DOCSLIB.ORG

Virtue Ethics in This Paper, I Am Going to Discuss the Common Objection To

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Virtue Ethics in This Paper, I Am Going to Discuss the Common Objection To Virtue Ethics In this paper, I am going to discuss the common objection to virtue ethics that William Frankena and other moral theorists have posed: virtue ethics cannot tell us how we ought to act (i.e. that it is not a normative theory). In doing this I will discuss how Rosalind Hursthouse successfully defends virtue ethics against this charge and makes it more appealing than both deontological ethics and utilitarian ethics. I will then argue that Hursthouse’s defense shows that deontology ethics better serves as a heuristic for virtue ethics, than its own ethical theory. I will finish the paper by arguing Hursthouse’s defense of normative virtue ethics reveals a counterintuitive conclusion, but one that I am willing to accept in favor of the moral framework. In William Frankena’s “A Critique of Virtue-Based Ethics” Frankena brings up the common criticism that a virtue ethics theory cannot tell us how to act, but instead gives us a way to cultivate and teach ourselves and others the existing moral principles we should hold. He does believe virtues have a valuable role to play in “moral education and development,” but ultimately believes they do not serve the purpose of providing us with a direction when we are faced with a moral dilemma (Frankena p. 353). He writes, “the function of the virtues in an ethics of duty is not to tell us what to do but to ensure that we will do it willingly in whatever situations we may face” (Frankena p. 353). He argues that because we have to appeal to existing principles defined by different ethical theories such as trait egoism, trait utilitarianism, trait deontological theory, ect, virtue ethics is just an extension of these theories (Frankena p. 351). Another way this is put is that virtue ethics have been doing no more than supplementing these normative theories (Hursthouse p. 645). A virtue ethicist relies on virtues he believes are valuable in people to determine what is right and wrong, opposed to using principles of duty. The example commonly given, and that Frankena himself uses, is beneficence vs benevolence where beneficence is the principle of duty and benevolence is the virtue (Frankena p. 351). The virtue ethicist would say that we should try and be benevolent people and look to those with this virtue as an example. The objection that Frankena and others enlist is that an action emulating the virtuous person provides a direction only when we utilize the principles of duties that other ethical theories provide us with. Benevolence is the virtue of beneficence on the grounds of deontological theory of ethics; acting selfishly is a virtue of selfishness in trait egoism; and acting to maximize happiness is a virtue only on a trait utilitarianism framework. Frankena puts it, “it is hard to see how we could know what traits to encourage or inculcate if we did not subscribe to principle, for example, to the principle of utility, or to those of benevolence and justice” (Frankena p. 352). The objection to virtue ethics relies on this truth: that virtues motivate, but need to be defined on the grounds of other theories of ethics, and therefore do not guide us how to act, but rather encourage us how to be. Rosalind Hursthouse successfully responds to this objection in her chapter “Normative Virtue Ethics,” and in doing so provides reason to believe virtue ethics are more appealing than deontological ethical theories. Hursthouse’s response to this objection cites the parallel structures of an “act-utilitarian” theorist’s account and a deontology theory’s account with that of a virtue ethicist’s account. In each case it appears as though a second premise is always needed in order to clarify how the theory actually instructs people to act. The utilitarian’s first premise is going to be, “an action is right [if and only if] it promotes the best consequences” (Hursthouse p. 646). Naturally our next question is going to be what are the best consequences? To answer this the utilitarian needs a second premise that says something along the lines of “The best consequences are those in which happiness is maximized” (Hursthouse p. 646). Similarly, a version of deontological ethics will be laid out with the first premise being, “An action is right [if and only if] it is in accordance with a correct moral rule or principle,” and a second premise being needed in order to figure out what exactly a moral rule is (Hursthouse p. 646). So, if a virtue ethicist first claim is that “an action is right [if and only if] it is what a virtuous agent would characteristically (i.e. acting in character) do in the circumstances,” a person who holds one of the other two views can’t dismiss it as of being of no use at face value because their own views would be of no use if not explained further. Instead they must wait for the second defining premise, which, in my opinion, provides a more intuitive theory of ethics than both utilitarian and deontic ethicists can. The reason Frankena’s common objection seems to work so well is because it assumes that the second premise of the virtue ethicist relies on the rules set up by other ethical theories. Hursthouse writes, “of course, if the virtuous agent can only be specified as an agent disposed to act in accordance with moral rules, as some have assumed, then virtue ethics collapses back into deontology and is no rival to it” (Hursthouse p. 647). There are a few ways to fill out the second premise that do not rely on these other theories. One is the neo- Aristotelian completion which, “claims that a virtue is a character trait a human being needs for eudaimonia, to flourish or live well” (Hursthouse p. 647). The Hume account of a virtue is, “a character trait (of human beings) that is useful or agreeable to its possessor or to others” (Hursthouse p. 646). Another response is similar to how a deontic ethicist may respond: that there is simply a list of these virtues. So, with the framework that a virtuous agent is someone who acts virtuously, if we say a virtue on the neo-Aristotelian account is a character required for someone to flourish or live well, then we have paralleled the structures of the other two theories. The way this theory guides us is by telling us to act how a virtuous agent acts. If we don’t know how one would act, Hursthouse contends that we should simply ask one. The result, “not only does each virtue generate a prescription—act honestly, charitably, justly—but each vice a prohibition—do not act dishonestly, uncharitably, unjustly” (Hursthouse p. 648). The reason that Hursthouse’s response and virtue ethics are so appealing is that they correspond to how we actually come to figure out which actions are morally acceptable on a day to day basis. While the virtue ethicist can cite examples of times where people have gone to a person they believe is more virtuous than themselves, it is harder for the deontic ethicist to cite a time when the rules of morality were defined by some act of god. Similarly, maximizing happiness of the general population isn’t what we think about when we are deciding between self-involved actions. Based on this I have come to believe deontologist’s rules like “don’t kill” or “don’t lie” are valuable as a heuristic, but are much too simple to be applied to every situation. It is convenient they are so simple, but why should our theory of morality be so straightforward in a world that is so complex? Another variant of the original objection that Hursthouse addresses is that these v-rules, rules derived from virtue ethics, are inferior to deontological rules when guiding children in how to act (Hursthouse p. 648). First, I think it’s worth mentioning that how children conceive morality does not seem to have a lot of weight in determining its actuality. Children’s opinions are usually subsequent to the opinions of adults because children often lack information, experience, and a fully developed brain. This aside, Hursthouse entertains this objection that we teach children these objective rules. Hursthouse responds that we do in fact teach children v-rules by saying things like, “don’t do that, it hurts, you mustn’t be cruel,” and “don’t be so mean” (Hursthouse p. 649). Hursthouse’s response aside, I think the value ethicist could say these rules like “don’t kill” are just a simplified version of the more complicated, real v-rule; a heuristic that can help our children act morally until they are ready to better understand ethics. The view that our morals are defined by the virtuous agents has lead me to perhaps a counterintuitive conclusion about ethics. If it is true that our guide to act morally is defined by the way virtuous agents acts, and a virtuous agent is determined by individuals, it seems as though ethics are completely constructed by society. This conclusion is furthered by Hursthouse’s view that v-rules cannot tell us what to do in every situation, because there will be some moral dilemmas where virtuous agents come up with different answers to the same problem (Hursthouse p. 651). In other words, two virtuous agents can disagree on the same issue and guide people in different directions. This originally doesn’t seem to fit the definition of a normative theory because a normative theory consists of general principles which, “provide a decision procedure for all questions about how to act morally” (Hursthouse p.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Effective Altruism's Underspecification Problem
    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by PhilPapers Effective Altruism’s Underspecification Problem Travis Timmerman 1. Introduction Whether any given act is supererogatory, obligatory, merely permissible, or impermissible depends upon the alternative acts available to the agent. But what exactly are the relevant alternative acts available to an agent? It turns out that this is a surprisingly difficult question to answer, yet it’s one on which any complete normative ethical theory must take a stance. It’s also one on which any effective altruist must take a stance. This may be unwelcome news for effective altruists since, as I will demonstrate, each of the dominant views in the literature generates verdicts that are (i) implausible in their own right and (ii) seemingly at odds with typical effective altruist commitments. Considering a particular case will help make this issue less abstract: The Gig Brandi has been invited by her friend, Chad, to attend his musical gig. Brandi can easily decide to attend the gig, and then decide at the gig to be supportive of Chad, which would be the best outcome. Unfortunately, Chad is a mediocre musician. Consequently, Brandi would not in fact decide to be supportive of Chad if she decided to attend his gig due to being irritated with Chad’s performance—even though she could decide at the gig to be supportive. Since Chad would be deeply hurt, this would be the worst outcome. Brandi could alternatively decide not to attend Chad’s gig, which would be better than the worst outcome, yet worse than the best outcome.1 To be sure, Brandi can decide to attend the gig, and once, there she can decide to be supportive of Chad.
    [Show full text]
  • The Profoundest Problem of Ethics: About the Possibility of a Profound Solution
    Louisiana State University LSU Digital Commons LSU Master's Theses Graduate School April 2019 The rP ofoundest Problem of Ethics: About the Possibility of a Profound Solution Pol Pardini Gispert [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/gradschool_theses Part of the Ethics and Political Philosophy Commons Recommended Citation Pardini Gispert, Pol, "The rP ofoundest Problem of Ethics: About the Possibility of a Profound Solution" (2019). LSU Master's Theses. 4915. https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/gradschool_theses/4915 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at LSU Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in LSU Master's Theses by an authorized graduate school editor of LSU Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. THE PROFOUNDEST PROBLEM OF ETHICS: ABOUT THE POSSIBILITY OF A PROFOUND SOLUTION A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in The Department of Philosophy & Religious Studies by Pol Pardini Gispert B.A., Universitat de Girona, 2001 May 2019 For my mother and father, For as many books as I read, your actions are still my moral compass. ii Table of Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... iv Preface ............................................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • 1 from Viktor Frankl's Logotherapy to the Four Defining Characteristics of Self-Transcendence (ST) Paul T. P. Wong Introductio
    1 From Viktor Frankl’s Logotherapy to the Four Defining Characteristics of Self-Transcendence (ST) Paul T. P. Wong Introduction The present paper continues my earlier presentation on self-transcendence (ST) as a pathway to meaning, virtue, and happiness (Wong, 2016), in which I introduced Viktor Frankl’s (1985) two-factor theory of ST. Here, the same topic of ST is expanded by first providing the basic assumptions of logotherapy, then arguing the need for objective standards for meaning, and finally elaborating the defining characteristics of ST. To begin, here is a common-sense observation—no one can remain at the same spot for life for a variety of reasons, such as developmental and environmental changes, but most importantly because people dream of a better life and want to move to a preferred destination where they can find happiness and fulfillment. As a psychologist, I am interested in finding out (a) which destination people choose and (b) how they plan to get there successfully. In a free society that offers many opportunities for individuals, there are almost endless options regarding both (a) and (b). The reality is that not all purposes in life are equal. Some life goals are misguided, such as wanting to get rich by any means, including unethical and illegal ones, because ultimately, such choices could be self-defeating—these end values might not only fail to fill their hearts with happiness, but might also ruin their relationships and careers. The question, then, is: What kind of choices will have the greatest likelihood of resulting in a good life that not only benefits the individual but also society? My research has led me to hypothesize that the path of ST is most likely to result in such a good life.
    [Show full text]
  • Justifying Reasons, Motivating Reasons, and Agent Relativism in Ethics
    p. 1 Justifying Reasons, Motivating Reasons, and Agent Relativism in Ethics JOHN J. TILLEY INDIANA UNIVERSITY–PURDUE UNIVERSITY INDIANAPOLIS [email protected] From: Philosophical Studies 118(3) (2004): 373–99. Please cite the published version. ABSTRACT. According to agent relativism, each person’s moral requirements are relative to her desires or interests. That is, whether a person morally ought to φ depends on what interests or desires she has. Some philosophers charge that the main argument for agent relativism trades on an ambiguity—specifically, an ambiguity in “reason,” “reason for action,” or a kindred term. This charge has been common, and widely thought to damage the case for agent relativism, since its appearance, in 1958, in a now classic paper by William Frankena. In what follows I examine the charge in detail, showing that insofar as it aims to discredit the argument for agent relativism, it fails in its purpose. Agent relativism is the view that each person’s moral requirements are relative to her desires or interests. Unless an action is suitably related to those desires or interests she has no moral requirement to perform that action.1 My concern is with the principal argument for this view, specifically with a frequent objection to it. According to that objection, the argument for agent relativism trades on an ambiguity in “reason,” “reason for action,” or a similar term. This objection has been prevalent since its appearance, in 1958, in a now classic paper by William Frankena.2 Strangely, although one or two authors 1 This, at least, is one of the views that go under the name “agent relativism.” I have used that name for a very different view in some of my other papers, e.g., in “Cultural Relativism,” Human Rights Quarterly 22(2) (2000): 501–47, at 506.
    [Show full text]
  • The Political Obligation of a Citizen
    Case Western Reserve Law Review Volume 52 Issue 3 Article 3 2002 Ethics in the Shadow of the Law: The Political Obligation of a Citizen Robert P. Lawry Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarlycommons.law.case.edu/caselrev Part of the Law Commons Recommended Citation Robert P. Lawry, Ethics in the Shadow of the Law: The Political Obligation of a Citizen, 52 Case W. Rsrv. L. Rev. 655 (2002) Available at: https://scholarlycommons.law.case.edu/caselrev/vol52/iss3/3 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Student Journals at Case Western Reserve University School of Law Scholarly Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Case Western Reserve Law Review by an authorized administrator of Case Western Reserve University School of Law Scholarly Commons. ARTICLE ETHICS IN THE SHADOW OF THE LAW: THE POLITICAL OBLIGATION OF A CITIZEN Robert P. Lawr9 INTRODUCTION This article is a series of meditations on texts. The focus is on the moral quandry a citizen faces when confronted with what he or she perceives to be an unjust or immoral law or policy, emanating from the State in which that citizen has membership. As such, it is a con- tribution to the rich literature of political obligation. It joins the long debate in jurisprudence and political and legal theory over the citi- zen's "obligation to obey the law," or "fidelity to law."1 It joins that debate obliquely, however, not by trying to argue philosophically for one particular theory of political obligation, but by reflecting on inter- esting and historically important texts in that literature.
    [Show full text]
  • Virtue Ethics
    Business Ethics Queens College Russell Marcus http://philosophy.thatmarcusfamily.org Reading Guide #7: Virtue Ethics This reading guide is provided to assist you in your reading. I encourage you to read the material through, first, then go back to answer the questions. You are not expected to submit written answers. You are expected to have responses ready for class discussion. Only the boldfaced questions will appear on exams. Page numbers refer to Louis Pojman, Moral Philosophy, 3rd ed., Hackett. Aristotle, “Virtue Ethics,” pp 249-259. 1. What makes some end better than another end? What will the best good be like? 2. Why is happiness the highest good? 3. How does the good of something depend on its function? 4. What is man’s particular function? What is human good? 5. “For one swallow does not make a spring...” (252) Explain. Be specific about the use that Aristotle makes of this statement. 6. What are the two kinds of virtues? Describe them. 7. How do we acquire virtue? What does this mean about how we should live our lives? 8. How must an action be done, in order for it to be done virtuously? 9. Is virtue a feeling? Explain. 10. In what way is virtue a mean state? What lie at the extremes from this mean? 11. How are bravery and temperance virtues? Between which extremes do they lie? 12. How are generosity and magnanimity virtues? Between which extremes do they lie? 13. How are mildness, truthfulness, wit, and friendliness virtues? Between which extremes do they lie? 14. How are some vices more opposed to the mean than others? Provide examples.
    [Show full text]
  • Lon Fuller and Substantive Natural Law Anthony D'amato Northwestern University School of Law, [email protected]
    Northwestern University School of Law Northwestern University School of Law Scholarly Commons Faculty Working Papers 1981 Lon Fuller and Substantive Natural Law Anthony D'Amato Northwestern University School of Law, [email protected] Repository Citation D'Amato, Anthony, "Lon Fuller and Substantive Natural Law" (1981). Faculty Working Papers. Paper 131. http://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/facultyworkingpapers/131 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by Northwestern University School of Law Scholarly Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Faculty Working Papers by an authorized administrator of Northwestern University School of Law Scholarly Commons. Lon Fuller and Substantive Natural Law, by Anthony D'Amato,* 26 Am. J. Juris 202-218 (1981) Abstract: I will contend that Fuller's secular or "procedural" natural law, as described by Moffat, does not cover the theoretical position that could be occupied by a substantive natural lawyer, that such a theoretical position is viable today, and that there are some key elements in Fuller's theory that actually conflict with substantive natural law and might therefore be criticized from that perspective. Tags: Jurisprudence, Natural Law, Fuller (Lon), Hart, Dworkin, Cicero, Bentham, Austin, Aquinas [pg202]** Since Lon Fuller was the efficient, sufficient, and necessary cause of my entering the field of jurisprudence, it is with some trepidation that I venture here to criticize his work. However, I take a little comfort from the fact that he always welcomed criticism, even from, and sometimes particularly from, the converted. I will contend that Fuller's secular or "procedural" natural law, as described by Professor Moffat, does not cover the theoretical position that could be occupied by a substantive natural lawyer, that such a theoretical position is viable today, and that there are some key elements in Fuller's theory that actually conflict with substantive natural law and might therefore be criticized from that perspective.
    [Show full text]
  • The Prospective Pareto Principle and Equity of Access to Health Care
    The Prospective Pareto Principle and Equity of Access to Health Care ALLAN GIBBARD University of Michigan ( f "Tk r ORALITY IS MADE FOR MAN, NOT MAN FOR | \ / | morality.”11 interpret this aphorism as suggesting that JL V J L questions of morality can most fundamentally be ad­ dressed by considering human benefits and human harms—those ben­ efits and harms to which our acceptance of various alternative moral principles would tend to lead. This formula is vague, but I shall be concerned in this paper with one attempt to state clearly at least a part of what is involved. I shall be examining issues of social justice in access to health care. Does justice, I shall ask, require that everyone be assured access to every kind of health care that can be expected to benefit him? If not, does it at least demand that everyone have equal access to health care, without regard to income or place of residence? Or does justice rather demand no more, and no less, than that everyone be assured a “decent minimum” of access to health care—and if that is so, what comprises that “decent minimum”? 1 The allusion is to M ark 2:27. This aphorism has been a theme in the moral philosophy of William Frankena, Ethics (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice- Hall, 1963), p. 37. Milbank Memorial Fund Q uarterly I Health and Society, Vol. 60, No. 3, 1982 © 1982 Milbank Memorial Fund and Massachusetts Institute of Technology 0160/1997/82/6003/0399-30 $01.00/0 399 400 Allan Gibbard These questions of social justice are at basis questions about our responsibilities to each other.
    [Show full text]
  • AN ESSAY on DIVINE COMMAND ETHICS a Dissertation by JEREMY
    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Texas A&M Repository AN ESSAY ON DIVINE COMMAND ETHICS A Dissertation by JEREMY ALAN EVANS Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY August 2007 Major Subject: Philosophy AN ESSAY ON DIVINE COMMAND ETHICS A Dissertation by JEREMY ALAN EVANS Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Approved by: Chair of Committee, Hugh J. McCann Committee Members, Scott Austin James Aune C.E. Harris Head of Department, Robin Smith August 2007 Major Subject: Philosophy iii ABSTRACT An Essay on Divine Command Ethics. (August 2007) Jeremy Alan Evans, B.A., Texas A&M University; M.Div., Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary Chair of Advisory Committee: Dr. Hugh J. McCann Twentieth-century analytic philosophy ushered in a renewed interest in an ethical theory known as the Divine Command Theory of ethics (DC). Consequent to the work of G.E. Moore, philosophers have been involved in metaethics, or how we may ground ethical terms such as “good” and “right”. The traditional DC response is to argue that God is the source of good, and best serves that role in that He is an “ideal observer” of all states of affairs. The question is how is God’s will relevant to determining the moral status of actions? At this point one may distinguish between what God wills and what God in fact commands.
    [Show full text]
  • Monism and Pluralism About Value
    Chapter 8 Monism and Pluralism about Value Chris Heathwood At the start of Plato’s Philebus, Socrates sums up the two views that he and Protarchus will be discussing: Philebus says that the good for all animate beings consists in enjoyment, pleasure, delight, and whatever can be classed as consonant therewith, whereas our contention is that the good is not that, but . thought, intelligence, memory, and things akin to these, right opinion and true reasoning. (Plato 1958, 11b) Philebus holds, in a word, that “pleasure is the good,” Socrates that “knowledge is the good.”1 On each of these views, there is just one kind of good. Each is thus a form of monism about the good. A more ecumenical approach would allow that both pleasure and knowledge are good—and perhaps other things as well, such as love, beauty, and virtue. Tis is pluralism about the good. Tis chapter explores some of the important facets of the contemporary debate between monism and pluralism in axiology. We will begin by explaining what value monism and pluralism are (section 8.1), and will then consider some important argu- ments bearing on the question (section 8.2). Whether monism or pluralism is true may have implications for other areas of moral philosophy. For example, if pluralism is true, it may be more difcult to hold a reductionist metaethic about axiological properties. Tis is because goodness would then be “multiply realizable,” which stands in the way of identifying it with any par- ticular nonevaluative property. Susan Wolf (1992) argues that one kind of pluralism makes possible an attractive, moderate relativist metaethic that doesn’t devolve into a troublingly expressivist or subjectivist one.
    [Show full text]
  • What Is Deontology?, Part One: Orthodox Views Gerald F. Gaus
    What is Deontology?, Part One: Orthodox Viewsa Gerald F. Gaus 1. Introduction Current moral philosophy is often seen as essentially a debate between the two great traditions of consequentialism and deontology. Although there has been considerable work clarifying consequentialism, deontology is more often attacked or defended than analyzed. Just how we are to understand the very idea of a deontological ethic? We shall see that competing conceptions of deontology have been advanced in recent ethical thinking, leading to differences in classifying ethical theories. If we do not focus on implausible versions, the idea of a deontological ethic is far more attractive than most philosophers have thought. Indeed, I shall argue that in an important sense, only a deontological ethic can be plausible. 2. Deontology as the Non-teleological Most commentators follow William Frankena in characterizing deontology as the class of non- teleological theories. “Deontological theories deny what teleological theories affirm.”1 It is widely agreed that a theory is teleological if it justifies the right, moral duty, or obligation, on the a Journal of Value Inquiry, vol. 35 (2001): 27-42. grounds that it promotes what is good. This, though, is vague. If we are to understand this characterization of deontology, we need to be clearer about the idea of teleology. Because philosophers disagree about precisely what teleology affirms, we confront different accounts of deontology. One interpretation of this orthodox formulation is suggested by Jeffrey Reiman: Teleological
    [Show full text]
  • Ethics with & Without
    Ethics With and Without God © David W. Gill 9 Ethics With and Without God by David W. Gill www.davidwgill.org Published in David W. Gill, editor, Should God Get Tenure? Essays on Religion & Higher Education (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997). Pp. 129-145 There are two reasons why ethics (morality, values, etc.) has become such a hot topic in both the academy and the larger society over the past twenty years or so. First, the inventory of difficult ethical dilemmas has been growing exponentially, largely because of the development of technology in various domains. We are faced with many new quandaries for which there is no, or inadequate, moral guidance about right and wrong. Often the stakes, in terms of potential harm as well as benefit, are extraordinarily high. Take health care and medicine as an example. New medical technologies have raised acute questions about our tampering with human life, especially at its beginnings and endings. Genetic research and therapy pose challenging new issues. The AIDS epidemic, and the general, growing problem of basic health care for the poor and underinsured, raise questions about the just allocation of health care resources. Political and legal issues--- about patient self-determination, rights, privacy and confidentiality, about public health concerns such as smoking and sexually transmitted disease, and about malpractice judgments---are laden with ethical values. Modifications in health care delivery institutions and in the roles and relationships of health care providers are also morally problematic. What is happening in health care has parallels in the business world, in entertainment and the media, and in information technology, to mention only some of the most obvious domains.
    [Show full text]