DEVELOPMENT OF A THESAURUS OF PLACE NAMES FOR THE ROYAL
GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY LIBRARY
BY
CATHERINE A. HAMMOND, B.Sc.
A Master's Dissertation, submitted in partial fulfilment of
the requirements of the award of the Master of Science
degree of the Loughborough University of Technology
September 1994
Supervisor: I.A. Smith, BA, MA. Department of Information
and Library Studies
@ C. Hammond, 1994. ABSTRACT
The purpose of this project was to design and construct a thesaurus of place names for the Royal Geographical Society
Library; to be used in conjunction wi~h the cataloguing module of its automated system.
The Royal Geographical Society was founded in 1830 to promote geography and exploration. Its library includes over 145,000 volumes as well as 800 current periodicals covering geography, travel and exploration and is used by members of expeditions; academics; students and other researchers.
An analysis of the library's collection, users and management was used as the basis for thesaurus design. The characteristics of the controlled indexing language and the construction techniques used are discussed and recommendations for maintenance and future thesaurus 'development are made. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my supervisor Inese Smith for her
advice and enthusiasm; Jayne Dunlop, Librarian at the Royal
Geographical Society for all her help and, in particular, my parents and Richard for their support and encouragement over
the last six months. ABSTRACT ACKNOWLEGEMENTS
CONTENTS PAGE NO.
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Aims and objectives 1
1.2 Background 1
1.3 Methodology 2
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Development of ideas about thesauri, 4 their design and use 2.1.1 Thesauri 4 2.1.2 The use and effectiveness of 5 thesauri in postcoordinate systems
2.2 Thesaurus construction and development 8 2.3 Geographical names in published thesauri 8
CHAPTER 3 THE ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY AND ITS LIBRARY
3.1 The history of the Society 12
3.2 The development of the Society's library 18
3.3 The Society's other collections 20 3.3.1 The Map Room 20 3.3.2 The Picture Library 21 3.3.3 The Archives 21
3.4 The Library: its collection, users and 22 management 3.4.1 The collection 22 3.4.2 Library users 22 3.4.3 Acquisitions 23 3.4.4 Cataloguing 23 3.4.5 Arrangement of stock 24 3.4.6 Circulation 25 3.4.7 Staffing 26 3.5 The Library: automation of library 26 management systems
CHAPTER 4 THESAURUS DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
4.1 Type of thesaurus required 29 4. 1 • 1 Nature of the information 31 system
4.1.1.1 Subject field 31 4.1.1.2 Type of literature 32 4.1.1.3 Quantity of literature 32 4.1.1.4 System users 33 4.1.1.5 Questions to be put to 33 the system 4.1.1.6 Resources available 34
4.1 .2 Characteristics of the indexing 35 language
4.1.2.1 Recall devices 36 4.1.2.2 Precision devices 38
4.2 Construction techniques 40 4.2.1 Sources of terms 40 4.2.2 Making an outline of the subject 42 field 4.2.3 Selection and recording of terms 45 from published sources
4.2.3.1 Names of administrative areas 46 4.2.3.2 Names of major settlements 47 and physical features
4.2.4 Selecting terms from the library 48 catalogue 4.2.5 Checking term form and relation 49 ships 4.2.6 Final form and use of the 49 structured term list
CHAPTER 5 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR TESTING, MAINTENANCE AND FUTURE DEVELOPMENT
5.1 Testing 53
5.2 Maintenance 54 5.2.1 Adding new terms 55 5.2.2 Deleting terms 55 5.2.3. Amending terms 56 5.2.4 Managing thesaurus maintenance 56 5.3 Future thesaurus construction 57
BIBLIOGRAPHY 60
APPENDIX 1. Thesaurus of place names 1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
The aims of this project were to design and construct a thesaurus of geographical names for the Royal Geographical Society library and to offer recommendations for future thesaurus construction.
The objectives were: to become familiar with the collection, the users and management of the library; - to decide which would be the most appropriate type of thesaurus for this information system;
- to compile a structured term list from which an alphabetical display could be generated; to provide recommendations about future construction, testing and maintenance.
1.2 BACKGROUND
This project was carried out at the request of the Royal
Geographical Society who wish to compile a thesaurus of geographical terms to be used in conjunction with the cataloguing module of the library's automated system.
1 The latter is expected to become operational towards the end of 1994.
The library has two subject catalogues: in one, works are filed under geographical names (e. g. continents, countries etc.), in the other, filing is under different aspects of geography as a discipline (e.g.human geography, physical geography etc.). It is intended that each of these parts will eventually have a corresponding thesaurus, with work to start on that of geographical names.
1.3 METHODOLOGY
The thesaurus construction process began wi th preliminary visits to the library in order to become familiar with the collection and its management. As only six to eight weeks was available for construction, it was decided that a relatively small geographical area would be covered - Australia, New
Zealand and the Pacific. Once the information system had been studied in detail and the design of the thesaurus determined, compilation work began. The first stage was to define the subject field in detail using subject headings from the library catalogue and general geographical reference works.
When this was accomplished, the selection of more specific terms from published sources and from catalogue entries began.
2 The library staff's knowledge of user enquiries provided essential guidance at this stage. Terms for each country were collected in turn. Where the relationship between new and existing terms was obvious, the new terms were added to the basic structure immediately. Terms whose status required verification were not admitted until this had been done.
The practical part of the project took approximately 120 hours to complete over a seven week period in May and June
1994. Three days of each week were spent at the Society's library using the sources previously mentioned. The result is a structured list of 1070 terms, from which an alphabetical display can be created using the library's Cairs cataloguing module. The work was carried out in accordance with the
Bri tish Standard Guide to establishment and development of monolingual thesauri: BS5723(1) and drawing on the literature of this field, which is the subject of the next chapter.
REFERENCES
1. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. British Standard Guide to
establishment and development of monolingual thesauri.
2nd ed., 1987.
3 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 DEVELOPMENT OF IDEAS ABOUT THESAURI, THEIR DESIGN AND
USE
2.1.1 Thesauri
The use of the word thesaurus is traced by Gilchrist from its first recorded use in 1736, when its meaning was 'a treasury or storehouse of knowledge, as a dictionary, encylopaedia or the like', to possibly its first use in an information retrieval context in 1957(1). Roget's Thesaurus of English words and Phrases, first published in 1852, has led to the now popular understanding of the word as referring to a dictionary of synonyms, or more correctly quasi-synonyms, and the Concise
Oxford Dictionary's definition, 'a collection of concepts or words arranged according to sense' ( 2 ) . The thesaurus in information retrieval has been defined as,.
The vocabulary of a controlled indexing language, formally organised so that the a priori relationships between concepts (for example as 'broader' and 'narrower') are made explicit (3) and as,
4 ... an authority list showing terms which may,
and sometimes may not, be used in an index to
describe concepts. Each term is usually given
together with terms which are related to it in
one of a number of ways(4).
Thesauri were first used for this purpose in the late 1950s, in conjunction with the earliest postcoordinate indexing systems which required simple terms with low precoordination not available in the indexing languages of the time. Since then, the' value of controlled indexing languages has been called into question and although still widely used, their role in information retrieval has changed and looks set to be modified further in the future.
2.1 .2 The use and effectiveness of thesauri in postcoordinate systems : the natural vs. controlled language debate
Natural language indexing and searching was regarded more favourably than the use of controlled language between the mid-1960s and mid-1970s for two reasons. The first was the creation of large textual databases. These could be searched at speed using any term or combination of terms from the text of the document, making possible for the first time natural language searching.
5 The second is related to the results of tests carried out on indexing systems at Cranfield College in the 1960s(5), which seemed to indicate that natural language was more effective than a controlled vocabulary in information retrieval from postcoordinate systems. Al though the resul ts of the Cranfield experiments were disputed on the grounds that they were poorly devised and did not reflect reality, many accepted them.
Database producers felt justified in not spending money on indexing and the construction of controlled languages, and as a result, databases could be made available for public online searching with relatively little effort and their numbers grew rapidly in the 1970s.
The debate sparked by the Cranfield experiments, reviewed by
Dubois(6) and Svenonius(7), has continued and the evaluation of indexing languages has moved into a new era with the ability to carry out 'real-life' tests on online databases.
Work carried out in the late 1970s by Henzler(8) was among the first to suggest that natural and controlled vocabulary searches complimented one another. Perez(9) looked at practical ways of using the two in combination, as did Sievert and Boyce(10), who suggested controlling long search statements, connected by the Boolean operator 'OR', using controlled vocabulary and truncation.
6 Since the late 1970s, and the emergence of a consensus of opinion about the need for both natural and controlled languages in information retrieval, emphasis in research has shifted to looking at ways in which online searching can be improved. Snow( 11) considers the advantages of using a database thesaurus on its own and in conjunction with natural language searching.
Piternick(12) points out that in the past controlled vocabularies were designed primarily with the needs of indexers, rather than searchers, in mind. She suggests that searching vocabularies need to be developed to assist those carrying out online searching. According to Tenopir( 13), successful searching depends on being able to adapt search strategies to factors including the nature of the database, the controlled vocabulary available, the subj ect and the quantity and quality of items desired by the searcher. Finally, Dubois(14) suggests a methodology for database producers to use when designing retrieval systems.
By the late 1980s, it had become clear that natural or controlled language searching, or a combination of the two, may be appropriate depending on the context in which the search is carried out.
7 Both Svenonius (15) and Dubois (16) suggest areas in which research is needed if retrieval strategies and tools, such as thesauri, are to be improved.
2.2 THESAURUS CONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT
National and international standards designed to ensure consistent practice should be the thesaurus compiler's main source of guidance, in this case the British Standard Guide to establishment and development of monolingual thesauri : BS
5723(17). Works which are consistent with, and usefully amplify, the Standard, include those by Aitchison and
Gilchrist(18), Rowley(19), Batty(20) and Townley and Gee(21).
2.3 GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES IN PUBLISHED THESAURI
Reference to Chan and Pollard's guide to thesauri used in online databases (22), reveals that few published thesauri include geographical names. In common wi th other proper names, place names are often excluded from thesauri, if they are not relevant to the subject covered, or held as a separate authority list in which the name form only, not relationships, is controlled.
8 A number of published thesauri include a few names, but not enough to make them of value to the compiler of a new thesaurus. Two thesauri with useful information on geographical names are the GeoRef thesaurus and guide to indexing( 23) produced by the American Geological Institute for the GeoRef database and Geosaurus(24) published by Geosystems for use with GeoArchive.
A thorough understanding of the development of ideas about thesauri and their construction is an essential precursor to the work of compilation, as is familiarity with the information system concerned and the organisation wi thin which it operates. These are explored in the next chapter.
REFERENCES
1. GILCHRIST, Alan. The thesaurus in retrieval. 1971, 4-5.
2. ALLEN, R.E.ed. The concise Oxford dictionary of current
English. 8th ed., 1990, p.1268.
3. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. British Standard Guide to
establishment and development of monolingual thesauri.
2nd ed., 1987, p.2.
4. ROWLEY, J. Organising knowledge: an introduction to
information retrieval. 2nd ed., 1992, p.252.
5. CLEVERDON, C.W. The Cranfield tests on index language
devices. Aslib Proceedings, 1967, 19(6), 173-194.
9 6. DUBOIS, C.P.R. Free text vs. controlled vocabulary: a
reassessment. Online Review, 1987, 11(4), 243-253.
7. SVENONIUS, Elaine. Unanswered questions in the design of
controlled vocabularies. Journal of the American
Society for Information Science, 1986, 37(5), 331-340.
8. HENZLER, Rolf G. Free or controlled vocabularies: some statistical user-oriented evaluations of biomedical
information systems. International Classification, 1978,
5(1), 21-26.
9. PEREZ, Ernest. Text enhancement: controlled vocabulary
vs. free text. Special Libraries, 1982, 73(July), 183-
192. 10. SIEVERT, Mary & Bert R. BOYCE. Hedge trimming and the
resurrection of the controlled vocabulary in online
searching. Online Review, 1983, 7(6), 489-494.
11. SNOW, Bonnie. Why use a database thesaurus? Online, 1985,
9(6), 92-96.
12. PITERNICK, Anne B. Searching vocabularies: a developing
category of online search tools. Online Review, 1984,
8(5), 441-449. 13. TENOPIR, Carol. Searching by controlled vocabulary or
free text? Library Journal, 1987, 15 November, 58-59. 14. DUBOIS, C.P.R, ref.6.
15. SVENONIUS, Elaine, ref.7.
16. DUBOIS, C.P.R, ref.6. 17. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, ref.3.
10 18. AITCHISON, J. & A. GILCHRIST. Thesaurus construction: a
practical manual. 2nd ed., 1987.
19. ROWLEY, J, ref.4. 20. BATTY, David. Thesaurus construction and maintenance: a
survival kit. Database, 1989, February, 13-20.
21. TOWNLEY, Helen M. & Ralph D. GEE. Thesaurus-making: grow
your own word-stock, 1980.
22. CHAN, Lois Mai & Richard POLLARD. Thesauri used in online
databases: an analytical guide, 1988.
23. GOODMAN, Barbara A., ed. GeoRef thesaurus and guide to
indexing. 6th ed., 1992.
24. CHARLES, Rosalind. Geosaurus: Geosys tems thesaurus of
geoscience. 3rd ed., 1979.
1 1 3.0 THE ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY AND ITS LIBRARY
3.1 THE HISTORY OF THE SOCIETY
The Royal Geographical Society had its beginnings in two earlier societies with an interest in geography and exploration - the African Association (founded in 1788 by Sir
Joseph Banks to promote the exploration of Africa) and the
Raleigh Traveller's Club (founded in 1827 by Captain Arthur
Broke). The formation of a new society, whose main objective would be " ... the promotion and diffusion of ... geography"(1), was proposed at a special meeting of the Raleigh Club in May
1830. The Geographical Society of London was formed in July
1830, becoming the Royal Geographical Society with the granting of a Royal Charter in 1859.
Between 1830 and the turn of the century, the Society was involved mainly in encouraging the exploration of little known areas of the world. It supported efforts to discover the fate of Sir John Franklin's expedition of 1845 to find the North west Passage, expeditions across the centre of the Australian continent and, perhaps most famously, David Livingstone's crossing of Africa between 1852 and 1856 and his search for the sources of the Nile between 1866 and his death in 1873.
12 From the earliest years of the Society, efforts were made both to promote geography as a subject and the quality of geography teaching. Ini tially, the promotion of the discipline was achieved through the support given to expeditions and the publicising of their findings in the Society's journal and at its meetings. The Society quickly recognised the need to improve the instruction of those undertaking exploration, publishing Hints to travellers, a book containing practical information for expeditions in 1854 and providing courses in
~urveying, mapping and astronomy from 1879.
In 1884, the Society commissioned an inquiry into the teaching of geography in schools, which investigated the methods and materials used in Britain, Europe and the United States. The findings of the inquiry stimulated an interest in geography teaching and led to the formation of the Geographical
Association in 1893, an organisation which continues to promote the teaching of geography in schools today.
The Society persuaded Oxford University to appoint its first
Reader in Geography in 1887, at a time when the subject was not considered suitable for study at degree level. The
Society was also instrumental in the founding of the School of
Geography at Oxford in 1899 and continued to fund geography at both Oxford and Cambridge Universities until 1924.
13 By this time, degrees in the subject were being awarded at other British universities as well and its importance was at last recognised.
In the last decade of the nineteenth century there was a revival of interest in polar exploration. In his History of the Royal Geographical Society, Mill writes:
By 1892 geographical exploration on the grand scale in temperate or tropical regions had had its day. A great deal of mapping remained to be done and there were certain regions which temporary conditions made difficult of access; but only within the polar circles were there millions of square miles still untrodden and unseen(2) .
In August 1901, the Society sent an expedition to Antarctica under the command of Lieutenant Robert F. Scott. Scott returned in 1904 with a wealth of new information about the continent, and in 1910 he set out again, this time with the aim of reaching the Pole. On 14 December 1911, the Norwegian,
Roald Amundsen arrived at the South Pole a month before
Scott's party, all of whom died on the return journey.
14 In 1913, the Society moved to its fifth and present home,
Lowther Lodge, in Kensington Gore. Ernest Shakleton's trans
Antarctic expedition set out with financial assistance from the Society in 1914, just as the First World War was starting.
During the war years no further expeditions set out and the
Society put its services at the disposal of the Government, for whom it carried out cartographic work.
After the War, the Society became involved in efforts to reach the summit of Mount Everest, at that time considered the last great feat of exploration yet to be achieved. The Society supported three separate attempts between 1921 and 1923. The
1923 Everest Expedition reached 28,000 ft, but cost the lives of two climbers, Mallory and Irvine. After this the Tibetan authorities refused permission for further attempts on the mountain until the 1930s, when three further expeditions failed to add more than 100ft to the height previously attained. The opening of Nepal to foreigners after the Second
World War resulted in expeditions in 1950 and 1951,which explored the possibility of a new, easier route up the south west flank of the mountain. In 1953, John Hunt led a British expedition to Everest and on May 29th the summit was finally reached by Edmund Hillary and Sherpa Tenzing.
15 other expeditions supported by the Society in the last forty years have included the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic
Expedition of 1957, on which a team led by Vivian Fuchs and
Edmund Hillary completed the first crossing of Antarctica, and
Wally Herbert's Trans-Arctic expedition (1967-69) - the first crossing of the Arctic Ocean on foot.
In 1930, in his history of the Society, Mill suggested that the era of trans-continental exploration was at an end and for geography he hailed the beginning of: to ••• the dawn of intensive study aimed at elucidating the inter-relations between the conditions which give individuality to definite regions"(3).
Since the end of the Second World War, expeditions aided by the Society have mainly been concerned with the detailed study of a small area. In the last twenty years there has been a further shift of emphasis in the nature of exploration supported by the Society. Robin Hanbury-Tenison's 1977 expedition to the rainforest of Gunung Mulu in Sarawak set out not only. to explore and carry out research. The ultimate aim of the expedition was to help ensure the conservation of the forest by providing the Malaysian government with a comprehensive management plan for the area.
16 Conservation, resource management and development projects aimed at helping communities living in fragile environments now typify the work of expeditions sent out and supported by the Society. The activities of recent expeditions receiving sponsorship have included: research into land use and erosion in Nepal; rainforests in Brunei; geomorphology in the
Karakoram mountains of Pakistan; and the ecology of the Kora
National Reserve in Kenya.
Through its Expedition Advisory Centre, the Society continues to provide information and training for expeditions and independent travellers. Grants awarded to expeditions in 1993 amounted to over E37,000 and although most only receive a few hundred pounds, by conferring its approval, the Society enables recipients to attract other sponsorship. The Society holds meetings in London and around the country which include: lectures by popular explorers and scientists; careers symposia; talks for sixth formers; children's events; and, academic conferences. The latter form part of the Society's
'Environmental Forum' - a series of meetings arranged to encourage discussion of environmental issues. The Society continues to promote geography as a subject discipline and to disseminate research findings through the Geographical Journal and the popular Geographical Magazine. In 1995 the Society is to merge with the smaller Institute of British Geographers and in doing so will broaden its role further.
17 In the second half of the twentieth century, the Society has found a new role for itself by embracing global environmental issues; through its support of multi-disciplinary field research, concerned with conservation as well as investigation, and by becoming a forum for debate.
3.2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SOCIETY'S LIBRARY
One of the six aims of the Society, set out in a memorandum
adopted at its first meeting in 1830 was:
To accumulate gradually a library of the best books on geography ... as well as such documents and materials as may convey the best information to persons intending to visit foreign countries(4).
The development of the library was slow at first due to a lack
of funds and a permanent home. By 1850, with the help of
donations from members, the collection had grown to 4000
volumes and 1000 pamphlets.
In 1852, an author catalogue was produced and the first
complete catalogue was finished in 1865. It was not until
1866, however, that a librarian was appointed and attention
paid to the arrangement of the library for the first time.
18 From 1849, the journals of other societies were received in exchange for the Geographical Journal. Donations and bequests of personal collections contributed to the growth of library stock, as did the donation of books from government departments and other institutions who published material of interest to the Society.
According to Crone, a former Librarian, the collection in the early years was " ... largely devoted to travel, the history of exploration, cartography, hydrography and classical topography" (5) , reflecting the interests of the Society during this period.
By 1880, the collection included over 20,000 items and, after three supplements had been made to the original catalogue, work started on a new catalogue in 1893. By this time the collection consisted not only of works on travel and geography, but also included material on related subjects such as geology, meteorology, climatology and oceanography. A renewed interest in the polar regions towards the end of the nineteenth century also led to the acquisition of many works on this subject.
The present library was built in 1930, part of an extension to
Lowther Lodge, which added much needed space to the Society's home.
19 The number of volumes (including bound periodicals) in 1930 had reached 75,000. In 1955, when G. R. Crone wrote his history of the library, there were 90,000 volumes, 20,000 pamphlets and 300 current periodicals. It was Crone's belief that,
In a few years the problem of additional accommodation will arise, unless there is a return to the pre-1930 practice of lining the corridors with shelving(6).
Today, there are over 145,000 bound volumes and, as Crone predicted, the collection has outgrown the main library and now occupies adjacent rooms and other parts of the building.
3.3 THE SOCIETY'S OTHER COLLECTIONS
3.3.1 The Map Room The Map Room holds a collection of over 850,000 maps, atlases and charts. The growth of the collection was hampered in the early years of the Society by lack of space and funds and, despite donations from the Ordnance Survey and the Admiralty, by 1850 there were less than 10,000 items.
20 Widespread interest in exploration, particularly the exploits of Livingstone and others in Africa, meant that by the early
1850s, the Map Room was being used extensively by the public,
as well as by members of the Society. In 1854, the Society
succeeded in securing an annual grant from the Government for
the maintenance and development of the collection and, in
return, the Society agreed to keep the Map Room open to the
public. The funding, now from the Department of National Heritage, and the opening arrangements continue today.
3.3.2 The Picture Library
Explorers have long been encouraged to leave a pictorial
record of their travels with the Society. The Picture Library
includes over 3000 sketches, watercolours, oil paintings and
prints and more than 100,000 photographs, negatives and
slides. Many items are of great historical interest, such as
the photographs of Hillary and Tenzing on Everest. Among
acquisitions made in 1993 were 500 slides given by the
explorer Sir Ranulph Fiennes.
3.3.3 The Archives The Archives consist of a large collection of documents which
record the history of the Society and include the minutes of
meetings, administrative records, manuscripts and letters.
21 There are also letters, diaries and log-books of explorers, including those of Ross, Sturt, Eyre, Darwin, Livingstone,
Stanley and Scott. An addition to·the collection in 1993 was archival material belonging to the mountaineer W H Tilman.
3.4 THE LIBRARY ITS COLLECTION, USERS AND MANAGEMENT
SYSTEMS
3.4.1 The collection The collection consists of 145,000 bound volumes, 25,000 pamphlets and 800 current periodicals, to which is added approximately 1500 volumes each year.
The subjects covered are geography, travel and exploration.
There is some material on related disciplines (e.g. geology, meteorology), but purchasing policy dictates the selection of geographical titles only, so the number of works in this part of the collection is in decline. The library continues to receive the journals of other societies in exchange for the
Geographical Journal and a large proportion of accessions are review copies, obtained free of charge from publishers.
3.4.2 Library Users
In 1993, just over 3000 people visited the library, which exists for the use of individual and corporate members of the
Society only.
22 Users include academics, students, those planning expeditions and people doing research for books, articles and television programmes. A recent library survey(7) showed that most users are seeking material on travel or exploration, either from a contemporary or historical standpoint. In addition, it was revealed that users come in search of specific information and for general reading. The library is not geared to meet the needs of academic geographers as it is biased towards works on travel and exploration and older regional texts. This situation may change with the merger of the Society and the
Institute of British Geographers in 1995.
3.4.3 Acquisitions
There is a manual book acquisition system. Items are ordered by post, and upon receipt, their details are entered in a handwritten accessions register before processing; cataloguing and shelving. Since 1992, the acquisition of serials has been dealt with using a 'stand alone' computer package supplied by
Cairs. This replaced a manual, 'Kardex' system which became unwieldy as the number of current periodicals grew.
3.4.4 Cataloguing
The library staff maintain a large card catalogue to which are added the details of around 2500 new items each year.
23 Catalogue entries for each item are made by typing details onto cards, a minimum of one each for author and subject catalogues, according approximately to AACR2 at level two.
Current periodicals are scanned for articles to be catalogued, at present about 1000 every year. Articles on subjects which are topical or under-represented in the book stock, are those most commonly selected for inclusion in the catalogue. Before catalogue cards are filed and new books shelved, an alphanumeric 'shelf mark' is added to both. As no classification scheme is in use in the library, this mark alone indicates where each book should be found on the shelves.
3.4.5 Arrangement of stock
The main library is a single room divided into bays of shelving. Each set of shelves has a number and individual shelves are lettered, so that the top shelf is 'A', the next down 'B', and so on. The shelf mark written inside each book consists of the number and letter combination which indicates its position in the library. There is no specified arrangement of books within each shelf. Books on particular geographical areas are arranged around the central room of the library by continent and within this, by country.
24 Those books which are not about a specific part of the world, but are concerned with particular aspects of geography, are arranged in broad subject groupings and shelved at one end of the library, in adjacent rooms and in other parts of the building. Current issues of journals are displayed at the library entrance and back numbers of the more popular titles stored at the far end of the library. Back numbers of other journals and pamphlets are kept elsewhere in the building.
Since the 'new' library was built in 1930, the size of the collection has almost doubled and there is no longer room for all of the stock in the main library and adjacent rooms.
Consequently, access to much of the collection is now closed.
In addition, there is only limited access to antiquarian books, whose value necessitates secure storage. Lack of space in the library has been exacerbated by the growth of the card catalogue, which is stored in banks of drawers running down the centre of the main room.
3.4.6 Circulation
The Society's, membership of nearly 11,500 includes about 200 regular library users. In 1993, there was a 21% increase in the number of items borrowed compared with the previous year, the total rising to just over 2500 during the year. When an item is borrowed, its details are recorded on a two part carbon slip and one part filed with the borrowers record card, one under the authors name.
25 Given the small number of transactions each year, this manual
system of circulation control, though not ideal, is adequate.
3.4.7 staffing
The library is run by three full-time, qualified staff - the
Librarian and two Assistant Librarians. An additional
librarian is to be employed for six months from Autumn 1994 to
ease the pressure on existing staff, who will be learning to
operate the cataloguing module of Cairs IMS during this
period.
3.5 THE LIBRARY AUTOMATION OF LIBRARY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
The library purchased Cairs IMS, an automated library
management system, early in 1994 and operation of the
cataloguing module is due to begin towards the end of the
year. The choice of Cairs was strongly influenced by the
satisfactory performance of its 'stand alone' serials module,
purchased in 1992, and the quality of support given by the
suppliers.
The main objectives of automation are to improve the quality
of cataloguing and user access to library stock.
26 Replacing the card catalogue with an OPAC will mean that time previously spent typing and filing multiple cards, to ensure cross-referencing of each catalogue entry, will be saved and more space will become available in the library. Searching the catalogue via an OPAC will be quicker and easier than using the card catalogue, split, as it is, into three author sections (for corporate-authors, authors of books and authors of periodical articles) and two subject sections (aspects of geography and geographical areas). The automation of cataloguing will also overcome problems caused by the misfiling of cards, make possible the provision of current awareness bulletins and an SDI service and will enable the library to participate in information exchange schemes.
If resources permit it, retrospective conversion will be handled by OCLC or a similar agency and the library catalogue converted to machine-readable form over about a twelve month period.
It is anticipated that book acquisitions and circulation control will be automated in time, although the relatively small numbers of book accessions and borrowers would not justify the automation of these functions alone.
27 An understanding of the way in which the Society's library operates is essential in order to ensure that the thesaurus is designed to meet the needs of this system. In Chapter Four, aspects of the library's collection; users and management are reviewed in the light of their impact on thesaurus design, the type of thesaurus required is outlined and appropriate construction techniques described.
REFERENCES
1. MILL, Hugh Robert. The record of the Royal Geographical
Society 1830-1930, 1930, p.17.
2. Ibid., p.154.
3. Ibid., p.222.
4. Ibid., p.17.
5. CRONE, G.R. The library of the Royal Geographical
.Society. The Geographical Journal, 1955, 121(1), 28.
6. Ibid., 32.
7. COLLINSON, T. Royal Geographical Society library use
survey. (Unpublished internal report), June 1994.
28 4.0 THESAURUS DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
4.1 TYPE OF THESAURUS REQUIRED
The. library's decision to construct a thesaurus for use in conjunction with the cataloguing module of Cairs IMS was based on a need to improve both the consistency of subject indexing and the effectiveness of searching. Improvements in these operations could be achieved in a number of ways depending on
the resources available. The following were suggested by Jean
Aitchison in a report(l) prepared for the Society outlining
the options for thesaurus construction.
The simplest and least costly option would be to compile a
list of terms acceptable for use in indexing and searching.
Such a list could be used to control word form (spelling, the
use of singular and plural forms etc.). It would not, however,
control the use of synonyms or show relationships between
terms which may suggest ways to broaden or narrow a search.
A more useful alternative, requiring greater compilation
effort, would be a list of terms in which not only word form
but also synonyms were controlled. Such a list would give
entries from non-preferred to preferred terms. If resources
were available, the construction of a fully structured
thesaurus would be the best option.
29 In addition to controlling word form and synonyms, this would show hierarchical (broader and narrower terms) and associative
(related terms) relationships and thereby suggest ways of extending a search.
Before work on a controlled language begins, it is necessary
to analyse the information system in question in order to decide the degree of complexity required and which design
features to incorporate. Since a thesaurus is a· means of
ensuring a match between terms used to describe a document when both indexing and searching, it must be designed with typical documents and enquiries in mind, as Townley and Gee
have said:
A thesaurus must never be thought of as an absolute, a thing in its own right. It is a tool, specially adapted to both the things to be retrieved and to the needs of the people wanting to retrieve them(2).
Finally, it is important to be realistic about what is
achievable with the resources available not only for
construction, but also for maintenance.
·30 4.1 .1 Nature of the information system Before decisions about thesaurus design can be made, the context within which this thesaurus will be used must be examined.
4.1.1.1 Subject field
The subject field of the collection should be defined and core and marginal areas within it identified.
For marginal areas fairly superficial treatment may be adequate and it may be possible to incorporate parts of published thesauri. In the core areas greater depth will be required and, to achieve this, the thesaurus will probably have to be constructed from scratch, without making use of existing thesauri. The obvious disadvantage of using published thesauri is that they are designed to represent other collections and work for a different set of users.
While the advantages of using them as an aid to construction in marginal subject areas may outweigh the disadvantages, this is unlikely to be so for core subject areas.
Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific are core areas in the
Society's library collection and, therefore, warrant in depth treatment in the thesaurus. Within. this region, Micronesia and polynesia (excluding Hawaii) can be considered peripheral and requiring less comprehensive coverage in the thesaurus.
31 4.1.1.2 Type of literature It is important to establish whether the collection consists mainly of books or periodicals as this may affect the amount of detail (or degree of specificity) required of the
thesaurus. Periodicals, for example, usually require more detailed indexing than books.
In the Society's library about 50% more books than periodicals
are catalogued and indexed each year (see 3.4.4). In core
subject areas a moderate degree of specificity may be
appropriate when cataloguing journal articles. A low level of
specificity will probably be adequate for books and for all
items concerned with marginal subject areas.
4.1.1.3 Quantity of literature
For a large, rapidly growing database a high level of
specificity and the incorporation of other devices to improve
precision (the proportion of relevant documents retrieved)
could be justified. Where the number of documents is small a
high level of specificity may also be important in order to
make possible in-depth indexing and so maximize the value of
the collection. If the subject field or user enquiries are
complex, a detailed thesaurus will be essential. If this is
not the case, a simpler thesaurus may be recommended,
particularly if, for example, there is a lack of resources for
thesaurus construction.
32 The collection of the Society's library is medium-sized making a detailed thesaurus desirable, although for financial reasons this is unlikely to be possible.
4.1.1.4 System users
The number of users, their information retrieval skills, how often they will use the system and whether they will do so directly or through an intermediary, are all factors that affect thesaurus design.
If users are to have direct access to the system, as they are at the Society's library via an OPAC, the thesaurus should not appear complex or use unfamiliar terminology. User- friendliness is particularly important in this library where
the majority of users are infrequent visitors to the library and many will have little experience of using OPACs.
4.1.1.5 Questions to be put to the system
If the system will have to handle a large number of detailed questions from users, a sophisticated thesaurus, whose level of specificity matches that of the questions put to it will be
required. If only a small number of general questions are to
be put to the system, a relatively simple thesaurus will be
sufficient.
33 As the Society's library is not particularly heavily used (see
3.4.2) and both general and specific information is required of it by users (see 3.4.2), a low level of specificity may be acceptable in all but the most heavily used areas of the thesaurus.
4.1.1.6 Resources available Before starting work on a thesaurus it is important to consider what resources are currently available for construction and will be available in the future for maintenance. Time spent initially producing a thesaurus of
high quality will be recouped later in improved indexing and searching. However,it should be remembered that updating is " ... more than just adding new terms"(3) and may involve a
considerable amount of effort.
At the Society no money has been allocated for thesaurus construction, but a temporary librarian, to be appointed in
Autumn 1994 for six months, may be used to continue the work
started by this project. It may be possible to complete the thesaurus in this time, but it is unlikely that the existing
staff of three, with their valuable knowledge of the
collection and its users, would have time to contribute
greatly to the compilation process.
34 As there are no plans to appoint a fourth permanent member of staff, the thesaurus should be easy to maintain so that the extra burden on existing staff is minimised. A user-friendly design will allow users to search the system independently, without making undue demands on staff time.
4.1 .2 Characteristics of the indexing language
Taking into account the foregoing system considerations and assuming one member of staff is available for up to four months to complete the work of compiling the thesaurus of place names, the following indexing language features are recommended:
- a fully structured thesaurus controlling word form, showing equivalence, hierarchical and associative relationships;
- alphabetical and systematic displays.
Some simple indexing language devices have been incorporated into the thesaurus for Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific in accordance with recommendations made in the British
Standard (4) and these are suggested for the rest of the thesaurus of place names to improve recall and to a lesser extent precision.
35 4.1.2.1 Recall devices (to improve the retrieval of relevant documents)
The control of spelling is necessary to prevent the loss of information which occurs when documents are indexed under different forms of the same term and, therefore, to improve the consistency of indexing. variations in the spelling of place names are common, especially in countries, such as those in the Pacific, which have been dependencies of other nations in the past. It is important to consult the most up to date and authoritative sources of names such the British Standard
Codes for the representation of names of countries: BS EN
23166(5) , or the latest edition of the FAO Terminology
Bulletin - Names of countries(6). Both give the current official name of every country and notes about recent changes.
For other names it may be more difficult to establish current spellings but a very recent edi tion of an authori tative travel guide may be the most useful source. The British Standard suggests that:
The most widely accepted spelling of words should be adopted. If variant spellings exist and are commonly recognized, each should be entered in the thesaurus, and a reference should be made from the non-preferred to the preferred form(7).
36 Punctuation is not dealt with in the British Standard but
Aitchison and Gilchrist(8) suggest that the use of punctuation marks should be avoided if possible. Apostrophes and commas should be omitted and hyphens replaced with a space or by the joining of the two parts of the term, unless it is important that the two words are retained. Punctuation marks are commonly used in Polynesian names and in keeping with the treatment of these in a number of published sources, apostrophes have been omitted and hyphens replaced with a space. For example: the capital of Tonga, Nuku'Alofa, becomes
NUKUALOFA and Fatu-Hiva, an island in the Marquesas Group, becomes FATU HIVA.
As with spelling, the control of synonyms is necessary to avoid the loss of information through scattering under different forms of the same term. According to the Standard:
Synonyms are terms whose meanings can be regarded as the same in a wide range of contexts, so that they are virtually inter- changeable(9).
Examples include variant spellings, dealt with in the previous section and in the content of place name information:
current and obsolete names (e.g. VANUATU and the NEW
HEBRIDES) ;
- popular and official names (e.g. KANAKY and NEW CALEDONIA);
37 - names in more than one language (e.g. EASTER ISLAND, ISLA DE PASCUA and RAPA NUl).
The Standard recommends that:
The name which is most familiar to users of the thesaurus should be designated as the preferred term. Other things being equal, preference should be given to the official rather than the popular name(10).
4.1.2.2 Precision devices (to prevent the recall of irrelevant information)
According to the Standard:
The use of highly specific terms should usually be restricted to the core area of the subject field covered by the thesaurus, since an extensive use of these terms in fringe areas is likely to lead to an unwieldy and unbalanced thesaurus(11).
A highly specific indexing language, one which includes a large number of specific terms, allows the subject of a document to be described precisely and is important, for example, in large databases in order to limit the proportion of 'false drops'.
38 However, it requires greater skill on the part of both indexer and searcher and more thesaurus maintenance effort. Since these disadvantages outweigh the advantages for a medium-sized database such as that in the Society's library, a high level of specificity is not appropriate.
Compound terms allow the subject of a document to be described precisely and therefore have the same advantages and disadvantages as high specifici ty described above. The
Standard (12) recommends that compound terms should be factored
(spli t) into separate words unless their meaning would be affected as a result. Proper names, however, may be retained in their compound form and should be recorded in natural language, not inverted, order (e.g. GULF OF PAPUA, not Papua,
Gulf of). Inverted order could be used for non-preferred terms if it would be helpful to users.
A scope note is a limited definition used to convey the meaning of a term when it is used for indexing in a particular information system and to restrict its use. An example from this thesaurus is:
KAILUA KONA
SN Name given to town of Kailua in Kona district to differentiate it from Kailua in Oahu.
39 Homographs are words with the same spelling but different meanings. To clarify the meaning of homographs the Standard
(13) suggests the addition of a qualifying word or phrase in an alphabetical display, for example,
MOUNT HAGEN (settlement)
MOUNT HAGEN (upland)
4.2 CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
4.2.1 Sources of terms
Aitchison and Gilchrist (14) suggest that there are three main written sources of terms: terms in standardized form (e.g. thesauri, classification schedules, encyclopedias etc.), terminology found in the literature of the subject and the terminology found in user's questions. All three sources were used in the construction of this thesaurus - the first more so
in the initial stages, when defining the subject field and the last two when collecting the main body of terms used.
The standard reference works used at the start of the project were atlases, gazetteers and yearbooks. Atlases were used both as a source of terms and also to check the location of
settlements and physical features, especially where it was
necessary to allocate these to particular administrative areas
such as Australian territories.
40 Gazetteers were used for gleaning basic information about coun tries, for checking place names and the locations of settlements and physical features. Chamber's world gazetteer( 15) was particularly useful as was Webster' s new geographical dictionary(16). The Columbia-Lippincott gazetteer of the world( 17), though published in 1952, was helpful for checking names that are no longer in use. One difficulty with using atlases and gazetteers for this work is that their compilers often fail to state their criteria for choosing names. If this information were available, it would be possible to judge the potential usefulness of such sources more· easily. Annual publications, such as the statesman's year book ( 18) and Europa Publication I s, The Far East and
Australasia (19) contain less detail than gazetteers, but their currency makes them useful for the verification of information'· obtained elsewhere.
Once the subject field had been defined in detail, terms were collected by scanning books and journals and from the library catalogue. As the library collection includes few up-to-date regional texts, the main books used were travel guides, a yearbook and an encyclopedia. The Pacific Islands
Yearbook ( 20), though last published in 1984, has detailed information about all the main islands and island groups in the Pacific.
41 Sections on the history of the various islands proved an invaluable source of information about name changes, summarised in a list of current and obsolete names in the book's appendices. The Encyclopedia of Australia(21), published in 1968 was, like the Columbia-Lippincott gazetteer, valuable because it includes names which are referred to in the library catalogue but are not now in general use. The main travel guides used, both as sources of terms and for checking the status of terms found elsewhere, were those published by Lonely Planet and Moon Publications (see
Bibliography refs. 5,45-46,53-55). These guides, published in
Australia and the United States respectively, are written for independent travellers and provide detailed information which is regularly revised. The Moon Publication handbooks include a useful glossary and list of current and obsolete names.
The term collection process was guided by information obtained from a recent library user survey (22) / which includes material on user enquiries, and by discussions with library staff on the nature and complexity of such enquiries.
4.2.2 Making an outline of the subject field
Defining the subject field of the proposed thesaurus in detail is the first stage in the construction process.
42 A preliminary framework for Australia, New Zealand and the
Pacific was created with the aid of a list of the library's catalogue subject headings (23) compiled by library staff.
This was then checked against the information in a selection of atlases, gazetteers and yearbooks and a revised outline of
the main political subdivisions, including useful defini tions,
created.
In this initial outline, OCEANIA was used to describe the
subject field as a whole and AUSTRALASIA, MELANESIA,
MICRONESIA and POLYNESIA as its constituent parts. However,
according to some sources, AUSTRALASIA does not fit neatly
into this framework, as it overlaps both MELANESIA and
POLYNESIA by including PAPUA NEW GUINEA and NEW ZEALAND.
Ultimately AUSTRALASIA was not used and OCEANIA divided into MELANESIA (including PAPUA NEW GUINEA), MICRONESIA, POLYNESIA
(including NEW ZEALAND) and AUSTRALIA.
Having established an overall outline for the area which could
be justified in the literature, the next stage was to make a
complete list of the countries belonging to each of the four
main subdivisions. For the majority of countries this was a
straightforward exercise, as the sources tended to agree with
one another in most cases and atlases proved useful for
locating many of the smaller islands about which little
published material exists.
43 Polynesia, Micronesia and Melanesia are areas defined by their distinctive cultures. Countries which lie an equal distance from two groups, such as Kiribati, which lies between the main
Polynesian and Micronesian island groups, proved the most difficul t to fit into the geographical framework devised.
Lack of consistency in the treatment of the Pacific islands in the library catalogue meant that this was of little use in solving such problems. Invariably, it was necessary to continue reading until a consensus emerged, although not all of the literature attempts to answer such questions.
The final part in this first stage in the construction process was to decide which, if any, of the islands on the margins of the Pacific to include in this thesaurus. With the aid of reference works and the library catalogue subject headings list, and after discussions with the Librarian, the boundaries of the subject field were defined in detail. In the western half of the Pacific, Irian Jaya (the western part of the island of New Guinea) is excluded as it is part of Indonesia and therefore, south-East Asia. East of longitude 120 degrees, only Easter Island, belonging to Chile, is included because of its strong Polynesian associations and frequent inclusion in books on Polynesia. Galapagos is excluded, belonging more logically with Ecuador, of which it is an island territory.
44 Islands south of New Zealand which lie north of latitude 60 degrees are included, for example the Antipodes Islands,
Campbell Island and the Auckland Islands. Those to the south are regarded as part of Antarctica.
4.2.3 Selection and recording of terms from published sources
Once the subject field of the thesaurus had been defined in detail, the names of important places and physical features were collected for each country. Firstly, published sources, such as gazetteers and atlases were used to create lists of basic information for each country into which terms from the library catalogue and literature could be incorporated later.
The knowledge acquired at this stage proved invaluable when choosing terms directly from the catalogue, as it meant that
the transfer of inaccuracies from catalogue to thesaurus could be avoided. For each country the names of major administrative areas, important settlements and physical
features were listed.
The information was recorded on sheets of paper rather than
onto the traditionally used index cards. This method "enabled
the hierarchical relationships between terms to be established
as collection progressed and the construction process to be
controlled more easily. Scope notes were added as required.
45 For future compilation, the recording of basic information about terms onto a computer database is recommended as this would make it easier to handle and paper could be used for determining structure only.
4.2.3.1 Names of administrative areas
Several difficulties encountered at this stage related to the subdivision of the larger countries, in particular into administrative areas. For example, while Australia is made up of eight territories, the library catalogue has three additional subdivisions·- East and South-East, Central and
North-west Australia. Since these do not correspond to any exact combination of territories and their boundaries are not defined in the catalogue, it would be extremely difficult to
include them in the thesaurus. At present they are used principally as locations for works on physical features, such as rivers and deserts, which cross internal boundaries. For example, works on the Simpson Desert, which covers parts of
Northern Territory, Queensland and South Australia, have been catalogued under Central Australia. In the thesaurus any
physical features which cross internal boundaries are listed
under the country to which they belong. This occurs in the
case of Australia and Papua New Guinea only . •
46 Smaller administrative units (e.g.districts) are also used in the library catalogue, but these pose many problems for thesaurus construction. Firstly, reference books differ on the number and names of districts in particular areas. This indicates that the boundaries of such units are liable to change over relatively short periods of time, which would make the task of keeping the thesaurus up to date more difficult.
Secondly, published sources describe districts differently, calling them' statistical divisions' or 'municipal divisions' , but don't explain exactly what each represents, making it difficult to know which to use or whether they are comparable.
In Hawaii, 'counties' do not correspond to islands of the same name and in some cases include several islands or parts of islands. The incorporation of district level subdivisions into the thesaurus can only be justified where a need for this amount of information exists, in view of the extra maintenance effort that would be required. Some districts have been included for Australia and Papua New Guinea because they are frequently referred to in the literature and are used as subject headings in the library catalogue.
4.2.3.2 Names of major settlements and physical features
The names of important settlements and physical features
(upland areas, rivers and lakes, deserts, plains and coastal features) were the last categories of information to be collected.
47 The compilers of atlases and gazetteers select settlements and physical features for inclusion in these works on the basis of their size, regional or historical importance, or because of other factors. As mentioned in 4.2.1 a statement of their selection criteria is often not given or too vague to be of much use. A knowledge of the criteria applied could aid term selection as it would indicate whether the compilers of such sources were viewing the subject from a similar perspective.
4.2.4 Selecting terms from the library catalogue
In order to keep the thesaurus of a manageable size, it was initially decided that only the most frequently used terms from the catalogue would be selected. To ascertain frequency of occurrence, each card in the drawers covering Australia,
New Zealand and Pacific was inspected and a note made of every new name and of the reoccurrence of names using simple 'five bar gate' tallying. When this exercise had been completed for the whole region the most frequently occurring names, arbitrarily chosen as those appearing five or more times in the catalogue, were incorporated into the term lists already constructed.
Discussion of this first draft of the term list with the
Librarian brought a suggestion that the inclusion of more material from the catalogue, rather than from published sources, would be appropriate in some areas.
48 Accordingly extra terms were added from the catalogue, particularly for some of the smaller Pacific countries, to give extra depth; some, which had been collect,ed from published sources in the second stage of the exercise, were discarded.
4.2.5 Checking term form and relationships
The final stage in the production of the structured term list was to verify the status of names in the enlarged second draft, identifying, for example, whether a name such as MT ISA
refers to a physical feature, a settlement or both, and to
check for alternative names or spellings. As mentioned in
4.1.2.1, name variations are particularly common in Pacific
countries, many of which have gained independence and reverted
to names in their own languages in recent years. Before the
term list was converted into a format from which it could
easily be input to the Cairs thesaurus database, a final check
was made on the consistency of word form and the level of
specificity.
4.2.6 Final form and use of the structured term list
The list produced (see Appendix 1.), in the form of a
systematic display, consists of 1070 terms arranged under
their corresponding countries or regions in the following
categories: settlements, upland areas, rivers, lakes, deserts,
plains, islands and coastal features.
49 Preferred terms are typed in upper case letters. Non- preferred terms are typed in lower case, listed after the preferred terms and denoted by the abbreviation 'UF' meaning
'use for'. Scope notes are included where necessary and shown by the abbreviation 'SN'. Broader and narrower terms are evident from the structure of the list. Word by word alphabetization is used throughout.
The systematic display created, from which an alphabetical display could be generated, shows, 'categories or hierarchies of terms arranged according to their meanings and logical interrelationships' (24), making the structure of the thesaurus explici t. Terms are grouped into subject fields (e. g. countries or regions) and then organized, within each field, into classes or facets according to what they represent
(e.g.settlements, rivers etc.).
Alphabetical and systematic displays are complementary and could be linked by a system of notation for ease of use. Both displays should be in machine-readable form so that they can
be easily revised after both initial testing and ongoing maintenance, the subjects of the following chapter.
50 REFERENCES
1. AITCHISON, J. (Unpublished report on thesaurus construction at the Royal Geographical Society), January
1994.
2. TOWNLEY, Helen M. & Ralph D. GEE. Thesaurus-making: grow
your own word-stock, 1980, p.31.
3. CLEVELAND, Donald B. & Ana D. CLEVELAND. Introduction to
indexing and abstracting. 2nd ed., 1990, p.95.
4. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. British Standard Guide to
establishment and development of monolingual thesauri(BS5723:1987), 1987.
5. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. Codes for the representation of names of countries: Section One:
Alphabetical list of entities and codes in English(BS EN
23166:1994), 1994.
6. FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANISATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS.
Terminology bulletin 20-names of countries, December
1993. 7. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, ref.3, p.7.
8. AITCHISON, J. & A. GILCHRIST. Thesaurus construction: a
practical manual. 2nd ed., 1987, p.17.
9. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, ref.3, p.14.
10. Ibid., p.8.
11. Ibid., p.30.
51 1 2 • Ibi d., p. 9 •
1 3 • Ibi d., p. 7.
14. AITCHISON, J. & A. GILCHRIST, ref.7, pp.122-123.
15. MUNRO, D.ed. Chambers world gazetteer: an A-Z of
geographical information. 5th ed., 1988.
16. Webster's new geographical dictionary, 1972.
17. SELTZER, L.E.ed. The Columbia-Lippincott gazetteer of the
world, 1952.
18. HUNTER, B.ed. The statesman's year-book 1993-94. 130th
ed., 1993.
19. The Far East and Australasia 1994. 25th ed., 1994.
20. CARTER, John, ed. Pacific islands year book. 15th ed.,
1984.
21. LEARMOUTH, A.T.A & A.M. LEARMOUTH. Encyclopaedia of
Australia, 1968.
22. COLLINSON, T. Royal Geographical Society library use
survey(unpublished internal report), June 1994.
23. COLLINSON, T. & J. TURNER. RGS Library catalogue subject headings(unpublished internal document), April 1994.
24. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, ref.3, p.20.
52 5.0 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR TESTING, MAINTENANCE AND FUTURE
DEVELOPMENT
5.1 TESTING
The British Standard(1) recommends that testing is carried out before the thesaurus is made generally available. As Aitchison and Gilchrist(2) suggest, this may be achieved by using the thesaurus both to index a selection of documents and to help answer questions which have been put to the system by users in the past. Although this is a fairly subjective form of evaluation, it should indicate whether extra terms or structural changes are necessary. The measurement of recall and precision is potentially a more objective method of evaluation, but is not recommended for this thesaurus because of the time it would take to complete. Cleveland and Cleveland (3) summarize the main quali ty criteria in three questions that may be asked in order to determine how effective the thesaurus is likely to be:
1. How good is the subject coverage of the concepts displayed? Is it adequate to allow proper indexing and searching? 2. How well does the thesaurus handle broader terms, narrower terms, and related terms? In other words, are all the structural relationships between terms treated 53 adequately? 3. How adequate is the display of the thesaurus? Is it easy to see, understand and follow through on? Does it lead to efficient and effective indexing and searching?
5.2 MAINTENANCE
The language of every subject field is continually changing and because of this, any thesaurus is likely to be out of date and in need of revision by the time it is completed.
Cleveland and Cleveland note that:
If the thesaurus is not maintained, updated, and carefully monitored, its usefulness quickly deteriorates and its advantages over an uncontrolled indexing language are soon lost. The vocabulary of the literature and subject specialist is constantly changing, and the thesaurus must reflect these changes(4).
It should be remembered that as the number of documents indexed grows, a greater maintenance effort is required.
Careful management of the thesaurus is needed to prevent it from exceeding the level of specificity which was originally decided upon. Maintenance involves the addition, deletion and amendment of terms, each of which is considered below.
54
------5.2.1 Adding new terms
Potential new terms may arise in indexing or searching and be suggested by staff or users. According to Batty(S) such terms may be one of the following:
- a new term that should be added to the thesaurus
- a synonym of a term already in the thesaurus
- a term that would be useful if it were not so specific
- a term that is not useful for the thesaurus
Terms to be added to the thesaurus should first be changed to a form consistent with that used in the rest of the vocabulary if necessary. They should then be added to the appropriate place in both alphabetical and systematic displays with notation, scope notes and all references added. Synonyms and terms which are too specific for the thesaurus become part of the entry vocabulary, directing users to the synonymous or broader preferred term by means of the 'Use' statement.
5.2.2 Deleting terms
According to Ai tchison and Gilchrist (6) , terms which are infrequently used, incorrect or misleading should be deleted wi th all their relationships. Some may be used as non- preferred terms if desired.
55 5.2.3 Amending terms
Amendments may include the correction of spelling mistakes, the modification of scope notes to clarify meaning and changes in relationships between terms.
5.2.4 Managing thesaurus maintenance
It is important to establish a policy for thesaurus maintenance to ensure that this is carried out systematically.
Staff and library users need to be made aware of the importance of their suggestions for thesaurus revision and a simple system devised to enable them to participate easily in the process. Additional descriptors could also be derived from regular printouts of new terms used in indexing.
To ensure consistency, ideally one person should have responsibility for deciding what changes are to be made. New terms and revisions may be incorporated immediately or at intervals in batches depending on the volume of work involved.
If significant changes are made to existing terms a record should be kept of this, either in a separate file or as a
Historical Note (abbreviated to HN) in the thesaurus record itself. The Standard(?) suggests that deleted terms which have been used for indexing should be marked 'For retrieval purposes only' and the deletion date given.
56 5.3 FUTURE THESAURUS CONSTRUCTION
It is intended that recommendations made about thesaurus construction in Chapter Four, should also apply to future work on the library's thesaurus of geographical names.
Undoubtedly, a number of problems not encountered so far will arise and a note should be kept of these and of solutions devised, to aid subsequent work.
Compiling a thesaurus of geographical terminology, derived from the various branches of geography as a discipline, wi'll demand greater subject knowledge on the part of the compiler and more time will need to be allowed for its completion.
Relationships between terms will be less evident and it will be necessary to seek the advice of experts in the various fields during construction. The recommendations made in
Chapter Four on specific indexing language characteristics, will not all apply to a thesaurus of geographical terminology.
In particular, rules relating to the control of word form and to compound terms will differ and reference should be made to the Standard(8) and other texts mentioned in 2.2 before work begins.
57 If, ultimately, resources do not permit the construction of a thesaurus of the complexity recommended in this report, an unstructured term list controlling· word form and synonyms could be created instead.
Such a list, compiled by library staff with their knowledge of
the geographical literature and user enquiries could prove a very effective information retrieval tool for, as Rowley points out:
A good thesaurus ... is not necessarily one that has been carefully presented, printed and published with a plethora of effective relationship displays, but rather a list that has been compiled to serve in the retrieval environment in which it is called upon to operate(9).
REFERENCES
1. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. British Standard Guide to
establishment and development of monolingual
thesauri(BS5723:1987) , 1987, p.31.
2. AITCHISON, J. & A. GILCHRIST. Thesaurus construction: a
practical manual. 2nd ed., 1987, p.143.
58 3. CLEVELAND, Donald B. & Ana D. CLEVELAND. Introduction to
indexing and abstracting. 2nd ed., 1990, p.96.
4. Ibid., p.94. 5. BATTY, David. Thesaurus construction and maintenance: a
survival kit. Database, 1989, 19. 6. AITCHISON, J. & A. GILCHRIST, ref.2, p.144.
7. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, ref.1, p.30.
8. Ibid.
9. ROWLEY, J. Organising knowledge: an introduction to
information retrieval. 2nd ed., 1992, p.267.
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65 APPENDIX 1.
THESAURUS OF PLACE NAMES INTRODUCTION
This thesaurus is presented in the form of a systematic display. It is intended to be used in conjunction with an alphabetical display (to be generated from it) which will act as an index giving the user easier access to the systematic display.
The thesaurus covers Oceania, the region defined in 4.2.2 and consisting of Australia, Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. Each of these areas is subdivided into their constituent countries, islands, administrative areas etc. as appropriate and within each of these, terms are arranged in the following categories: settlements; upland areas; rivers; lakes; deserts; plains; islands and coastal features. 'Terms belonging to each category are listed in alphabetical order after the category name, which is printed in italics. Narrower terms within each category are indented.
Physical features which cross a country's internal boundaries (e.g. state or province boundaries) are listed first, immediately under the country name. They are also listed in their 'correct' positions in the main display if their inclusion is necessary to make relationships between terms clear. In the display for Australia some districts are included. These are listed immediately after the name of the terri tory to which they belong, together wi th the names of settlements and physical features which lie within their boundaries.
Preferred terms are printed in upper case letters and immediately beneath are listed scope notes and then non preferred terms denoted by the abbreviations 'SN' and 'UF' (use for) respectively. Non-preferred terms are printed in lower case and separated by a semi-colon if their is more than one. Broader and narrower terms are evident from the structure of the display; in the alphabetical display these would be listed with the abbreviations 'BT' and 'NT'.
1 PART ONE: AUSTRALIA
PHYSICAL FEATURES UPLAND:
GREAT DIVIDING RANGE UF Great Divide
-AUSTRALIAN ALPS -MCPHERSON RANGES
GREY RANGE
DESERTS:
GREAT SANDY DESERT GREAT VICTORIA DESERT SIMPSON DESERT STRZELECKI DESERT STURT DESERT TANAMI DESERT
PLAINS:
BARKLY TABLELAND NULL ARBOR PLAIN
RIVERS:
COOPER CREEK FITZROY GEORGINA MITCHELL MURRAY SNOWY
LAKES:
LAKE MACKAY
2 COASTAL FEATURES:
DISCOVERY BAY GREAT AUSTRALIAN BIGHT GULF OF CARPENTARIA JOSEPH BONAPARTE GULF
1. AUSTRALIAN CAPITAL TERRITORY SN Location for national capital
SETTLEMENTS:
CANBERRA
MAIN SETTLEMENTS:
ALBURY BROKEN HILL COFFS HARBOUR GOULBURN LEETON LISMORE NEWCASTLE ORANGE SHELLHARBOUR SYDNEY TAMWORTH WAGGA WAGGA WOLLONGONG
SMALLER SETTLEMENTS:
BATHURST CAMPBELLTOWN COOMA COOPERS CREEK MAITLAND PORT JACKSON PORT KEMBLA PORT MACQUARIE WELLINGTON
3 PHYSICAL FEATURES UPLAND:
BARRIER RANGE
(GREAT DIVIDING RANGE) (-AUSTRALIAN ALPS) SNOWY MOUNTAINS MOUNT KOSCIUSKO
-BLUE MOUNTAIN RANGE -GOUROCK RANGE --LIVERPOOL RANGE -NANDEWAR RANGE -NEW ENGLAND RANGE BEN LOMOND -WARRUMBUNGLE MOUNTAINS
RIVERS:
BARWON CASTLEREAGH CLARENCE DARLING HAWKESBURY HUNTER LACHLAN MACLEAY MACQUARIE MURRUMBIDGEE NAMOI SHOALHAVEN TWEED
LAKES:
LAKE GEORGE
ISLANDS:
LORD HOWE ISLAND
4 COASTAL FEATURES:
BOTANY BAY BROKEN BAY JERVIS BAY PORT STEPHENS TWOFOLD BAY
DISTRICTS:
ARNHEM LAND
SETTLEMENT: NHULUNBUY
MAIN SETTLEMENTS:
ALICE SPRINGS DARWIN KATHERINE TENNANT CREEK
SMALLER SETTLEMENTS:
AYERS ROCK RESORT UF Yulara
HERMANNSBURG JABIRU MARANBOY RUM JUNGLE
PHYSICAL FEATURES UPLAND:
AYERS ROCK UF Uluru
DAVENPORT RANGES MACDONNELL RANGES -MT ZEIL MURCHISON RANGES
5 RIVERS:
DALY EAST ALLIGATOR FINKE MCARTHUR ROPER SOUTH ALLIGATOR TO DD VICTORIA
LAKES:
LAKE AMADEUS LAKE WOODS
ISLANDS:
BATHURST ISLAND GROOTE EYLANDT ISLAND MELVILLE ISLAND SIR EDWARD PELLEW GROUP
COASTAL FEATURES:
DUNDAS STRAIT CLARENCE STRAIT COBOURG PENINSULA VAN DIEMAN GULF
OTHER FEATURES:
HENBURY METEORITE CRATERS
4 . QUEENSLAND
MAIN SETTLEMENTS:
BRISBANE CAIRNS GLAD STONE IPSWICH MARYBOROUGH MOUNT ISA REDCLIFFE
6 ROCKHAMPTON TOOWOOMBA TOWNSVILLE
SMALLER SETTLEMENTS:
BOWEN CHARTERS TOWERS CLERMONT CLONCURRY CROYDON DAINTREE ETHERIDGE HERBERTON MACKAY RAVENS WOOD STANTHORPE WARWICK
PHYSICAL FEATURES UPLAND:
(GREAT DIVIDING RANGE) -ATHERTON TABLELANDS -CARNARVON RANGE -DARLING DOWNS -DRUMMOND RANGE -GREGORY RANGE -LEICHHARDT RANGE -MACALISTER RANGE
GREY RANGE SELWYN RANGE
RIVERS:
BOWEN BRISBANE BURDEKIN BURNETT FLINDERS GILBERT LEICHHARDT MACKAY STAATEN
7 LAKES:
LAKE DALRYMPLE
ISLANDS:
FRASER ISLAND GREAT KEPPEL ISLAND LIZARD ISLAND MORE TON ISLAND NORTH STRADBROOKE ISLAND PRINCE OF WALES ISLAND REEF ISLANDS SOUTH STRADBROOKE ISLAND TORRES STRAIT ISLANDS -BADU ISLAND -FRIDAY ISLAND -MOA ISLAND -THURSDAY ISLAND WELLESLEY ISLANDS
COASTAL FEATURES:
CAPE YORK PENINSULA GREAT BARRIER REEF UF Barrier Reef MORETON BAY PORT CURTIS REDCLIFFE PENINSULA WIDE BAY
5. SOUTH AUSTRALIA
MAIN SETTLEMENTS:
ADELAIDE BRIGHTON ELIZABETH GLENELG MOUNT GAMBIER PORT AUGUSTA PORT LINCOLN PORT PIRIE WHYALLA
8 SMALLER SETTLEMENTS:
COOBER PEDY VICTOR HARBOUR
PHYSICAL FEATURES UPLAND:
EVERARD RANGES FLINDERS RANGES -GAMMON RANGES -ST MARY PEAK GAWLER RANGES MOUNT LOFTY RANGES MUSGRAVE RANGES STUART RANGES
RIVERS:
WARBURTON
LAKES:
LAKE ALBERT LAKE ALEXANDRINA LAKE EVERARD LAKE EYRE LAKE FROME LAKE GAIRDNER LAKE TORRENS
ISLANDS:
KANGAROO ISLAND PEARSON ISLANDS
COASTAL FEATURES:
ENCOUNTER BAY EYRE PENINSULA FLEURIEU PENINSULA -CAPE JERVIS GULF ST VINCENT SPENCER GULF YORKE PENINSULA
9 6. TASMANIA UF Van Dieman's Land
MAIN SETTLEMENTS:
BURNIE DEVONPORT GLENORCHY HOBART LAUNCESTON NEW NORFOLK ULVERSTONE WYNYARD
SMALLER SETTLEMENTS:
CYGNET UF Port Cygnet PORT ARTHUR PORT DAVEY QUEENSTOWN
PHYSICAL FEATURES UPLAND:
BEN LOMOND RANGE CENTRAL PLATEAU -BARN BLUFF -MOUNT OSSA
CRADLE MOUNTAIN GREAT WESTERN TIERS HARTZ MOUNTAINS MOUNT FIELD MOUNT WELLINGTON
RIVERS:
ARTHUR DERWENT FRANKLIN GORDON HUON MEANDER NORTH ESK PICTON
10 PIEMAN SOUTH ESK TAMAR
LAKES:
GREAT LAKE LAKE GORDON LAKE PEDDER LAKE ST CLAIR
ISLANDS:
BRUNY ISLAND CAPE BARREN ISLAND FURNEAUX GROUP KING ISLAND MARIA ISLAND NEW NORFOLK ISLAND SCHOUTEN ISLAND
COASTAL FEATURES:
ADVENTURE BAY BASS STRAIT D'ENTRECASTEAUX CHANNEL ENCOUNTER BAY GREAT OYSTER BAY lDA BAY STORM BAY TASMAN PENINSULA
7. VICTORIA
MAIN SETTLEMENTS:
BALLARAT BENDIGO DANDENONG FRANKS TON GEELONG MELBOURNE SHEPPARTON WILLIAMSTOWN
11 SMALLER SETTLEMENTS:
ANGLESEA BACCHUS MARSH BAR WON BRIGHT BUCHAN CASTLEMAINE DAYLESFORD HEPBURN LAKES ENTRANCE LORNE MILDURA OMEO PORT CAMP BELL WARRANDYTE WHITTLESEA WOODS POINT
PHYSICAL FEATURES UPLAND:
DANDENONG RANGES UF Blue Dandenongs
(GREAT DIVIDING RANGE) (-AUSTRALIAN ALPS) -MOUNT BOGONG -VICTORIAN ALPS -GRAMPIAN MOUNTAINS UF Gariwerd Victorian Grampians
OTWAY RANGES
RIVERS:
AIRE GLENELG GOULBURN LATROBE LODDON MACALISTER OVENS STONY CREEK TAMBO TYRRELL YARRA
12 LAKES:
LAKE EILDON LAKE HUME LAKE KING LAKE TYRRELL LAKE VICTORIA
ISLANDS:
FRENCH ISLAND PHILLIP ISLAND
COASTAL FEATURES:
CAPE NELSON CAPE OTWAY MORNINGTON PENINSULA NINETY MILE BEACH POINT HICKS PORT PHILLIP BAY WESTERN PORT BAY WILSONS PROMONTORY
DISTRICTS:
KIMBERLEY
SETTLEMENTS HALLS CREEK WYNDHAM
PHYSICAL FEATURES UPLAND:
BUNGLE BUNGLE RANGE UF Bungle Bungles KIMBERLEY PLATEAU -MOUNT WELLS KING LEOPOLD RANGES -MOUNT ORD NAPIER RANGE
13 RIVERS:
DRYSDALE ORD
LAKES:
LAKE ARGYLE
OTHER FEATURES:
WOLF CREEK METEORITE CRATER
PILBARA
PHYSICAL FEATURES UPLAND:
HAMERSLEY RANGES -MOUNT BRUCE -MOUNT ME HARRY
TEANO RANGE -MOUNT AUGUSTUS
MAIN SETTLEMENTS:
ALBANY BUNBURY FREMANTLE GERALDTON KALGOORLIE BOULDER PERTH PORT HEDLAND ROCKINGHAM ROEBOURNE
SMALLER SETTLEMENTS:
BROOME CADOUX CHITTERING COOLGARDIE DAMPIER ESPERANCE MANJIMUP
1 4 NORSEMAN ONSLOW WILUNA YILGARN
PHYSICAL FEATURES UPLAND:
DARLING RANGES STIRLING RANGES -BLUFF KNOLL
DESERTS:
GIBSON DESERT
RIVERS:
ASHBURTON AVON BLACKWOOD DE GREY FORTESCUE GASCOYNE IRWIN MURCHISON PHILLIPS
LAKES:
LAKE BARLEE LAKE COWAN LAKE DISAPPOINTMENT LAKE DUNDAS LAKE LEFROY LAKE MCLEOD LAKE MOORE LAKE WELLS
ISLANDS:
BONAPARTE ARCHIPELAGO BUCCANEER ARCHIPELAGO DAMPIER ARCHIPELAGO DIRK HARTOG ISLAND RECHERCHE ARCHIPELAGO ROTTNEST ISLAND
15 COASTAL FEATURES:
CAPE NATURALISTE DAMPIER PENINSULA UF Dampier Land EXMOUTH GULF NINGALOO REEF SHARK BAY
16 PART TWO: MELANESIA
1.0 FIJI UF Republic of Fiji
MAIN ISLANDS:
1.1 KADAVU UF Kandavui Kandava
PHYSICAL FEATURES UPLAND:
NAMBUKELEVU UF Buke Levui Mount Washington
1.2 LAU GROUP
ISLANDS:
LAKE BA UF Lakemba
MO ALA
1.3 LOMAIVITI GROUP UF Central Fiji Group
1.4 ROTUMA UF Rotumah
1.5 TAVEUNI
1.6 VANUA LEVU
SETTLEMENTS:
LABASA UF Lambasa
17 PHYSICAL FEATURES- RIVERS:
DREKETI
1.7 VITI LEVU
SETTLEMENTS:
DEUBA LAUTOKA
NANDI UF Nadi
NAUSORI SUVA
PHYSICAL FEATURES- UPLAND:
TOMANIIVI UF Mount Victoria
RIVERS:
MBA UF Ba
NANDI UF Nadi
REWA
SIGATOKA UF Singatoka
ISLANDS: VATU LELE
1.8 YASAWA GROUP
ISLANDS: YASAWA ISLAND
18 2.0 NEW CALEDONIA UF Kanaky; Nouvelle Caledonie
MAIN ISLANDS:
2.1 BELEP ISLANDS
2.2 CHESTERFIELD ISLANDS
2.3 HUON ISLANDS
2.4 ISLE OF PINES UF Ile des Pins; Kunie; Kwenyii
2.5 LOYALTY ISLANDS UF Iles Loyaute
ISLANDS:
LIFOU UF Chabrol; Dehu; Lifu
SETTLEMENTS: WE
MARE UF Britannia; Nengone
SETTLEMENTS: TADINE
OUVEA UF Halgan; Iaai; Uea; Uvea
SETTLEMENTS: FAYAOUE
TIGA
19 2.6 NEW CALEDONIA UF Grand Terre
SETTLEMENTS:
NOUMEA UF Port de France
2.7 SURPRISE ISLAND
2.8 WALPOLE ISLAND
3.0 PAPUA NEW GUINEA
SN Eastern half of island of New Guinea; western half known as Irian Jaya or Indonesian New Guinea and is a province of Indonesia
PHYSICAL FEATURES UPLAND:
BISMARCK RANGES
FINISTERRE RANGES UF Saraweget Ranges
MULLER RANGES
OWEN STANLEY RANGES
SCHRADER RANGES
RIVERS:
AURE ERAVE KIKORI MARKHAM PURARI RAMU SEPIK STRICKLAND
WAHGI UF Whagi
20 ------~~~~~------
COASTAL FEATURES:
BISMARCK SEA GULF OF PAPUA SOLOMON SEA ST GEORGES CHANNEL VITIAZ STRAIT
3.1 CENTRAL PROVINCE
SETTLEMENTS:
BOROKO HANUABADA KAIRUKU PORT MORESBY RIGO ROUNA
PHYSICAL FEATURES RIVERS:
BROWN GOLDIE LALOKI -ROUNA FALLS
3.2 EAST SEPIK PROVINCE
SETTLEMENTS:
MAPRIK WEWAK
PHYSICAL FEATURES UPLAND:
PRINCE ALEXANDER MOUNTAINS
ISLANDS:
KAIRIRU MUSHU SCHOUTEN GROUP TENDAYNE VALIF
21 3.3 EASTERN HIGHLANDS PROVINCE
SETTLEMENTS:
GOROKA
PHYSICAL FEATURES UPLAND:
MOUNT MICHAEL
3.4 ENGA PROVINCE
SETTLEMENTS:
WABAG
PHYSICAL FEATURES RIVERS: LAI
3.5 GULF PROVINCE
SETTLEMENTS:
KEREMA KIKORI MURUA
PHYSICAL FEATURES RIVERS:
VAILALA
3.6 MADANG PROVINCE
SETTLEMENTS:
MADANG
PHYSICAL FEATURES UPLAND:
ADELBERT RANGES MOUNT HERBERT MOUNT WILHELM
22 ISLANDS:
KARKAR ISLAND UF Dampier
LONG ISLAND
MANAM ISLAND UF Vulcan
3.7 MANUS PROVINCE
ISLANDS:
ADMIRALTY ISLANDS -MANUS ISLAND
ANCHORITE ISLAND
AUA UF Durour
HERMIT ISLANDS UF Agomes
MANU UF Allison
NAUMA
NINIGO ISLANDS
PELLELUHU
WUVULU UF Maty
SETTLEMENTS:
ALOTAU CAPE VOGEL
PHYSICAL FEATURES COASTAL FEATURES:
MILNE BAY
23 ISLANDS:
D'ENTRECASTEUX GROUP -AMPHLETT ISLANDS -DOBU ISLAND -FERGUSSON ISLAND -GOODENOUGH ISLAND -NORMANBY ISLAND
LOUISIADE ARCHIPELAGO -MISIMA ISLAND UF st Aignan -ROSSEL ISLAND -SUDEST ISLAND UF Tagula
SAMARAI GROUP -SAMARAI ISLAND
TROBRIAND ISLANDS -KIRIWINA ISLAND
WOODLARK ISLAND
3.9 MOROBE PROVINCE
SETTLEMENTS:
ASEKI BULOLO LAE MORO BE WAU
PHYSICAL FEATURES UPLAND:
HERZOG MOUNTAINS KUPER RANGES MOUNT BANG ETA RAWLINSON RANGES
RIVERS:
BULOLO WATUT
24 ISLANDS:
SAKAR TOLOKIWA UMBOI ISLAND UF Rooke Island
COASTAL FEATURES:
HUON GULF HUON PENINSULA
3.10 NEW BRITAIN SN Island off northern coast of Papua New Guinea which is divided into two provinces: East and west New Britain UF Neupommern
EAST NEW BRITAIN PROVINCE
SETTLEMENTS:
RABAUL
PHYSICAL FEATURES ISLANDS:
DUKE OF YORK ISLANDS -DUKE OF YORK ISLAND -KABAKON -KERAWARA -MAKADA -MIOKO -ULU UF Mouke; Pig
COASTAL FEATURES:
GAZELLE PENINSULA
25 WEST NEW BRITAIN PROVINCE
SETTLEMENTS:
KIMBE TALASEA
PHYSICAL FEATURES ISLANDS:
WITU ISLANDS UF Vitu Islands
-GAROVE UF Deslacs
-MUNDUA
-UNEA UF Merite
COASTAL FEATURES:
TALASEA PENINSULA
3.11 NEW IRELAND PROVINCE
ISLANDS:
FENI ISLANDS UF Anir; st Jans; st John
LIHAR ISLANDS -LIHAR ISLAND
NEW HANOVER ISLAND UF Lavongai
NEW IRELAND UF Neu Mecklenburg
SETTLEMENTS:
KALILI KAVIENG MULIANA NAMATANAI
26 ST MATTHIAS GROUP
-EMIRAU UF SquallYi storm
-MUSSAU
-TENCH
TABAR ISLAND UF Gardner
TANGA ISLANDS UF Caens Islands
3 . 1 2 NORTH SOLOMONS PROVINCE .
PHYSICAL FEATURES COASTAL FEATURES:
BUKA PASSAGE
ISLANDS:
BOUGAINVILLE ISLAND
SETTLEMENTS:
ARAWA KIETA PANGUNA
BUKA ISLAND UF Bouka Island
GREEN ISLANDS UF Groenei Nissani Sir Charles Hardy
-Nissan Island -Pinipel Island
27 KILINAILAU GROUP UF Carteret Group
NUGURIA GROUP UF Abgarrisi Feadi Niguria
NUKUMANU ISLANDS UF Tasman Islands
TAU GROUP UF Marqueeni Mortlocki Takaui Tauu
3.13 ORO PROVINCE
SETTLEMENTS:
BUNA KOKODA PONGANI POPONDETTA SAFIA WANIGELA
PHYSICAL FEATURES UPLAND:
MT LAMINGTON
RIVERS:
MAMBARE YODDA
3.14 SANDAUN PROVINCE UF west Sepik Province
SETTLEMENTS:
AITAPE TELEFOMIN VANIMO
28 PHYSICAL FEATURES UPLAND:
BEWANI MOUNTAINS
3.15 SIMBU PROVINCE UF Chimbu Province
SETTLEMENTS:
KUNDIAWA
PHYSICAL FEATURES UPLAND:
MOUNT WILHELM
3.16 SOUTHERN HIGHLANDS PROVINCE
SETTLEMENTS:
MENDI TARI
PHYSICAL FEATURES UPLAND:
MOUNT GILUWE
OTHER FEATURES:
STRICKLAND GORGE
3.17 WESTERN HIGHLANDS PROVINCE
SETTLEMENT:
MOUNT HAGEN
PHYSICAL FEATURES UPLAND:
MOUNT HAGEN
29 3.18 WESTERN PROVINCE
SETTLEMENTS:
DARU KIUNGA MORE HEAD TABUBIL
PHYSICAL FEATURES UPLAND:
STAR MOUNTAINS
RIVERS:
FLY MORE HEAD WAIWA
LAKES:
LAKE MURRAY
ISLANDS:
KIWAI ISLAND PARAMA ISLAND
4.0 SOLOMON ISLANDS
UF Refers to southern Solomon Islands; for northern Solomon Islands (Buku and Bougainville Islands) see PAPUA NEW GUINEA
MAIN ISLANDS:
CHOISEUL UF Launi
GUADALCANAL SETTLEMENTS: HONIARA
30 MAKIRA UF San Cristobal; San Cristoval
MALAITA UF Mala
NEW GEORGIA GROUP ISLANDS: KOLOMBANGARA UF Nduke MAROVO LAGOON NEW GEORGIA
SANTA ISABEL UF Boghotu; Isabel; Santa Ysabel
SMALLER ISLANDS:
BELLONA ISLAND UF Mu Ngiki; Mungiki
BIO
DUFF ISLANDS UF Taumako
FATAKA UF Fatutaka; Mitre Island
FLORIDA ISLANDS
OLU MALAU UF Three Sisters, The
ONTONG JAVA UF Lord Howe Islands
REEF ISLANDS UF Pileni; Swallow Islands
RENDOVA
RENNELL ISLAND UF Mu Nggava
SANTA ANA UF Owa Raha
SANTA CATALINA UF Owa Riki
SANTA CRUZ ISLANDS ISLANDS: NENDO UF Ndendei Ndenii Santa Cruz Island UTUPUA VANIKOLO UF Vanikoro
SAVO
SHORTLAND ISLANDS ISLANDS: FAURO SHORTLAND ISLAND UF Alu
SIKAIANA UF Sikayana; Stewart Island
TEMOTU ISLAND UF Malo Island
TIKOPIA
TREASURY ISLANDS ISLANDS: MONO STIRLING
UKI UF Ugi
ULAWA
32 5.0 VANUATU
UF New Hebrides; Republic of Vanuatu
MAIN ISLANDS:
EFATE UF Sandwich Island; Vate SETTLEMENTS: PORT VI LA
ESPIRITU SANTO UF Santo SETTLEMENTS: LUGANVILLE UF Santo Canal
MALAKULA UF Malekula; Mallicolo
TANNA UF Tana PHYSICAL FEATURES VOLCANOES: MOUNT YASUR UF Yahuwei
SMALLER ISLANDS:
AMBRYM UF Ambrim PHYSICAL FEATURES VOLCANOES: MOUNT BENBOW MOUNT MARUM
ANATOM UF Aneiteum; Aneityum; Annatom
AOBA UF Ambae; Leper Island; Oba; Omba
33 BANKS ISLANDS ISLANDS:
VANUA LAVA PHYSICAL FEATURES VOLCANOES: SURETIMEAT
GAUA UF Santa Maria PHYSICAL FEATURES VOLCANOES: MOUNT GARET
EPI UF Api; Tasiko; Volcano
ERROMANGO UF Eromango; Erromanga; Martyr.Island
HUNTER ISLAND SN Also claimed by New Caledonia
LOPEVI UF Ulveah
MAEWO UF Aurora; Maiwo
MATTHEW ISLAND SN Also claimed by New Caledonia
PAAMA UF Paum
PENTECOST UF Pentecote; Raga; Whitsun
TORRES ISLANDS
34 PART THREE: MICRONESIA
1.0 BELAU SN Part of Caroline Islands UF Palau; Pelew; Republic of Belau
ISLANDS:
ANGAUR BABELDAOP UF Babeldaob; Babelthaup KOROR PELELIU
2.0 FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA UF Caroline Islands exluding Belau
ISLANDS:
2 • 1 CHUUK GROUP SN The islands of this group lie in Chuuk lagoon; there is no island called Chuuk UF Hogoleu; Truk
ISLANDS:
FEFAN MORTLOCK ISLANDS UF Namoi Islands; Nomoi Islands NAMOLUK PULAP PULUWAT TOL TONOAS UF Dublon UMAN WENO UF Moen
35 2.2 KOSRAE UF Kusaie
SETTLEMENTS:
LELU UF Lelai Lelei Leluh TAFUNSAK UTWE UF Utwa
2.3 POHNPEI GROUP UF Ponape
ISLANDS:
KAPINGAMARANGI UF Greenwich Island
NUKUORO
OROLUK
PINGELAP UF Pingelop
POHNPEI SETTLEMENTS: KOLONIA SN Not to be confused with Colonia on Yap
PALIKIR
2.4 YAP GROUP UF Eapi Japi Waab
ISLANDS:
FAIS FARAULEP GAFERUT GAGIL TOMIL IFALIK UF Ifaluk
36 LAMOTREK UF Lamutrik MAAP UF Map NGULU RUMUNG SOROL ULITHI WOLEAI
YAP SETTLEMENTS: COLONIA SN Not to be confused with Kolonia on Pohnpei
3.0 GUAM SN An island in part of the Mariana Islands which, with Saipan and Rota was previously known as the Ladrone Islands; a U.S territory UF Guahan; Guajan
SETTLEMENTS:
AGANA
4.0 HOWLAND AND BAKER ISLANDS
5.0 JARVIS ISLAND SN An island in the Line Islands; not part of Kiribati
6.0 JOHNSTON ISLAND
7.0 KINGMAN REEF SN An island in the Line Islands; not part of Kiribati
37 8.0 KIRIBATI SN Formerly part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands UF Gilbert Islands; Republic of Kiribati
8.1 GILBERT ISLANDS GROUP
ISLANDS:
ABAIANG UF Apaiang ABEMAMA UF Apamama; Apemama ARORAE BANABA UF Ocean Island BUTARITARI TABITEUEA TARAWA SETTLEMENTS: BAIRIKI
8.2 LINE ISLANDS SN Excluding Jarvis; Palmyra and Kingman Reef which are all U.S territories
ISLANDS:
CAROLINE CHRISTMAS ISLAND UF Kiritimati FANNING ISLAND UF Teraina FLINT MAL DEN STARBUCK VOSTOK WASHINGTON ISLAND UF Tabuaeran
8.3 PHOENIX ISLANDS GROUP
ISLANDS:
BIRNIE ENDERBURY
38 KANTON UF Abariringa; canton MCKEAN NIKUMARORO UF Gardner Island ORONA UF Hull Island PHOENIX UF Rawaki
9. Ladrone Islands SN Name no longer in use; refers to islands of Saipan, Rota and Guam USE SAIPAN, ROTA and GUAM
10. MARSHALL ISLANDS UF Republic of the Marshall Islands
ISLANDS:
RATAK CHAIN UF Radak Chain
ISLANDS:
-ARNO -MAJURO SETTLEMENTS: DELAP UF Dalap
RALIK CHAIN
ISLANDS:
-BIKINI -EBON UF Boston
-ENEWETAK UF Eniwetok; west Danger -JALUIT -KWAJALEIN -RONGERIK
39 11. NAURU UF Pleasant Island; Republic of Nauru
12. NORTHERN MARIANAS ISLANDS SN All the Mariana Group except Guam UF Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands; Mariana Islands; Marianne Islands
ISLANDS:
AGRIHAN ALAMAGAN UF Almagan ANATAHAN PAGAN ROTA SAIPAN UF Saipen; Saypan TINIAN
13. PALMYRA SN Island in the Line Islands; not part of Kiribati
14. WAKE ISLAND SN U.S territory also claimed by the Marshall Islands UF Enenkio
40 PART FOUR: POLYNESIA
1.0 COOK ISLANDS
1.1 NORTHERN GROUP UF Northern Cooks
MAIN ISLANDS:
MANIHIKI
NASSAU
PENRHYN UF Tongareva
PUKAPUKA UF Danger Island
RAKAHANGA
SUWARROW UF Suvarov; Suvorov
1 .2 SOUTHERN GROUP UF Southern Cooks
MAIN ISLANDS:
AITUTAKI
ATIU
MANGAIA
MANUAE
MAUKE
MITIARO
PALMERSTON
RAROTONGA SETTLEMENTS: AVARUA
41 TAKUTEA UF Enuaiti
2.0 EASTER ISLAND UF Isla de Pascua; Rapa Nui
SETTLEMENTS:
HANGA ROA MATAVERI ORONGO
3.0 FRENCH POLYNESIA UF Tahiti-Polynesia
MAIN ISLANDS:
3.1 GAMBlER ISLANDS UF Mangareva Islands
MAIN ISLANDS:
EIAO FATU HIVA HIVA OA NUKU HIVA TAHUATA UA HUKA UA POU UF Uapu
3.3 SOCIETY ISLANDS
3.3.1 WINDWARD ISLANDS UF lIes du vent
MAIN ISLANDS:
MAIAO MEHETIA MOOREA
42 TAHITI
SETTLEMENTS:
ARUE PAEA PAPEARI PAPEETE TAUTIRA
PHYSICAL FEATURES UPLAND: MOUNT AORAl
RIVERS: TlPAERUI
3.3.2 LEEWARD ISLANDS UF lIes Sous le vent
MAIN ISLANDS:
BORA BORA
HUAHINE
MAUPITI UF Maurau
RAIATEA
TAHAA
3.4 TUAMOTU ISLANDS UF Dangerous Archipelago; lIes Touarnoto; Paurnotu
MAIN ISLANDS:
ANAA FANGATAUFA UF Grirnwood MAKATEA MANlHl MORUROA UF Mururoa NAPUKA UF Tepuka
43 PUKARUA UF Pukaroa RANGIROA RAROIA TAKAPOTO
3.5 TUBUAI ISLANDS UF Austral Islands
MAIN ISLANDS:
MAROTIRI UF Bass Islandsi Bass Rocks
RAIVAEVAE UF Raivaivai
RAPA UF Rapa Iti
RIMITARA
RURUTU
TUBUAI
4.0 HAWAIIAN ISLANDS
4.1 HAWAII SN State of USA UF Sandwich Islands; State of Hawaii
4.1 .1 HAWAII ISLAND
SETTLEMENTS:
KAILUA KONA SN Name given to town of Kailua in Kona district to differentiate it from Kailua in Oahu
HILO
44 PHYSICAL FEATURES VOLCANOES:
KILAUEA MAUNA KEA MAUNA LOA
4.1.2 KAHOOLAWE
4.1.3 KAUAI
4.1. 4 LANAI
4.1 .5 LAYSAN ISLAND
4.1 .6 MAUl
PHYSICAL FEATURES VOLCANOES: HALEAKALA
4.1 .7 MOLOKAI
4.1. 8 NECKER ISLAND
4.1 .9 NIHOA ISLAND UF Bird Island
4.1.10 NIIHAU
4.1.11 OAHU
SETTLEMENTS: HONOLULU WAIKIKI
PHYSICAL FEATURES UPLAND: KOOLAU RANGE
COASTAL FEATURES: PEARL HARBOUR
4.2 MIDWAY ISLANDS SN Part of the Hawaiian chain but not in State of Hawaii
45 5.0 NEW ZEALAND UF Aotearoa
PHYSICAL FEATURES ISLANDS:
ANTIPODES ISLANDS AUCKLAND ISLANDS BOUNTY ISLANDS CAMPBELL ISLANDS CHATHAM ISLANDS -CHATHAM ISLAND -PITT ISLAND UF Rangiauria SNARES ISLANDS
COASTAL FEATURES: COOK STRAIT
5.1 NORTH ISLAND
SETTLEMENTS:
AUCKLAND GISBORNE HAMILTON HASTINGS MASTERTON NAPIER NEW PLYMOUTH OTAKI PALMERSTON NORTH ROTORUA TAUPO TAURANGA WANGANUI WELLINGTON WHANGAREI
PHYSICAL FEATURES UPLAND:
MOUNT NGAURUHOE MOUNT RUAPEHU MOUNT TARANAKI UF Mount Egmont MOUNT TARAWERA MOUNT TONGARIRO RUAHINE RANGE TARARUA RANGE
46 RIVERS:
HUTT MANAWATU RANGITAIKI WAIKATO WAIRARAPA WAIRU WHANGANUI
LAKES:
LAKE ROTOMAHANA LAKE ROTORUA LAKE TAUPO LAKE WAIKAREMOANA
ISLANDS:
GREAT BARRIER ISLAND HEN AND CHICKEN ISLAND KAPITI ISLAND KAWAU ISLAND LITTLE BARRIER ISLAND MAYOR ISLAND POOR KNIGHTS ISLAND WHAKAARI ISLAND UF White Island
COASTAL FEATURES:
BAY OF ISLANDS BAY OF PLENTY CAPE EGMONT CAPE PALLISER CAPE REINGA CAPE RUNAWAY COROMANDEL PENINSULA FIRTH OF THAMES GREAT EXHIBITION BAY HAURAKI GULF HAWKE BAY KAIPARA HARBOUR PORT NICHOLSON POVERTY BAY
47 5.2 SOUTH ISLAND
SETTLEMENTS:
BLUFF CHRISTCHURCH DUNEDIN GLENORCHY GREYMOUTH INVERCARGILL NELSON OAMARU QUEENS TOWN TIMARU WESTPORT
PHYSICAL FEATURES UPLAND:
SOUTHERN ALPS UF New Zealand Alps -MOUNT ARROWSMITH -MOUNT COOK -MOUNT TASMAN
GLACIERS:
CAMERON FOX FRANZ JOSEF TASMAN
RIVERS:
AWATERE CLARENCE TARAMAKAU WAIRAU WAITAKI
LAKES:
LAKE HAWEA LAKE MANAPOURI LAKE TE ANAU LAKE TEKAPO LAKE WAKATIPU LAKE WANAKA
48 ISLANDS:
STEWART ISLAND UF Rakiura
COASTAL FEATURES:
BANKS PENINSULA GOLDEN BAY MARLBOROUGH SOUND MILFORD SOUND
6.0 NIUE UF Savage Island
7.0 PITCAIRN ISLANDS
ISLANDS:
DUCIE HENDERSON OENO PITCAIRN
Samoa Islands SN Partitioned in 1900 into German, later Western Samoa and American Samoa USE WESTERN SAMOA or AMERICAN SAMOA
8.0 AMERICAN SAMOA UF Eastern Samoa; Samoa Islands
MAIN ISLANDS:
MANUA GROUP ISLANDS:
OFU OLOSEGA TAU
ROSE ISLAND
49 SWAINS ISLAND SN Part of TOKELAU until 1980 UF Olohega; Olosenga
TUTUILA SETTLEMENTS: FAGATOGO PAGO PAGO
9 . 0 WESTERN SAMOA UF German Samoa; Independent State of Western Samoa; Samoa Islands
MAIN ISLANDS: APOLIMA
MANONO
SAVAII PHYSICAL FEATURES VOLCANOES: MATAVANU
UPOLU SETTLEMENTS: APIA
10. TOKELAU SN Part of Gilbert and Ellice Islands between 1916 and 1925; included Swain's Island until 1980 when the latter became part of American Samoa UF Union Islands .
11. TONGA UF Friendly Islands; Kingdom of Tonga
MAIN ISLANDS:
11.1 HAAPAI GROUP
-FONUAFOOU UF Falcon Island
-KAO
50 -LIFUKA ISLAND SETTLEMENTS: PANGAI
11.2 LATEIKI SN Volcanic island formed from eruption in 1979 in the area between Kao and Late known as Metis Shoal
11.3 NIUA ISLANDS UF Niuas, The
-NIUAFOOU UF Niuafoo; Niuafou; Niuafu; Tin Can Island
-NIUATOPUTAPU
-TAFAHI
11.4 TONGATAPU GROUP
-EUA ISLAND
-TONGATAPU ISLAND SETTLEMENTS: NUKUALOFA
11.5 VAVAU GROUP
-VAVAU ISLAND SETTLEMENTS: NEIAFU
-LATE ISLAND
OTHER FEATURES:
METIS SHOAL SN Area of sea between Kao and Late; site of 1979 volcanic eruption which formed Lateiki
51 12. TUVALU SN Part of Gilbert and Ellice Islands until 1975; now an independent state UF Ellice Islands
MAIN ISLANDS:
FUNAFUTI UF Ellice Island; Fanafuti
NANUMANGA UF Nanumaga
NANUMEA UF st. Augustine Island
NIUTAO
NU!
NUILAKITA
NUKUFETAU
NUKULAELAE UF Nukulailai
VAITAPU UF Oaitapu
-FUTUNA UF Hoorn Island
-WALLIS MAIN ISLAND: UVEA
52