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1 Tornado and Tornado Dynamics Readings: Markowski And Tornado and Tornado Dynamics Readings: Markowski and Richardson book section 10.1. Klemp (1987) Dynamics of Tornadic Thunderstorms (handout) Bluestein Vol II. Section 3.4.8. Rotunno, R., 1986: Tornadoes and tornadogenesis. In: P. Ray (Editor), Mesoscale Meteorology and Forecasting. AMS, Boston, 414-436. Davie-Jones, Robert, R. J. Trapp, and H. B. Bluestein, 2001, Tornadoes and Tornadic Storms, In: C. A. Doswell (Editor), Severe Convective Storms, AMS, 167-222. Houze Sections 8.6-8. Definition: tornado, n. A rotating column of air usually accompanied by a funnel-shaped downward extension of a cumulonimbus cloud and having, ..[winds] whirling destructively at speeds of up to 300 miles per hour. (American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language) This definition reflects a fundamental property of the tornado: it occurs in association with a thunderstorm. Definition in Markowski and Richardson book: Tornadoes are violently rotating columns of air, usually associated with a swirling cloud of debris or dust near the ground and a funnel-shaped cloud extending downward from the base of the parent cumulonimbus updraft. 1 Wind Speed inside tornadoes Horizontal wind speeds in tornadoes can be as high as 100-150 m/s. There is some theoretical evidence that even stronger upward vertical velocities can occur near center of a tornado, near the ground. The maximum possible tornadic wind speed is a function not only of the hydrostatic-pressure deficit owing to latent-heat release in the updraft, which is a function of the CAPE, but also to the dynamic-pressure deficit, which is a function of the character of the wind field itself, especially in the surface boundary layer. Fujita Scale (F-scale) T. Fujita developed a wind speed scale to assess tornado damage and estimate the maximum tornado intensity. Called the F-scale, it was designed to link the Beaufort wind scale with the Mach scale. A Beaufort force of 12 (minimal hurricane force winds) was equal to F1, and F12 was equal to Mach 1 (the speed 3/2 of sound). The minimum wind speed (vmin in mph) of any F-scale range (F) was vmin = 14.1(F + 2) . 2 The Fujita Scale of Tornado Intensity F-Scale Intensity Wind Speed Type of Damage Done Number Phrase 40-72 mph Some damage to chimneys; breaks branches off trees; pushes over shallow-rooted trees; damages F0 Gale tornado (18-32m/s) sign boards. The lower limit is the beginning of hurricane wind speed; peels surface off roofs; mobile homes Moderate 73-112 mph F1 pushed off foundations or overturned; moving autos pushed off the roads; attached garages may tornado (33-50m/s) be destroyed. Significant 113-157 mph Considerable damage. Roofs torn off frame houses; mobile homes demolished; boxcars pushed F2 tornado (51-71m/s) over; large trees snapped or uprooted; light object missiles generated. Severe 158-206 mph Roof and some walls torn off well constructed houses; trains overturned; most trees in forest F3 tornado (72-93m/s) uprooted Devastating 207-260 mph Well-constructed houses leveled; structures with weak foundations blown off some distance; cars F4 tornado (94-117m/s) thrown and large missiles generated. Strong frame houses lifted off foundations and carried considerable distances to disintegrate; Incredible 261-318 mph F5 automobile sized missiles fly through the air in excess of 100 meters; trees debarked; steel tornado (118-143m/s) reinforced concrete structures badly damaged. These winds are very unlikely. The small area of damage they might produce would probably not be recognizable along with the mess produced by F4 and F5 wind that would surround the F6 Inconceivable 319-379 mph winds. Missiles, such as cars and refrigerators would do serious secondary damage that could not F6 tornado (144-170m/s) be directly identified as F6 damage. If this level is ever achieved, evidence for it might only be found in some manner of ground swirl pattern, for it may never be identifiable through engineering studies 3 Enhanced Fujita scale (EF-scale) In 2007, the enhanced Fujita scale (EF-scale) was adopted in the United States. It was designed to improve the accuracy of wind speed estimates derived from observed damage, in part, by attempting to account for the quality of construction. Tornadoes rated EF0–EF1, EF2–EF3, and EF4–EF5 are referred to as weak, strong, and violent tornadoes, respectively. EF0 (65–85 mph 3-s gusts) tornado damages include damage to chimneys, broken tree branches, and damage to sign boards. EF1 (86–110 mph 3-s gusts) tornado damages include destroyed garages or barns and peeled-off roofs. An EF2 (111–135 mph 3-s gusts) tornado may tear roofs off frame houses, obliterate mobile homes, and snap or uproot large trees. EF3 (136–165 mph 3-s gusts) tornadoes destroy interior walls of well-constructed homes. EF4 (166–200 mph 3-s gusts) tornadoes are capable of completely leveling a well-built home. An EF5 (>200 mph 3-s gusts) tornado strips clean the foundation of a well-built structure and is capable of throwing automobiles over 100 m. Any estimation of tornado strength based on damage is error-prone for a number of reasons, including variations in the duration of extreme winds and debris loading within a tornado, not to mention the fact that many tornadoes do not strike man-made structures. Furthermore, EF-scale (and F-scale) ratings are based on the maximum damage observed. Even the most intense tornado that one might expect to be able to observe, an EF5, typically only contains EF5 winds within a region occupying less than 10% of the total path area. 4 References: WSEC, 2006: A recommendation for an enhanced Fujita scale (EF-scale). Texas Tech University Wind Science and Engineering Center Rep., 95 pp. [Available online at www.depts.ttu.edu/weweb/pubs/fscale/efscale.pdf.] Roger Edwards, James G. LaDue, John T. Ferree, Kevin Scharfenberg, Chris Maier, and William L. Coulbourne, 2013: Tornado Intensity Estimation: Past, Present, and Future. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 94, 641–653. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-11-00006.1 5 Relationship between severity of observed thunderstorms and the CAPE and vertical wind shear of the environments, as determined by proximity soundings. Red dots indicate tornado reports. Grey dots indicate non-tornadic damaging wind and/or large hail reports. Black dots indicate non-severe thunderstorm reports. Adapted from a figure in Brooks et al. (2003). 6 Average number of days per year having environments favorable for tornadic supercells were convection to form. Such conditions include the presence of strong shear over a deep tropospheric layer and CAPE (these are the conditions required for supercells), as well as strong low-level shear and high boundary layer relative humidity. The above synthetic climatology of tornadic supercell days, which is based on analyses obtained from the global reanalysis program, is shown instead of actual tornadic supercell or tornado reports because of the lack of reliable reports over the vast majority of the earth. (From Brooks et al. [2003].) 7 Tornado Climatology in the US Tornadoes in the United States are reported most frequently in a band stretching from West and North Texas through Oklahoma, central and eastern Kansas, and into eastern Nebraska. This region is referred to as tornado alley. 8 9 The elevated terrain to the west and southwest of the Great Plains and the Gulf of Mexico play important roles in producing soundings having high amounts of CAPE. The sloping terrain is partially responsible for the lee trough and low-level jet, the latter which advects the Gulf marine layer northward, while warm dry air caps the moist layer. The ubiquitous dryline and fronts approaching from the north and northwest are frequent locations of storm formation. Most tornadoes occur during the late afternoon and evening hours in the late spring. This suggests that solar heating plays an important role in producing a potentially unstable environment for tornadic storm formation during the afternoon. Major outbreaks occur primarily during the spring, when strong disturbances in the middle and upper troposphere promote regions of strong lifting and an environment of strong vertical shear and high values of CAPE. Tornadic activity begins along the Gulf States in late winter, and migrates northward, so that summer activity is highest in the Northern Plains. Environments for tornado outbreaks in the United States have been produced as far east as the East Coast. Tornado outbreaks in late spring and early summer are often associated with short waves moving through northwesterly flow aloft, as a ridge is built up to the west and a trough is ensconced to the east. In spring, outbreaks usually occur in southwesterly flow aloft, downstream from major troughs. 10 Relation of tornadoes to supercell storms Although not all supercell storms produce tornadoes, most of the intense tornadoes are generated by them. In a radar study of Oklahoma storms during 1971-1975, for example, Burgess (1976) found that 62% of the 37 storms that exhibited strong storm-scale rotation developed tornadoes while none occurred in storms which did not rotate. = 11 Tornadogenesis Generation of large vertical vorticity at ground Tornadogenesis requires that large vertical vorticity arises at the ground. If no preexisting vertical vorticity is negligible near the ground, then vorticity stretching near the ground is initially negligible and vertical vorticity must first arise either from the tilting of horizontal vorticity or from advection toward the surface from aloft. Tilting by the horizontal vertical velocity gradients associated with an updraft alone is not effective at producing vertical vorticity near the surface because air is rising away from the surface as horizontal vorticity is tilted into the vertical.
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