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Home , Chopin (opera), Mazurka, Mazurkas (Chopin), Musical nationalism, Music of Poland, Nocturnes (Chopin)

and Cory McKay Departments of and Computer Science University of Guelph Guelph, Ontario, Canada, N1G 2W 1

The nineteenth century was a time when he had a Polish mother and was raised in people were looking for something new and Poland, his father was French. Finally, there exciting in the arts. The Romantics valued is no doubt that Chopin was trained exten- the exotic and many artists, writers and sively in the conventional musical styles of created works that conjured im- western Europe while growing up in Poland. ages of distant places, in terms of both time It is thus understandable that at first glance and location. Nationalist movements were some would see the Polish influence on rising up all over Europe, leading to an em- Chopin's music as trivial. Indeed, there cer- phasis on distinctive cultural styles in music tainly are compositions of his which show rather than an international homogeneity. very little Polish influence. However, upon Franciszek Chopin used this op- further investigation, it becomes clear that portunity to go beyond the conventions of the music that he heard in Poland while his time and introduce music that had the growing up did indeed have a persistent and unique character of his native Poland to the pervasive influence on a large proportion of ears of western Europe. Chopin wrote music his music. with a distinctly Polish flare that was influ- The Polish influence is most obviously ential in the Polish nationalist movement. seen in Chopin's and , Before proceeding to discuss the politi- both of which are traditional Polish cal aspect of Chopin's work, it is first neces- forms. The originated in Poland sary to establish that the musical styles of during the 16th century as a stately proces- Poland truly are evident in his music. There sional dance in triple meter. It had diffused are certain schools of thought, particularly in throughout Europe by Chopin's time, so his France and Germany, which hold that his use of the form was something less than work has much more in common with the revolutionary. He did, however, write far music of western Europe than with Poland. more polonaises than most composers in the It is argued that, although there certainly are west and he treated the form more seriously some token elements of Polish styles in his than most of them. He was also much truer music, the majority of his works were much to the original form of the dance than most more influenced by the music that he heard composers of the time, as can be seen in the in the aristocratic salons while living in particularly Polish character of the Polo- Paris. It has been said in conjunction to this naise in A flat Op. 53 and Polonaise in F that Chopin's music is really no more na- sharp minor Op. 44. His first composition, tional in style than that of Schumann or Bee- at the age of seven, was a polonaise, and he thoven and that it was only the Romantic continued to write them through his entire ideal of valuing the exotic that caused him to career. be hailed as a nationalist .1 The , on the other hand, was a It is true that Chopin cannot have helped form that was virtually unknown outside of but have been influenced by the music he Poland. It originated as a peasant dance in heard in Paris. It is also true that, although the province where Chopin was born, Ma- zovia. As a youth, Chopin frequently visited the Polish countryside and took great pains 1 Vaughn W illiams, National Music, (Oxford: to write down the folk that he heard Oxford University Press, 1987), 55. there.2 He drew on this collection for use in rather than obscuring it. Mazurka in F sharp many of his later works, and it was probably minor Op. 6 No. 1, shown in example 1, is a here that he first encountered the mazurka. good example of this. It shows how Chopin often mixed western diatonic elements and The unusual harmonies, and the Polish chromaticism in the sequences com- pervasive chromaticism of Chopin's mazur- mon in the genre. kas seemed very strange to listeners accus- tomed to western European music, causing Polish also shows some traits some critics to react badly. Ludwig Rellstab common in Arabian music, probably be- wrote this on the subject of Chopin's first cause of Poland's proximity to . One two books of mazurkas: "In search of ear- such trait is the melodic use of the aug- splitting dissonances, tortured transitions, mented second.6 This influence can be seen piercing modulations, disgusting disloca- in some of Chopin's music, such as the pas- tions of the melody and , he is unre- sage shown in example 2 from the Mazurka mitting and, we would say, inexhaustible."3 Op. 7 No. 1. This type of criticism is an indication of how Chopin also incorporated the syncopated this Polish form was authentically different rhythms common in Polish folk music into from western styles. his mazurkas. The second or third beat ac- It is true that criticisms of Chopin's un- cents in traditional danced mazurkas are ac- usual compositional techniques were also companied by foot stomping. Chopin ap- launched at pieces that were not so obvi- plied this to his mazurkas through accents, ously Polish as his mazurkas, primarily his as can be seen in example 3 from the Ma- early . However, there is no doubt zurka in D major Op. 33 No. 2. This was that the mazurkas and their distinctly Polish novel to the ears of his Parisian listeners, character received a disproportionately high and several listeners, such as Charles Hallé, amount of criticism.4 Indeed, much of the were so disoriented with this syncopation strangeness for which pieces like the Noc- that they insisted that the mazurkas are writ- turne in G minor Op. 15 No. 3 were criti- ten in duple time rather than triple time.7 cized was a result of the presence of ma- Chopin also used the church modes zurka-like gestures that are incorporated into common in the of Poland, but them.5 took some steps to soften the blow to Pari- A triple meter characterizes traditional sians who had grown up listening almost Polish mazurkas, with a strong accent on the exclusively to music in the major or minor normally weak third beat. They frequently modes. Example 4, from the Mazurka Op. contain chromaticism and stray outside the 24 No. 2, shows one way in which Chopin realm of the major and minor into church did this. He uses the but modes, the Lydian in particular. It is true avoids the third in the dominant seventh that Chopin did temper his mazurkas some- chord in the fourth measure. G natural what with the influence of western theory, would have sounded out of place in the con- but the significance of this should not be text of the seventh chord, while A sharp over-emphasized. He clearly allowed the would have destroyed the Aeolian character Polish character of his mazurkas to shine of the passage.8 through, building on it with western theory

2 Edgar Stillman Kelley, Chopin the Composer, (New York: Cooper Square Publishers Inc., 1969), 14. 3 Larry Todd, Nineteenth Century Music, 6 Kelley, Chopin the Composer, 20-21. (New York: Schirmer Books), 236. 7 Todd, Nineteenth Century Piano Music, 243- 4 Ibid., 236. 244. 5 Ibid., 244. 8 Kelley, Chopin the Composer, 17.

Exam ple 1: Mazurka in F# minor Op. 6 No. 1 (mm. 1-8) (Todd, Nineteenth Century Piano Music, 237)

Exam ple 2: Mazurka Op. 7 No. 1 (mm. 1-8) (Kelley, Chopin the Composer, 20)

Taking all of this into account, Chopin's dies seems to be a joyful echo of our native use of techniques often heard in Polish folk harmony. The simple mazurka becomes transformed at his touch while it still pre- music but uncommon in the western Euro- serves its own peculiar flavor and accent. To pean music of the time cannot be doubted, at capture the charming simplicity of such na- least in respect to his mazurkas. Contempo- tive refrains as Chopin does with his exqui- rary Polish critics clearly perceived the in- site playing and brilliant composition, one fluence of local styles in Chopin's music, as has to have a certain sensitivity to the music of our fields and woodlands and the songs of can be seen in the following excerpts from the Polish peasant.9 Polish newspapers:

The land which has given him life by its songs has influenced the character of his music. This is evident in the works of this artist where the sound of many of his melo- 9 Todd, Nineteenth Century Piano Music, 246.

Exam ple 3: Mazurka in D major Op. 33 No. 2 (mm. 1-8) (Todd, Nineteenth Century Piano Music, 242)

Exam ple 4: Mazurka Op. 24 No. 2 (Kelley, Chopin the Composer, 17)

11 It is pleasing to the Polish people when re- captivates by its very strangeness." A flecting on such magnificent talent, nay even French reviewer wrote in a Parisian newspa- genius, to remember that in the greater part per that "M. Chopin has acquired a quite of his compositions as well as in his per- special reputation for the spiritual and pro- formance the spirit of the nation was evi- foundly artistic manner in which he handles dent.10 the national , a genre of mu- sic that still remains very little known to French critics also recognized the Polish 12 character of Chopin's music, but did so us- us." ing somewhat different tones. Berlioz wrote It is thus demonstrated not only that that Chopin's "melodies, all impregnated Chopin's contemporaries in Paris saw his with Polish elements, have something na- music as influenced by the music of Poland, ively untamed about them that charms and 11 Ibid., 248. 10 Ibid., 246. 12 Ibid., 248. but also that they commented on its strange- wrote in, was derived from the music of Po- ness and peculiarity. This stands in stark land. The practice of rubato existed in Polish contrast to the writings of Polish critics who folk music for centuries prior to the birth of wrote about it in terms of familiarity and Chopin, although it had not necessarily been positive recognition. This is very good evi- applied in exactly the same ways that Cho- dence that Chopin's music is authentically pin used it. Polish. There is also a large amount of testi- Of course, it can be argued that, al- mony to indicate how strongly his upbring- though the Polish influence on Chopin's ma- ing in Poland influenced his compositions. zurkas and polonaises is clear, this says Jean-Jacques Eigeldinger wrote that it is nothing for the other types of pieces that he Chopin's "lingering impressions of Polish wrote. W hile it is true that Chopin did write folk music that constitute the essential foun- some pieces that have very few traits that dation of Chopin's aesthetic orientation, laid can be easily linked to the music of Poland, down at an early age, and more or less im- it is also important to recognize that the ma- mutably."16 echoed this by writ- zurkas and polonaises make up a very sig- ing: nificant part of Chopin's output. He wrote fifty-one mazurkas, more than any other Chopin was thoroughly imbued with certain kind of composition. His polonaises come in unique sentiments, the most lofty of which he felt he had acquired in his youth; these a close fourth at twenty-one compositions, were the only ones he wished to express in after the twenty-four and twenty- his art. His view of that art was so unvary- four etudes. It should be remembered here ingly the same that his artistic predilections 17 that Chopin's polonaises are considerably could not fail to be influenced by it. longer than his preludes and etudes. Aside from his independent study of There are also a good number of pieces Polish folk music as a youth, Chopin was other than mazurkas and polonaises that dis- also influenced to write Polish music by one play the Polish influence on Chopin's music. of his two main teachers, Jozef Elsner. Els- The F-minor Concerto Op. 21 and the An- ner was one of the founders of Polish na- dante Spianato Op. 22 both contain imbed- tional and was also concerned with ded mazurkas, as does the in G introducing elements of Polish folklore into minor Op. 15 No. 3. The Fantasy on Polish high art.18 Airs Op. 13 and the Krkowiak op. 14 are both imbued with Polish resonances.13 The Unlike many of his contemporaries, Chopin preserved many stylistic characteris- same can be said of some of Chopin's bal- 19 lades, such as Op. 23 in G minor and Op. 52 tics of pre-. For example, in F minor, as well as the middle section of he used an outmoded chromatic chaconne- the Scherzo in B minor, which is a Polish style bass on the opening tutti of several of carol.14 his pieces and often wrote music in terms of old-style ritornellos.20 This may be an indi- Aside from the syncopation mentioned cation that he was staying true to the musical above, Polish folk music often has con- values of the of his homeland, stantly shifting rhythms and accents.15 It has been argued based on this that Chopin's fa- 16 mous use of rubato, something which he John Rink and Jim Samson, Chopin Studies, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), applied to the diverse range of genres that he 104. 17 Rink and Samson, Chopin Studies, 102. 13 Ibid., 223. 18 Ibid., 104. 14 Jim Samson, The Cambridge Companion to 19 Konrad W olff, Masters of the Keyboard, (In- Chopin, (Cambridge: Cambridge University dianopolis: Indiana University Press, 1990), 200- Press, 1992), 217. 201. 15 Todd, Nineteenth Century Piano Music, 243. 20 Ibid., 203-204. which was outside the mainstream of musi- the causes and history of the movement and cal activity. Chopin's relationship to it. Both critics and Chopin himself noted At the time that Chopin was alive, na- the relationship between his compositions tionalist movements were active all over and Poland. One critic wrote, "W e may Europe. Their fervent and craving safely maintain that not any nation may for independence or political strength re- boast of such a great, truly national com- sulted in the unification of Italy and Ger- poser. In Chopin's works, every note is na- many. These movements were often charac- tional, every note beautiful."21 Chopin stated terized by an emphasis on literary and lin- in 1831 that he "wanted to feel and in part guistic traditions, an interest in folklore, and have approached the feeling of our national a sense of pride in culture and national iden- music."22 tity. Composers often played an important role in these movements by writing music Finally, French instrumental music was that inspired and unified people in a com- at a low at the time that Chopin arrived in mon national cause. Paris. There were few composers there who could have been strong influences, other W hen Chopin was born, Poland was un- than Berlioz, whose music is very different der Russian rule. The peasants lived in a from that of Chopin.23Although he was well poverty almost unmatched almost anywhere aware of the musical trends of his time, in Europe and even the aristocrats had virtu- Chopin showed very little interest in any of ally no power. Driven by a desire for inde- the music that he heard in Paris, with the pendence, Polish army cadets and university exception of the work of Bellini.24 He wrote students revolted in the "November Upris- that "Everything modern escapes my brain." ing" of 1830, demanding a constitution. The and attended performances in Paris more landed aristocrats and gentry helped estab- often out of a sense of duty than for the sake lish a provisional government but soon of enjoyment.25 ended up fighting amongst themselves over how radical reforms should be. The Polish Given this, in combination with all of peasants refused to support either group. the evidence presented above, the argument W ithin a year, sent in 180 000 troops that the influence of the music that Chopin to regain control. They ended all pretext of heard in France outweighed the Polish influ- constitutional rule and executed thousands ence on his music becomes untenable. Al- of . Many fled to exile in western though his often intellectual approach to Europe, including 5000 who settled in music was probably derived from western France. They established a community in sources, the character and feeling of Cho- Paris, which was led by the revolutionary pin's music was strongly Polish, as were poet Adam Mickiewicz. many of the stylistic elements he used. There is a good deal of debate on Now that the authentically Polish char- whether or not Chopin saw himself as being acter of Chopin as a composer has been es- involved politically in the Polish nationalist tablished, it is possible to deal with the rela- movement. He was notoriously silent in re- tionship of his music to the Polish national- gards to his politics, a fact that has been ist movement. However, in order to discuss used to justify the argument that he did not this, it is appropriate to first briefly review write music with any political ideas in mind. However, despite the lack of direct evidence from Chopin himself, there is a good deal of 21 Todd, Nineteenth Century Piano Music, 250. evidence that suggests that he did indeed 22 Ibid., 246. imbue his music with political ideas or, at 23 W olff, Masters of the Keyboard, 188. the very least, that it was used by others for 24 Rink and Samson, Chopin Studies, 104-105. political purposes. 25 Ibid., 105. Although it is true that Chopin's father 1835.31 Poland was constantly in his was French, it is very relevant that he was thoughts, as can be seen in his response to brought up entirely in Poland, had a Polish rumors of his impending marriage to Jane mother and had mostly Polish friends and Stirling, where he stated that he was too role models while growing up.26 It is also wrapped up in thoughts of those that he had important to remember that his father, Nico- left in Poland to even consider marriage.32 las Chopin, had been living in Poland for a Given that Chopin definitely had per- good number of years when Chopin was sonal beliefs influenced by Polish national- born and identified himself fully with Po- ism, the next issue to deal with is exactly land despite his French origins. He served as how this was reflected in his music. Chopin a captain in the Polish revolutionary army in wrote instrumental music and had a distaste the revolt of 1794 and was friends with for program music, making it difficult to members of the independence movement in attribute particular meaning to his pieces. Poland.27 He mastered the His own silence on this issue exacerbates the and developed a Polish patriotism. Chopin problem. There are, however, two composi- was strongly influenced while growing up tions that have gained recognition as being by the nationalist ideas of his father and his overtly political. friends.28 The first is the Nocturne in G minor Op. The virulence of Chopin's nationalist 15 No. 3, which contains a combination of feelings at the time immediately following stylistic elements taken from both mazurkas his departure from Poland are made apparent and sacred . This very unusual com- in the following diary entry, which was writ- bination has been interpreted as a reference ten after he discovered that the revolutionar- to the messianic brand of Polish romantic ies in Poland had finally been defeated and , which held that the coming war was unsure of what had happened to his to liberate Poland would lead to the religious family: "Have they fallen victims to the redemption of all humanity. The writings of unleashed fury of the Muswcovite scum? . . . this faction of nationalists blended elements Oh why could I not have slain even a single of nationalism and religion in much the Muscovite!"29 same spirit as this nocturne.33 Chopin was also involved in the com- The second piece that has had overt po- munity of Polish refugees while he was in litical sentiments attributed to it is the Bal- Paris. He was a member of the Polish Liter- lade in F major Op. 38. Two contemporaries ary Society and was also a friend of of Chopin wrote that it represented the Mickiewicz.30 He made significant efforts to plight of Poles in exile from their homeland help the community, such as the benefit by the Russians and Schumann wrote that it concert for Polish refugees that he gave in was based on several nationalistic poems by Mickiewicz.34 Chopin himself gave no indi- cation of whether or not this was true, but 26 W olff, Masters of the Keyboard, 188. there is no doubt that this ballade caused 27 Arthur Hedley, "Fryderyk Franciszek Chopin." him to be publicly perceived as being more New Grove Dictionary of Music and , political than had previously been the case. (1980 ed.), 292. 28 Casimir W ierzynski, The Life and Death of Chopin, (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1949), 51. 29 Jeremy Siepmann, Chopin the Reluctant Ro- 31 Frederick Niecks, Frederick Chopin as a Man mantic, (Boston: Northeastern University Press, and , (Neptune City, NJ: Paganiniana 1995), 80. Publications Inc., no date given), 280. 30 Arthur Hedley, "Fryderyk Franciszek Chopin." 32 Rink and Samson, Chopin Studies, 102. New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 33 Todd, Nineteenth Century Piano Music, 252. (1980 ed.), 295. 34 Ibid., 252. In general, Chopin's timony to Chopin's political power. Further was more cultural than political, which is to allusion to the patriotic character of Cho- say that it evoked the character of Poland pin's music is given in the following excerpt without making overt references to its politi- from a Polish article: cal situation. Rather than making direct allu- sions to the occupation of Poland, it served In his music the national character is re- as a symbol of the uniquely Polish culture vealed in its finest splendor: The very same air that we breathe, the same sky to which that politically active nationalists could we raise our eyes, the same longing and sor- identify with and rally around. In the face of row that permeates the songs of our people. Russian oppression, the Poles needed to re- He has sung most movingly of our unhappi- affirm their cultural identity and Chopin and ness, he recounts better than anyone the greatness of our past and of our hopes, he his music helped to do this by symbolizing alone has sapped the sweetest nectar from Poland's strength and spiritual individuality. the flowers that bloom in abundance on our native soil . . . He is one of the worthiest After the defeat of the Polish independ- representatives of our nation.38 ence movement by the Russian army, the only form of nationalism permitted in Po- It was not only writers inside of Poland land was cultural. If Chopin's music had that perceived the political importance of been obviously political, the authorities Chopin's music. One French critic wrote this would not have allowed it to be published or on the subject of Chopin's mazurkas: played in Poland. The cultural brand of na- tionalism in Chopin's music may well have It is said that there is always a memory of caused it to be more politically effective the absent and oppressed country in the than it would have been if his political views melodies of this -composer. Fortunate are countries that have poets like Thomas had been more obvious. Moore and Chopin; through their songs, There is no doubt that Chopin's music they keep alive the traditions and the love of the country where they were born, and nurse was very well received in Poland, despite his it with a sweet and noble hope of libera- absence. His music was played more in Po- tion.39 land in between the years of 1831 to 1862 than the music of any other composer.35 Its W ilhelm von Lenz, one of Chopin's pu- wide distribution increased its effectiveness pils, wrote that Chopin "represented Poland, as a unifying nationalist tool, an effect that the land of his dreams, in the Parisian salons was furthered by the common practice under Louis-Phillipe, salons which his among nationalists of setting patriotic texts viewpoint allowed him to use as a political to Chopin's music.36 platform. Chopin was the only political pianist. He incarnated Poland, he set Poland Polish writers used Chopin's music to to music!"40 It is perhaps Schumann who express political sentiments, albeit in subtle most perceptively expressed the situation by ways, due to Russian censorship. One com- writing the following: mentator wrote that "Poland has lately given the musical world a genius the equal of If the mighty autocratic monarch of the whom does not and certainly will not exist north knew what a dangerous enemy threat- for a long time: it is Chopin . . . this Byron, ened him in Chopin's works, in the simple Mickiewicz of . . ."37 Reference to tunes of his mazurkas, he would forbid this such revolutionary Romantic figures as Mickiewicz and Byron could well have been interpreted by Polish readers as a covert tes-

35 Samson, The Cambridge Companion to Cho- 38 Samson, The Cambridge Companion to Cho- pin, 211. pin, 217. 36 Ibid., 214. 39 Todd, Nineteenth Century Piano Music, 250. 37 Todd, Nineteenth Century Piano Music, 249. 40 Ibid., 253. music. Chopin's works are cannons buried in Samson, Jim, ed. The Cambridge Companion to flowers.41 Chopin. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. It is difficult to determine if Chopin in- Siepmann, Jeremy. Chopin the Reluctant Ro- tended for his music to be interpreted and mantic. Boston: Northeastern University used in this way. He never made any clear Press, 1995. statements either way, but given his back- ground in nationalism it is perhaps more Todd, Larry R., ed. Nineteenth-Century Piano likely that he at the very least approved of Music. New York: Shirmer Books, 1990. the way in which his works were used by the W ierzynski, Casimir. The Life and Death of nationalists. Chopin. Trans. Norbert Geterman. New York: Simon and Schuster Inc., 1949. All of this brings home how important Chopin's Polish roots were to him, both mu- W illiams, Ralph Vaughan. National Music and sically and politically. His music not only Other Essays. New York: Oxford University brought awareness of Polish culture to west- Press, 1987. ern Europe, but was also used as a patriotic W olff, Konrad. Masters of the Keyboard. In- symbol by those fighting for the freedom of dianopolis: Indiana University Press, 1990. Poland.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Abraham, Gerald. Chopin's Musical Style. Lon- don: Oxford University Press, 1968. Bernstein, Susan. Virtuosity of the Nineteenth Century. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1998. Hadden, J. Cuthbert. Chopin. Toronto: J. M. Dent & Sons Ltd., 1934. Hedley, Arthur. "Fryderyk Franciszek Chopin." New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musi- cians. 1980 ed. Kelley, Edgar Stillman. Chopin the Composer. New York: Cooper Square Publishers Inc., 1969. Niecks, Frederick. Frederick Chopin as a Man and Musician. Neptune City, NJ: Paganiniana Publications Inc. (no date given). Pincherle, Marc. The World of the Virtuoso. Trans. Lucile H. Brockway. New York: W . W . Norton & Company Inc., 1963. Pocheo, Patrick. "Chopin Etude: A Visit to the Birthplace of Poland's Greatest Musical Gen- ius." Art and Antiques Vol. 9 (April 1992): 44-49. Rink, John and Jim Samson, eds. Chopin Stud- ies. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1994.

41 Ibid., 249.