Foot, J. (2014). Franco Basaglia and the radical psychiatry movement in Italy, 1961–78. Critical and Radical Social Work, 2(2), 235-249. https://doi.org/10.1332/204986014X14002292074708

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This document is made available in accordance with publisher policies. Please cite only the published version using the reference above. Full terms of use are available: http://www.bristol.ac.uk/red/research-policy/pure/user-guides/ebr-terms/ Delivered by Ingenta to: University of Bristol Library IP : 137.222.120.226 On: Mon, 22 Jun 2015 07:04:57 Copyright The Policy Press too original, enough, notservile andwas advised tolookelsewhere foracareer. progress withintheuniversity system. Hewas probably toosharp, toounorthodox, he was eventually told, terms, innouncertain thathewould never beallowed to ‘nervous andmentaldiseases’ andin1958hequalifiedasadoctor thatarea. But 1961, but a real jobnever materialised. In1952, Basagliaspecialisedinthefieldof a distinguished professor from (Giambattista Belloni) for the entire 1949 to period usedhimandthenspatout.institution first Hehad worked asanassistantto to have adazzlinguniversity career. But, asiscommoninItaly(thennow), that of mental health care was relatively limited. It seemed that Basaglia was destined he was always more interested in ideas and his knowledge of the practicalaspects decade studyingphilosophy andpsychiatry. clinic, Despiteworking inapsychiatric in1949(despitethewar andspentthenext graduated years andhistimeinprison) subjectcompletelyatrandom.degree Nonetheless, student. hewas abrilliant He venerable university innearby Padua. Hewould laterclaimthathehadchosenhis never joinedanotherpoliticalparty. release. amemberoftheSocialist inthepost-war HewasParty period, briefly but prison. Maggiore SantaMaria grim The liberationofthecityin 1945saw his April in thecity. InDecember1944, hewas andspentsixmonthsinside arrested Venice’s inhisteensandwasanti-fascist anactive thewar memberoftheresistance during toawell-offFranco Basagliawas in born family Venice in1924. Hebecamean Biography and thehuman rights of thoseincarcerated inItaly’s asylumsduring the1960sand1970s. to address thisby highlightingBasaglia’s significant role inthestruggle for bothdeinstitutionalisation Basaglia islittleknownandoften misunderstood intheEnglish-speaking world. willseek This article mental health reformer Franco Basaglia. A leadingfigure inthedemocratic movement, psychiatry introduction provides tothelife ashort This article of andwork Italianradical psychiatristand Print ISSN20498608• Online ISSN20498675•http://dx.doi.org/10.1332/204986014X14002292074708 creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) which permitsadaptation, alteration, reproduction anddistribution creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) In 1943, and intheprestigious Basagliasigneduptostudymedicineandsurgery key words This article isdistributed under the termsofThis article the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0license(http:// Franco Basagliaandtheradical psychiatry Critical andRadical Social Work •vol 2•no235–49©Policy Press 2014•#CRSW anti-psychiatry •deinstitutionalisationhuman anti-psychiatry rights •Italy •Franco Basaglia without further permissionprovided theoriginalwithout further isattributed. work The derivative works radical pioneers movement inItaly, 1961–78 John Foot, University of Bristol, UK [email protected] do notneedtobelicensedonthesameterms. 235 Delivered by Ingenta to: University of Bristol Library IP : 137.222.120.226 On: Mon, 22 Jun 2015 07:04:57 Copyright The Policy Press them totheir fate. Heloved totalk, andtodiscusseverything, but he couldalsobe He hada strong empathy withhispatients, but was blamed by someforabandoning seen asa ‘good man’ forwhatwas but seenas extreme alsocriticised irresponsibility. Gorizia, whichhadsome500patients. Yugoslavia (today Slovenia). The postwas asdirector oftheprovincial asylumin Then, in1961, ajobcameupinthetown ofGorizia, ontheedgeofItalybordering later namedafterhim, arare honourinItaly, especially for a non-politician. became asymbolforwhole epochovernight, ahouseholdname. A key law was to 1968(aswell asforsomewho were key figures in ‘1968’ itself). In1968, he many, but alsoananti-hero forthosewhowere opposedto the movements linked and admiration, but alsofear, jealousyandsometimeshatred. Hebecameahero to who hadnever methim). andcharming, Hewas charismatic andheinspired love Padua, outlargelyby andwith hiswife. was inparticular) carried bottles of coca cola andoccasionalglassesofwhisky. (after Almost all ofhiswriting authority, but was completelyuninterested inmoney. ofbuilding ateam.importance Basagliawas ambitiousandheenjoyed and fame manner, andhewas stubborn, but healsoworked collectively andwas aware ofthe loved to talk, and to argue things out. Occasionally, he could act in an authoritarian power, hefoughthard togethisway andcouldbeintoleranttowards dissent. He at thetime, ofBasaglia) aswell asafriend movementRisso (Risso was in the radical psychiatry apsycho-analyst and aparticipant Tall, andgoodlooking, charismatic Basagliawas somethingofaworkaholic. Michele least 20years tocomeintoeffect. hospitals.care andcalledfortheclosure ofallpsychiatric This process would take at Law’ –Law 180–thathadbeenpassedin1978. This law restructured mentalhealth her husband’s death, she campaigned for the implementation of the so-called ‘Basaglia books together, inparticular. period throughout asjointauthors) theGorizia After age ofjust56. Hiswife, FrancaOngaro, was athisside(they wrote many oftheir in Rome. However, hewas already illandin1980hediedofabraintumour, atthe head upprovincial intheprovince mentalhealthservices ofLazio, andwas based remained director ofthe Trieste asylumuntil1979. Inthat year hemoved on to took upthesamepositionin Trieste, againontheborder withGorizia. Basaglia of alargeasylumjustoutsideParma, inasmalltown calledColorno. In1971, he effectively moved onfrom thatjobinlate1968. From 1970to1971hewas director His lifeandhiscareer would bemarked by radicalbreaks andstrong continuities. developed inPadua were tohisapproach anasylumafter1961. crucial torunning forhimself.positions ofauthority Moreover, thephilosophicalandpoliticalideashe power. He also tended to work in high places and he knew how to build alliances and work with those who had little choice. Hetookthejob. ofways. isolatedinaseries geographically Nonetheless, Basagliaappeared tohave atthetime–asignoffailure.dead-end jobforpsychiatrists Gorizia, moreover, was acrossothers Italy(and, infact, across Europe). Working inanasylumwas seenasa Many were seducedby Basaglia’s (includingthose intellectandhispersonality He would usuallywake earlyandwork untilvery late, fuelledby chain-smoking, Basaglia was from director 1961to1970, of theasyluminGorizia althoughhe Basaglia was notacompleteoutsider, andneitherwas healoner. Hehadfriends within institutions, and after Padua he would take up John Foot 1 236 Itwas anasylumthatwas similartomany compared himtoa ‘big cat’. Oncehehad * 2 Hewas Delivered by Ingenta to: University of Bristol Library IP : 137.222.120.226 On: Mon, 22 Jun 2015 07:04:57 Copyright The Policy Press of deviance. (Madness andcivilization: age) andthecontainment ofmadnessintheclassical A history of asylumsandatheoretical approach andmethodological tothestudyofmadness (1961), meanwhile, provided andphilosophicalfocusontheworkings ahistorical (a nobleman). well-to-do background and Venetian upbringing: ‘natural leader’, ‘aristocrat’, ’ ‘patrizio this commitment. Various epithetswere appliedtohimover time, somelinked tohis himself totally, fornearly20years, to ‘the struggle’, for andhepaidaheavy price he never missedanappointment. Work was atthecentre ofhislife. Hededicated intolerant andattimeseven alittleauthoritarian. Hislifewas sometimeschaotic, but a phrasethatwould soonbecomeakey oftheBasaglianlexicon. part inmates Foucault. Goffman’s Asylums: Essays onthesocialsituationsofmentalpatientsandother across intheearly1960s, Goffman, especiallythose by Erving Frantz FanonandMichel objective was asto whatFoucault (1991)described ‘discipline andpunish’. were – architecturally very and functionally. similar to prisons For the most part, their by theinstitutionsthemselves. Although referred toofficiallyashospitals, theseplaces ordisturbingbehaviour ofthepatientswasof theeccentric created orexacerbated ‘treated’ insidetheseinstitutions. Onthecontrary, hebecameconvinced thatsome system was morallybankrupt. Hesaw nomedicalbenefitsinthe way thatpatients were people from therest ofItaly. years even tonoticewhatwas going on theirdoorstep, formostGorizians letalone He hadastrangekindoffreedom hewould nothave hadelsewhere. Itwould take dead-end job, inthemiddleofnowhere, was thatnobodyexpectedanything ofhim. fromapart adesire tochangethings. Oneadvantage thathewas ofthefact ina asylum directorsatthetimeinItaly. Butthere was noclearplanatthebeginning, extreme periphery. Hewould notsimplymanagethingsintheoldway, asdidmost thewholesystemfrom theedge,taking thejobwas totransform totry from the be inchargeofaplacethathadmadehimfeelphysically sick. The onlypointof that was goingnowhere. Basaglia’s would wholefamily beuprooted andhewould isolation,It impliedpoliticalandgeographical system inasectorofthepsychiatric wasThe postasdirector distinctlyunpromising, oftheasylum inGorizia andrisky. Gorizia, 1961–69 Key conceptsandpractice minded psychiatrists in Gorizia.minded psychiatrists General meetings (involving patients from the whole on, Basagliaintroduced more radicalchangeandbuilt upateam(anéquipe)of like- the openingupofwards ofwalls andthedestruction and fences. Butastimewent of conditionsforpatients– an end to restraint, a reduction inelectro-shock treatment, of thestudentmovement. withtheimprovement and changesstarted These reforms that,reforms by 1968, madethe hospitalameccaforactivists and oneofthecapitals Italian (inthecaseofGoffmanby FrancaOngaro) inthe1960s. in Gorizia. The texts circulated in English (and French) before being translated into These convictions were by hardened thetextsthatBasagliacame andsharpened As director in Gorizia, Basaglia quickly became convinced thatthe entire asylum Inspired ofradical by these writings, aseries Basagliaputinto practiceinGorizia Franco Basagliaandtheradical movement psychiatry inItaly, 1961–78 (1961) 4 Both of these books first appeared Bothofthesebooksfirst in1961, the year Basagliatook over These were labelsused, in themain, by thosewhodidnotknow him. unpicked workings theperverse ofwhathedubbed ‘total institutions’, 237 3 Foucault Delivered by Ingenta to: University of Bristol Library IP : 137.222.120.226 On: Mon, 22 Jun 2015 07:04:57 Copyright The Policy Press reform. Increasingly, towards the endof1960s, thelanguagebecamerevolutionary. resolve society’s problems on theirown. Socialchangewasaswell necessary asradical institutions’. Therapeutic communities couldeasilycreate illusions. They could not however, Basagliaand histeamwere careful ofthese tounderlinethedangers ‘denied at thetime, aswell ofthehealthsystemas awhole. astheclass-basedstructures Finally, addition, thesebooksincluded powerful oftheconditions withinasylums descriptions and exposethecontradictions withinboththesystemandsocietyasawhole. In practice within ‘total institutions’ could overturn power withintheseplaces, structures These collective books underlined theidea of ‘the institution denied’ whereby radical in Gorizia, ofpatientassemblies. aswell withpatientsandtranscriptions asinterviews were texts, hybrid containingtheoretical reflections andpracticalaccountsofchange became abestsellerinItaly. Somedubbeditoneofthe ‘bibles’ of1968. Bothbooks (Basaglia, 1968). (Basaglia,(What ispsychiatry?) 1967b)andL’istituzione negata(Theinstitutiondenied) Two collective books were produced – by the équipe in Gorizia philosophical studiesandresearch intotheway hospitalsactuallyworked. psychiatric and Szasz. also discussedhisideaswith, ‘anti-psychiatry’ figures suchasCooper, Foucault, Laing in institutionalpsychotherapy.experiments Basaglianotonlyread thework of, but by bothBasagliaandhiswife, aswell oftheéquipe)andFrench asothermembers above all through the work of Maxwell Jones in Dingleton inScotland (a place visited influenced by therapeutic communities he hadwitnessedor hand,read aboutfirst in France, and the United Kingdom (UK). Germany He travelled widely. He was people).(Basaglia divided peopleintopoor peopleandrich by thesystem, oftheasylumwas drawn oftencrudely althoughhissocialcritique and a ‘deviant majority’ againsttheirwillandbroken whohadbeeninterned down to thisasocialanalysis of the asylum system. Heconsidered inmatesas ‘the excluded’ as having beenreduced to ‘non-persons’ or ‘hollow men’. However, Basagliabrought 1960s andearly1970s. and Basagliarecommended many ofthesetextsforpublication inItalythelate Cooper, GoffmanandLaing. FrancaOngaro translatedGoffman’s personally Asylums wife were inintroducing instrumental thesetextstoanItalianaudience –inparticular Basaglia read work bysuchasLucienBonnafé. French psychiatrists Basagliaandhis movement –David Cooper, RD Laing, Thomas Szasz. Alongside Foucault andFanon, ofwhatbecameknowninfluenced astheby theleadingtheorists ‘anti-psychiatry’ at thetimewithinphenomenology –Binswanger, Husserl, Minkowski. Hewas also As well asGoffman, Levi, of Primo Basagliadrew onthewritings andwork circulating ‘putting intobrackets’ thediagnosisthatprevents aproper relationship beingformed. mentallyillpatientsbyunderstand building uparelationship withthem, andby philosophy thework –inparticular ofJean-Paul Sartre. Hebelieved to intrying were inspired by amixoftextsandtheories. The basisofhiswork lay inexistentialist Franca Ongaro. Shewas ever-present inGorizia. inallthestruggles experiment.Gorizian Basaglia’s strongest allywas intellectualandpersonal hiswife, hospital) beganin1965. They ofthe becamethemost public andspectacularpart A distinctandspecific ‘Basagliancanon’ begantoemergeinGorizia, including workingBasaglia alsostudiedtheideasandpracticeslinked toradicalpsychiatrists Following Goffman, Basagliasaw peopleinsidethe ‘total institution’ oftheasylum While FrancoBasaglia’s ideaswere always linked tothepracticeofchange, they The latterwas translated across theworld (but notintoEnglish)and John Foot 238 Che cos’è la psichiatria? Che cos’è la psichiatria? Delivered by Ingenta to: University of Bristol Library IP : 137.222.120.226 On: Mon, 22 Jun 2015 07:04:57 Copyright The Policy Press Brooklyn. In1971, hewas offered thepostofdirector oftheasylumin Trieste. andsixmonthsinNew(Parma) York where heworked hospitalin inapsychiatric establishment. Butthey were allpresent, innascentform, from thestart. right 20 years: anti-institutionalism, ofthemedical asocialanalysisandbitingcritique andpower. ofphrasesandapotentideatheoverturning ofauthority series Maoist slogans alsopenetratedthemovement –althoughthismeantlittlebeyond a back their basic human rights and wardsback theirbasic humanrights were opened. spatial gender The rigid the changes that had taken almost double that time in Gorizia. Patients were given was nottobenegated. Itwould beeliminated, forever. place in another way in Trieste, with the end ofthe institutionitself. The institution would notleave theinstitutionintact. The resolution ofthecontradictionwould take as akintoaNaziconcentration camp–were toberesolved. This time, thedoctors of aninstitutionthatdidnotbelieve toexist, had aright andthatmany ofthemsaw were forward. stuckonfast utopiawas tobecomeaconcreteGorizian reality in Trieste. Itwas asthoughthings to charge in Trieste, Basagliaandhisteammoved speed. withgreat The planwas simple: across theworld and ‘anti-psychiatry’ was akeyideology. ofitsdriving part Oncein Trieste was notGorizia, and1971was not 1961. A vast movement was infullflow Phases ofclosure closure ofallItalianasylums. Sohow didthisrevolution happenandwhatisitslegacy? also leddirectly toanationallaw –Law 180–the ‘Basaglia Law’ thatcalledforthe it believed ittobeanabdominalplace, aconcentrationcamp. The events in Trieste asyluminthe first world tobe closed forpolitical reasons –becausethosewhoran Giovanni hospitalcanclaimtobethe psychiatric in fame Trieste the1970sandafterwards. during San reached itspeakandachieved itsmomentofgreatest it had been obliterated. The Basaglianmovement impossible. The institutionwas notmerely ‘negated’, just sixyears asdirector, Basagliahadachieved the institution a ‘hospital’ was clearly incorrect. After few patients insidethecomplexthateven tocallthat accepting patientsin1980, andsoonthere were so quite happenthatquicklybut thehospitalstopped was tobeclosedby theendofyear. Itdidn’t Giovanni hospital, psychiatric thecity’s vast asylum, the city. The news was asimpleannouncement. San January 1977, Basagliaheldapress conference in Trieste hospital. nolongerhasapsychiatric In The endoftheasylum: Trieste 1971–79 After Gorizia, Basaglia spent a brief period in charge of the asylum in Colorno inchargeoftheasylumColorno After Gorizia, period Basagliaspentabrief In summary, three strandstoBasaglia’s thoughtwere totake shapeover thenext Basaglia moved fast. Between 1971and1974, theasylumwent through many of The contradictionsinherent intheBasagliaproject –agroupofpeopleincharge close downthehospital,close from above, andquickly. Everything seemedpossible. The Franco Basagliaandtheradical movement psychiatry inItaly, 1961–78 239 hospital, Trieste,1971–78 the San Giovanni psychiatric (without ‘guest’ status)in Table 1: Numbers of patients 1978 1977 1976 1975 1974 1973 1972 1971 Year Number of patients 1,058 1,182 132 253 470 625 930 87 Delivered by Ingenta to: University of Bristol Library IP : 137.222.120.226 On: Mon, 22 Jun 2015 07:04:57 Copyright The Policy Press leading figure, Michele Zanetti,criticism tookmost oftheconsiderable flak and However, political protection was provided in the province. by the majority The • • • • in the1970swas aconstantstruggle: “magnetic pull” andanimatedthem.’ forradicalpsychiatrists went to Trieste.’ (Crossley, 2006: 3877). influenced and medicalexperts byBasaglianthinking. Asonevisitorsaid: ‘Everybody some from localschoolsanduniversities, from others abroad, aswell aspsychiatrists over Italy, andinternationally. Volunteers hopingtowork begantoarrive atthesite, of people. Linkswere forgedwiththecityand strengthened withstudentactivists all wards were unlocked andcloseddown. The Trieste mobilisedthousands experience is revolutionary’). eterapeuticalibertà ’ (‘freedom istherapeutic’)or èrivoluzionaria’‘la verità (‘thetruth The slogans thatpoppedupall over thehospitalwere thoseofthemovement: ‘la institutionalism), Trieste was oneoftheplaceswhere 1968was putintopractice. of institution(aprocess given different labelssuchasdeinstitutionalismandanti- flockedand practitioners to Trieste. It ferment.was atimeofextraordinary congresses.debates andmeetingsinternational Militants, students, intellectuals projects, andtheatrical hosting art exhibitions, plays, conferences, concerts, numerous hospitalgrounds in psychiatric Trieste space, were intoanexperimental transformed centres areas invarious andinsidethecity’s hospital.territorial the1970s, During the andthepushouttopermanent such asoccupations(ofemptycouncilstructures) to whicheveryone was invited, sometimesonadailybasis. that were withpolicy andstrategy. concerned There were alsoregular ward meetings These were notgeneralmeetingsacross thewholehospital, but smallerencounters meetings aswell ofthecreative asmore spectacularparts strategy, suchasstreet theatre. willing toborrow ideasfrom ofsources avariety aslongthey worked. Basaglia was interested above all in practical change and was not dogmatic. He was called for the asylum’s ‘destruction’. However, this use of sectoral ‘tactics’ showed how and 1990s. Such ‘sectoral’ allowed reforms theasylumitselftosurvive, andBasaglia Italy to ‘re-integrate’ mentalhealthpatientsbackintosocietyinthe1970s, 1980s to move straightintotheworld ofwork. Cooperatives would bewidelyusedacross its closure, anideaborrowed from French reformers. todifferent (corresponding areassectors ofthecityandprovince) inpreparation for between patients). Somestepstaken were new ones. The hospitalwas divided into divisions inthe asylum were of ended (leading to a series ‘moral panics’ over ‘intimacy’ As in Gorizia andelsewhere,As inGorizia theso-calleddeinstitutionalisationof Trieste’s asylum Community housing was also set up, at first While insomeplacesinstitutionswere replaced withotheralternative forms was accompaniedbyThe period politicalevents linked tothepraxisof1968, alsosaw thecreationThis period ofavast andmulti-layered team(équipe)thathad Cooperatives were also set up. This was another new tactic, and allowed for patients strong in Trieste).strong was party very oforganisedpoliticalopposition(theneo-fascist in theface against thelocalpress (whichwas extremely hostile to Basagliaandhisteam); against public opinion; against thelocaljudiciary; John Foot For Crossley (2006: 3922): ‘Trieste exerted a 240 inside the hospital complex itself, as Delivered by Ingenta to: University of Bristol Library IP : 137.222.120.226 On: Mon, 22 Jun 2015 07:04:57 Copyright The Policy Press protagonist andleaderwas FrancoBasaglia. oftheexperience. part hadbeenanintegral Basaglia family In Trieste, theundoubted of books and projects,series but Basaglia also collaborated with others. In Gorizia, the was the1970s. much more centralthanduring The couplestillworked together ona around in Trieste, shewas basedin Venice throughout thistime. Herrole inGorizia a one-manbandthanhehadbeeninthepast. Although FrancaOngaro was often (workers) increased massively. Bytheend, there were more thanpatients. operatori Paradoxically, as the number of patients diminished, the number of Basaglian ‘ under theprevious ‘forced recovery’ regime. Someofthesewere private patients. with cashbenefitsandhousing. Otherpatients were ‘volunteers’ whohadnever been regime. InGorizia, there hadonlybeensixdoctors. Ex-patientswere now provided An incredible 122 people were taken ontowork in the asylumunder Basaglia psychologists, sociologists, militants, and musicians, artists and emptied it of patients. the systemitself. for whathadhappenedbut argued(onbothoccasions)thatthereal problem lay with showed thatBasagliaandhisteamwere therisks taking. They tookfullresponsibility thatensued.to dealwiththejudicialandpoliticalfallout Nonetheless, theseincidents second ‘incident’ had lessofan effect as the team in Trieste were more prepared far of theBasaglianproject. In1972, anex-patientmurdered hisparents in Trieste. This 1968 (anevent oftenreferredtoasan ‘incident’), interms andthishadledtoacrisis news status). A patientonday release hadmurdered inSeptember hiswifeinGorizia 1972 (infact, there ofincidents, was awholeseries but onlyoneattainednational and more intenseasthe1970swore on. Trieste hadawidelypublicised ‘incident’ in and Parma. (indifferentthe constantinterference ways) thatthey hadexperienced inGorizia linked tothesereforms. relativelyThis leftBasagliaandhiscollaborators free from the strategyemployed in Trieste reached out way beyond the walls oftheasylum. The open staffmeetings thatwere usedtodecideonstrategy. Muchmore thaninGorizia, over theasylum. were inthedirection moving theBasaglians firmly wanted. They had, literally, taken conflictswithhostiledoctors,not belostininternal oradministrators. nurses Things something entirely new, hospitalitself. analternative tothepsychiatric Time would the province. Itwas time not justtobreak down thewalls, but alsotoconstruct time. The key work would beoutsideoftheasylum, inthecity of Trieste andacross a Maxwell Jones-like therapeuticcommunity. All ofthatwas superfluous, a waste of behindhim.and Parma Hewas notinterested increating another ‘golden cage’, or with your own eyes. Basagliapresided over ofGorizia allthiswiththeexperience ‘concrete utopia’, couldbetouched, aplacewhere transformation experienced, seen social, culturalandmedicalrevolution. Muchmore thanGorizia, Trieste becamea for change. Itwas thesymbolofwhatcouldbedone, ofradicalismingeneral, ofa As the1970swore on, intothe1980sand1990s, andright Trieste becameabeacon Trieste: andmemory history Basaglia was the undoubted leader of this whole experience. Hewas also more of Basaglia andZanettifilledthehospitalin withdoctors,Trieste volunteers, There were politicaldebates, alsoconstantinternal whichwould becomemore The general assemblies used in Gorizia wereThe general assemblies used in Gorizia abandoned and replaced with daily Franco Basagliaandtheradical movement psychiatry inItaly, 1961–78 241 operatori ’ Delivered by Ingenta to: University of Bristol Library IP : 137.222.120.226 On: Mon, 22 Jun 2015 07:04:57 Copyright The Policy Press an anti-asylum. Itisnow somethingelse, anex-asylum. were more common thanintheoutsideworld, amodelforchange. Ithad become intoanopen,was transformed first creative place, aplacewhere freedom anddebate setofrules,own rigid violenceandtheideaofaclosedworld, the Trieste asylum was noisyandjoyful, andimpossible toignore. From atotalinstitution, built onits undermined, built asitwas onseparation, exclusionandsilence. ofclosure The period isolation in1961Gorizia. ofthecity.part This aloneisalastinglegacyofthemovement thatbeganinnear-total services, cooperatives andbars. Itisapeaceful and beautifulplace, whichisanintegral Giovanni isusedasapark, andhousesaschool, oftheuniversity, part health various Dell’Acqua, 1995: 151–5). arrival, Trieste’s asylumclosedforgood (foranotheraccountfrom theinside, see ‘guest’ (433) or ‘volunteer’ (81) status. In August 1980, nine years after Basaglia’s the hospital were being held as ‘forced’ inmates, although there were still many with patients cameunderthe1968law. of1977, Bythebeginning only51patientsinside ofthe1960sand1970s)whileremaining voluntaryin Italyuntilthereforms provisions laidoutinthe1904law, (thislaw hospitalsystem governed thepsychiatric hospital,in thepsychiatric 90%ofwhomwere non-voluntary andstillheldunderthe role ofitsactivists in Trieste. For anaccountoftheSPK, seeSPK, 1993.) today. (IdonotintendtogointodetailabouttheHeidelbergmovement here, orthe closed down by theauthorities, uptowork turned in Trieste. Someare stillthere (Socialist Patients Collective) movement inHeidelbergGermany, whichhadbeen Europe and beyond. For example, a number of activists SPK from the anti-psychiatric actors, musicians, film makers and others. became a beacon for the Left across Trieste ofasophisticatedmediastrategy,and aspart inalliancewithartists, theatre directors, of whole array ‘the movement’ was employed in order to galvanise public opinion as a ‘Gramscian Marxist’. (2013:be foundinBurns xlvi, 148–9, 183). However, even here, Basaglia isdescribed 113). can A more account(althoughwith someerrors) balancedandwell-informed FrancoBassaglia[sic],by thecharismatic the politicalleftledthecharge’ (Scull, 2011: 20). Andrew Scull’s judgementonBasagliawas similarly brief, in2011: ‘In Italy, led Basaglia’ andlabeled himasa ‘boisterous anti-psychiatrist’ (Porter andMicale, 1994: (chaos resulted)’ (Porter, 2002: 210). In1994, Porter referred toBasagliaas ‘Enrico FrancoBasaglia,psychiatrist therapidclosure ofinstitutions whohelpedengineer In 2002, Roy Porter wrote: ‘In Italy, ofthemovement leadership was assumedby the example, of thejudgementsoftwo oftheleading historians ‘madness’ and ‘asylums’. intheUK,in particular although oneexceptionisRamon, 1988). Letustake, for exceptions, intheEnglish-speakingworld beenconsistentlymisinterpreted (and movement(democratic psychiatry) ledandinspired has, hepartly withafew The history, democratica biography andpracticeofFrancoBasagliathepsichiatria world? Critical debates: amissingtranslation intheEnglish-speaking Trieste’s hospitalwas notjustcloseddown, withspeed; itswholeraisond’être was Today, Trieste hospitalandItalyitselfis withoutasylums. hasnopsychiatric San When Basaglia had become director in Trieste in 1971, there were 1,182 patients John Foot 242 Delivered by Ingenta to: University of Bristol Library IP : 137.222.120.226 On: Mon, 22 Jun 2015 07:04:57 Copyright The Policy Press sources anda ‘study tour’ ofItalyin1984. Onthis ‘tour’ of they hadvisiteda series to present a more balanced picture. Their study was based on research into published of the history’ ofpsychiatric in theUK, successstories ‘great andthatthey wanted UK in1979. claimedthatthepassingofLawThe authors 180hadbeen seenasone The onlyBasagliantextexamined inany detailwas atalkBasagliahadgiven inthe in 1978, reference andmadeonlyperfunctory towhat hadhappenedbefore thatdate. experience’. They definedthisastheimplementationof Law 180, which was passed letters. Intheirarticle, Jones andPoletti setouttoanalysewhatthey calledthe ‘Italian six pageslong, ofcritical andledtoamajordebateinthejournal, includingaflurry published by. Jones ofPsychiatry andPoletti Journal (1985)intheBritish was This article tomovescomments by theirsupport giving torepeal Law 180. … aspawns struggle’ inan ideological (1986: 23–4). RothandKroll concludedtheir conclusion was thatthiswas whathappened whenmentalpatientswere ‘exploited reasons, andLaw asa 180was described ‘disaster’, insocialandhumanterms. The of throwing terms accused in no uncertain asylum inmates onto the streets for political was driven‘ideologically andvery naïve and, inasense, very callous’. Basagliawas Marxist’ (1986: 23/4). They went ontoarguethatBasaglia’s analysisof mental illness to beunaware thatBasagliahaddiedin1980whenthey wrote that ‘Basaglia isa snap anddismissive judgementsmadeby Porter andScull. RothandKroll appeared and was widelyread atthetime. Itwould appeartobethesource forsomeofthe The realityofmentalillness. This bookwas intendedasarejoinder toanti-psychiatrists movement.regain thegroundlosttoLaing and theanti-psychiatry andthemeaningofmentalillness,reform inthelightofattemptsto particularly comments onBasagliaandthe ‘Basaglia Law’ books about psychiatric inimportant psychiatry’ (Jones andPoletti, 1984, 1985). thenleddirectly tocritical These articles and debatesintheUKaboutclosure ofasylums, aswell asthebacklashagainst ‘anti- hostile but influentialstudiesinEnglishthe1980s wake ofthe ‘BasagliaLaw’ given thechancetoread it. Second, ofextremely Basagliawas thesubjectofaseries it hadbeeninfluentialinFranceandGermany. English-speaking readers were never negata was especiallyimportant. First, itwas thecentraltextofmovement, and intheearly1980s. psychiatry Critical However, thelackofatranslationL’istituzione (Basaglia, andmuch-quoted article and ashort 1981) appeared inIngleby’s (1981) editedby Scheper-HughesandLovellcollection/study ofhiswritings from 1987, and oftenwell aftertheevents inhiswork hadtaken described place. There isa andusuallyinhard-to-find orlargelyacademicpublications,in piecemealfashion world, aworld thathadbeenaninspirationforthemandtheirpractice. in particular, forBasaglia. They wanted tohave aninfluenceintheEnglish-speaking oftheéquipeandperhaps,negata becamesomethingofanissuefortheex-members claim; www.janushead.org/4-1/jenner.cfm). The non-translationofL’istituzione Laing himselfblocked atranslation, but Ihave foundnoevidence tobackupthis this ‘non-translation’, althoughthere are accountsavailable various (someclaimthat success intonumerous otherlanguages. There are noconvincing explanationsof L’istituzione negata(Basaglia, 1968). This bookwas, however, quicklytranslatedwith Basaglia’s work was nottranslatedintoEnglish, including(and mostimportantly) Roth andKroll’s tookitscue, trenchant criticism inturn, article from anotorious example ofthiskindanalysiscanbefoundinRothandKroll’sA striking (1986) Basaglia’s andthoseofhisteamwere otherwritings onlytranslatedintoEnglish ofareas. ofthesesnapandinaccuratejudgementslieinaseries The origins First, Franco Basagliaandtheradical movement psychiatry inItaly, 1961–78 243 Delivered by Ingenta to: University of Bristol Library IP : 137.222.120.226 On: Mon, 22 Jun 2015 07:04:57 Copyright The Policy Press ‘experiment whichfailed’‘experiment and a culturalerror’.) ‘great Ross and Tancredi, 2007: 11, Law 180andtheBasaglia movement describe asan strand ofanti-Basaglialiterature beforethe1978lawand contentfrom was theperiod passed. (There is alsoaconsistent this interpretation, andprovide theBasaglian movement background withhistorical dismissive conclusions by Porter and Scull. is,This article in part, an attempt to correct Basaglia, impoverished 1967b)certainly thedebatethattook place. institution denied; Basaglia, (Whatispsychiatry?; 1968) andChecos’èlapsichiatria? Crossley, 2006). The lack ofkey textsin English, especiallyL’istituzione negata (The not, withvery few exceptions, taken thisintoaccount(athoughforanexception, see experience, andespeciallyby Trieste, discussionsthathave thehistorical followed have While itisclearthatmany activistswere andpractitioners inspired by theBasaglian equallydismissedassimplyleadingto andhisreforms an anti-psychiatrist ‘chaos’. or marginalised. Thus, itbecomespossible thatBasagliacanbesimply dismissedas survived thedebate, whiletheotherpointsanddiscussionshave beenforgotten it doesseemtobethecasethatisnegative aspectsandargumentsthathave that reaction was intheUKto law universally anditsaftermath negative, but to havethis debate appears been picked up by many commentators. It is not true with bothpositive andnegative evaluations oftheItaliancase, but onlyonesideof andespeciallyabouttheimpactofLaw 180,the UKaboutBasaglianexperience 1988; Ramon, 1985a, 1985b; Tansella, 1986). inthecity(Jonesof services andPoletti 1986; incontrast, seealsoLovestone, 1985, that thehospitalhadnotreally been ‘closed’ atallandquestioned thereal content picture they paintedwas detailedandpositive (about Trieste). Butthey alsoargued toItaly, trips further andthistimethey visited Trieste. Inthissecondarticle, the Saraceno, 2012), and they were in 1986. article forced into a clarifying This involved Jones andPoletti’s (see, ledtosomethingofanoutcry 1985article forexample, at leastnuanced tosomedegree. As Jones and Poletti (1985: 347)wrote: blame was back to the ideas and practice of Basaglia himself. transferred But this was ofproblemsfor awholeseries onthebasisofflimsy evidence, ofthis andthatpart Law’. However, what is interesting for us, here, is the way in which this law was blamed of whichhadtheirtitlesmisspelt.) law. (This section involved of somewhat random quotes from a series the press, many called examinedwhattheauthors ofthearticle final part ‘thenegative effects’ ofthe support, andwas duetoberepealed (asIwrite, in2014, thishasnothappened). The mental health institutions, ‘chosen at random’. They claimed that Law 180 had lost These commentsandthefocus ofthediscussionprobably and ledtothelapidary There was debateamongpractitioners, wide-ranging activists andresearchers in It isbeyond toexamineindetailtheeffectsof thescopeofthisarticle ‘Basaglia very different view in1985ifhehadlived. Basaglia, who cared abouttheconditionofhispatients, mighthave taken a sevenservices years laterare causallyandtemporallylinked, but notidentical. the pressure-group campaign, thelegislative provision andthestateof the intentionofLaw 180, andtheoutcome. The politico-socialtheory, the thoughtofFrancoBasaglia, Democratica, aimsofPsichiatria thecurrent A third reason of Law [for the failures 180] is a possible confusion between in theacademicworld. John Foot 244

For example, Romanucci- Delivered by Ingenta to: University of Bristol Library IP : 137.222.120.226 On: Mon, 22 Jun 2015 07:04:57 Copyright The Policy Press the timehasargued: was ofItalianpsychiatry asaresult ofa ‘the transformation beyond ofFrancoBasaglia andFrancaOngaro. thestory from As onepsychiatrist possible’ (Basaglia, 2000: 142). elsewhere. Itshowed whatwas possible or, asBasagliaputit, that ‘the impossible was a kindof ‘practical utopia’ formany andwas atthecentre ofdebatesintheUKand ’ on‘operatori andpatientsmovementsinfluence inthe UKandelsewhere. Itbecame movement. users ofaservice the UKexperience However, Trieste hadanenormous thousandsofpatientsbackintotheworldreintegrate ofwork were theclosestto Basaglia experience. The numerous cooperatives thatwere usedtoabsorband Without them, themovement would never have even beguntohave aneffect. by therevolution care, inpsychiatric but they alsoretook control oftheirown lives. in Gorizia, andwholatercommittedsuicide. These peoplehadtheirlives changed –whohadbeenin as CarlaNardini Furlan(also inGorizia Auschwitz –orMario ofthemovement,also part althoughthey have rarely beenseenassuch: patientssuch was amovement abouthumanrights. The peopleinsidetheasylumswere people. There was somethingprofoundly abouttheanti-asylum movement. anti-fascist It was apost-war,generation ofpoliticiansandpsychiatrists generation. anti-fascist 100,000 inmatesofmentalasylumshaddisappeared from history. This movement was forliberation, astruggle fordemocracyandequality. These electrocute these people, cut out bitsof their brainsortiethemupforyears onend. forks, without hair, without any control over theirown treatment. It was wrong to to treat peopleinthatway –withoutrights, withoutautonomy, withoutknives and acceptable) pushedthemtopress forreform. power. andamoralimperative Humanisticprinciples (theseplaceswere simplynot closure) oftheoldasylumsystem. They were notdriven by greed, orthedesire for (andeventuallythe desire andforthetransformation foranew kindofpsychiatry andpoliticians.class ofadministrators This post-war politicalclasswedded itselfto were aidedandabettedby nurses, volunteers andabove all(insomeplaces)by anew across insideasylumsacross Italy. Intheirpushtochangethings, thesepsychiatrists indifferentothers cities, they hadcome simplyrefused toacceptthestateofaffairs Parma, Perugia, Emilia, Reggio Trieste. in theearly1960sandthenmoved ofotherplaces– ontoawholeseries Arezzo, battle was won. numerous attemptstoblock orsimplyignore thereforms. Intheend, however, that toimplementtheselaws.struggle Itwas alonganddifficultbattle, andthere were had inspired putintopractice. FrancaOngaro (Basaglia’s wife), Basaglia diedofabraintumor. Hewas just56andwould he notseethereforms andeventuallyservice hospitals. ledto theclosingdown ofallpsychiatric In1980, 1978 saw thepassingofLaws 180and883, whichsetupItaly’s nationalhealth Conclusion: thestoryof amovement The movement inGorizia, haditsbeginnings but itsscopeandreach went far Italy didnotseetheemergenceofareal patientsmovement onthe back ofthe The otherprotagonists ofthisstory, therefore, are thepatientsthemselves. They were They neededtore-emerge –tobegiven backtheirown identityanddignity. This This was acollective ‘no’. And this ‘no’ changedtheworld. Itwas notacceptable A smallgroupofyoung andradicalpsychiatrists, andby ledby BasagliainGorizia of the radical movement The story began in Gorizia within (and outside) psychiatry Franco Basagliaandtheradical movement psychiatry inItaly, 1961–78 245 carried forward the carried Delivered by Ingenta to: University of Bristol Library IP : 137.222.120.226 On: Mon, 22 Jun 2015 07:04:57 Copyright The Policy Press The interest in radical psychiatry began to fade,The interest in radical psychiatry and the backlashbeganinearnest. was theoppositeof clientelism, patronage andnepotism. Itwas anegationofitself. hospital in Italy. The movement acted against itsown self-interest –inaway that abolished their own jobs – forever. Nobody, today, is the director of a psychiatric were closed down by thepeople whoworked insidethem. Indoingso, thesepeople institutions themselves, inaway thatwas uniqueinthe Western world. Italy’s asylums This process was forced onthesystemby amovement thatactedfrom insidethe Society absorbedmostofthe100,000inmateswhohadbeen kept insidetheplaces. by Foucaultdescribed (2009: 44)gave way, inthe1970s, toa liberation’.‘great housing. Mostare now beautifulparks, atleastinpart. The confinement’‘great mental healthservices. Someare schools, someare universities, somehave become abandoned. are Others ‘museums ofthemind’. Many stillhave linkstohealthand movement was given apush, whichitwould never have hadby any othermeans. Zavoli ontheirtelevision screens, insidetheirown homes, in January 1969, the people saw patients from Gorizia’s hospital speaking to presenter Sergio psychiatric directors, andtheatre directors, artists photographers. When more than10million andthe masses.leaders This was of publishers, true television and filmproducers and of themovement, asthey provided ofthe aconnectionbetween thehightheorising and theirtalentsinorder topress forchange. These peoplewere central tothesuccess writers, filmmakers, journalists, –whogave andartists photographers uptheirtime excess. The revolution appeared tobearound the corner. Itwasn’t. someorder. tobring through ofwhathappenedand try theembers Itwas atimeof riven by conflict, division personal and hyperbole. Onlyin retrospect can we pick times ofthe1970s, ‘traitors’ were easilyidentifiedanddismissed. Themovement was was drawn orsimplystated–asifitwas anobvious fact. Intheheadyandviolent pushed toofar. Too often, aproblematic linkbetween socialclassandmentalillness ready ammunition. Maoistslogans were common. The envelope was frequently Often, thelanguageusedby themovement provided themovement’s enemieswith problems inthereal world. Basagliahimselfwas aware thatmistakes hadbeenmade. and emptyphrasemakingdidlittletohelpthose with mentalhealth sloganeering indeed. These excesseswere oftentaken upby thefollowers ofthemovement, whose dogmatisms, andbitterdisputesover sectarianism whatseems, today, tobevery little exaggerations, anddangerous theuseofinflammatory language, simplificationsand phase ofthemovement beganwhenthelaw forreform cameintoforce.’ end withthepassingofLaw 180inMay 1978. Onthecontrary, themostdifficult As Forgacs (2014: 404) has written: in Italy did not reform of psychiatric ‘The story in society. Once the enemy of the asylum had been abolished, the real work began. difficult placeinsomany ways. It fall throughwas easyforex-patientsto thecracks who hadbeenshutaway foryears. behindcloseddoors The outsideworld was a had todealwithsons, problems, daughters, whohadserious andfathers mothers and were risks great taken. Somepeoplewere murdered, committedsuicide. others Families the movement forchange. movement’polycentric (Giacanelli, 2008). The Basagliaswere – central – to crucial Much of what was called for in the heady days of the movement never came to pass. Today, offunctions. Italy’s avariety asylumsperform Someare former emptyand The final key componentofthemovement were thefellow-travellers –intellectuals, Undoubtedly, themovement was alsomarked by numerous ‘excesses’ ofideology, Every city, every asylum, forward itsown carried version ofchange. Along theway, John Foot 246 Delivered by Ingenta to: University of Bristol Library IP : 137.222.120.226 On: Mon, 22 Jun 2015 07:04:57 Copyright The Policy Press the dominant terminology inuseatthetimeofBasaglia’sthe dominantterminology interventions. and FrancaBasaglia(Goffman, 1968). For GoffmanandBasaglia, seed’Alessandro (2008). book,Basaglia (1968)justthree monthsaftertheGorizia by Franco written withapreface translated Goffman’s as AsylumsforEinaudiandthebookcameoutinsameseries the second collective(1967a) – and permeates book – Basaglia (1968). Franca Ongaro in Parliament. become commonpracticeinItalytonameunpopularlaws afterthosepromoting them the strength ofthemovement andvariety thatledtothereforms. Inrecent timesithas Notes from the1960sand1970s. linkedremains examplesofreform toradicalpracticeandtheory oneofthegreat andvolunteers.as nurses The ‘Basaglia Law’, forallitslimitationsandinadequacies, of psychiatrists,questions and mobilised large numbers activists and patients, as well end, thiswasmovement, acomplexandcontradictory of whichopenedupaseries is atendencytomythologise, ontheonehand, anddemonise, ontheother. Inthe second set of debates is linked to the movement itself, and its excesses. Here there thatareare stilltheenvy ofItalywithexcellentservices many parts oftheworld. A ‘abandoned’ tocreate adequatealternative patientsandfailed structures. Butthere A considerable bodyofopinionclaimsthatthe ‘Basaglia Law’ was amistake, which thatwere (aswellstructures asItaly)to countries setupinvarious ‘replace’ them. in two areas. islinkedThe first totheclosure oftheasylums, andthealternative the past. The prevailing, public versions of the Trieste–Basaglia tend, story however, to simplify ofmemory.in terms A version ofthatpastdoesexist–but itislargelycelebratory. memories. There was alsosomethingaboutthemovement itselfthatcreated problems about this movement,It is not easy to write with its myths, splits, silences and possessive and 1970s. As oneprotaganist wrote in1969: The movement endeduponthedefensive ontothegainsof1960s –clinging 4 3 2 1 A history ofmadness became A history ‘alla finedegli and Foucault, seeDi (1999) and(aut Vittorio Traum undesistenz(Foucault 1954]inthe1950s, according had alsoread Foucault’s introduction tothe French translationofLudwig Binswanger’s translated andpublished thebook inItalian1963:Rizzoli first Foucault Yet thisidentificationofthelaw error, withone man was anhistorical whichdownplayed The terms The terms ‘patient’, ‘mental illness’ and ‘mentally ill’ are usedinthisarticle. This reflects Goffman’s work ispresentcollective –Basaglia inthefirst booktocomeoutofGorizia Parts ofthisbookwere readéquipe. inItalianby theGorizian The Milanesepublisher Contemporary debatesaroundContemporary Basaglia’s andideastendtoconcentrate reforms Franco Basagliaandtheradical movement psychiatry inItaly, 1961–78 that itwas so, thislongmarch. but a lotduring we alllearnt (Jervis, 1969: 259) repressed orintegrated, neutralised. All ofthiswas inevitable andwe knew above allinplaceswhere itworked, itbecame ‘dangerous’ andthenitwas wasof psychiatry onlypossible inpart, time. andonlyforabrief Afterwards, outnew waysand trying ofdoingthings. Inoursociety, analternative form We were looking for an alternative to psychiatry: we were experimenting 247 anni Sessantaun testosacro’ (‘by theendof aut, 2011). Babini(2009: 245)arguesthat to Pirella (1998). For Basaglia (1963). Basaglia Delivered by Ingenta to: University of Bristol Library IP : 137.222.120.226 On: Mon, 22 Jun 2015 07:04:57 Copyright The Policy Press Babini, V, 2009, aut, References ) (Foucault,clinic 1969). the sixties…asacred text). In1969, ofthe (Birth Einaudipublished Nascitadellaclinica Basaglia, F, 1981, Breaking the circuit of control, in DIngleby (ed) Basaglia, F(ed), 1968, L’istituzione [Theinstitutiondenied], negate Turin: Einaudi Basaglia, F (ed), 1967b,, Checos’è la psichiatria? Parma, Italy: Provincial Administration Basaglia, F, 1967a, CommentoaE. Goffman: moraledelmalatomentale, lacarriera Jervis, G, 1969, L’esperienza Emilia, diReggio inL. Onnis, G. 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Parma, Italy: Provincial Administration Italy: IlMulino Rome, Savelli, 1979, pp 247–59 Ragione degli Altri. alternativa inItalia enelmondo-Storia, La Psichiatria epratica, teoria Penguin edellaviolenza,meccanismi dell’esclusione Turin:Einaudi. New Books York:Anchor Libro180-Articolo1C.pdf, (Foglid’informazione 5-6, 1.6.2008). civilization: age ], ofmadnessintheclassical A history Paris: EditionsGallimard Desclée deBrouwer Cambridge: University Pres Cambridge Verona: Edizioni Ombre Corte sul pensierodiFranco Basaglia, Trieste, Italy: EdizioniE Milan:Franco Angeli London andNew York, NY: Routledge Allen Lane Grazia Giannichedda), Milan: Editore Cortina Raffaello The politicsofmentalhealth, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 184–92(inEnglish) 2011, Foucault andla dellafollia’‘storia (1961-2011), aut , 351, Milan:aut Liberi tutti:Liberi inItalia: Manicomiepsichiatri delnovecento, Inastoria Bologna, Our necessary shadow:Our necessary ,The natureandmeaningofpsychiatry London: Lo specchio rimosso:Lo specchio Individuo, società, follia da Goffman a Basaglia, Histoire de la folie à l’âge classique [Madnessand Histoire delafolieàl’âgeclassique John Foot 248 Critical psychiatry:Critical

Delivered by Ingenta to: University of Bristol Library IP : 137.222.120.226 On: Mon, 22 Jun 2015 07:04:57 Copyright The Policy Press Ramon, S, 1985a, reform,The Italianpsychiatric inSMangen(ed)Mentalhealth Porter, R, Micale, M, 1994, Introduction: anditshistories, reflections onpsychiatry Porter, R, 2002, Madness: , history A brief Oxford: Oxford University Press Pirella, A, 1998, FrancoBasaglia, istituzionale, praticaallapsichiatria odella critica Lovestone, S, 1988, Community care, Italianstyle, 297, MedicalJournal British 6655, Lovestone, S, 1985, the Italian experience, Misunderstanding L. Binswanger, 1954, LaRêve etl’existence, introduction by MichelFoucault, Paris, Jones, K, Poletti, A, 1986, The ‘Italian Experience’ reconsidered, of Journal British Jones, K, Poletti, A, 1985, theItalian experiment, of Understanding Journal British Jones, K, Poletti, A, 1984, The mirageofareform, NewSociety70, 1137 Tansella, M, 1986, withoutmentalhospitals: Community psychiatry theItalian SPK (SocialistPatients’ Collective) (1993) Turn illnessintoaweaponforagitationby Scull, A,2011, Madness: introduction ,A veryshort Oxford: Oxford University Press Scheper-Hughes, N, Lovell, AN (eds), 1987, inside-out: Psychiatry of Selectedwritings Saraceno, B, 2012, La ‘distorsion Anglaise’: remarques surlaréceptiondepensée Roth, M, Kroll, J, 1986, Therealityofmentalillness , Cambridge: University Cambridge Romanucci-Ross, L, Tancredi, L, 2007, Whenlawandmedicinemeet: A cultural view, Ramon S(ed), 1988, intransition: Psychiatry , andItalianexperiences The British London: Ramon, S, 1985b, theItalianexperience, Understanding ofPsychiatry Journal British York, NY: Oxford University Press in MMicale,, RPorterofpsychiatry thehistory (eds)Discovering Oxford andNew CDP, 119–127 in DGiachetti(ed)Perilsessantotto:, Studiericerche Pistoia, Italy: Editore/ Massari 1042–3 147, 450–2 Desclée deBrouwer 148,Psychiatry 144–50 146,Psychiatry 341–7 experience: areview, oftheRoyal Journal SocietyofMedicine79, 664–9 KRRIM the SocialistPatients’ Collective attheUniversity ofHeidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany: Franco Basaglia, New York, NY: ColumbiaUniversity Press de FrancoBasaglia, 67, Modernes LesTemps 668, April–June Press New York, NY: Springer Pluto 14, 208–9 in theEuropeancommunity, London: Croom Helm, 170–203 Franco Basagliaandtheradical movement psychiatry inItaly, 1961–78 249 British Journal of Psychiatry Journal British care