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UNIVERSITY of CALIFORNIA Santa Barbara Bows and Spears In UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Santa Barbara Bows and Spears in Achaemenid Persia A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in History by James White Committee: Professor John W.I. Lee, Chair Professor Anthony Barbieri Professor Elizabeth DePalma Digeser Professor Elspeth Dusinberre, University of Colorado Boulder September 2020 The dissertation of James White is approved. ________________________________________________ Anthony Barbieri ________________________________________________ Elizabeth DePalma Digeser ________________________________________________ Elspeth Dusinberre ________________________________________________ John W.I. Lee, Committee Chair September, 2020 Bows and Spears in Achaemenid Persia Copyright © 2020 By James White iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It has truly been a great privilege to devote so much time to the study of ancient history. It certainly would not have been possible to have started, let alone completed, this dissertation without many people’s help. Despite this assistance, all errors or omissions remain, of course, my own. First and foremost, I would like to thank my parents for their constant support of all my academic endeavours, and for encouraging me to devote my life to something I love. I would also like to thank my sister, Kathleen, brother-in-law Jonathan, and nieces Nora and Anna, for offering distractions from work when I needed them, dog-sitting, and helping with shield building. To the Jacob clan (Archers and Kerrs), our legendary celebrations have kept me sane through this process. Also, to Peter Wijnbergen, whose generosity ensured that I did not become homeless during this process, and to Peter (the Elder) and Maup Wijnbergen, whose genuine interest in my work and all things ancient was a constant source of encouragement. To Johanna, Lars, and Monica, thank you for your hospitality and stimulating discussions. Victoria, I cannot thank you enough for your constant support and understanding. This would not have been possible without you. Academically, I must thank my advisor, John Lee. Your initial eagerness to discuss Achaemenid history with me made choosing a graduate programme incredibly easy, as did your tireless efforts to ensure I always had funding, even as an international student. Your assistance, especially your reading and commenting upon countless drafts, made this difficult task possible. I would also like to thank my other excellent committee members, Anthony Barbieri and Elizabeth DePalma Digeser, for offering thought-provoking graduate seminars, iv encouraging my development as an educator, and offering insightful comments on my writing. To Elspeth Dusinberre, I appreciate your willingness to be an external committee member, for putting me in contact with numerous scholars who shared my interests, and for your valuable comments on my work. Finally, none of this would have been possible without Dr. Jonathan Strang, formerly of Trent University, who first introduced me to the vibrant history of Achaemenid Persia in an undergraduate seminar many years ago. I would also like to thank the numerous administrators who made this possible. As I possess no administrative skills myself, you were often solely responsible for ensuring that I could continue my studies. In particular, I must thank Darcy Ritzau and Rhiannon Parisse of the History Department at UCSB and Terry Smith of the Classics Department and Queen’s University. I can say without exaggeration that, without you, I would have missed an important deadline and been kicked out of school years ago. Last but certainly not least, I would like to thank everyone whose funding allowed me to complete this degree. The R.S. McLaughlin Fellowship allowed me to begin work as a graduate student, and the Classics Department at Queen’s also generously donated travel money so that I could gain valuable archaeological experience in Jordan. As previously mentioned, John Lee’s tireless efforts to secure funding for me, as well as the History Department at UCSB and the UCSB History Associates were crucial for offering the financial stability I needed to complete my studies. I would also like to thank Harold and Kathleen Drake for their generous research stipends, including the initial funding with which I reconstructed ancient shields, and to Frank Frost for the Esmé Frost Fellowship and for generously offering to support my enrolment at the American and British Schools at Athens. v CURRICULUM VITAE OF JAMES WHITE EDUCATION 2013 – 2019 (expected): Ph. D. in History, University of California Santa Barbara 2009 – 2012: M.A. in Classical Studies, Queen’s University 2006 – 2009: B.A. (Honours) in Ancient Greek and Roman Studies, Trent University 2002 – 2006: B.A. in English Literature, Trent University PROFESSIONAL EMPLOYMENT 2013 – 2016: Teaching Assistant, Department of History, University of California Santa Barbara 2012: Field Archaeologist, Archeoworks, Inc. 2010 – 2011: Research Assistant, SSHRC Funded Project, “Akkadian Literacy in Iron Age Judah?” Prof. W. Morrow, Head of Department of Religious Studies, Queen’s University May 2010 – June 2010: Field Archaeologist, Humayma Excavation Project, Queen’s University 2009 – 2012: Teaching Assistant, Department of Classics, Queen’s University PUBLICATIONS “Espionage,” “Hydarnes,” “Intaphernes,” “Mascames,” “Megabates,” “Megabazus,” Megabyxus,” “Mitrobates,” Oroetes,” “Pharnuches,” “Plunder,” and “Teispes.” Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Herodotus. Edited by C. Baron. Wiley-Blackwell: Hoboken, forthcoming. 2017. Review of R. Stoneman, Xerxes: A Persian Life. The Historian 79.4: 912-913. AWARDS AND PRIZES November 2018: The Harold and Kathleen Drake Fund Research Stipend September 2018: History Department Dissertation Fellowship September 2017: History Department Graduate Fellowship January 2017: History Department Graduate Fellowship June 2016: Esmé Frost Fellowship June 2015: The Harold and Kathleen Drake Fund Research Stipend June 2015: Lawrence Badash Essay Prize, History of Science June 2014: The Harold and Kathleen Drake Fund Research Stipend Summer 2010: Queen’s Department of Classics Travel Grant September 2009 – April 2010: R.S. McLaughlin Fellowship April 2003: Norma Miller Essay Prize vi FIELDS OF STUDY Ancient Greek and Achaemenid Persian History with Professor John W.I. Lee Ancient Writing and Early Imperial China with Professor Anthony Barbieri Roman History and Late Antiquity with Professor Elizabeth DePalma Digeser vii ABSTRACT Bows and Spears in Achaemenid Persia by James White My dissertation focuses on weaponry in the Achaemenid Persian Empire (ca. 550-330 BC), with an emphasis on bows and spears. Scholars have long recognized the importance of archery in the ancient Near East generally, and the Achaemenid Empire more specifically, but no thorough study of archery has been undertaken. In the opening chapters, I examine weapons as physical objects. Chapter one describes the shape and size of the Elamite and Scythian style bows which the Persians used. I also consider other aspects of archery tackle, in particular arrows. Arrowheads are often the only evidence for arrows that remain, and their shape, size, and weight can reveal their purpose, the type of bow from which they were fired, and the potential range they could travel. Chapter two discusses the physical properties of Achaemenid spears. Evidence suggests that Persians used both throwing and thrusting spears. The Persians may have used a single versatile type of spear, called in Greek a palton, that could be used either way, and is often associated with Persian cavalry. Evidence suggests the Persians used a fairly long spear, perhaps seven feet, which contradicts Herodotus’ description of short spears. Chapter three focuses on the logistics of military archery, and to a lesser extent viii spearmanship, in an Achaemenid context. The study of archery is especially relevant to this topic due to the increased logistical needs involved in the manufacture of composite bows, and the constant need to supply arrows to soldiers while on campaign. I also examine the recruitment, training, and armament of spearmen in this section. Documentary evidence describes that the state distributed arable land in exchange for military service. This practice was carried over from the earlier empires that ruled in this region. Another source of recruitment attested in Mesopotamia, but perhaps used elsewhere, were the temples. Temple dependants worked these lands for the temple, but were also liable for military service. Temples also employed weapon manufacturing specialists, including bowyers and blacksmiths, who produced the weapons that armed the conscripted soldiers. In chapter four, I examine the gerrhon, a rectangular shield which the Persians are said to have used at the battle of Plataea and Mycale. The Greek term for these shields, gerrhon, can be translated as “wicker.” Many modern historians have taken this translation literally, and suggest that a wicker shield could not have been an effective form of defense. I challenge this hypothesis, and built shields using the same techniques as the Persians, and with materials that have similar properties to those available to the ancient Achaemenids. Finally, I consider how these shields were used on the battlefield, whether they formed a solid defensive wall or were arranged in an open pattern, and how many archers could have been protected by each shield. In the final chapter, I move away from bows and spears as weapons to discuss their
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