fialkow, 14.

275 Appleby, Music of Brazil, 153.

276 Lacerda, interview by the author.

277 Ibid.

278 Macedo, 19, 41.

279 Mariz, História da Música, 320.

280 João da Cunha Caldeira Filho, A Aventura da Música: Subsídios Críticos para Apreciação Musical (São Paulo, Brazil: Ricordi Brasileira, 1968), 134.

113 Twelve-Tone Music On the other hand, twelve-tone music – which was brought to Brazil by German composer Hans Joachim Koellreuter in the late 1930s281 – was aggressively combated by both Guarnieri and Lacerda. According to Fialkow, nationalists saw twelve-tone techniques as an international element that represented a threat to the Brazilian musical tradition.282 Guarnieri led the nationalist reaction and published, in 1950, the famous article “Open Letter to Musicians and Critics in Brazil” (“Carta Aberta aos Músicos e Críticos do Brasil”). In the article, he attacked Schoenberg’s system and urged musicians and critics to defend Brazilian music. Lacerda shares Guarnieri’s opinion that twelve-tone music is anti-national and adds that it is also too simplistic a technique. According to him, “A child that can count from one to twelve and knows note values can become a twelve-tone composer.”283 Notwithstanding his very conservative (and strongly stated) point of view, Lacerda himself has employed the technique three times, but always in the context of a protest against it.284 The first time was in his Three Studies for percussion. In the middle of the last movement, “Rondo,” the vibraphone introduces a twelve-tone series. “It comes as an intruder, a foreigner. Then, the other instruments respond, expelling the stranger with a Brazilian element of the music of the northeast and the piece ends.”285 In “Sambinha Dodecafônico” (“Little Twelve-Tone Samba”) from his Three Brazilian Miniatures for percussion of 1968, he wanted “to show the dodecaphonists that it is possible to make Brazilian music with twelve-tone technique…although it is anti- nationalist.”286 In the excerpt given as Example 86, the vibraphone plays the twelve-tone

281 Edino Krieger, “Vanguard Music in Brazil,” in Music in Brazil: Now (Brasília, Brazil: Ministério das Relações Exteriores do Brasil, 1974), 33.

282 Fialkow, 10-1.

283 Lacerda, interview by the author.

284 Ibid.

285 Ibid.

286 Ibid.

114 series G-F#-C-C#-F-B-Bb-E-Eb-D-A-G#. The Brazilian elements here are Brasileirinho syncopations in the vibraphone, tom-tom, and bass drum parts and the 3+3+2 rhythm pattern in the tambourine part.

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Tambourine

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Example 86. Lacerda, Three Miniatures for Percussion, “Sambinha Dodecafônico,” mm. 1-10

In Lacerda’s Caderno de Cromos No. 5, the first movement is called “Metrônomo Dodecafônico” (“Twelve-Tone Metronome”). There, he feels that it is appropriate to use a twelve-tone series to depict the metronome since it is “a cold machine.”287

Villa-Lobos’ Influence

According to Fernandez, Villa-Lobos made an important contribution to Brazilian music in the twentieth century by being the first to bring “harmonic solutions to our music.”288 Béhague states that, in the 1910s, even before getting acquainted with the music of Debussy and Stravinsky, Villa-Lobos was already using modern harmonic

287 Ibid.

288 Fernandez, 284.

115 procedures such as unresolved dissonances, altered or incomplete chords, tone clusters, bitonality and polytonality.289 These very elements are present in Osvaldo Lacerda’s music. Being the most important composer in Brazilian nationalism, Villa-Lobos exerted a predictable influence (directly or indirectly) on Lacerda’s style.

Unresolved Dissonances

In general, Fernandez classified Villa-Lobos’ added chord notes as unresolved appoggiaturas and affirmed that they were a characteristic element of the composer’s style.290

Minor Chord with Major Seventh As an instance of unresolved appoggiatura Fernandez cites the last chord of Villa- Lobos’ String Quartet No. 2 of 1915, where the composer writes an A-minor chord with augmented fourth and major seventh (A-C-E-D#-G#). In Lacerda’s music one can find several examples of minor chords with a major seventh. (Although not identical to Villa- Lobos’ chord for not having the augmented fourth, Lacerda does use chords with this interval as discussed in later examples.) One example of a minor-major seventh chord is the last chord of the first movement of Lacerda’s Sonata for oboe and piano (Example 87). It is a G-minor chord with a major seventh (G-Bb-D-F#). One could, as Fernandez did in Villa-Lobos’ case, consider the F# as an unresolved appoggiatura that should resolve up to G.

289 Béhague, Music in Latin America, 242-3.

290 Fernandez, 290.

116

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Example 87. Lacerda, Sonata for oboe and piano, First Movement, mm. 139-140

Another example of a minor-major seventh chord is the last chord of the first movement of Lacerda’s String Quartet No. 2 (Example 88). Here, the notes C-Eb-G-B characterize a C-minor chord with major seventh.

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Example 88. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, First Movement, mm.142-4

In Lacerda’s Lídio there are two such chords in consecutive measures (Example 89). In this example, the first chord of measure 55 is a Bb minor-major seventh chord, Bb-Db-F-A, and the second chord of measure 56 is a Db minor-major seventh chord, Db- E (Fb enharmonic)-Ab-C.

117

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Example 89. Lacerda, Lídio, mm. 52-6

Added Augmented Fourth Chords In addition to the Villa-Lobos’ String Quartet No. 2 example, Fernandez mentions other pieces where the composer added the augmented fourth interval to chords such as “Boizinho de Chumbo” from Prole do Bebê (1918), “O Lobozinho de Vidro” from Cirandas (1926), Chôro No.11 (1928), Momo Precoce (1929), and Uirapurú (1917).291 Likewise, Lacerda added the augmented fourth to the A-minor harmony in the beginning of his “Valsinha Sincopada” (Example 90). By adding the D# in the viola part,

291 Ibid., 286, 288, 291.

118 Lacerda created a tone cluster with the E in the second violin. Tone clusters are also, according to Béhague, a harmonic characteristic of Villa-Lobos’ music.292

Example 90. Lacerda, Pequena Suíte, “Valsinha Sincopada,” mm. 1-4

Another instance of a minor chord with added augmented fourth is present in Lacerda’s String Quartet No. 2. Just like in the previous example, the augmented fourth G# in measure 15 of Example 91 creates a cluster with the fifth of the chord, A. These notes are in the violins.

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Example 91. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Second Movement, mm. 12-5

292 Béhague, Music in Latin America, 242-3.

119 An interesting chord with added augmented fourth is the last chord of Lacerda’s Toada for oboe and piano (Example 92). This chord (Bb-D-F-C#-E) has, in addition to the augmented fourth E, the note C#. This note is enharmonic of the minor third Db, what makes this chord simultaneously major and minor. Fernandez cites a similar chord (C- Eb-E-G-B) used by Villa-Lobos in his Trio No. 3 and classifies it as bitonal.293 The use of bitonal chords is yet another element shared by Villa-Lobos and Lacerda, later discussed with more examples.

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Example 92. Lacerda, Toada, mm. 80-3

The next example from Segunda Valsa for oboe and piano shows a chord used by Lacerda that, in addition to the augmented fourth, has also the minor seventh and minor ninth (Example 93). In this example, the chord in question is in measure 30 (D-F#-A-G#- C-Eb).

293 Fernandez, 287.

120

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Example 93. Lacerda, Segunda Valsa, mm. 28-31

Added Sixth Chords Fernandez also mentions Villa-Lobos’ chords with added sixth in such works as Oratório Vidapura (1919), A Fiandeira (1921), “A Condessa” and “Nesta Rua” from Cirandas (1926), “A Boneca de Massa” from Prole do Bebê (1918), Chôro No. 11 (1928), Bachianas Brasileiras No. 4 (1935), and Momo Precoce (1929).294 Lacerda also used chords with added sixth in several occasions. One such occasion is in the last chord of his Sonata for oboe and piano (Example 94). This is a G-major chord with major sixth and major seventh, just like the C chord used by Villa-Lobos to end his Trio No. 2, as mentioned by Fernandez.295

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Example 94. Lacerda, Sonata for oboe and piano, Third Movement, m. 135

294 Ibid., 285-8, 291.

295 Ibid., 287.

121 Added Ninth Chords In the last measure of the third movement of his String Quartet No. 2, Lacerda employs a G-minor chord with major ninth (Example 95). Villa-Lobos had already used this chord but with the extra major sixth at the end of his Bachianas Brasileiras No. 4, as Fernandez pointed out.296 The note B of the second violin is flat as it is tied over from a Bb in the prior measure (not seen in this example).

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Example 95. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Third Movement, m. 80

Incomplete Chords

As mentioned earlier, one of Villa-Lobos’ harmonic procedures is the use of incomplete chords.297 One finds an incomplete chord at the end of Lacerda’s Ária for cello and piano suggesting that this is another element shared by both composers (Example 96). The chord in measure 76 (E-B-F#-A) is an E chord with added fourth and ninth, but no third.

296 Ibid., 288.

297 Béhague, Music in Latin America, 242-3.

122

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Example 96. Lacerda, Ária, mm. 74-6

Bitonality

According to Fialkow, Villa-Lobos’ friendship with French composer Darius Milhaud after 1917 exposed the Brazilian composer to bitonal and polytonal procedures.298 Fernandez, on the other hand, believed that the tonal instability of Villa- Lobos’ music from as early as 1913 would naturally lead the composer to bitonality, polytonality, and even atonality.299 Regardless whether Villa-Lobos absorbed these procedures from Milhaud or developed them through his own experimentations, there are examples of bitonality and polytonality in his music. As previously seen, Fernandez cites Villa-Lobos’ chords with both minor and major thirds as examples of the composer’s bitonal style. Lacerda, like Villa-Lobos, also uses bitonal harmonic procedures. In addition to the chord in example 92, Lacerda used a bitonal chord in his Segunda Valsa for oboe and piano (Example 97). Here, the chord Eb- F# (Gb enharmonic)-G-Bb-D in measure 31 is simultaneously an Eb minor and major chord with seventh.

298 Fialkow, 6.

299 Fernandez, 285.

123

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Example 97. Lacerda, Segunda Valsa, mm. 28-31

In the next example, from Lacerda’s String Quartet No. 2, another bitonal chord is present (Example 98). In measure 14 of this excerpt, one finds an F minor/major chord, F-G# (Ab enharmonic)-A-C.

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Example 98. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Second Movement, mm. 12-4

Impressionism

Impressionism has been very influential in the music of Latin America since the early twentieth century. According to Béhague, Latin American composers, with few

124 exceptions, started to adopt Debussy’s compositional procedures in the 1910s.300 Brazilian composers were no different. Neves affirms that Brazilian composers felt strongly attracted to impressionism because it represented at the same time a reaction to the Wagnerian influence of the end of the nineteenth century, a fresh approach to composition, and the “maintenance of the great laws of tonality.”301 In my interview with Lacerda, he stated that he finds Debussy’s harmonies “wonderful” and that twentieth-century music rests on the French composer’s contributions.302 Lacerda incorporated impressionist traits into his musical style such as whole-tone scale, quartal sonorities, planing, and pedal points.

Whole-Tone Scale

Robert Ottman, in his book Advanced Harmony: Theory and Practice, explains that the whole-tone scale, which is a scale entirely composed of major seconds, is characteristic of the impressionist music of Debussy.303 In Lacerda’s String Quartet No. 2, five instances of the use of the whole-tone scale, used both melodically and harmonically, are found. In the first movement, Lacerda employs the scale twice in the span of three measures (Example 99). In this example, from measure 97 to the first note of measure 98, the first violin plays the whole-tone scale Db-Eb-F-G-A-B. The last note of measure 97 (Bb) is ostensibly a chromatic passing tone. In the same excerpt, the last chord of measure 99 is composed by four notes of a whole-tone scale, A-B-C#-Eb. This is also an augmented sixth chord that was previously discussed.

300 Béhague, Music in Latin America, 243.

301 Neves, 19, 78.

302 Lacerda, interview by the author.

303 Robert W. Ottman, Advanced Harmony: Theory and Practice, 5th ed. (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2000), 371.

125

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Example 99. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, First Movement, mm. 96-9

The same chord (now spelled A-B-C#-D#) is present in the second movement of the quartet in measure 39, second beat, as seen in the excerpt in Example 100. If, in this passage, one considers the first note of the cello in the same measure (G) to be part of the chord, then it contains five whole-tone scale notes, G-A-B-C#-D#.

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Example 100. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Second Movement, mm. 36-40

Still in the second movement, Lacerda makes an interesting use of the whole-tone scale by combining its pitches harmonically and melodically (Example 101). The passage from the last chord of measure 103 to the last note of measure 105 contains the notes of

126 the whole-tone scale G-A-B-C#-D#-F. The only exception is the note D in measure 104 which is a chromatic passing tone.

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Example 101. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Second Movement, mm. 103-5

In the fourth movement, Lacerda uses yet another whole-tone chord (Example 102). This time, the chord in measure 46 contains the entire whole-tone scale G#-A#-C- D-E-F#.

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Example 102. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Fourth Movement, mm. 45-6

127 Quartal Sonorities

According to Adrianne Auvil, quartal harmony is “the generic term for any sonority based on construction by the superposition of either fourths or fifths.”304 Ottman affirms that quartal sonorities are part of Debussy’s music style.305 Lacerda assimilated this impressionist procedure into his musical vocabulary as well. One example of a quartal sonority in the Brazilian composer’s music is in his Ária for cello and piano. In measure 75 of Example 103, the piano plays an arpeggio of superposed fourths, E-A-D-G-C-F#-B. Incidentally, this is the pitch collection of the E- minor scale.

Cello

Piano

Example 103. Lacerda, Ária, mm. 74-6

Lacerda employs quartal sonorities in two of his four string quartets. In his String Quartet No. 1, one finds two instances of such a sonority. The first is in measure 6 of the piece’s first movement (Example 104). The last chord of measure 6 is a quartal sonority composed by the rearrangement of the fourths E-A, A-D, and D-G.

304 Adrianne M. Auvil, “A Survey of the Evolution and Use of Quartal and Quintal Sonorities, 1890-1960” (Ph.D. diss., Eastman School of Music of the University of Rochester, 1973), 62.

305 Ottman, Advanced Harmony, 379.

128

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 104. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, First Movement, mm. 5-6

The second quartal sonority is in the same movement, measure 22 (Example 105). Here, the note F# of the first violin is supported by the chord C-G-D-A. This chord is a quartal sonority containing the superposition of fifths.

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 105. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 1, First Movement, mm. 21-2

The superposition of fifths produces a quartal sonority in Lacerda’s String Quartet No. 2. The quartal chord G-D-A-E is in the first part of measure 61 of Example 106. It appears again in measure 62, second beat, but this time without the note E.

129

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 106. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, First Movement, mm. 58-62

Planing

An analysis of Lacerda’s music shows that it contains instances of planing. Planing or parallelism is the harmonic progression in parallel motion. It is a process common to the music of Debussy and can be a progression of simple triads, seventh chords, augmented triads, or any other kinds of sonorities.306 There can be strict planing, when the quality of the chords does not change, and diatonic planing, when vertical sonorities are “determined by the prevailing diatonic scale.”307 Two of Lacerda’s string quartets display the use of planing, demonstrating his assimilation of this impressionist procedure.

306 Ibid., 377-8.

307 Stefan Kostka and Dorothy Payne, Tonal Harmony with an Introduction to Twentieth-Century Music, 3rd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1995), 502.

130 In Lídio for string quartet, there is a passage where the cello arpeggiates the outline of three chords in parallel motion (Example 107). By playing the tonic, fifth, and octave of the chords F major, G major, and A minor, the cello part results in parallel fifths and octaves moving upwards in intervals of major seconds.

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 107. Lacerda, Lídio, mm. 24-5

An extended strict planing is present in the same work from measures 33 to 38 where a parallel progression of augmented chords takes place (Example 108). By focusing on the cello and viola parts of this example, the planing becomes clearer. While the cello sustains the tonic of the chords, the viola arpeggiates them. From measure 33 to 34, there progresses one chord per measure (Db+5, Eb+5, and E+5). From measure 36 to beginning of measure 38, there are two chords per measure, moving chromatically upwards (A+5, Bb+5, B+5, C+5, and Db+5).

131

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 108. Lacerda, Lídio, mm. 32-8

The next example from Lacerda’s String Quartet No. 2 shows a subtler and shorter planing than the previous excerpt. In measures 45 and 46 of Example 109, although displaying a progression of four seventh chords, the parallel voicing is only kept from the first to the second chords and from the second to the third. The two chords in measure 45, F-Ab-C-Eb and Db-F-Ab-Cb, move in parallel motion (diatonic planing in this case): the tonic of the chords are in the cello, the third in the second violin, the fifth in the first violin, and the seventh in the viola. Strict planing occurs between the second chord of measure 45, Db-F-Ab-Cb, and the first chord of measure 46, Ab-C-Eb-Gb in the cello and the viola parts.

132

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 109. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, First Movement, mm. 43-6

In the second movement of the same work, Lacerda employs strict planing involving French augmented sixth chords. In Example 110, the last chords of measures 101, 102, and 103 are French augmented sixth chords that move upwards in parallel motion and intervals of a fifth.

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 110. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Second Movement, mm. 99-103

133

Example 110 Continued

Pedal Point

Ottman states that impressionist music features the “frequent use of long pedal points on the tonic against more or less unrelated progressions (in the traditional sense) in the upper voices [in order to] maintain tonal stability.”308 The music of Lacerda displays instances of this procedure, demonstrating the composer’s incorporation of this impressionist element into his style. His Lídio has a good example of pedal point. As seen in Example 111, the cello plays an F pedal note from measure 65 to measure 68. The upper string instruments arpeggiate an F#-major chord in measures 65 and 66, resolving into F major, the tonic key, in measure 67. It is clear in this passage that the cello pedal maintains the tonal stability by holding the tonic note.

308 Ottman, Advanced Harmony, 370.

134

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Cello

Example 111. Lacerda, Lídio, mm. 64-8

Lacerda also makes use of a pedal point in his String Quartet No. 2, as in this excerpt (Example 112) where the cello holds the pedal note G, starting in measure 2. Meanwhile, the upper voices move harmonically in G minor from i in measure 2 to V7/iv in the second beat of measure 4, to iv in measure 5, to It+6/i in the third beat of measure 6, and back to i in measure 8. The pedal point at the end of Lacerda’s Ária for cello and piano ensures the tonal stability of the piece as the harmonies above are inconclusive (Example 113). As the left hand of the piano holds an E pedal from measure 73 (joined by the cello in measure 75) the upper harmony contains altered chords. There is a bII7 chord (F-A-C-E) in measure 73, followed by a bV7 chord (Bb-D-F-Ab) in measure 74, a quartal chord in measure 75 (E-A-D-G-C-F#-B), and finally a i chord in measure 76. However, the latter chord is not very stable. It is altered, having the ninth and eleventh added and no third.

135

Example 112. Lacerda, String Quartet No. 2, Third Movement, mm. 1-8

136

Cello

Piano

Example 113. Lacerda, Ária, mm. 70-6

137 CONCLUSION

This study has explored the musical style and ideas of Brazilian composer Osvaldo Lacerda through the discussion of his influences and development and the analysis of selected solo and ensemble pieces. As a representative of the Brazilian musical nationalistic movement, he inherited many important stylistic characteristics from important figures such as Alexandre Levy, Alberto Nepomuceno, Mário de Andrade, and Camargo Guarnieri. Levy influenced Lacerda in the use of rhythms from Brazilian folk and popular music such as Brasileirinho and habanera syncopation. Nepomuceno’s contributions to later generations of nationalist composers, including Lacerda, are the use of Mixolydian mode, melodies ending in scale degrees other than the tonic, vocal music with Portuguese texts, and support of national music and musicians. Lacerda greatly shaped his nationalist musical style around Andrade’s research on Brazilian musical constants, i.e., the melodic, rhythmic, polyphonic, and harmonic patterns present in folk and popular music. Finally, his ten years of study with Guarnieri (1952-62) helped him to develop and consolidate his compositional skills and his commitment to nationalism. The outline of Lacerda’s pedagogical career and membership in musical organizations in Chapter III shows that the composer has played an important role in the training of generations of Brazilian musicians and in the promotion of the national music. Further, the analysis of selected works by Lacerda in Chapters IV and V demonstrates that his musical style contains nationalistic and non-nationalistic elements. The nationalistic elements can be divided into four categories: melodic, rhythmic, polyphonic, and harmonic. In the melodic category, one observes the use of Gregorian modes (Mixolydian, Lydian, the hybrid “Northeast,” and Dorian), pentatonic and hexatonic scales, melodies with a descending contour, large melodic intervals, narrow-ranged melodies, and melodies ending in scale degrees other than the tonic. The rhythmic category includes the presence of syncopations (Brasileirinho and habanera), ostinatos, quick repeated notes, and the 3+3+2 rhythmic pattern. In the polyphonic category, Lacerda uses voices singing in parallel thirds (country thirds or terças caipiras), bass parts that imitate the popular guitarists’ bass lines, and counterpoint and thematic

138 variations in the style of the popular music flutists. In the harmonic category, one observes Lacerda’s use of a procedure common to Brazilian popular music, namely the modulation to the subdominant minor in minor-mode works. The non-nationalistic elements in the composer’s style can be grouped according to his influences: Camargo Guarnieri, Heitor Villa-Lobos, and impressionism. Guarnieri’s non-nationalistic influences include Lacerda’s fondness for the augmented sixth harmonic interval, the absence of key signature in his scores, his acceptance of free atonalism, and his strong opposition to twelve-tone music. Villa-Lobos’ influences include Lacerda’s use of chords with unresolved dissonances, and incomplete and bitonal chords. From the impressionist musical style, the composer makes use of traits such as the whole-tone scale, quartal sonorities, parallel chord progressions (planing), and pedal point. Compared to mid-nineteenth-century European nationalism, the nationalist movement in Brazil might seem strangely delayed, as the contributions of its greatest figures (Andrade, Villa-Lobos, and Guarnieri) derived from the first half of the twentieth century. From the Brazilian historical point of view, however, the timing of the movement is quite logical. Brazil only became politically independent from Portugal in 1889 with the Proclamation of the Republic and twentieth-century nationalism was an appropriate reaction of a freshly born nation in search of its cultural individuality. Lacerda’s greatest contributions are his conviction with which he has embraced nationalist ideas and aesthetic and his willingness to combine them with more universal composition techniques. He has empowered Brazilians with the awareness of the unique elements of their artistic expression. In addition, by incorporating non-nationalist elements into his style, he has demonstrated how to keep nationalist music from stagnancy and viable as an artistic idiom for twentieth-first-century musical expression.

139 APPENDIX A

Human Subject Approval

140 APPENDIX B

Human Subject Consent Form

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147

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Carlos Audi was born in São Paulo, Brazil. There he started his music studies at the age of seven. Mr. Audi attended the Escola Municipal de Música de São Paulo and the Faculdade Santa Marcelina, where he studied music theory with Osvaldo Lacerda and cello with Maria Cecília Brucoli. In Brazil, he also received cello instruction from Zigmunt Kubala and Robert Suetholz. Mr. Audi earned a Bachelor of Music degree from the Faculdade Mozarteum de São Paulo and a Master of Music degree from the University of South Carolina, where he studied cello with Dr. Robert Jesselson. At the Florida State University he studied with cello professor Lubomir Georgiev. As a cellist, Mr. Audi has been a member of several orchestras in Brazil and in the United States. In Brazil, these orchestras include the Orquestra Sinfônica de Santo André, the Orquestra Experimental de Repertório, and the Orquestra Sinfônica da Universidade de São Paulo, where he played under the direction of Camargo Guarnieri. In the United States, his orchestral experiences include the South Carolina Philharmonic Orchestra, the Tallahassee, Augusta (GA) and Albany (GA) Symphony Orchestras, and the Tampa Opera Orchestra. Mr. Audi is also very active as a cello and orchestra teacher. He has been a faculty member at the Clearwater Christian College, Florida State University Summer Camp, and Hillsborough County Schools.

148