Pollution Prevention and Industrial Ecology NATIONAL POLLUTION PREVENTION CENTER FOR HIGHER EDUCATION

Industrial Ecology: An Introduction

By Andy Garner, NPPC Research Assistant; and Gregory A. Keoleian, Ph.D., Assistant Research Scientist, University of Michigan School of Natural Resources and Environment, and NPPC Research Manager

Background ...... 2 Appendix A: Industrial Symbiosis at Kalundborg .. 28 Industrial Ecology: Toward a Definition ...... 3 Appendix B: Selected Definitions ...... 31 Historical Development...... 3 Defining Industrial Ecology ...... 4 List of Tables Teaching Industrial Ecology ...... 4 Table 1: Organizational Hierarchies ...... 2 Industrial Ecology as a Field of Ecology ...... 5 Table 2: Worldwide Atmospheric Emissions of Goals of Industrial Ecology ...... 5 Trace Metals (Thousand Tons/Year) ...... 9 Sustainable Use of Resources ...... 6 Table 3: Global Flows of Selected Materials ...... 9 Ecological and Human Health ...... 6 Table 4: Resources Used in Automaking...... 10 Environmental Equity...... 6 Table 5: General Difficulties and Limitations of Key Concepts of Industrial Ecology ...... 6 the LCA Methodology ...... 20 Systems Analysis...... 6 Table 7: Issues to Consider When Developing Environmental Requirements ...... 23 Material & Energy Flows & Transformations ...... 6 Multidisciplinary Approach ...... 10 Table 8: Strategies for Meeting Environmental Requirements ...... 24 Analogies to Natural Systems ...... 10 Table 9: Definitions of Accounting and Capital Open- vs. Closed-Loop Systems...... 11 Budgeting Terms Relevant to LCD ...... 25 Strategies for Environmental Impact Reduction: List of Figures Industrial Ecology as a Potential Umbrella Figure 1: The Kalundborg Park ...... 3 for Sustainable Development Strategies ...... 12 Figure 2: World Extraction, Use, and Disposal System Tools to Support Industrial Ecology...... 12 of Lead, 1990 (thousand tons) ...... 7 Life Cycle Assessment ...... 12 Figure 3: Flow of Platinum Through Various Product Components ...... 13 Systems ...... 8 Methodology ...... 13 Figure 4: Arsenic Pathways in U.S., 1975...... 8 Applications ...... 20 Figure 5: System Types ...... 11 Difficulties ...... 20 Figure 6: Technical Framework for LCA ...... 13 Life Cycle Design & Design for Environment ...... 21 Figure 7: The Product Life Cycle System...... 14 Needs Analysis ...... 21 Figure 9: Flow Diagram Template ...... 15 Design Requirements ...... 21 Figure 8: Process Flow Diagram ...... 15 Design Strategies ...... 24 Figure 10: Checklist of Criteria With Worksheet ...... 16 Design Evaluation ...... 25 Figure 11: Detailed System Flow Diagram for Bar Soap .. 18 Future Needs ...... 26 Figure 12: Impact Assessment Conceptual Framework .. 19 Further Information ...... 26 Figure 13: Life Cycle Design ...... 22 Endnotes ...... 27 Figure 14: Requirements Matrices ...... 23

National Pollution Prevention Center for Higher Education ¥ University of Michigan May be reproduced Introduction ¥ 1 Dana Building, 430 East University, Ann Arbor MI 48109-1115 freely for non-commercial November 1995 734.764.1412 ¥ fax 734.647.5841 ¥ [email protected] ¥ www.umich.edu/~nppcpub educational purposes. This portion of the industrial ecology compendium Environmental problems are systemic and thus require provides an overview of the subject and offers guidance a systems approach so that the connections between in- on how one may teach it. Other educational resources dustrial practices/human activities and environmental/ are also emerging. Industrial Ecology (Thomas Graedel ecological processes can be more readily recognized. and Braden Allenby; New York: Prentice Hall, 1994), A systems approach provides a holistic view of envi- the first university textbook on the topic, provides a ronmental problems, making them easier to identify well-organized introduction and overview to industrial and solve; it can highlight the need for and advantages ecology as a field of study. Another good textbook is of achieving sustainability. Table 1 depicts hierarchies Pollution Prevention: Homework and Design Problems for of political, social, industrial, and ecological systems. Engineering Curricula (David T. Allen, N. Bakshani, and Industrial ecology studies the interaction between dif- Kirsten Sinclair Rosselot; Los Angeles: American Insti- ferent industrial systems as well as between industrial tute of Chemical Engineers, American Insttute for Pol- systems and ecological systems. The focus of study lution Prevention, and the Center for Waste Reduction can be at different system levels. Technologies, 1993). Both serve as excellent sources of One goal of industrial ecology is to change the linear both qualitative and quantitative problems that could nature of our industrial system, where raw materials be used to enhance the teaching of industrial ecology are used and products, by-products, and wastes are concepts. Other sources of information are noted else- produced, to a cyclical system where the wastes are where in this introduction and in the accompanying reused as energy or raw materials for another product “Industrial Ecology Resource List.” or process. The Kalundborg, Denmark, eco-industrial park represents an attempt to create a highly integrated Background industrial system that optimizes the use of byproducts and minimizes the waste that that leaves the system. The development of industrial ecology is an attempt to Figure 1 shows the symbiotic nature of the Kalundborg provide a new conceptual framework for understanding park (see Appendix A for a more complete description). the impacts of industrial systems on the environment (see the “Overview of Environmental Problems” section Fundamental to industrial ecology is identifying and of this compendium). This new framework serves to tracing flows of energy and materials through various identify and then implement strategies to reduce the systems. This concept, sometimes referred to as indus- environmental impacts of products and processes trial metabolism, can be utilized to follow material and associated with industrial systems, with an ultimate energy flows, transformations, and dissipation in the 2 goal of sustainable development. industrial system as well as into natural systems. The mass balancing of these flows and transformations Industrial ecology is the study of the physical, chemical, can help to identify their negative impacts on natural and biological interactions and interrelationships both ecosystems. By quantifying resource inputs and the within and between industrial and ecological systems. generation of residuals and their fate, industry and Additionally, some researchers feel that industrial ecol- other stakeholders can attempt to minimize the environ- ogy involves identifying and implementing strategies mental burdens and optimize the resource efficiency of for industrial systems to more closely emulate harmo- material and energy use within the industrial system. nious, sustainable, ecological ecosystems.1

TABLE 1: ORGANIZATIONAL HIERARCHIES Political Social Industrial Industrial Ecological Entities Organizations Organizations Systems Systems

UNEP World population ISO Global human material Ecosphere U.S. (EPA, DOE) Cultures Trade associations and energy flows Biosphere State of Michigan Communities Corporations Sectors (e.g., transpor- Biogeographical (Michigan DEQ) Product systems Divisions tation or health care) region Washtenaw County Households Product develop- Corporations/institutions Biome landscape City of Ann Arbor Individuals/ ment teams Product systems Ecosystem Individual Voter Consumbers Individuals Life cycle stages/unit steps Organism

Source: Keoleian et al., Life Cycle Design Framework and Demonstration Projects (Cincinnati: U.S. EPA Risk Reduction Engineering Lab, 1995), 17.

2 ¥ Introduction November 1995 FIGURE 1: THE KALUNDBORG PARK

Industrial ecology is an emerging field. There is much furthered this work in their seminal book Limits to discussion and debate over its definition as well as its Growth (New York: Signet, 1972). Using systems practicality. Questions remain concerning how it over- analysis, they simulated the trends of environmental laps with and differs from other more established fields degradation in the world, highlighting the unsustainable of study. It is still uncertain whether industrial ecology course of the then-current industrial system. warrants being considered its own field or should be incorporated into other disciplines. This mirrors the In 1989, Robert Ayres developed the concept of challenge in teaching it. Industrial ecology can be taught industrial metabolism: the use of materials and energy as a separate, semester-long course or incorporated into by industry and the way these materials flow through existing courses. It is foreseeable that more colleges industrial systems and are transformed and then 3 and universities will begin to initiate educational and dissipated as wastes. By tracing material and energy research programs in industrial ecology. flows and performing mass balances, one could identify inefficient products and processes that result in indus- trial waste and pollution, as well as determine steps to Industrial Ecology: Toward a Definition reduce them. Robert Frosch and Nicholas Gallopoulos, in their important article “Strategies for Manufacturing” Historical Development (Scientific American 261; September 1989, 144–152), Industrial ecology is rooted in systems analysis and developed the concept of industrial ecosystems, which is a higher level systems approach to framing the inter- led to the term industrial ecology. Their ideal industrial action between industrial systems and natural systems. ecosystem would function as “an analogue” of its bio- This systems approach methodology can be traced to logical counterparts. This metaphor between industrial the work of Jay Forrester at MIT in the early 1960s and and natural ecosystems is fundamental to industrial 70s; he was one of the first to look at the world as a ecology. In an industrial ecosystem, the waste produced series of interwoven systems (Principles of Systems, by one company would be used as resources by another. 1968, and World Dynamics, 1971; Cambridge, Wright- No waste would leave the industrial system or nega- Allen Press). Donella and Dennis Meadows and others tively impact natural systems.

Introduction ¥ 3 November 1995 In 1991, the National Academy of Science’s Colloqium There is substantial activity directed at the product on Industrial Ecology constituted a watershed in the level using such tools as life cycle assessment and life development of industrial ecology as a field of study. cycle design and utilizing strategies such as pollution Since the Colloqium, members of industry, academia prevention. Activities at other levels include tracing and government have sought to further characterize the flow of heavy metals through the ecosphere. and apply it. In early 1994, The National Academy of Engineering published The Greening of Industrial Eco- A cross-section of definitions of industrial ecology is systems (Braden Allenby and Deanna Richards, eds.). provided in Appendix B. Further work needs to be The book brings together many earlier initiatives and done in developing a unified definition. Issues to efforts to use systems analysis to solve environmental address include the following. problems. It identifies tools of industrial ecology, such • Is an industrial system a natural system? as design for the environment, life cycle design, and Some argue that everything is ultimately natural. environmental accounting. It also discusses the inter- actions between industrial ecology and other disciplines • Is industrial ecology focusing on integrating indus- such as law, economics, and public policy. trial systems into natural systems, or is it primarily Industrial ecology is being researched in the U.S. EPA’s attempting to emulate ecological systems? Or both? Futures Division and has been embraced by the AT&T • Current definitions rely heavily on technical, engi- Corporation. The National Pollution Prevention Center neered solutions to environmental problems. Some for Higher Education (NPPC) promotes the systems authors believe that changing industrial systems will approach in developing pollution prevention (P2) edu- also require changes in human behavior and social cational materials. The NPPC’s research on industrial patterns. What balance between behavioral changes ecology is a natural outgrowth of our work in P2. and technological changes is appropriate?

Defining Industrial Ecology • Is systems analysis and material and energy accounting the core of industrial ecology? There is still no single definition of industrial ecology that is generally accepted. However, most definitions Teaching Industrial Ecology comprise similar attributes with different emphases. These attributes include the following: Industrial ecology can be taught as a separate course • a systems view of the interactions between or incorporated into existing courses in schools of engi- industrial and ecological systems neering, business, public health and natural resources. Due to the multidisciplinary nature of environmental • the study of material and energy flows and problems, the course can also be a multidisciplinary of- transformations fering; the sample syllabi offered in this compendium • a multidisciplinary approach illustrate this idea. Degrees in industrial ecology might be awarded by universities in the future.4 • an orientation toward the future • a change from linear (open) processes to Chauncey Starr has written of the need for schools of cyclical (closed) processes, so the waste from engineering to lead the way in integrating an interdis- one industry is used as an input for another ciplinary approach to environmental problems in the future. This would entail educating engineers so that • an effort to reduce the industrial systems’ they could incorporate social, political, environmental environmental impacts on ecological systems and economic factors into their decisions about the uses • an emphasis on harmoniously integrating of technology. 5 Current research in environmental industrial activity into ecological systems education attempts to integrate pollution prevention, sustainable development, and other concepts and • the idea of making industrial systems emulate strategies into the curriculum. Examples include more efficient and sustainable natural systems environmental accounting, strategic environmental • the identification and comparison of industrial and management, and environmental law. natural systems hierarchies, which indicate areas of potential study and action (see Table 1).

4 ¥ Introduction November 1995 Industrial Ecology as a Field of Ecology The Institute of Social Ecology’s definition of social ecology states that: The term “Industrial Ecology” implies a relationship to the field(s) of ecology. A basic understanding of ecology Social ecology integrates the study of human is useful in understanding and promoting industrial and natural ecosystems through understanding ecology, which draws on many ecological concepts. the interrelationships of culture and nature. It advances a critical, holistic world view and sug- gests that creative human enterprise can construct Ecology has been defined by the Ecological Society of an alternative future, reharmonizing people’s re- America (1993) as: lationship to the natural world by reharmonizing their relationship with each other.7 The scientific discipline that is concerned with the relationships between organisms and Ecology can be broadly defined as the study of the in- their past, present, and future environments. These relationships include physiological re- teractions between the abiotic and the biotic compo- sponses of individuals, structure and dynamics nents of a system. Industrial ecology is the study of the of populations, interactions among species, interactions between industrial and ecological systems; organization of biological communities, and consequently, it addresses the environmental effects on processing of energy and matter in ecosystems. both the abiotic and biotic components of the ecosphere. Additional work needs to be done to designate indus- Further, Eugene Odum has written that: trial ecology’s place in the field of ecology. This will ... the word ecology is derived from the occur concurrently with efforts to better define the Greek oikos, meaning “household,” combined discipline and its terminology. with the root logy, meaning “the study of.” Thus, ecology is, literally the study of house- There are many textbooks that introduce ecological holds including the plants, animals, microbes, concepts and principles. Examples include Robert and people that live together as interdependent beings on Spaceship Earth. As already, the Ricklefs’ Fundamentals of Ecology (3rd edition; New York: environmental house within which we place W. H. Freeman and Company, 1990), Eugene Odum’s our human-made structures and operate our Ecology and Our Endangered Life-Support Systems, and machines provides most of our vital biological Ecology: Individuals, Populations and Communities by necessities; hence we can think of ecology as Michael Begens, John Harper, and Colin Townsend the study of the earth’s life-support systems.6 (London: Blackwell Press, 1991). In industrial ecology, one focus (or object) of study is the interrelationships among firms, as well as among Goals of Industrial Ecology their products and processes, at the local, regional, national, and global system levels (see Table 1). These The primary goal of industrial ecology is to promote layers of overlapping connections resemble the food sustainable development at the global, regional, and web that characterizes the interrelatedness of organisms local levels. 8 Sustainable development has been in natural ecological systems. defined by the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development as “meeting the needs Industrial ecology perhaps has the closest relationship of the present generation without sacrificing the needs with applied ecology and social ecology. According to of future generations.”9 Key principles inherent to the Journal of Applied Ecology, applied ecology is: sustainable development include: the sustainable use . . . application of ecological ideas, theories of resources, preserving ecological and human health and methods to the use of biological resources (e.g. the maintenance of the structure and function in the widest sense. It is concerned with the of ecosystems), and the promotion of environmental ecological principles underlying the manage- equity (both intergenerational and intersocietal).10 ment, control, and development of biological resources for agriculture, forestry, aquaculture, nature conservation, wildlife and game manage- ment, leisure activities, and the ecological effects of biotechnology.

Introduction ¥ 5 November 1995 Sustainable Use of Resources Key Concepts of Industrial Ecology

Industrial ecology should promote the sustainable Systems Analysis use of renewable resources and minimal use of non- renewable ones. Industrial activity is dependent on a Critical to industrial ecology is the systems view of steady supply of resources and thus should operate as the relationship between human activities and environ- efficiently as possible. Although in the past mankind mental problems. As stated earlier, industrial ecology has found alternatives to diminished raw materials, is a higher order systems approach to framing the it can not be assumed that substitutes will continue to interaction between industrial and ecological systems. be found as supplies of certain raw materials decrease There are various system levels that may be chosen as or are degraded. 11 Besides solar energy, the supply of the focus of study (see Table 1). For example, when resources is finite. Thus, depletion of nonrenewables focusing at the product system level, it is important to and degradation of renewables must be minimized in examine relationships to higher-level corporate or insti- order for industrial activity to be sustainable in the tutional systems as well as at lower levels, such as the long term. individual product life cycle stages. One could also look at how the product system affects various ecological Ecological and Human Health systems ranging from entire ecosystems to individual organisms. A systems view enables manufacturers to Human beings are only one component in a complex develop products in a sustainable fashion. Central to web of ecological interactions: their activities cannot the systems approach is an inherent recognition of the be separated from the functioning of the entire system. interrelationships between industrial and natural systems. Because human health is dependent on the health of the other components of the ecosystem, ecosystem In using systems analysis, one must be careful to avoid structure and function should be a focus of industrial the pitfall that Kenneth Boulding has described: ecology. It is important that industrial activities do not cause catastrophic disruptions to ecosystems or slowly seeking to establish a single, self-contained ‘general theory of practically everything’ which degrade their structure and function, jeopardizing the will replace all the special theories of particular planet’s life support system. disciplines. Such a theory would be almost without content, for we always pay for general- Environmental Equity ity by sacrificing content, and all we can say about practically everything is almost nothing.13 A primary challenge of sustainable development is The same is true for industrial ecology. If the scope of achieving intergenerational as well as intersocietal a study is too broad the results become less meaningful; equity. Depleting natural resources and degrading when too narrow they may be less useful. Refer to ecological health in order to meet short-term objectives Boulding’s World as a Complete System (London: Sage, can endanger the ability of future generations to meet 1985) for more about systems theory; see Meadows et their needs. Intersocietal inequities also exist, as evi- al.’s Limits to Growth (New York: Signet, 1972) and denced by the large imbalance of resource use between Beyond the Limits (Post Mills, VT: Chelsea Green, 1992) developing and developed countries. Developed for good examples of how systems theory can be used countries currently use a disproportionate amount of to analyze environmental problems on a global scale. resources in comparison with developing countries. Inequities also exist between social and economic Material and Energy Flows groups within the U.S.A. Several studies have shown and Transformations that low income and ethnic communities in the U.S., for instance, are often subject to much higher levels A primary concept of industrial ecology is the study of human health risk associated with certain toxic of material and energy flows and their transformation pollutants. 12 into products, byproducts, and wastes throughout industrial systems. The consumption of resources is inventoried along with environmental releases to air, water, land, and biota. Figures 2, 3, and 4 are examples of such material flow diagrams.

6 ¥ Introduction November 1995 One strategy of industrial ecology is to lessen the uses found for the scrap to decrease this waste. Efforts amount of waste material and waste energy that is to utilize waste as a material input or energy source for produced and that leaves the industrial system, sub- some other entity within the industrial system can poten- sequently impacting ecological systems adversely. For tially improve the overall efficiency of the industrial instance, in Figure 3, which shows the flow of platinum system and reduce negative environmental impacts. through various products, 88% of the material in auto- The challenge of industrial ecology is to reduce the motive catalytic converters leaves this product system overall environmental burden of an industrial system as scrap. Recycling efforts could be intensified or other that provides some service to society.

RECYCLED 2600

BATTERIES 3700 TOTAL ANNUAL WASTE and CONSUMPTION DISCARDED BATTERIES 5800 1300 ± 200 REFINED LEAD Solder and Miscellaneous 400 3300 Cable Sheathing 300 Rolled and Extruded Products 500

Shot and Ammo 150

PIGMENTS 750

Lead in Gasoline ~ 100

Refining Waste ~ 50

Mining Waste ?

FIGURE 2: WORLD EXTRACTION, USE, AND DISPOSAL OF LEAD, 1990 (THOUSAND TONS)

R. Socolow, C. Andews, F. Berkhout, and V. Thomas, eds., Industrial Ecology and Global Change (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994). Reprinted with permission from the publisher. Data from International Lead and Zinc Study Group, 1992.

Introduction ¥ 7 November 1995 Ore, 20 Billion Tons 100% Metal 100% Metal 100% of Plant ➝ Fabrication ➝ Products ➝ Waste 60%

Mining and Refining Platinum 40% Chemical Group Conversion for Automotive ➝ 85% Automotive ➝ Metals, Catalysis and ➝ Catalyst Catalytic Waste 143 tons Other Uses Manufacture Converters

11% 4% ➝ Chemical Petroleum 88% Catalysts and Catalysts Chemicals 12% 85% 97% Recycled

FIGURE 3: FLOW OF PLATINUM THROUGH VARIOUS PRODUCT SYSTEMS

Source: R. A. Frosch and N. E. Gallopoulos, “Strategies for Manufacturing” Scientific American 261 (September 1989), p. 150.

ATMOSPHERE From Air Vulcanism

LAND Ores 9,750 INDUSTRIAL ECONOMY Airborne OCEAN

Pesticides 2,500 9,300 100 Other 1,200 Pesticides Copper Copper Fossil Fuel Herbicides Mining Smelting Combustion Fertilizers etc.

Waterborne Leach Liquor Flue Dust 10,600 Fly Ash Pesticides 11,600 Wastes 100 9,700 Slag 3,700 2,000 Other 5,400 Detergents 120 Other 40

Coal and Weathering of Rock 2,000 43,000 Oil In Soil Extraction

BIOSHPERE SEDIMENTS Land Vegetation Land Animals Marine Vegatation Marine Animals

FIGURE 4: SIMPLIFIED REPRESENTATION OF ARSENIC PATHWAYS IN THE U.S. (METRIC TONS), 1975.

Source: Ayres et al. (1988).

8 ¥ Introduction November 1995 TABLE 2: WORLDWIDE ATMOSPHERIC EMISSIONS OF TRACE METALS (THOUSAND TONNES/YEAR)

Smelting, Commercial uses, Total Total Energy refining, Manufacturing incineration, anthropogenic contributions by Element production and mining processes and transit contributions natural activities Antimony 1.3 1.5 Ð 0.7 3.5 2.6 Arsenic 2.2 12.4 2.0 2.3 19.0 12.0 Cadmium 0.8 5.4 0.6 0.8 7.6 1.4 Chromium 12.7 Ð 17.0 0.8 31.0 43.0 Copper 8.0 23.6 2.0 1.6 35.0 28.0 Lead 12.7 49.1 15.7 254.9 332.0 12.0 Manganese 12.1 3.2 14.7 8.3 38.0 317.0 Mercury 2.3 0.1 Ð 1.2 3.6 2.5 Nickel 42.0 4.8 4.5 0.4 52.0 29.0 Selenium 3.9 2.3 Ð 0.1 6.3 10.0 Thallium 1.1 Ð 4.0 Ð 5.1 Ð Tin 3.3 1.1 Ð 0.8 5.1 Ð Vanadium 84.0 0.1 0.7 1.2 86.0 28.0 Zinc 16.8 72.5 33.4 9.2 132.0 45.0

Source: J.O. Nriagu, “Global Metal Pollution: Poisoning the Biosphere?” Nature 338 (1989): 47Ð49. Reproduced with permission of Haldref Publications.

TABLE 3: GLOBAL FLOWS OF SELECTED MATERIALS*

* Data sources include UN Statistical Yearbooks Material Flow Per-capita flow** (various years), Minerals Yearbooks (U.S. Depart- (Million metric tons/yr) ment of the Interior, 1985), and World Resources 1990Ð1991 (World Resources Institute, 1990).

** Per-capita figures are based on a population of Minerals 1.2 *** five billion people and include materials in addition Phosphate 120 to those highlighted in this table. Salt 190 *** Does not include the amount of overburden Mica 280 and mine waste involved in mineral production; Cement 890 neglects sand, gravel, and similar material Metals 0.3 but includes cement. Al 097.0 Source: Thomas E. Graedel and Braden Allenby, Cu 8.5 Industrial Ecology. Chapter III: Table III.2.1 (New Pb 3.4 York: Prentice Hall, 1993; pre-publication copy). Ni 0.8 Sn 0.2 Zn 7.0 Steel 780 Fossil Fuels 1.6 Coal 3,200 Lignite 1,200 Oil 2,800 Gas 920 Water 41,000,000 8,200.0

Introduction ¥ 9 November 1995 TABLE 4: RESOURCES USED IN AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURING Plastics Used in Cars, Vans, and Small Trucks— Other Resources—as percentage of Millions of Pounds (1989) total U.S. consumption (1988)

Material U.S. Auto All U.S. Percent of Total Material Percent of Total Nylon 141 595 23.7 Lead 67.3 Polyacetal 25 141 17.7 Alloy Steel 10.7 ABS 197 1,243 15.8 Stainless Steel 12.3 Polyurethane 509 3,245 15.7 Total Steel 12.2 Unsat PE 192 1,325 14.5 Aluminum 18.3 Polycarbonate 50 622 8.0 Copper and Copper Alloys 10.2 Acrylic 31 739 4.2 Malleable Iron 63.8 Polypropylene 298 7,246 4.1 Platinum 39.1 PVC 187 8,307 2.3 Natural Rubber 76.6 TP PE 46 2,101 2.2 Synthetic Rubber 50.1 Polyethylene 130 18,751 0.7 Zinc 23.0 Phenolic 19 3,162 0.6

Source: Draft Report, Design and the Environment—The U.S. Automobile. The authors obtained this information from the Motor Vehicle Manufacturers Association 1990 Annual Data Book.

To identify areas to target for reduction, one must Multidisciplinary Approach understand the dissipation of materials and energy (in the form of pollutants) — how these flows intersect, Since industrial ecology is based on a holistic, systems interact, and affect natural systems. Distinguishing view, it needs input and participation from many between natural material and energy flows and anthro- different disciplines. Furthermore, the complexity of pogenic flows can be useful in identifying the scope of most environmental problems requires expertise from human-induced impacts and changes. As is apparent a variety of fields — law, economics, business, public in Table 2, the anthropogenic sources of some materials health, natural resources, ecology, engineering — to in natural ecosystems are much greater than natural contribute to the development of industrial ecology sources. Tables 3 and 4 provide a good example of and the resolution of environmental problems caused how various materials flow through one product by industry. Along with the design and implementa- system, that of the automobile. tion of appropriate technologies, changes in public policy and law, as well as in individual behavior, will Industrial ecology seeks to transform industrial activities be necessary in order to rectify environmental impacts. into a more closed system by decreasing the dissipation or dispersal of materials from anthropogenic sources, Current definitions of industrial ecology rely heavily in the form of pollutants or wastes, into natural systems. on engineered, technological solutions to environmental In the automobile example, it is useful to further trace problems. How industrial ecology should balance the what happens to these materials at the end of the need for technological change with changes in consumer products’ lives in order to mitigate possible adverse behavior is still subject to debate. Some see it as having environmental impacts. a narrow focused on industrial activity; to others, it is a way to view the entire global economic system. Some educational courses may wish to concentrate on developing skills to do mass balances and to trace the Analogies to Natural Systems flows of certain energy or material forms in processes and products. Refer to Chapters 3 and 4 in Graedel There are several useful analogies between industrial and Allenby’s Industrial Ecology for exercises in this and natural ecosystems.14 The natural system has subject area. evolved over many millions of years from a linear (open) system to a cyclical (closed) system in which there is a dynamic equilibrium between organisms, plants, and

10 ¥ Introduction November 1995 the various biological, physical, and chemical processes Linear (Open) Versus in nature. Virtually nothing leaves the system, because Cyclical (Closed) Loop Systems wastes are used as substrates for other organisms. This natural system is characterized by high degrees of inte- The evolution of the industrial system from a linear gration and interconnectedness. There is a food web system, where resources are consumed and damaging by which all organisms feed and pass on waste or are wastes are dissipated into the environment, to a more eaten as a food source by other members of the web. closed system, like that of ecological systems, is a cen- In nature, there is a complex system of feedback mech- tral concept to industrial ecology. Braden Allenby has anisms that induce reactions should certain limits be described this change as the evolution from a Type I to reached. (See Odum or Ricklefs for a more complete a Type III system, as shown in Figure 5. description of ecological principles.) A Type I system is depicted as a linear process in which Industrial ecology draws the analogy between indus- materials and energy enter one part of the system and trial and natural systems and suggests that a goal is to then leave either as products or by-products/wastes. stimulate the evolution of the industrial system so that Because wastes and by-products are not recycled or it shares the same characteristics as described above reused, this system relies on a large, constant supply concerning natural systems. A goal of industrial ecology of raw materials. Unless the supply of materials and would be to reach this dynamic equilibrium and high degree of interconnectedness and integra- tion that exists in nature.

Both natural and industrial Type I System system have cycles of energy and nutrients or materials. The carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen cycles are integral to the func- tioning and equilibrium of the entire natural system; material and energy flows through vari- ous products and processes are integral to the functioning of the industrial system. These flows can affect the global environment. For example, the accumulation of Type II System greenhouse gases could induce global climate change.

There is a well-known eco- industrial park in Kalundborg, Denmark. It represents an attempt to model an industrial park after an ecological system. The companies in the park are highly integrated and utilize the waste products from one firm as an energy or raw material source Type III System for another. (This park is illus- trated in Figure 1 and described FIGURE 5: SYSTEM TYPES in Appendix A.) Source: Braden R. Allenby, “Industrial Ecology: The Materials Scientist in an Environmentally Constrained World,” MRS Bulletin 17, no. 3 (March 1992): 46Ð51. Reprinted with the permission of the Materials Research Society.

Introduction ¥ 11 November 1995 energy is infinite, this system is unsustainable; further, Total quality environmental management (TQEM) is used the ability for natural systems to assimilate wastes to monitor, control, and improve a firm’s environmental (known as “sinks”) is also finite. In a Type II system, performance within individual firms. Based on well- which characterizes much of our present-day industrial established principles from Total Quality Management, system, some wastes are recycled or reused within the TQEM integrates environmental considerations into system while others still leave it. all aspects of a firm’s decision-making, processes, op- erations, and products. All employees are responsible A Type III system represents the dynamic equilibrium for implementing TQEM principles. It is a holistic of ecological systems, where energy and wastes are approach, albeit at level of the individual firm. constantly recycled and reused by other organisms and processes within the system. This is a highly integrated, Many additional terms address strategies for sustain- closed system. In a totally closed industrial system, able development. Cleaner production, a term coined by only solar energy would come from outside, while all UNEP in 1989, is widely used in Europe. Its meaning byproducts would be constantly reused and recycled is similar to pollution prevention. In Clean Production within. A Type III system represents a sustainable Strategies, Tim Jackson writes that clean production is state and is an ideal goal of industrial ecology. . . . an operational approach to the development of the system of production and consumption, Strategies for Environmental Impact which incorporates a preventive approach to environmental protection. It is characterized by Reduction: Industrial Ecology as three principles: precaution, prevention, and a Potential Umbrella for Sustainable integration.18 Development Strategies These strategies represent approaches that individual firms can take to reduce the environmental impacts Various strategies are used by individuals, firms, and of their activities. Along with environmental impact governments to reduce the environmental impacts of reduction, motivations can include cost savings, regu- industry. Each activity takes place at a specific systems latory or consumer pressure, and health and safety level. Some feel that industrial ecology could serve as concerns. What industrial ecology potentially offers is an umbrella for such strategies, while others are wary an organizing umbrella that can relate these individual of placing well-established strategies under the rubris activities to the industrial system as a whole. Whereas of a new idea like industrial ecology. Strategies related strategies such as pollution prevention, TQEM, and to industrial ecology are briefly noted below. cleaner production concentrate on firms’ individual Pollution prevention is defined by the U.S. EPA as actions to reduce individual environmental impacts, “the use of materials, processes, or practices that re- industrial ecology is concerned about the activities of duce or eliminate the creation of pollutants at the all entities within the industrial system. source.” Pollution prevention refers to specific actions The goal of industrial ecology is to reduce the overall, by individual firms, rather than the collective activities collective environmental impacts caused by the totality of the industrial system (or the collective reduction of of elements within the industrial system. environmental impacts) as a whole.15 The document in this compendium entitled “Pollution Prevention Concepts and Principles” provides a detailed examina- System Tools to Support Industrial Ecology tion of this topic with definitions and examples.

Waste minimization is defined by the U.S. EPA as “the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) reduction, to the extent feasible, of hazardous waste Life cycle assessment (LCA), along with “ecobalances” that is generated or subsequently treated, sorted, or and resource environmental profile analysis, is a disposed of.” 16 Source reduction is any practice that method of evaluating the environmental consequences reduces the amount of any hazardous substance, of a product or process “from cradle to grave.”19 20 21 pollutant or contaminant entering any waste stream The Society for Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry or otherwise released into the environmental prior to (SETAC) defines LCA as “a process used to evaluate recycling, treatment or disposal.17

12 ¥ Introduction November 1995 the environmental burdens associated with a product, 3. improvement analysis — evaluation and implementa- process, or activity.”22 The U.S. EPA has stated that an tion of opportunities to reduce environmental burden LCA “is a tool to evaluate the environmental conse- Some life cycle assessment practitioners have defined a quences of a product or activity holistically, across its fourth component, the scoping and goal definition or entire life.” 23 In the United States, SETAC, the U.S. EPA initiation step, which serves to tailor the analysis to its and consulting firms are active in developing LCAs. intended use. 24 Other efforts have also focused on de- veloping streamlined tools that are not as rigorous as COMPONENTS OF AN LCA LCA (e.g., Canadian Standards Association.) LCA methodology is still evolving. However, the three distinct components defined by SETAC and the U.S. METHODOLOGY EPA (see Figure 6) are the most widely recognized: A Life Cycle Assessment focuses on the product life 1. inventory analysis — identification and quantification cycle system as shown in Figure 7. Most research ef- of energy and resource use and environmental forts have been focused on the inventory stage. For an releases to air, water, and land inventory analysis, a process flow diagram is constructed and material and energy inputs and outputs for the 2. impact analysis — technical qualitative and quantitative product system are identified and quantified as depicted characterization and assessment of the consequences in Figure 8. A template for constructing a detailed on the environment flow diagram for each subsystem is shown in Figure 9.

Impact Assessment Goal - Ecological Health Definition Improvement - Human Health and Assessment - Resource Depletion Scoping

Inventory Analysis - Materials and Energy Acquisition - Manufacturing - Use - Waste Management

FIGURE 6: TECHNICAL FRAMEWORK FOR LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT

Reprinted with permission from Guidelines for Life-Cycle Assessment: A “Code of Practice,” F. Consoli et al., eds. Proceedings from the SETAC Workshop held in Sesimbra, Portugal, 31 MarchÐ3 April 1993. Copyright 1993 Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, Pensacola, Florida, and Brussels, Belgium.

Introduction ¥ 13 November 1995 Checklists such as those in Figure 10 may then be used illustrating how, even for a relatively simple product, in order to further define the study, set the system the inventory stage can quickly become complicated, boundaries, and gather the appropriate information especially as products increase in number of compo- concerning inputs and outputs. Figure 11 shows the nents and in complexity. many stages involved in the life cycle of a bar of soap,

Remanufacturing Closed-loop Recycling Manufacture recycling & Assembly

Engineered & Use & Speciality Service Materials Reuse

Bulk Retirement Processing Open-loop recycling Material downcycling into another product system Raw Material Treatment Acquisition Disposal

The Earth and Biosphere

Fugitive and untreated residuals Airborne, waterborne, and solid residuals Material, energy, and labor inputs for Process and Management Transfer of materials between stages for Product; includes transportation and packaging (Distribution)

Source: Gregory A. Keoleian and Dan Menerey, Life Cycle Design Guidance Manual (Cincinnati: U.S. EPA Risk Reduction Engineering Lab, 1993), 14.

FIGURE 7: THE PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE SYSTEM

14 ¥ Introduction November 1995 Source: B. W. Vigon et al., “Life Cycle Assessment: Inventory Guidelines and Principles” (Cincinnati: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory, 1993), 17.

FIGURE 8: PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

Source: Franklin Associates, cited in B. W. Vigon et al., “Life Cycle Assessment: Inventory Guidelines and Principles” (Cincinnati: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory, 1993), 41.

FIGURE 9: FLOW DIAGRAM TEMPLATE

Introduction ¥ 15 November 1995 LIFE-CYCLE INVENTORY CHECKLIST PART I—SCOPE AND PROCEDURES INVENTORY OF: ______

Purpose of Inventory: (check all that apply) Private Sector Use Public Sector Use Internal Evaluation and Decision-Making Evaluation and Policy-Making Comparison of Materials, Products or Activities Support information for Policy and Regulatory Evalution Resource Use and Release Comparison With Other Information Gap Identification Manufacturer’s Data Help Evaluate Statements of Reductions in Resource Personnel Training for Product and Process Design Use and Releases Baseline Information for Full LCA Public Education External Evaluation and Decision-Making Develop Support Materials for Public Education Provide Information on Resource Use and Releases Assist in Curriculum Design Substantiate Statements of Reductions in Resource Use and Releases

Systems Analyzed List the prodoct/process systems analyzed in this inventory: ______

Key Assumptions: (list and describe) ______

Define the Boundaries For each system analyzed, define the boundaries by life-cycle stage, geographic scope, primary processes, and ancillary inputs included in the system boundaries.

Postconsumer Solid Waste Management Options: Mark and describe the options analyzed for each system. Landfill ______Open-loop Recycling ______Combustion ______Closed-loop Recycling ______Composting ______Other ______

Basis for Comparison This is not a comparative study. This is a comparative study.

State basis for comparison between systems: (Example: 1,000 units, 1,000 uses) ______

If products or processes are not normally used on a one-to-one basis, state how equivalent function was established. ______

Computational Model Construction System calculations are made using computer spreadsheets that relate each system component to the total system. System calculations are made using another technique. Describe: ______Describe how inputs to and outputs from postconsumer solid waste management are handled. ______

Quality Assurance: (state specific activities and initials of reviewer) Review performed on: Data-Gathering Techniques ______Input Data ______Coproduct Allocation ______Model Calculations and Formulas ______Results and Reporting ______

Peer Review: (state specific activities and initials of reviewer) Review performed on: Scope and Boundary ______Input Data ______Data-Gathering Techniques ______Model Calculations and Formulas ______Coproduct Allocation ______Results and Reporting ______

Results Presentation Report may need more detail for additional use beyond Methodology is fully described defined purpose. Individual pollutants are reported Sensitivity analyses are included in the report. Emissions are reported as aggregated totals only. List: ______Explain why. ______Sensitivity analyses have been performed but are not ______included in the report. List: ______Report is sufficiently detailed for its defined purpose. ______

FIGURE 10: TYPICAL CRITERIA CHECKLIST WITH WORKSHEET FOR PERFORMING LIFE-CYCLE INVENTORY

16 ¥ Introduction November 1995 LIFE-CYCLE INVENTORY CHECKLIST PART II—MODULE WORKSHEET Inventory of: ______Preparer: ______Life-Cycle Stage Description: ______Date: ______Quality Assurance Approval: ______MODULE DESCRIPTION: ______

Data Value(a) Type(b) Data(c) Age/Scope Quality Measures(d) MODULE INPUTS Materials Process Other(e) Energy Process Precombustion

Water Usage Process Fuel-Related

MODULE OUTPUTS Product Coproducts(f)

Air Emissions Process Fuel-Related

Water Effluents Process Fuel-Related

Solid Waste Process Fuel-Related Capital Repl.

Transportation

Personnel (a) Include units. (b) Indicate whether data are actual measurements, engineering estimates, or theoretical or published values and whether the numbers are from a specific manufacturer or facility, or whether they represent industry-average values. List a specific source if pertinent, e.g., “obtained from Atlanta facility wastewater permit monitoring data.” (c) Indicate whether emissions are all available, regulated only, or selected. Designate data as to geographic specificity, e.g., North America, and indicate the period covered, e.g., average of monthly for 1991. (d) List measures of data quality available for the data item, e.g., accuracy, precision, representativeness, consistency-checked, other, or none. (e) Include nontraditional inputs, e.g., land use, when appropriate and necessary. (f) If coproduct allocation method was applied, indicate basis in quality measures column, e.g. weight

Source: Vigon et al., “Life Cycle Assessment: Inventory Guidelines and Principles” (Cincinnati: U.S. EPA, Risk Reduction Engineering Lab, 1993), 24Ð25.

Introduction ¥ 17 November 1995 FIGURE 11: DETAILED SYSTEM DIAGRAM FOR BAR SOAP

Source: Vigon et al., “Life Cycle Assessment: Inventory Guidelines and Principles” (Cincinnati: U.S. EPA Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory), 42.

18 ¥ Introduction November 1995 FIGURE 12: IMPACT ASSESSMENT CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Source: Keoleian et al., Life Cycle Design Framework and Demonstration Projects (Cincinnati: U.S. EPA Risk Reduction Engineering Lab, 1995), 55.

Once the environmental burdens haven been identified Efforts to develop methodologies for impact assessment in the inventory analysis, the impacts must be character- are relatively new and remain incomplete. It is difficult ized and assessed. The impact assessment stage seeks to determine an endpoint. There are a range of conver- to determine the severity of the impacts and rank them sion models, but many of them remain incomplete. as indicated by Figure 12. As the figure shows, the Furthermore, different conversion models for translating impact assessment involves three stages: classification, inventory items into impacts are required for each characterization, and valuation. In the classification impact, and these models vary widely in complexity, stage, impacts are placed in one of four categories: uncertainty, and sophistication. This stage also suffers resource depletion, ecological health, human health, from a lack of sufficient data, model parameters and and social welfare. Assessment endpoints must then conversion models. be determined. Next, conversion models are used to quantify the environmental burden. Finally, the The final stage of a LCA, the improvement analysis, impacts are assigned a value and/or are ranked. should respond to the results of the inventory and/or impact assessment by designing strategies to reduce the

Introduction ¥ 19 November 1995 identified environmental impacts. Proctor and Gamble native products, processes, materials, or activities and is one company that has used life cycle inventory studies to support marketing claims. LCA can also support to guide environmental improvement for several prod- public policy and eco-labeling programs. ucts.25 One of its case studies on hard surface cleaners revealed that heating water for use with the product DIFFICULTIES WITH LCA resulted in a significant percentage of total energy use and air emissions related to cleaning.26 Based on this As shown in Table 5, many methodological problems information, opportunities for reducing impacts were and difficulties inhibit use of LCAs, particularly for identified, such as designing cold-water and no-rinse smaller companies. For example, the amount of data formulas and educating consumers to use cold water. and the staff time required by LCAs can make them very expensive, and it isn’t always easy to obtain all of APPLICATIONS OF LCA the necessary data. Further, it is hard to properly define system boundaries and appropriately allocate inputs Life cycle assessments can be used both internally and outputs between product systems and stages. It is (within an organization) and externally (by the public often very difficult to assess the data collected because and private sectors).27 Internally, LCAs can be used to of the complexity of certain environmental impacts. establish a comprehensive baseline (i.e., requirements) Conversion models for transforming inventory results that product design teams should meet, identify the into environmental impacts remain inadequate. In major impacts of a product’s life cycle, and guide the many cases there is a lack of fundamental understand- improvement of new product systems toward a net ing and knowledge about the actual cause of certain reduction of resource requirements and emissions in environmental problems and the degree of threat that the industrial system as a whole. Externally, LCAs can they pose to ecological and human health. be used to compare the environmental profiles of alter-

TABLE 5: GENERAL DIFFICULTIES AND LIMITATIONS OF THE LCA METHODOLOGY

Source: Gregory A. Keoleian, “The Application of Life Cycle Assessment to Design,” Journal of Cleaner Production 1, no. 3Ð4 (1994): 143Ð149.

Goal Definition and Scoping Costs to conduct an LCA may be prohibitive to small firms. Time required to conduct LCA may exceed product development constraints, especially for short development cycles. Temporal and spatial dimensions of a dynamic product system are difficult to address. Definition of functional units for comparison of design alternatives can be problematic. Allocation methods used in defining system boundaries have inherent weaknesses. Complex products (e.g., automobiles) require tremendous resources to analyze.

Data Collection Data availability and access can be limiting (e.g., proprietary data). Data quality concerns such as bias, accuracy, precision, and completeness are often not well-addressed.

Data Evaluation Sophisticated models and model parameters for evaluating resource depletion and human and ecosystem health may not be available, or their ability to represent the product system may be grossly inaccurate. Uncertainty analyses of the results are often not conducted.

Information Transfer Design decisionmakers often lack knowledge about environmental effects. Aggregation and simplification techniques may distort results. Synthesis of environmental effect categories is limited because they are incommensurable.

20 ¥ Introduction November 1995 In the absence of an accepted methodology, results Life cycle design seeks to minimize the environmental of LCAs can differ. Order-of-magnitude differences consequences of each product system component: are not uncommon. Discrepancies can be attributed product, process, distribution and management.31 to differences in assumptions and system boundaries. Figure 13 indicates the complex set of issues and deci- Regardless of the current limitations, LCAs offer a sions required in LCD. When sustainable development promising tool to identify and then implement strate- is the goal, the design process can be affected by both gies to reduce the environmental impacts of specific internal and external factors. products and processes as well as to compare the rela- tive merits of product and process options. However, Internal factors include corporate policies and the com- much work needs to be done to develop, utilize, evalu- panies’ mission, product performance measures, and ate, and refine the LCA framework. product strategies as well as the resources available to the company during the design process. For instance, Life Cycle Design (LCD) and a company’s corporate environmental management Design For the Environment (DfE) system, if it exists at all, greatly affects the designer’s ability to utilize LCD principles. The design of products shapes the environmental per- External factors such as government policies and regu- formance of the goods and services that are produced lations, consumer demands and preferences, the state to satisfy our individual and societal needs.28 Environ- of the economy, and competition also affect the design mental concerns need to be more effectively addressed process, as do current scientific understanding and in the design process to reduce the environmental im- public perception of risks associated with the product. pacts associated with a product over its life cycle. Life Cycle Design, Design for Environment, and other simi- THE NEEDS ANALYSIS lar initiatives based on the product life cycle are being developed to systematically incorporate these environ- As shown in the figure, a typical design project begins mental concerns into the design process. with a needs analysis. During this phase, the purpose and scope of the project is defined, and customer needs Life Cycle Design (LCD) is a systems-oriented approach and market demand are clearly identified.32 The system for designing more ecologically and economically sus- boundaries (the scope of the project) can cover the full tainable product systems. Coupling the product devel- life cycle system, a partial system, or individual stages opment cycle used in business with a product’s physical of the life cycle. Understandably, the more compre- life cycle, LCD integrates environmental requirements hensive the system of study, the greater the number of into each design stage so total impacts caused by the opportunities identified for reducing environmental product system can be reduced.29 impact. Finally, benchmarking of competitors can iden- Design for Environment (DfE) is another design strategy tify opportunities to improve environmental perfor- that can be used to design products with reduced envi- mance. This involves comparing a company’s products ronmental burden. DfE and LCD can be difficult to and activities with another company who is considered distinguish. They have similar goals but evolved from to be a leader in the field or “best in class.” different sources. DfE evolved from the “Design for X” approach, where X can represent manufacturability, DESIGN REQUIREMENTS testability, reliability, or other “downstream” design Once the projects needs have been established, they are considerations. 30 Braden Allenby has developed a DfE used in formulating design criteria. This step is often framework to address the entire product life cycle. considered to be the most important phase in the design Like LCD, DfE uses a series of matrices in an attempt to process. Incorporating key environmental requirements develop and then incorporate environmental require- into the design process as early as possible can prevent ments into the design process. DfE is based on the the need for costly, time-consuming adjustments later. product life cycle framework and focuses on integrating A primary objective of LCD is to incorporate environ- environmental issues into products and process design. mental requirements into the design criteria along with the more traditional considerations of performance, cost, cultural, and legal requirements.

Introduction ¥ 21 November 1995 Life Cycle Goal Sustainable Development

Life Cycle Design Management Internal Factors External Factors • Policy • Multi-stakeholders • Government policy • Performance Measures • Concurrent Design and regulations • Strategy • Team Coordination • Market demand • Resources • Infrastructure

Needs Analysis Research & Development State of Environment • Significant needs • Scope & purpose • Baseline

Requirements • Environmental • Performance • Cost • Cultural • Legal Evaluation Design • Analysis Tools Strategies environmental cost • Tradeoff Analysis Design Solution

Implement • Production • Use & service • Retirement Continuous Improvement Continuous Assessment

FIGURE 13: LIFE CYCLE DESIGN

Source: Keoleian and Menerey, Life Cycle Design Guidance Manual (Cincinnati: U.S. EPA Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory, January 1993), 23.

22 ¥ Introduction November 1995 Design checklists comprised of a series of questions are being overly time-consuming or disruptive to the crea- sometimes used to assist designers in systematically tive process. Another more comprehensive approach addressing environmental issues. Care must be taken is to use requirement matrices such as the one shown to prevent checklists, such as the one in Table 7, from in Figure 14.

TABLE 7: ISSUES TO CONSIDER WHEN DEVELOPING ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS Materials and Energy Residuals Ecological Health Human Health and Safety Amount & Type Type Stressors Population at Risk ¥ renewable ¥ solid waste ¥ physical ¥ workers ¥ nonrenewable ¥ air emissions ¥ biological ¥ users ¥ waterborne ¥ chemical ¥ community Character ¥ virgin Characterization Impact Categories Exposure Routes ¥ reused/recycled ¥ constituents ¥ diversity ¥ inhalation, contact, ingestion ¥ reusable/ recyclable ¥ amount ¥ sustainability ¥ duration & frequency ¥ concentration ¥ resilience Resource Base Accidents ¥ toxicity ¥ system structure ¥ location ¥ type ¥ hazardous content ¥ system function ¥ local vs. other ¥ frequency) ¥ radioactivity ¥ availability Scale Toxic Character ¥ quality Environmental Fate ¥ local ¥ acute effects ¥ management ¥ containment ¥ regional ¥ chronic effects ¥ restoration practices ¥ bioaccumulation ¥ global ¥ morbidity/mortality ¥ degradability Impacts From ¥ mobility/transport Nuisance Effects Extraction and Use ¥ ecologial impacts ¥ noise ¥ material/energy use ¥ human health ¥ odors ¥ residuals impacts ¥ visibility ¥ ecosystem health ¥ human health

Source: Keoleian et al., LIfe Cycle Design Framework and Demonstration Projects (Cincinnati: U.S. EPA Risk Reduction Engineering Lab, July 1995), 45.

Legal Cultural Cost Performance Environmental Raw Bulk Engineered Assembly & Use & Treatment Material Processing Materials Manufacture Service Retirement Acquisition Processing & Disposal Product • Inputs • Outputs

Process • Inputs • Outputs

Distribution • Inputs • Outputs

Management • Inputs • Outputs

FIGURE 14: REQUIREMENTS MATRICES

Source: Keoleian and Menerey, Life Cycle Design Guidance Manual (Cincinnati: U.S. EPA Risk Reduction Engineering Lab, January 1993), 44.

Introduction ¥ 23 November 1995 Matrices can be used by product development teams to LCD looks at the cost to stakeholders such as manu- study interactions between life cycle requirements and facturers, suppliers, users and end-of-life managers. their associated environmental impacts. There are no Cultural requirements include aesthetic needs such as absolute rules for organizing matrices. Development shape, form, color, texture, and image of the product as teams should choose a format that is appropriate for well as specific societal norms such as convenience or their project. The requirements matrices shown are ease of use.33 These requirements are ranked and strictly conceptual; in practice such matrices can be weighed given a chosen mode of classification. simplified to address requirements more broadly during the earliest stages of design, or each cell can be further DESIGN STRATEGIES subdivided to focus on requirements in more depth. Once the criteria have been defined, the design team Government policies, along with the criteria identified can then use design strategies to meet these require- in the needs analysis, also should be included. It is often ments. Multiple strategies often must be synthesized useful in the long term to set environmental require- in order to translate these requirements into solutions. ments that exceed current regulatory requirements to A wide range of strategies are available for satisfying avoid costly design changes in the future. environmental requirements, including product system life extension, material life extension, material selection, and Performance requirements relate to the functions needed efficient distribution. A summary of these strategies are from a product. Cost corresponds to the need to deliver shown in Table 8. Note that recycling is often over- the product to the marketplace at a competitive price. emphasized.

TABLE 8: STRATEGIES FOR MEETING ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS

Product Life Extension Process Management ¥ extend useful life ¥ use substitute processes ¥ make appropriately durable ¥ increase energy efficiency ¥ ensure adaptability ¥ process materials efficiently ¥ facilitate serviceability by simplifying ¥ control processes maintenance and allowing repair ¥ improve process layout ¥ enable remanufacture ¥ improve inventory control and ¥ accommodate reuse material handling processes ¥ plan efficient facilities Material Life Extension ¥ consider treatment and disposal too ¥ specify recycled materials ¥ use recyclable materials Efficient Distribution ¥ choose efficient transportation Material Selection ¥ reduce packaging ¥ substitute materials ¥ use low-impact or reusable packaging ¥ reformulate products Improved Management Practices Reduced Material Intensity ¥ use office materials and equipment efficiently ¥ conserve resources ¥ phase out high-impact products ¥ choose environmentally responsible suppliers or contractors ¥ label properly ¥ advertise demonstrable environmental improvements

Source: Keoleian et al., LIfe Cycle Design Framework and Demonstration Projects (Cincinnati: U.S. EPA Risk Reduction Engineering Lab, July 1995), 51.

24 ¥ Introduction November 1995 DESIGN EVALUATION addition to an environmental matrix and toxicology/ exposure matrix, manufacturing and social/political Finally, it is critical that the design is evaluated and matrices are used to address both technical and non- analyzed throughout the design process. Tools for technical aspects of design alternatives. design evaluation range from LCA to single-focus environmental metrics. In each case, design solutions Although LCD is not yet widely practiced, it has been are evaluated with respect to a full spectrum of criteria, used by companies like AT&T and AlliedSignal and which includes cost and performance. is recognized as an important approach for reducing environmental burdens. To enhance the use of LCD, DfE methods developed by Allenby use a semi- appropriate government policies must be evaluated quantitative matrix approach for evaluating life cycle and established. In addition, environmental accounting 34 35 environmental impacts. A graphic scoring system methods must be further developed and utilized by weighs environmental effects according to available industry (these methods are often referred to as Life quantitative information for each life cycle stage. In Cycle Costing or Full Cost Accounting — see Table 9.)

TABLE 9: DEFINITIONS OF ACCOUNTING AND CAPITAL BUDGETING TERMS RELEVANT TO LCD

Accounting

Full Cost Accounting A method of managerial cost accounting that allocates both direct and indirect environmental costs to a product, product line, process, service, or activity. Not everyone uses this term the same way. Some only include costs that affect the firm’s bottom line; others include the full range of costs throughout the life cycle, some of which do not have any indirect or direct effect on a firm’s bottom line.

Life Cycle Costing In the environmental field, this has come to mean all costs associated with a product system throughout its life cycle, from materials acquisition to disposal. Where possible, social costs are quantified; if this is not possible, they are ad- dressed qualitatively. Traditionally applied in military and engineering to mean estimating costs from acquisition of a system to disposal. This does not usually incorporate costs further upstream than purchase. Capital Budgeting

Total Cost Assessment Long-term, comprehensive financial analysis of the full range of internal (i.e., private) costs and savings of an investment. This tool evaluates potential invest- ments in terms of private costs, excluding social considerations. It does include contingent liability costs. Further, educational institutions must work to continue the development and the dissemination of the LCD methodology and related approaches. Key issues in environmental accounting that need to be addressed include: measurement and estimation of environmental costs, allocation proce- dures, and the inclusion of appropriate externalities.

Source: Robert S. Kaplan, “Management Accounting for Advanced Technical Environments,” Science 245 (1989): 819Ð823; cited in Keoleian et al., LIfe Cycle Design Framework and Demonstration Projects (Cincinnati: U.S. EPA Risk Reduction Engineering Lab, July 1995), 62.

Introduction ¥ 25 November 1995 Future Needs for • Increased curriculum development efforts on sus- the Development tainable development in professional schools of engi- neering, business, public health, natural resources, of Industrial Ecology and law. The role of industrial ecology in these ef- forts should be further explored and defined. Deter- Industrial ecology is an emerging framework. Thus mining whether industrial ecology courses should be much research and development of the field and its discipline specific, interdisciplinary or integrated as concepts need to be done. Future needs for the further modules into existing courses. development of industrial ecology include: • Further research on the impacts of industrial ecosys- • A clearer definition of the field and its concepts. The tem activities on natural ecosystems in order to iden- definition of industrial ecology, its scope and its tify what problems need to be resolved and how. goals need to be clarified and unified in order to be more useful. The application of systems analysis • Greater recognition of the importance of the systems must be further refined. approach to identifying and resolving environmental problems. • A clearer definition of sustainable development, what constitutes sustainable development, and how • Further development of tools such as life cycle as- it might be achieved, will help define the goals and sessment and life cycle design and design for the en- objectives of industrial ecology. Difficult goals to ad- vironment. dress, along with the maintenance of ecological sys- tem health, are intergenerational and intersocietal • The improvement of governmental policies that will equity. strengthen incentives for industry to reduce environ- mental burdens. • More participation from a cross section of fields such as ecology, public health, business, natural resources and engineering should be encouraged in order to Further Information meet some of the vast research and information re- Further resources, references and sources of informa- quirements needed to identify and implement strate- tion are provided in other sections of this compen- gies to reduce environmental burdens. dium. Please forward any comments or concerns di- rectly to the National Pollution Prevention Center. Your input is encouraged and appreciated.

26 ¥ Introduction November 1995 Endnotes

1 Robert A. Frosch, “Industrial Ecology: A Philosophical Introduction,” 19 Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry Foundation for Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 89 (February Environmental Education, “A Technical Framework for Life-Cycle 1992): 800Ð803. Assessment — SETAC Workshop, Smuggler’s Notch, VT, 18 August 1990” 2 Robert U. Ayres, “Industrial Metabolism” in Technology and Environment (Pensacola, Florida: SETAC, 1991). (Washington: National Academy Press, 1989), 23Ð49. 20 B. W. Vigon, D. A. Tolle, B. W. Cornary, H. C. Latham, C. L. Harrison, 3 Ibid. T. L. Bouguski, R. G. Hunt, and J. D. Sellers, “Life Cycle Assessment: Inventory Guidelines and Principles,” EPA/600/R-92/245 (Cincinnati: U.S. 4 Daniel R. Lynch and Charles E. Hutchinson, “Environmental Education,” Environmental Protection Agency, Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 89 (February February 1993). 1992): 864-867. 21 R. Hiejungs, J. B. Guinee, G. Huppes, R. M. Lankreijer, H. S. Udo de 5 Chauncey Starr, “Education For Industrial Ecology,” Proceedings of Haes, A. Wegener Sleeswijk, A. M. M. Ansems, P. G. Eggels, R. van Duin, the National Academy of Sciences, USA 89 (February 1992). and de Goede, “Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Products—Back- 6 Eugene P. Odum, Ecology and Our Endangered Life-Support Systems, grounds” (Leiden, Netherlands: Center of Environmental Science, 1992). 2nd ed. (Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, Inc., 1993). 22 Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, Guidelines for Life- 7 Michael Begens, John Harper, and Colin Townsend, Ecology: Individuals, Cycle Assessment: A “Code of Practice” (Pensacola, Florida: SETAC, 1993). Populations and Communities (London: Blackwell Press, 1991). 23 Vigon et al., p. 5. 8 Gregory A. Keoleian and Dan Menerey, “Sustainable Development by 24 Ibid. Design: Review of Life Cycle Design and Related Approaches,” Air and 25 Waste (Journal Of the Air and Waste Management Association) 44 (May Mary Ann Curran, “Broad-Based Environmental Life Cycle Assessment,” 1994): 646. Environmental Science and Technology 27, no. 3 (1993): 430-436. 26 9 United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development, Franklin and Associates, “Resource and Environmental Profile Analysis Our Common Future (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987). of Hard Surface Cleaners and Mix-Your-Own Cleaning Systems” (Prairie Village, KS: Franklin and Associates, 1993). 10 Keoleian and Menerey, “Sustainable Development,” 649. 27 Vigon et al. 11 Ibid., 650. 28 Keoleian and Menerey, “Sustainable Development,” 645. 12 Ibid., 650. 29 Gregory A. Keoleian and Dan Menerey, Life Cycle Design Guidance 13 Kenneth Boulding, “General Systems Theory—The Skeleton of Science,” Manual, EPA/600/R-92/226 (Cincinnati: U.S. EPA Risk Reduction Management Science 2, no. 3 (April 1956): 197Ð198. Engineering Laboratory, January 1993). 14 Frosch, 800Ð803. 30 Braden Allenby, “Design For the Environment: A Tool Whose Time Has 15 Harry Freeman, Teresa Harten, Johnny Springer, Paul Randall, Mary Ann Come,” SSA Journal (September 1991): 6. Curran, and Kenneth Stone, “Industrial Pollution Prevention: A Critical 31 Keoleian and Menerey, “Sustainable Development,” 665. Review,” Air and Waste (Journal of the Air and Waste Management 32 Association) 42, no. 5 (May 1992): 619. Ibid., 651. 33 16 Ibid., 620. Ibid., 654. 34 17 Ibid., 620. Braden R. Allenby and Ann Fullerton, “Design for Environment—A New Strategy for Environmental Management,” Pollution Prevention Review 18 Tim Jackson, ed., Clean Production Strategies: Developing Preventive (Winter 1991): 51-61. Environmental Management in the Industrial Economy (New York: Lewis 35 Publishers, 1993). Allenby, “Design For the Environment: A Tool Whose Time Has Come,” 6-9.

Introduction ¥ 27 November 1995 Appendix A: “The Industrial Symbiosis Participants in the Kalundborg symbiosis are: at Kalundborg, Denmark” ¥ Asnæsværket, Denmark’s largest power plant. The plant is coal-fired with a capacity of 1,500 MW. Presented at the National Academy of Engineering It employs about 600 people. International Conference on Industrial Ecology ¥ The Statoil oil refinery, Denmark’s largest refinery Irvine, California, May 9Ð13, 1994 with a capacity of about three million tons/year. By Henning Grann, Statoil The refinery is currently being expanded to a Reprinted with permission of the author capacity of five million tons/year with a manning level of about 250 people. ¥ Gyproc A/S, a plaster board manufacturing plant Background producing about 14 million m2/year of plaster The concept of sustainable development is being board for the building industry. The employment widely referred to by politicians, authorities, industri- is about 175 people. alists, and the press. Although there is agreement in ¥ Novo Nordisk, a biotechnological industry produc- principle about the meaning of this concept, there are ing about 45% of the world market of insulin and many and differing opinions as to what it means in about 50% of the world market of enzymes. In practice and how the concept should be translated addition, there is substantial production of growth into specific action. hormones and other pharmaceutical products. The subject for my presentation is “Industrial Sym- Novo Nordisk is operating in several countries, biosis,” and I think that this could well be viewed as but the Kalundborg plant with its 1,100 people is a practical example of application of the sustainable the largest production site. development concept. The industrial symbiosis ¥ The Kalundborg municipality, who through its project at Kalundborg (100 km west of Copenhagen) technical administration is the operator of all in Denmark has attracted a good deal of international distribution of water, electricity, and district heating attention, notably by the EC Commission, and the in the Kalundborg city area. project has been awarded a number of environmental prizes. Development of the symbiosis The symbiosis project is originally not the result of a ¥ In 1959 Asnæsværket, who is the central partner careful environmental planning process. It is rather in the symbiosis, was started up. the result of a gradual development of co-operation between four neighbouring industries and the ¥ In 1961 Tidewater Oil Company commissioned Kalundborg municipality. From a stage where things the first oil refinery in Denmark. The refinery was happened by chance, this co-operation has now taken over by Esso two years later and acquired developed into a high level of environmental con- by Statoil in 1987 along with Esso’s Danish market- sciousness, where the participants are constantly ing facilities. To ensure adequate water supply, a exploring new avenues of environmental co-operation. pipeline from the Lake Tiss¿ was constructed. What is industrial symbiosis? In short, it is a process ¥ In 1972 Gyproc established a plaster board whereby a waste product in one industry is turned manufacturing plant. A pipeline for supply of into a resource for use in one or more other industries. excess refinery gas was constructed. A more profound definition could be: ¥ In 1973 the Asnæs power plan was expanded. “A co-operation between different industries by The additional water requirements were supplied which the presence of each of them increases the through a connection to the Tiss¿ pipeline follow- viability of the others and by which the demands ing an agreement with the refinery. from society for resource conservation and envi- ¥ In 1976 Novo Nordisk started delivery by ronmental protection are taken into consideration.” special tank trucks of biological sludge to the neighbouring farming community.

28 ¥ Introduction November 1995 ¥ In 1979 the power plant started supply of fly ash Typical characteristics of an effective symbiosis (until then a troublesome waste product) to ¥ The participating industries must fit together, cement manufacturers (e.g., Aalborg Portland). but be different. ¥ In 1981 the Kalundborg municipality completed a ¥ The individual industry agreements are based district heating distribution network within the city on commercially sound principles. of Kalundborg utilising waste heat from the power plant. ¥ Environmental improvements, resource conser- vation, and economic incentives go hand in hand. ¥ In 1982 Novo Nordisk and the Statoil refinery completed the construction of steam supply ¥ The development of the symbiosis has been on a pipelines from the power plant. The subsequent voluntary basis, but in close co-operation with the purchase of process steam from the power plant authorities. enabled the shut-down of their own inefficient ¥ Short physical distances between participating steam boiler capacity. plants are a definite advantage. ¥ In 1987 the Statoil refinery completed a pipeline ¥ Short “mental” distances are equally important. for supply of cooling water effluent to the power plant for use as raw boiler feed water. ¥ Mutual management understanding and co-operative commitment is essential. ¥ In 1989 the power plant started to use the waste heat in salt cooling water (+7Ð8¡C) for ¥ Effective operative communication between fish production (trouts and turbot). participants is required. ¥ In 1989 Novo Nordisk entered into an agreement ¥ Significant side benefits are achieved in other with the Kalundborg municipality, the power plant, areas such as safety and training. and the refinery for supply of Tiss¿ water to meet Novo’s rising demand for cooling water following Achieved results of the symbiosis several expansions. The most significant achievements of the industrial ¥ In 1990 the Statoil refinery completed the con- symbiosis co-operation at Kalundborg may be struction of a sulphur recovery plant for production summarised as: of elemental sulphur being sold as a raw material for sulphuric acid manufacture. ¥ Significant reductions of the consumption of energy and utilities in terms of coal, oil, and water. ¥ In 1991 the Statoil refinery commissioned a pipeline for supply of biologically treated refinery ¥ Environmental improvements through reduced effluent water to the power plant for use in various SO2 and CO2 emissions and through reduced cleaning purposes and for fly ash stabilisation. volumes of effluent water of an improved quality. ¥ In 1992 the Statoil refinery commissioned a ¥ Conversion of traditional waste products such as pipeline for supply of refinery flare gas to the fly ash, sulphur, biological sludge, and gypsum power plant as a supplementary fuel. into raw materials for production. ¥ In 1993 the power plant completed a stack flue gas ¥ Gradual development of a systematic environ- desulphurisation project. This process converts mental “way of thinking” which is applicable to many other industries and which may prove flue gas SO2 to calcium sulphate (or gypsum) which is sold to the Gyproc plaster board plant, particularly beneficial in the planning of future where it replaces imports of natural gypsum as industrial complexes. raw material. The new raw material from the ¥ Creation of a deservedly positive image of power plant results in increased plaster board Kalundborg as a clean industrial city. quality characteristics. ¥ The construction of green houses are being considered by the power plant and by the refinery for utilisation of residual waste heat.

Introduction ¥ 29 November 1995 Future developments which in reality is impossible to achieve, it may be a good and challenging planning assumption. Traditionally, increase of industrial activity has automatically meant in increased load on the At Kalundborg all future projects and/or process environment in an almost straight line relationship. modifications will be considered for inclusion in the Through the application of the industrial symbiosis industrial symbiosis network. A number of interesting concept this no longer needs to be the case. By ideas have been identified for further study. In the carefully selecting the processes and the combination meantime, the concept of industrial symbiosis is of industries, future industrial complexes need in recommended as a practical approach to minimise theory not cause any pollution of the environment the environmental impact from existing and new at all. Although this obviously is an ideal situation industrial complexes.

Additional data

ASN®SV®RKET, ANNUAL PRODUCTION GYPROC, ANNUAL RESOURCE CONSUMPTION Electricity 4,300,000,000 tons Gypsum, from Asnæsværket 80,000 tons Process steam 355,000 tons " , other industrial 33,000 tons District heating 700,000 GJ " , recycled 8,000 tons Fly ash 170,000 tons Cardboard 7,000 tons Fish 200 tons Oil 3,300 tons Gypsum 80,000 tons Gas 4,100 tons Water 75,000 m3 ASN®SV®RKET, ANNUAL RESOURCE CONSUMPTION Electricity 14,000,000 kWh Water 400,000 m3 (treated) 100,000 m3 (raw) NOVO NORDISK, ANNUAL RESOURCE CONSUMPTION 700,000 m3 (reused coolingwater from Statoil) Water 1,400,000 m3 (treated) 500,000 m3 (reused wastewater from Statoil) 300,000 m3 (raw) Coal 1,600,000 tons Steam 215,000 tons Oil 25,000 tons Electricity 140,000,000 kWh Gas 5,000 tons (flare gas from Statoil) NOVO NORDISK, ANNUAL EMISSIONS ASN®SV®RKET, ANNUAL EMISSIONS Waste water 900,000 m3

CO2 4,300,000 tons COD 4,700 tons

SO2 17,000 tons Nitrogen 310 tons

NOX 14,000 tons Phosphorus 40 tons STATOIL REFINERY, ANNUAL RESOURCE CONSUMPTION Water 1,300,000 m3 (raw) ACHIEVED ANNUAL RESULTS 50,000 m3 (treated) Reduction of resource consumption Steam 140,000 tons (from Asnæsværket) Oil 19,000 tons 180,000 tons (own waste heat) Coal 30,000 tons Gas 80,000 tons Water 1,200,000 m3 Oil 8,000 tons Electricity 75,000,000 kWh Reduction in emissions CO2 130,000 tons STATOIL REFINERY, ANNUAL EMISSIONS SO2 25,000 tons SO2 1,000 tons

NOX 200 tons Re-use of waste products Waste water 500,000 m3 Fly ash 135,000 tons Oil 1.80 tons Sulphur 2,800 tons Phenol 0.02 tons Gypsum 80,000 tons Oily waste 300 tons* Nitrogen from biosludge 800 tons *Being biologically degraded in own sludge farming facilities Phosphorus from biosludge 400 tons

30 ¥ Introduction November 1995 Appendix B: “Selected Definitions of Industrial ecology can be best defined as the totality or the pattern of relationships between various indus- Industrial Ecology” trial activities, their products, and the environment. Traditional ecological activities have focused on two The idea of an industrial ecology is based upon a time aspects of interactions between the industrial straightforward analogy with natural ecological systems. activities and the environment — the past and the In nature an ecological system operates through a web present. Industrial ecology, a systems view of the of connections in which organisms live and consume environment, pertains to the future. each other and each other’s waste. The system has — C. Kumar N. Patel, “Industrial Ecology,” evolved so that the characteristic of communities of Proceedings of the National Academy of living organisms seems to be that nothing that contains Sciences, USA 89 (February 1992). available energy or useful material will be lost. There will evolve some organism that will manage to make its Industrial Ecology is the study of how we humans living by dealing with any waste product that provides can continue rearranging Earth, but in such a way available energy or usable material. Ecologists talk of as to protect our own health, the health of natural a food web: an interconnection of uses of both organ- ecosystems, and the health of future generations of isms and their wastes. In the industrial context we plants and animals and humans. It encompasses may think of this as being use of products and waste manufacturing, agriculture, energy production, and products. The system structure of a natural ecology transportation — nearly all of those things we do to and the structure of an industrial system, or an eco- provide food and make life easier and more pleasant nomic system, are extremely similar. than it would be without them. — Robert A. Frosch, “Industrial Ecology: A — Bette Hileman, “Industrial Ecology Route to Slow Philosophical Introduction,” Proceedings of the Global Change Proposed,” Chemical and Engineer- National Academy of Sciences, USA 89 (February ing News (Aug. 24 ,1992): 7. 1992): 800–803. Industrial ecology involves designing industrial Somewhat teleologically, “industrial ecology” may be infrastructures as if they were a series of interlocking defined as the means by which a state of sustainable manmade ecosystems interfacing with the natural development is approached and maintained. It consists global ecosystem. Industrial ecology takes the pattern of a systems view of human economic activity and its of the natural environment as a model for solving interrelationship with fundamental biological, chemical, environmental problems, creating a new paradigm and physical systems with the goal of establishing and for the industrial system in the process. . . . The aim maintaining the human species at levels that can be of industrial ecology is to interpret and adapt an sustained indefinitely, given continued economic, understanding of the natural system and apply it to cultural, and technological evolution. the design of the manmade system, in order to — Braden Allenby, “Achieving Sustainable Develop- achieve a pattern of industrialization that is not only ment Through Industrial Ecology,” International more efficient, but that is intrinsically adjusted to the Environmental Affairs 4, no.1 (1992). tolerance and characteristics of the natural system. The emphasis is on forms of technology that work Industrial Ecology is a new approach to the industrial with natural systems, not against them. design of products and processes and the implementa- — Hardin B. C. Tibbs, “Industrial Ecology: An tion of sustainable manufacturing strategies. It is a Environmental Agenda for Industry,” Whole Earth concept in which an industrial system is viewed not in Review 77 (December 1992). isolation from its surrounding systems but in concert with them. Industrial ecology seeks to optimize the The heart of industrial ecology is a simple recognition total materials cycle from virgin material to finished that manufacturing and service systems are in fact material to component, to product, to waste products, natural systems, intimately connected to their local and and to ultimate disposal. . . . Characteristics are: regional ecosystems and the global biosphere. . . the (1) proactive not reactive, (2) designed in not added on, ultimate goal . . . is bringing the industrial system as (3) flexible not rigid, and (4) encompassing not insular. close as possible to being a closed-loop system, with — L.W. Jelinski, T. E. Graedel, R. A. Laudise, D. W. near complete recycling of all materials. McCall, and C. Kumar N. Patel, “Industrial Ecology: — Ernest Lowe. “Industrial Ecology — An Orga- Concepts and Approaches,” Proceedings of National nizing Framework for Environmental Management.” Academy of Sciences, USA 89 (February 1992). TQEM (Autumn 1993).

Introduction ¥ 31 November 1995 Industrial ecology is the means by which humanity can Industrial ecology provides for the first time a large- deliberately and rationally approach and maintain a scale, integrated management tool that designs desirable carrying capacity, given continued economic, industrial infrastructures “as if they were a series of cultural, and technological evolution. The concept interlocking, artificial ecosystems interfacing with the requires that an industrial system be viewed not in natural global ecosystem.” For the first time, industry isolation from its surrounding systems, but in concert is going beyond life-cycle analysis methodology and with them. It is a systems view in which one seeks to applying the concept of an ecosystem to the whole of optimize the total materials cycle from virgin material, an industrial operation, linking the “metabolism” of one to finished material, to component, to product, to waste company with that of another. product, and to ultimate disposal. Factors to be opti- — Paul Hawken, The Ecology of Commerce mized include resources, energy, and capital. (New York: HarperBusiness, 1993). — Braden Allenby and Thomas E. Graedel, Industrial Ecology (New York: Prentice Hall, 1993; pre-publication edition).

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The mission of the NPPC is to promote sustainable development The NPPC provides educational materials through the World by educating students, faculty, and professionals about pollution Wide Web at this URL: http://www.umich.edu/~nppcpub/ prevention; create educational materials; provide tools and Please contact us if you have comments about our online strategies for addressing relevant environmental problems; and resources or suggestions for publicizing our educational establish a national network of pollution prevention educators. materials through the Internet. 32 ¥ Introduction November 1995