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An assessment of attitudes toward gender issues among physical education sport and leisure undergraduates at the Ohio State U niversity
Moore, Sandra Lee, Ph.D.
The Ohio State University, 1992
Copyright ©1992 by Moore, Sandra Lee. All rights reserved.
UMI 300 N. Zeeb Rd. Ann Arbor, MI 48106 AN ASSESSMENT OF ATTITUDES TOWARD
GENDER ISSUES AMONG PHYSICAL EDUCATION
SPORT AND LEISURE UNDERGRADUATES
AT THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY
DISSERTATION
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate
School of the Ohio State University
By
Sandra L. Moore, B.S.,M.S
*****
The Ohio State University
1992
Dissertation Committee: Approved by:
Dr. Barbara Nelson
Dr. Pamela S. Highlen 111 Advisor Dr. Nancy S. Wardwell School of Health, Physical Education and Recreation Copyright by Sandra L. Moore 1992 DEDICATION
To my mother whose courage continues to inspire me.
ii VITA
December 14, 1948...... Born - Lawrence, Massachusetts
1970 ...... B.S., University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH
1970-1974...... Physical Education instructor Exeter Junior High School, Exeter, New Hampshire
1974-197 5 ...... Graduate assistant, the Pennsylvania State College, University Park, Pennsylvania
1975-197 9 ...... Physical Education instructor Exeter Junior High School, Exeter, New Hampshire
1979-1983...... Assistant professor of Physical Education, Head Field Hockey Coach Washington State University, Pullman, Washington
1983-1988...... Assistant athletic director, Head Field Hockey/Lacrosse Coach at Kenyon College, Gambier, Ohio
1988 ...... Graduate assistant, Sport and Leisure Studies, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
1988-1989...... Assistant athletic director Head Field Hockey/Lacrosse Coach at Kenyon College, Gambier, Ohio
iii 1989-199 0 ...... Acting Director of Physical Education and Athletics, Head Field Hockey/Lacrosse Coach at Kenyon College Gambier, Ohio
1990-199 2 ...... Assistant athletic director Head Field Hockey/Lacrosse Coach at Kenyon College, Gambier, Ohio
FIELDS OF STUDY
Major field: Health, Physical Education, and Recreation TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION...... ii
VITA ...... iii
TABLE OF C O N T E N T S ...... v
LIST OF T A B L E S ...... vii
CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION ...... 1
Statement of the Problem ...... 9 H y p o t h e s e s ...... 10 Significance of the S t u d y ...... 10 Definition of T e r m s ...... 14
II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ...... 15
Measurement of Attitudes Toward Women's Issues ...... 15 Summary of Measurement of Attitudes Toward Women's Issues ...... 28 Personal-social Characteristics of Physical Educators, Athletes and Coaches ...... 29 Summary of Personal-social Characteristics of Physical Educators, Athletesand Coaches .... 38 Hypotheses...... 39
III. METHODOLOGY...... 40
Subjects...... 41 Selection of Subjects ...... 42 P r o c e d u r e s ...... 43 Instrumentation ...... 45 Relaibility and Validity of the ATFI S c a l e ...... 48 Analysis of D a t a ...... 50
v IV. RESULTS ...... 51
Hypothesis One...... 54 Hypothesis Two...... 55 Reliability D a t a ...... 59 Athletic subscale ...... 60 Hypothesis Three...... 60 Hypothesis F o u r ...... 60 Additional Findings ...... 67
V. DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 75
D i s c u s s i o n ...... 75 Conclusions...... 82 Limitations...... 87 Recommendations ...... 87
LIST OF RE F E R E N C E S ...... 89
APPENDICES ...... 107
A. Consent form HS-027 ...... 107
B. Information sheet ...... 109
C. Demographic information form...... Ill
D. Attitudes toward feminist issues scale. . 113
E. Athletic subscale ...... 123
F. Human subjects review ...... 126
G. Frequencies and percentages on items on the athletic subscale .... 128
vi LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE
1. Summary of subscale scores on ATFIA by group . . 52
2. Summary of subscale scores on ATFIA by gender. . 53
3. Summary of analysis of variance for the total ATFI S c o r e ...... 54
4. Summary of univariate F tests of gender by group interaction effects from MANOVA .... 56
5. Summary of univariate F tests of group effects from the MANOVA...... 57
6. Summary of univariate F tests of gender effects from the MANOVA...... 58
7. Results of univariate tests of gender effects on items on athletic subscale...... 62
8. Results of t-tests on gender differences of response to item 124...... 63
9. Results of t-tests on gender differences of response to item 129...... 64
10. Results of t-tests on gender differences of response to item 133...... 65
11. Summary of subscale scores on ATFI by study and g e n d e r ...... 69
12. Results of t-tests comparing ATFI subscale scores from Brodsky et al. (1976) and Elmore et al. (1979) 70
13. Results of t-tests comparing ATFI subscale scores from Brodsky et al. (1976) and Moore (1992) 71
vii Results of t-tests comparing ATFI subscale scores from Elmore et al. (1979) and Moore (1992) ...... 72
Frequencies and percentages of response on question 121 ...... 129
16 Frequencies and percentages of response on question 122 ...... 130
17 Frequencies and percentages of response on question 123 ...... 131
18 Frequencies and percentages of response on question 124 ...... 132
19 Frequencies and percentages of response on question 125 ...... 133
20 Frequencies and percentage of response on question 126 ...... 134
21 Frequencies and percentages of response on question 127 ...... 135
22 Frequencies and percentages of response on question 128 ...... 136
23 Frequencies and percentages of response on question 129 ...... 137
24 Frequencies and percentages of response on question 130 ...... 138
25, Frequencies and percentages of response on question 131 ...... 139
26. Frequencies and percentages of response on question 132 ...... 140
27 . Frequencies and percentages of response on question 1 3 3 ...... 141
viii
viii CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A second wave of feminism occurred in the United
States in the 1960's and 1970's. Nearly fifty years after the Nineteenth Amendment guaranteeing women the right to vote became part of the constitution, women again began to challenge their status in society. At the urging of
Eleanor Roosevelt, President Kennedy established The
Commission on the Status of Women in 1961. The report of the Commission documented the extent to which women were still denied many rights and responsibilities (Freeman,
1969), and a consciousness that women were still second class citizens began to grow.
With increased prosperity, education, and freedom from unwanted pregnancies, women increasingly moved out of the home and into the work world in greater numbers.
Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act was passed, and the
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), which was established to handle complaints of race discrimination, began to field a flood of sex discrimination charges.
1 2
A catalyst to the second wave of feminism was the
establishment of The National Organization of Women (NOW)
in 1966. NOW was founded on the premise of seeking full
equality for women in equal partnership with men. The
2,500 members of NOW began to focus their energies on
eliminating prejudice and discrimination against women using litigation and political pressure.
An outgrowth of this new feminism was an increased
awareness of women's issues and the establishment of women's studies programs at many institutions across the country. In a 1976 study commissioned by the National
Advisory Council on Women’s Educational Programs, Howe documented the seven-year growth of women's studies programs at 15 institutions. Figures from two major universities were used to illustrate this trend. At San
Francisco University in 1970, 160 students were enrolled in four women's studies courses; by 1976 the number had grown to over 2000 students in 68 courses (Howe, 1977).
A similar trend was noted at the University of
Washington where in 1971, 222 students were enrolled in nine courses; this number increased to more than 2500 in
60 courses by 1976 (Howe, 1977). Bazin (1984)) reported that there were approximately 450 women's studies programs, 60 faculty and curriculum development projects, and 40 research centers which focused on women in the
United States. 3
While the growth was significant and indicative of interest in women's issues, Howe's (1977) work also pointed out that many students were not being reached by these programs. Her figures revealed that the percentage of undergraduates enrolled in women's studies courses varied from less than 6% to slightly more than 18%. Howe suggested reaching more undergraduates through the development of more widely applicable curriculum materials targeted to the entire student population. Bazin (1984), wrote that while women's studies seemed to be global in perspective, little war moving into pre-k through 12 education.
While there were increases in women's studies courses, lack of awareness among undergraduate students in regard to women's issues was noted. At a session of the first National Women's Studies Convention in June of 1979, a graduate of a women's studies program observed that women students who entered the university generally had no consciousness about the women's movement and took equality for granted (Conabie, 1979). Roberts (1984), in her work with undergraduates at Syracuse University, discovered that many felt that sex discrimination was a thing of the past. She found that students lacked an understanding of feminist issues.
Perhaps one of the most drastic changes resulting from the second wave of feminism occurred in the areas of 4 physical education and athletics. In 1971, the
Association for Intercollegiate Athletics (AIAW) was founded. On June 23, 1972 Title IX of the Education
Amendments of 1972 was enacted. On May 27, 1975 President
Gerald Ford signed the authorization of Title IX regulations, and on July 21, 1975 athletic regulations for
Title IX were enacted. The regulations stated that:
No person shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded
from participation in, be denied the benefits of,
be treated differently from another person or
otherwise be discriminated against in any
interscholastic, intercollegiate, club or intramural
athletics offered by a recipient of federal funds
and no recipient shall provide any such athletics
separately on such basis (United States Commission on
Civil Rights, 1980, p. 7).
The implementation of this legislation in combination with the growth of the AIAW created a major explosion in the participation of girls/women in sport.
This trend was well documented by Acosta and
Carpenter (1985, 1988) in an eleven year (1977-1988) longitudinal study of women in sport. During the
1970's girls' participation in interscholastic sport increased 200%. In the period from 1971-1978 approximately 300,000 girls participated, and by 1978-1979 that figure had grown to over 2.1 million. 5
The first participation figures listed for AIAW
member schools indicated that there were 42,000 women
competing in intercollegiate athletics in 1973-1974. By
1981, that figure had risen to an estimated 125,000
college women athletes (Burke, 1985). In intercollegiate
sport in 1977, the number of sports offered women was 5.61 per school. In 1980 the number grew to 6.48, in 1986 to
7.15, and in 1988 to 7.31. Basketball continued to be the most common sport, but the fastest growing were soccer and cross country. Other sports which showed increases were softball, track, swimming, crew, golf, and lacrosse
(Acosta & Carpenter, 1988). A corresponding growth in the allocation of budgets was also noted (Geadelmann, 1985).
With such a blossoming of women's participation in sport, it is easy to understand why today there is an impression that all is well with women in sport. However, there have been disturbing changes in women's athletics that appear to be masked by the growth. During the expansion in participation there occurred a decrease in the number of junior varsity teams offered, and a reduction in coaching and leadership opportunities for women.
The decrease in the percentage and number of women in coaching is alarming. Prior to Title IX, most women's teams were coached by women. Lehr (1980) found that in
1973, 92% of women's teams were coached by women. A study 6
by Holmen and Parkhouse indicated that between 197 4 and
1979, the total number of male coaches (heads and
assistants) in AIAW institutions increased to 182% while
the number of female coaches decreased 20%. Women have
made no similar entrance into the coaching ranks of men's
programs. Acosta and Carpenter (1988) reported that by
1977 women held only 58.2% of coaching jobs within women’s
intercollegiate programs, and by 1988 the percentage had dropped to 48.3%
A similar trend occurred in the administration of women's athletics. In the early 1970's, women administrators were in charge of 96% of women's programs.
That figure dropped to 36% by 1979 (Geadelmann, 1985).
According to Acosta and Carpenter (1988), only 16% of women's programs were headed by a female administrator, and women held only 29% of all administrative jobs in women's programs. No women at all were involved in the administration of 32% of women's athletic programs.
The reduction of women in leadership positions was a direct result of the merger of men's and women's athletic departments into single administrative units with the male athletic director becoming the head (Lopiano, 1980). This merger ultimately caused the demise of the AIAW. With men put in charge of women's programs the AIAW voting representives increasingly became males who were also 7
aligned with the National Collegiate Athletic Association
(NCAA) which governed the men's programs.
In January 1980, a vote taken at the NCAA convention
established five national championships for women in
Division II and III to commence in 1981-82. In 1981, the
NCAA voted to sponsor Division I championships for women bringing the total number of championships to 19. The
result of these two initiatives was the end of autonomous intercollegiate athletics for women (Greenberg, 1984) .
According to Christine Grant, the NCAA had "not proposed merger or consolidation. It has unilaterally proposed to
'incorporate' women's athletics into a structure and program designed and developed for male athletes" (as quoted in Greenberg, 1984, p.33). The AIAW did not have the financial resources to coexist with the NCAA, and after losing a lawsuit to the NCAA became defunct.
Ironically, while the NCAA was successfully taking over the control of women's athletics it was embroiled in a fight in the courts trying to minimize the effects of
Title IX legislation. The NCAA had filed suit in 1976 against the federal government, claiming that intercollegiate athletics should be excluded since those programs were not direct recipients of federal funds.
This battle appeared to have been won when on February 28,
1984 the U.S. Supreme Court issued the Grove City College 8
decision, which concluded that only a specific program
receiving federal funds must comply with Title IX.
However, on March 22, 1988 Congress passed the Civil
Rights Restoration Act which reaffirmed Title IX
protections against sex discrimination in university
athletic programs. The ramifications of this legislation have yet to be observed as the regulation has not been
challenged.
The major effects of the changes in women's
intercollegiate athletics since the implementation of
Title IX have been the reduction of role models for women, the corresponding decrease in the authority and direction of women in the administration of their own programs, and the obscuring of problems unique to women. The overall effect of lack of same sex role models has been well documented in the social science literature. Duquin
(1977) concluded that the lack of female role models might
"contribute to young girls restricting their vision of possible future occupations, activities (especially sport activities), and areas of interest in which to move"
(p. 292).
The ramifications of the changes which have occurred in women's athletics need to be brought to the attention of both young men and young women who will become future teachers, coaches, and leisure specialists. The improvements made as a result of Title IX in increasing 9
the number of women participating in intercollegiate
athletics created an illusion of advancement while masking
the decline in leadership positions as well as governance
authority over women's athletics.
Women's issues in general need to be reexamined to ascertain the status of women in today's society. As Lear
(1968) wrote at the start of the second wave of feminism, perhaps "American women have traded their rights for their comfort and are now too comfortable to care" (p.25).
Perhaps it is time for a renewed and invigorated third wave of feminism.
Statement of the Problem
There were many changes in women's athletics after the implementation of Title IX in 1972. There were also changes brought about by the second wave of feminism in the United States. Progress to a certain extent created an illusion that women's issues had been addressed and successfully solved.
The purpose of this study was to assess the attitudes toward gender issues among physical education, sport, and leisure studies undergraduate majors at The Ohio State
University. This study proposed an investigation of the similarities and/or differences between physical education, sport and leisure studies majors, and a comparison group of introductory psychology students as 10 determined by their score on the Attitudes Toward Feminist
Issues Scale (ATFI) (Elmore, Brodsky, and Naffziger,
1975) . An additional subscale was developed which provided a comparison on numerous athletic issues.
Hypotheses
1. Physical education, sport and leisure studies majors
will score higher on the ATFI Scale than students in
the comparison group.
2. Women will score lower on the ATFI Scale than men.
3. Physical education, sport and leisure studies majors
will score lower on the athletic subscale than the
comparison group.
4. Women will score lower than men on the athletic
subscale.
Significance of the Study
Achieving sex equity is an ongoing and difficult process. In physical education, sport, and leisure, as in most educational programs, educators have to deal with differential role expectations and societal values that have historically existed for girls/women and boys/men.
Establishing equity in these programs requires countering sex-role stereotyping, debunking myths of women's inabilities, changing attitudes toward women's 11 participation, and changing attitudes toward women's issues in general.
Creating an awareness of women's issues and disseminating current knowledge on these issues can help change attitudes and improve the quality of education for men and women in physical education, sport, and leisure studies. Hoferek (1978) found a relationship between the degree of liberality in attitudes toward women in society and favorable attitudes toward the participation of women in numerous activities. This finding emphasizes the need for addressing teacher attitudes toward women in society within professional preparation curricula.
Project TEAM (Griffin and Dodds, 1981) at the
University of Massachusetts was a physical education teacher training program designed to provide fair and equitable treatment of students of both sexes and of all races. Students exposed to the program demonstrated significant increased awareness and knowledge of sexism and racism. Physical Educators for Educational Equity at
Eastern Kentucky University (Uhlir, 1981) was also a teacher training program developed to address the knowledge and attitudes of students about sex-role stereotyping. The results of this study indicated a change in both knowledge and attitude with the most improvement noted in the youngest age group (19-24) studied. These two projects indicate the need for 12 programs for college students that attempt to increase knowledge and affect change in attitudes.
To date, the emphasis of the research has been on stereotyping, sexism, and racism in the classroom. There is a need to extend this concept to include a much broader range of gender issues as they relate to physical education, sport and leisure, and to reach a wider group of specialists in these fields.
There has been very little attempt to identify the present level of knowledge of and attitudes toward issues of concern to women that exist in the present undergraduate population. Robert Frary and his associates at Virginia Polytechnic Institute (1985) did a review of
100 abstracts of articles dealing with sex discrimination and sex bias from 1979-1983 and found that the vast majority represented only the opinions of the authors.
None of the studies reported a survey of current sex- equity opinions. They subsequently designed an exploratory survey of 15 statements on a few selected issues. The survey was administered to 200 female and 200 male college-affiliated (non-student) members of the
American Educational Research Association (AERA) at the
1983 AERA annual meeting. The results indicated a substantial difference of opinion on sex equity issues between males and females. They characterized the discrepancies of men's and women's opinions on the issues 13 as differences in the perception of reality. They concluded by stating: "given the apparently pervasive and severe differences of opinion revealed by our research, we strongly urge that the nature of reality with respect to sex-equity concerns be studied" (Frary et al, 1985, p.17).
What is the nature of reality of the present population of undergraduates? These students were for the most part young children when women's issues were addressed in the early 1970's. It is not known to what extent these students have been exposed to issues of women's equity or to what extent they believe that equity problems have been solved. As these students are the future transmitters of society's values, it is crucial that their attitudes be assessed if equity is to be universally achieved. For students in teacher/coach preparation programs in physical education and sport, the need to be exposed to women's issues and to be made aware of the impact they can have in facilitating change is essential. As future teachers of physical education and coaches of young athletes, they will be in a unique position to guide students and disseminate current information on gender issues. If educational equity is to be accomplished, it is vital that these young educators portray a positive image of women in society. Definition of Terms
1. Attitude: "a complex, but relatively stable
behavioral disposition reflecting both direction and
intensity of feeling toward a particular psychological
object, whether it be concrete or abstract " (Kenyon,
1968, p. 30).
2. Value: "one's concept of an ideal relationship (or
state of affairs) which he/she uses to assess the
'goodness' or 'badness', the 'rightness' or
'wrongness' of actual relationships which he/she
observes or contemplates" (Sage, 1974, pp. 208-209) .
3. Feminist: one who believes in political, economic
and social equality for women (Bain, 1991).
4. Conservatism: "refers to a set of values which give
high priority to: loyalty to tradition, respect and
obedience to established authority, normative
standards of conduct and strong religious commitment"
(Sage, 1974, p. 209).
5. Liberalism: "refers to a set of values which stress
social change, equality in political, social and
economic affairs" (Sage, 1974, p. 209). CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The review of literature will be presented within two
content areas: a) the measurement of attitudes toward
women's issues, and, b) personal-social characteristics of
physical educators, athletes, and coaches.
Measurement of Attitudes Toward Women's Issues
Although a lot of work has been done on attitudes
toward sex-role differentiation, very little has been done
to measure attitudes toward individual women's issues.
The earliest such attempt was made by Kirkpatrick (1936) who developed the Kirkpatrick Belief-Pattern Scale for
Measuring Attitudes Toward Feminism. Kirkpatrick
identified 40 issues representing a feminist pattern, and
then prepared 386 propositions, half of which were pro with respect to women's issues and half con. Many of the propositions were adapted from a list of resolutions from feminist organizations. Items were classified by 13
judges as feminist and antifeminist and then were assigned to four subcategories: economic, domestic, political-legal, and conduct and social status. Ten
15 16
subheadings were identified for each of the four
subcategories and a pro and con item was selected for each
resulting in an 80-item Belief-Pattern Scale. Score on
the scale (FA) was determined to be the algebraic sums of
the feminist and antifeminist propositions accepted (range
-40 to +40).
The Belief-Pattern Scale was administered to 533
students at the University of Minnesota, 312 women and 241
men. The women students had a mean of +16.8 while the men had a mean score of +6.1. To test the validity of the
instrument, groups from the National League of Women
Voters and the National Women's Party were selected to
represent the feminist side, while Lutheran ministers were
selected in contrast. The mean scores for selected members of the National Women’s Party, National League of
Women Voters and Lutheran pastors were +24.60, +21.55,
+.71 respectively. The investigator concluded that "the belief-pattern scale discriminates between groups in accordance with common-sense expectations and in general has validity as a research instrument" (Kirkpatrick, 1936, p. 437).
A number of instruments were developed in the early
1970's to measure attitudes toward women's issues. Spence and Helmreich (1972) developed the Attitudes Toward Women
Scale (AWS) based on the work of Kirpatrick (1936).
Spence and Helmreich developed their scale purposely 17
eliminating from Kirpatrick's work specific roles for
women that would not apply to men such as a women's right
to an abortion or access to contraceptive devices. Three
versions of the AWS were developed: a 55-item version, a
25-item version and a 15-item version. Six themes are
represented on the 55-item version: vocational,
educational, and intellectual roles; freedom and
independence; dating, courtship and etiquette; drinking,
swearing, and dirty jokes; sexual behavior; and marital
relations and obligations. The two shorter forms are
subsets of the items on the longer version and contain
items that pertain to the rights, roles, and privileges of women. All three versions are rated on a four-point scale
ranging from "agree strongly" to "disagree strongly".
The response to each item is coded from zero to three with
a low score representing a traditional attitude and a high score a more liberal, profeminist stance. The subject's score is the sum of the 55 items with a possible range of zero to 165.
The two shorter versions of the AWS correlated strongly with the 55-item version. Spence, Helmreich, and
Stapp (1973) in comparing the 55-item version with the 25- item version found the following correlations: .97 for college men, .97 for college women, .96 for mothers of college students, and .96 for fathers of college students. 18
Spence and Helmreich (1978) reported a correlation of .91 between the 55-item version and the 15-item version.
Spence and Helmreich (1972) administered the 55-item
Attitudes Toward Women Scale to approximately 800 men and
1100 women in the introductory psychology classes at the
University of Texas at Austin. The range of scores for the men was 37 to 155 with a mean score of 86.75. The range for the women was 35 to 161 with a mean score of
96.93. The means of the females were significantly
(p < .001) higher (more liberal) than the males.
Colker and Widom (1980) used the AWS in a study designed to investigate psychological masculinity and femininity, self-esteem, and attitudes toward women of a select group of women athletes. Levels of commitment and experience were used as variables to analyze the relationship to attitudes toward women. The subjects were
71 women athletes competing in crew, basketball, squash, and swimming at a major university in the Northeast. A representative sample of nonathletes from each of the four classes (freshmen through seniors) produced comparison scores from 94 women. Commitment measures were obtained by having the subjects rate their commitment to athletics on a scale of one to 10, and experience was reported on a background information sheet.
No significant difference was found between the female athletes and the comparison group of college women 19
on their scores on the AWS. Level of commitment was found
to be significantly related to attitudes toward women with
those with the higher commitment level scoring higher on
profeminist issues (t(45) = 2.77, p < .01). The only
difference in experience reported by the authors was that
novice and experienced rowers were found to differ
significantly in level of commitment (t(22) = 4.72, p < .001). Experienced rowers reported significantly higher levels of commitment (M = 8.5, SD = 1.0) than novice rowers (M= 6.2, SD = 1.3).
Caron, Carter, & Brightman (1985) administered the
AWS to a total of 365 male undergraduate students at a university in the northeastern United States. The subjects were 96 nonathletes; 106 individual sport athletes participating in fencing golf, riflery, swimming,
tennis and track; and 163 team sport athletes participating in football, basketball, hockey, lacrosse, and soccer. A one-way analysis of variance was used to test for differences between scores of the nonathletes, team sport athletes, and individual sport athletes on the
Attitudes Toward Women Scale with significant differences between the three noted (£2362 = 23.7, p < .0001). Team athletes (M = 149.9, SD = 11.9) were significantly less liberal in their views than were individual athletes
(M = 154.6, SD = 19.3), who were in turn more conservative than their nonathletic peers (M = 165.6, SD = 19.6) 20
Hoferek (1982) used the Attitudes Toward Women Scale
with a national sample of physical education teachers to
test the hypothesis:
Teachers with more liberal attitudes toward the place
of women in society will be more favorable toward the
participation of girls and women in four categories
of activity, will have a larger range of
performance expectations and will expect more
excellence in performance by girls and women
(Hoferek, 1982, p.86).
A sample of 485 male and female physical education
teachers were drawn from the mailing list of a national
physical education organization from three pools:
elementary, secondary, and college/university physical
education. Three mailings were conducted in the spring of
1977 with a resultant return of 457 valid responses.
Support for the hypothesis was found as teachers with
more liberal attitudes on the AWS held more favorable
attitudes toward the participation of girls in coed
classes. In addition, liberal teachers favored girls' participation, had higher expectations of performance, and
had a wider range of expectations for girl's performance
than more conservative peers. Correlations between AWS
scores and favorable attitudes toward the participation of females did not differ significantly for men and women respondents. 21
Hawley (1972) developed a 35-item scale of statements
based on what women's perceptions were as to what
significant men in their lives would consider ideal
feminine attitudes and behaviors. Responses were measured
on a six-point Likert scale from very strongly agree, to
very strongly disagree. A factor analysis resulted in the
identification of five subscales: women as partner, woman
as ingenue, woman as homemaker, woman as competitor, and
woman as knower.
Subjects in the study were 136 women students at San
Diego State College who represented three stratified
classifications: teachers-in-preparation who were
selected as representative of a traditional profession;
math-science majors as representative of a non-traditional profession? and counselors-in-preparation who were
selected because of their influential position working with young people in making career choices.
The investigator found that women's perceptions of men's views of the feminine ideal were related to the projected career choice indicating that women choose careers consistent with the views of femininity they perceived to be the views held by significant men in their lives. Math-science majors preparing for non-traditional careers believed that men made little distinction between male-female work roles and other related attitudes;
teachers preparing for more traditional careers thought 22
that men did make a distinction, while the counselors fell
in between. The researcher concluded that the women in
the less traditional group "thought that significant men
in their lives believed women could perform in business
and professional areas without jeopardizing their
marriages, families, or their femininity" (Hawley,
p. 311).
Kaplan and Goldman (1973) used a modified version of
Hawley's (1972) questionnaire with 49 male and 53 female
students enrolled in an introductory psychological
statistics course at the University of California-
Riverside. The investigators found that college students
perceived a difference between the stereotypical view of
the "average man" and "average woman" toward women in
society. The average man was believed to perceive women
in a more traditional role than the average woman. An
interesting finding was that female respondents perceived more dissimilarities between the average man and average woman than male respondents.
Anderson and Jacobson (1974) did a study which measured beliefs about equal rights held for men and women. They found that women demonstrated stronger beliefs about equality than men and older women had stronger beliefs than younger women. Family income of parents, religion, geographic area of hometown, marital status, and working status of the mother were found to 23
have no significant effect. In addition, two southern
chapters of the National Organization of Women were
included in the study and scored significantly higher on
the scale than other groups.
Dempewolff (1974) wrote:
Although the 'second wave' of the women's movement
has been flourishing for several years, academic
material concerning various aspects of this social
movement has been scarce. The studies concerning
attitudes toward feminism do not create a clear
picture of what characterizes individuals who support
or oppose the aims of the women's movement
(Dempewolff, 1974, p. 671).
With this felt need, Dempewolff designed a scale to
measure the unidimensional concept of attitude toward
feminism— Feminism II Scale (1972). The Feminism II Scale
consisted of 56 items: 28 items written to support
feminism then rephrased to oppose feminism. Each item was
scored on a four-point Likert Scale of agree very much,
agree a little, disagree a little, and disagree a lot.
The Feminism II scale differed from others in that it
focused on tenets of the women's movement.
Dempewolff (1974) conducted a study in an attempt to determine the characteristics of individuals who support the aims of the women's movement in contrast to those who oppose the movement. The author hypothesized that persons 24
supporting the women's movement (as measured by the
Feminism II Scale) would score higher on measures of
autonomy than those who did not support the movement.
Three measures of autonomy were employed:
1. Autonomy as a general sense of control over one's
destiny— a sense of efficacy as measured by
Karl's Modernism II Scale (1968).
2. Autonomy as viewed as independence from peer
pressure to conform to the 'proper' sex role as
measured by the Barron Independence of Judgement
Scale (1963) .
3. Autonomy as a sense of security which enables one
to view others as individuals rather than
stereotypes as measured by the Social Distance
Scale (Triandis & Triandis, 1960).
Subjects were 154 students selected from organizations on
the campus of the University of Cincinnati. The subjects were selected from groups with the expectation that they would score more extremely pro or con on the Feminisim II
scale than a random sample of college students.
The mean scores for supporters of feminism on Social
Distance, Independence of Judgement, and Modernism were
5.37 points lower, 4.32 points higher, and 3.82 higher
than nonsupporters, respectively. Based on the findings,
Dempewolff (1974) concluded the following for the three measures of autonomy: 1. For the Social Distance Scale, nonsupporters of
feminism demonstrated a need to maintain distance
from outgroups suggesting a sense of insecurity
regarding self worth.
2. On the Independence of Judgement Scale supporters
of feminism valued creative work, individualism,
independence, and resistance to group consenus.
Opposers of feminism valued conformity, symmetry,
and were more likely to go along with group
criticism.
3. Supporters of feminism had a more "modern"
outlook on life while opposers were more
"traditional".
These results support the contention that those with more liberal attitudes are more likely to support the women's movement than those with more conservative attitudes.
The most recent attempt to develop a scale to measure attitudes towards specific women's issues has been
Brodsky, Elmore, and Naffziger's (1976) Attitudes Toward
Feminist Issues Scale (ATFI Scale). The 120 items on the
ATFI are paraphrased statements from the 1970 national convention platform of the National Organization of Women.
The items measured nine issues which were designated the subsets: human reproduction; childcare; politics and 26
legislation; employment; overcoming of self-denigration;
marriage and family; consciousness raising in media;
religion; and education.
The items on the ATFI Scale were phrased in a manner
so that strong agreement on the scale represented a
liberal feminist attitude and lesser agreement reflected a
conservative feminist attitude. A five-category Likert
scale from strongly agree to strongly disagree defined the
response pattern. Subjects used in the development of the
instrument were 61 introductory women's studies students
(17 men, 41 women, and three unspecified), and 44
introductory psychology students (19 men and 25 women).
The ATFI was administered on the first day of class and at
the end of each course with no further instruction. The
following conclusions were drawn by Brodsky, Elmore and
Naffziger (1976) :
1. A global factor of feminism existed.
2. The test-retest reliability coefficients for the
subscores and total scores were higher than .70
except for childcare (.61) and education (.47)
suggesting needed revision of these two
subscales.
3. Women studies students demonstrated a more
liberal feminist view than introductory
psychology students both before and after on
subscales measuring politics and legislation, 27
employment, marriage and family, consciousness
raising in media, religion and on total score.
In addition, women studies students responded
with a more liberal feminist position after the
course than before the course on the same five
subscales and total score.
4. Women studies students had more liberal attitudes
on human reproduction, child care, overcoming of
self-denigration, and education than introductory
psychology students.
5. On the subscale concerning overcoming of self
denigration, women responded more liberally
than men. In addition, all students responded
with a more liberal attitude on postcourse
administration of the ATFI.
Britton and Elmore (1976) used the ATFI in
conjunction with a study on the effects of a leadership
and self-development workshop in changing attitudes toward
individual issues of concern for women. They found that
significant differences existed between preworkshop and postworkshop means for the total score and for all of the subscales except human reproduction. In all cases, subjects responded with a more liberal feminist attitude in the postworkshop administration of the ATFI.
Elmore and Vasu (1979), in a study investigating the effect of numerous variables on the statistics achievement 28
of graduate students, found that women responded with more
liberal viewpoints than men on all subscale scores and
total score on the ATFI. Similar findings were reported
by Elmore and Vasu (1980, 1986).
Nummary
Several authors have attempted to design instruments
to measure attitudes toward one or more feminist issues.
Beere (1990) after a review of the literature for her
handbook on gender issues stated that Spence and
Helmreich's (1972) Attitudes Toward Women Scale (AWS) was
the most commonly used measure of attitudes toward women.
The AWS has been used in approximately 270 published
studies and 52 ERIC documents. However, in putting
together the item pool, the investigators chose only those
items in which normative expectations would in principle
be the same for men and women (Spence & Helmreich, 1973) .
Dempewolff developed the Feminism II Scale in an
attempt to operationally define the construct attitudes
toward feminism. In addition, she used the Feminism II
scale to determine characteristics of individuals who
support and oppose the aims of the women's movement in
relation to the construct autonomy.
The recent work of Elmore (et al.) in developing the
Attitudes Toward Feminist Issues Scale has served to operationally define the concepts of liberal and 29
conservative views toward feminist issues. The ATFI has
been shown to be a reliable and valid instrument with
potential research value in measuring specific attitudes
towards women issues.
Personal-Social Characteristics of Physical Educators,
Athletes and Coaches
Dramatic changes occurred in American society at the
time of the second wave of feminism as traditional values
were challenged. Despite the rise in political and social
awareness, sensitivity towards women's issues, and the
increasing participation of women in sport, physical educators, athletes, and coaches remained more conservative than their peers.
Schaefer and Phillips (1970) in a study of secondary school students that compared athletes to nonathletes found that athletes conformed more to school norms and traditions than the nonparticipants. In addition, the athletes appeared to be intensely regulated by their own athletic subculture norms. Schaefer (1969) and Schaefer and Phillips (1970) in studies of juvenile delinquency found that athletes have lower rates of delinquency and more negative attitudes toward the use of marijuana.
Athletes also demonstrated greater support for strict control by the coaches and stringent school rules. 30
Schaefer (1971) concluded that school sports serve more of
a conservatizing influence than an innovative or
progressive influence.
Rehberg and Cohen (1976) designed a study to
empirically test the proposition that interscholastic
athletics exercise a conservative socializing influence on
athletes. The instrument they employed was a set of
political attitudinal items used by the research firm of
Daniel Yankelovich in a 1969 nationwide survey of American
youth for the CBS Special "Generations Apart". Subjects
in the study were 937 male students from eight public and
parochial, urban and suburban schools in southern New
York. Students represented freshman year (1968),
sophomore year (1968) , and senior year (1970) .
Four domains of political attitudinal variables were
selected for analysis: acceptance of authority; view of
American society; position on military draft; and definition of personal role in bringing about social change in school and society. Athletes were found to be more conservative in three of the four domains: more accepting of authority, more traditional in their view of
American society, and more likely to regard the military draft as a legal obligation rather than as a matter of personal moral conscience. The investigators concluded that there is empirical evidence that sport is "a social device for steering young people--participants and 31
spectators alike— into the mainstream of American life"
(Cohen & Rheberg, 1976, p. 210).
Roscoe (1965) developed the Polyphasic Values
Inventory as an instrument to assess the value commitments
of college students. The inventory consisted of twenty
multiple choice items placing responses on a conservative
to liberal continuum. The items selected cover
philosophical, political, economic, educational, social,
personal-moral, and religious dimensions of value
differences. The Polyphasic Values Inventory was reported
to have discriminant validity, content validity and
reliability.
Several authors have used the Polyphasic Values
Inventory in studies of value orientations of college
students. In general, the findings indicated that while
student values differed institution to institution, and
although students held liberal tendencies on certain
issues, overall college students appeared to be moderate
in value orientation (Elliott, 1969; Ritter, 1968;
Teglovic, 1968; Thayer, 1968; and Zehv, 1968).
Snyder and Kivlin (1977) designed a questionnaire to measure orientations toward the female role in the family and employment outside of the home. The study assessed the responses of collegiate athletes and nonathletes on the traditonal vs modern viewpoint. The authors hypothesized that women who assume a liberated role in 32
sport would assume a similar stance in other areas of
life. This hypothesis, however, was not supported in
their study as female athletes were more traditional than nonathletes on eight of the items measured. Snyder and
Kivlin concluded that the nontraditional role of women in
athletics does not carry over to other aspects of life, and that the traditional/modern sex-role orientation is
situationally specific.
In a 1976 study reported in Playboy, a student survey was conducted at 20 randomly selected colleges and universities. A sample of 3,700 students representative of sex, age, class, family income, and GPA was surveyed.
The survey indicated that with respect to "social conventionality" athletes were more conformist than nonathletes. Athletes also reported less tolerance for the use of drugs and alcohol.
Despite the challenge to traditional values, older values have not been completely abandoned, and athletes have tended to remain conservative in viewpoint. The literature also shows that coaches, many of whom were former athletes, have held on to traditional values. In addition, coaches have been characterized as being authoritarian, dogmatic, and manipulative with more interest in power than humanistic approaches. Jack Scott, an outspoken critic of collegiate coaches wrote: 33
The typical... coach is a soulless, backslapping,
meticuously groomed team oriented efficiency expert—
Most coaches have as much concern for the welfare
of their athletes as a general has for the soldiers
he sends into battle...For most college coaches, the
athlete is significant only to the extent that he
can contribute to a team victory... For every
relaxed, understanding coach... there are one hundred
rigid, authoritarian coaches who have so much...
character armor that they rattle (Scott as quoted in
Sage, 1975, p. 409).
Scott believed that coaches held such strict conservative views that they were abnormal in orientation (Scott,
1971) .
One of the earliest studies of personality structures of coaches was done by Oglivie and Tutko (1966). They examined the personality profiles of 64 coaches in the major sports of football, basketball, baseball, and track.
Their findings indicated that the coaches as a group were highly success-driven, dominant, organized, conscientious, emotionally stable, sociable, and trusting. Coaches were also found to be inflexible, extremely conservative and had low interest in the dependency needs of others. The researchers concluded that coaches were inflexible in 34
their profession, disliked change and experimentation, and
were extremely conservative politically, socially, and
attitudinally.
Sage (1974) used the Polyphasic Values Inventory
(Roscoe, 1965) to assess the values held by college
coaches and then compared them to scores reported for
college students. Sage's sample consisted of 110 college
football, basketball, and track coaches randomly selected
from the National Collegiate Athletic Bureau Guides. The
investigator reported that the college coaches in the three sports were similar in value orientation. In addition, college coaches were significantly more conservative than college students. This finding is supported in other research (Cox, 1968; Norwalk-Polsky,
1968; Petrie, 1975; Spaulding & Turner, 1968; and White,
1967) .
Rokeach (1960) developed the theory of dogmatism as a means to measure the construct of authoritarianism.
Dogmatism was defined as the extent to which an individual has "an authoritarian outlook on life, an intolerance toward those with opposing beliefs, and a sufferance of those with similar beliefs" (Rokeach, 1960, p.4). Those who score high on the Rokeach Dogmatism Scale are more rigid in problem solving behavior, more concrete in thinking, narrower in their grasp of a particular subject, and tend to be intolerant of ambiguity. 35
Longmuir (1972) investigated the perceived and actual
dogmatism of high school coaches and athletes in the
sports of football and basketball. Using the short form
of the Rokeach Dogmatism Scale, Longmuir found that
coaches were not more dogmatic than others in a wide
variety of occupations. The investigator concluded that
the coach is not necessarily authoritarian because he does
not differ from others in the degree in which he is
dogmatic.
Kenyon (1965), assessed psychosocial and cultural
characteristics of physical education majors and nonmajors
at the University of Wisconsin using the Rokeach Dogmatic
Scale. He found that prospective teachers in physical
education were more dogmatic and rigid than other prospective teachers. However, he cautioned that although
there is a close relationship between physical education and athletics, one cannot assume that the findings on prospective physical education teachers, or physical education teachers in the public schools are generalizable to the collegiate coaching population.
Penman, Hastad, & Cords (1974) used the Rokeach
Dogmatism Scale to investigate the relationship between team success and authoritarianism. Using a selected sample of head high school basketball and football coaches, the investigators found support for their 36
hypothesis that the more successful coaches were more
authoritarian than the less successful coaches.
Christie and Geis (1970), using the writings of
Machiavelli (The Prince and The Discourses) as examples
of manipulatory tactics developed an instrument to
evaluate opportunism, guile and duplicity. The
Machiavellian (Mach) Scale is reliably related to
interpersonal behavior in that subjects who endorse guile,
the use of illegal power, opportunism, and duplicity in
interpersonal relations tend to engage more often and more readily in exploitive behaviors. The score on the Mach
Scale represents the degree to which a subject believes
that people can be manipulated. High-Machs are markedly
less likely to become emotionally involved; and they are cold, amoral, detached, and aggressive. In addition, high-Machs manipulate more, win more, are persuaded less and persuade others more.
Sage (1972) studied Machiavellianism among a national sample of collegiate coaches. The sample consisted of 150 college football coaches and 150 college basketball coaches selected from college coaching directories, a random sample of Colorado high school football and basketball coaches, and a comparison group of 1782 students in 14 different colleges. Sage found no significant differences in Machiavellianism between the high school/college coaches and male college students. In 37
addition, there was no significant difference among
coaches with a winning record (over 60%) and coaches with
a losing record (under 60%). The investigator found that
the study did not support the hypothesis that winning
coaches are higher in Machiavellianism, concluding that
this finding was "puzzling because one of the most
consistent findings of research on Machiavellianism is
that high-Machs win more— they mobilize their resources to
achieve task goals better than low-Machs" (Sage, 1974, p. 205).
Walsh and Canon (1977) compared the degree of
Machiavellianism in high school physical education coaches, high school non-physical education coaches, volunteer community coaches, and a control group of non coaching teachers. They found that the volunteer coaches were significantly lower in Machiavellianism than the non coaching teachers. All other intergroup comparisons were not significantly different.
In 1969, the Carnegie Commission on Higher Education sponsored a survey of over 60,000 full time college faculty members and physical education faculty (many who were or had been coaches). In a comparison of political orientation, physical education faculty were found to rank second among 30 academic fields in percentage of respondents who characterized themselves as strongly conservative, and second in percentage of respondents who 38
ranked themselves as moderately conservative (Snyder &
Spreitzer, 1978; Lipset & Ladd, 1970).
Summary
Despite dramatic changes in political and social
awareness, sensitivity toward women's issues, and
increased participation of women in sport, phj^ical
educators, athletes and coaches appear to have more
conservative orientations than their peers. Several
studies have shown that athletes tend to be conformist.
The athletic subculture of shared values, norms and beliefs stresses conformity to conventional norms and standards of behavior defined by traditional school and community authorities. Schools, therefore, tend to serve as a conservative socializing influence on athletes.
Investigators have employed several instruments such as the Polyphasic Values Inventory (Roscoe,1968), the
Rokeach Dogmatism Scale (Rokeach, 1960), and the
Machiavellian Scale to assess the personal-social characteristics of physical educators, athletes, and coaches. In general, physical educators, athletes and coaches tend to be more conservative than their peers. In addition, there is some evidence to support the belief that physical educators and coaches tend to be dogmatic or authoritarian in their approach to teaching and coaching. 39
Hypotheses
Given the support in the literature for the
conservative viewpoint of physical educators, athletes,
and coaches the purpose of this study was to assess the
attitudes toward gender issues of physical education,
sport and leisure studies undergraduates at The Ohio State
University. The hypotheses were:
i) Physical education, sport, and leisure studies
majors will score higher on the ATFI than
students in the comparison group.
ii) Women will score lower on the ATFI scale
than men.
iii) Physical education, sport and leisure studies
majors will score lower on the athletic subscale
than the comparison group.
iv) Women will score lower than men on the athletic
subscale. CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
The purpose of this study was to assess the attitudes
toward gender issues among physical education, sport, and
leisure studies undergraduate majors at The Ohio State
University. This study proposed an investigation of the
similarities and/or differences of physical education,
sport, and leisure majors, and a comparison group of
introductory psychology students as determined by their
scores on the Attitudes Toward Feminist Issues Scale
(ATFI) (Elmore, Brodsky, & Naffziger, 1975). Scores on an additional subscale of athletic issues were also examined.
A supplemental data sheet including demographic information concerning age, sex, major, athletic experience and year in school was used to investigate the nature of the sample.
In this chapter, information on the sample selection, procedures, and instruments used in this study are included. The chapter concludes with a description of the procedures used in the analysis of the data.
40 41
Subjects
The subjects of the study were the undergraduate
physical education, sport, and leisure majors enrolled at
The Ohio State University during the winter quarter of
1992. Since the investigator was interested in the
attitudes of those majors most likely to be involved in
future careers of teaching and coaching, the sample was
limited to majors in teacher preparation and recreation education classes.
Usable surveys were obtained from 50 men and 47 women. Of the men surveyed, 35 were enrolled in physical education classes and 15 were in recreation education classes while 32 women were in physical education and 15 in recreation education. All four classes (freshmen, sophomore, junior, and senior) were represented, but the majority of the questionnaires were filled out by juniors and seniors (70%).
A comparison group of 50 men and 50 women enrolled in introductory psychology classes was selected. The comparison group was comprised of students representing twenty different majors including: education, occupational therapy, nursing, biology, journalism, social work, zoology, animal science, pre-med, dentistry, english, russian, architecture, psychology, pharmacy, business, physical therapy, engineering, microbiology, and industrial design. Within the comparison group, 42
again all four classes were represented, but in this case
the majority of the surveys were obtained from freshmen
and sophomores (90%).
In terms of years of athletic experience, 64% of the women in the comparison group had participated in
athletics (M = 2.24) while 78% of the men in the
comparison group had athletic experience (M = 2.6).
In contrast, 87% of the women in the physical education/recreation group had participated in athletices
(M = 3.26) while 90% of the men had athletic experience
(M = 4.02) .
Selection of Subjects
A list of courses offered winter quarter 1992 in physical education, sport, and leisure studies was obtained from the Ohio State University Bulletin and Time
Schedule for Winter Quarter 1992. Six courses were identified as those in which a representative group of teacher preparation or recreation education majors would be enrolled.
Since the nature of the questionnaire was considered sensitive, in-class administration of the device was selected to insure a greater response rate and to provide identification of non-respondents. With questionnaires that are perceived as sensitive, in-class administration is recommended for obtaining more candid responses and 43
limiting cross-consultation error (Sudman & Bradburn,
1982). In-class administration of the survey required
that instructors of the courses selected willingly give up
an hour of their course. Therefore, the investigator
contacted each instructor in person to describe the
research and elicit support for permission to administer
the survey in their classroom. Five of the six
instructors agreed to participate, and a date was set for
the administration of the survey at the instructor's
convenience.
Permission to use Psychology 100 students was
obtained from the Department of Psychology. Students
enrolled in Psychology 100 classes for the winter quarter
1992 were given an option to sign up for and obtain credit
for participation in research projects. Several sessions were posted for students to sign up for an in-class
administration of the device to be consistent with the administration of the survey to physical education, sport,
and leisure majors.
Procedures
The research proposal was submitted for approval to the Ohio State University Human Subjects Review Board.
Due to the sensitive nature of some of the assessment questions the board assigned the study protocol number
91B0199 and suggested that the participants sign consent 44
form HS-027 {see Appendix A ) . Physical education, sport,
and leisure students received the consent form in their
packet of information. The psychology students were not
given consent forms as the sign up sheets were considered
as consent forms by the Psychology Department and were
kept on file after completion of the testing session.
The data were gathered from all subjects during the
winter quarter of 1992. The researcher attended each of
the classes selected in physical education, sport, and
leisure to administer the survey. Each student was given
a packet containing a consent form, an information sheet,
a demographic background sheet, the survey, and a
computerized scoring sheet.
The information sheet (see Appendix B) addressed the purpose of the study, assured the participants of
anonymity, and ensured confidentiality of responses.
Respondents were given an opportunity to ask questions which were fielded by the investigator.
Consent forms for those subjects willing to participate in the study were collected and filed separately to ensure anonymity. The demographic data sheet and the completed questionnaire were collected at the conclusion of the testing session. A total of 105 surveys were administered with eight being discarded because of missing data (response rate of 92%). A total 45
of 97 (50 men and 47 women) usable surveys were collected
from the physical education, sport and leisure group.
Eight sign up sessions of one hour with 20 slots
available were posted for Psychology 100 students. The
survey was administered in the same fashion as it had been
to the physical education, sport, and leisure students
except that no consent form was provided. Surveys were
checked for usability after each session and numbered by male and female respondent in the order in which they were
collected. A total of 111 surveys were administered with
11 of those discarded because of missing data (response
rate of 90%). The subject pool size was monitored by the sign up sheets resulting in 50 usable surveys for men and
50 women's questionnaires.
Instrumentation
The instruments to be used for the collection of data were as follows:
Demographic Information Form (see Appendix C)
The investigator developed a one page form to provide demographic information pertaining to age, sex, year in school, major, and athletic background. The information from the form was used to further describe the nature of the sample. 46
Attitudes Toward Feminist Issues Scale (ATFI) (see
Appendix D)
A review of literature was conducted to determine
what measurement instrument would be employed. Beere
(1990) after a review of literature for her handbook on
gender issues stated that Spence and Helmreich's (1972)
Attitudes Toward Women Scale (AWS) was the most commonly
used measure of attitudes toward women. The AWS has been
used in over 270 published studies and 52 ERIC documents.
However, in putting together the item pool, the
investigators chose only those items in which normative
expectations would in principle be the same for men and
women (Spence & Helmreich, 1973). Consequently some very
important issues such as women's rights to an abortion or
to have access to contraceptive devices were not included.
The most comprehensive scale measuring attitudes
toward specific issues involving women's rights was developed by Elmore, Brodsky, and Naffziger (1975). Their
Attitudes Toward Feminist Issues Scale (ATFI) was selected
for use in this study. The scale consists of 120 items which are paraphrased statements adopted from the resolutions of the National Organization for Women presented at the 1970 national convention. The items were written in a manner which reflect a positive feminist position. 47
The ATFI Scale asks subjects to respond to each item on a
five-point Likert scale of strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, and strongly disagree. Strong agreement
indicates a liberal feminist attitude while strong disagreement represents a conservative feminist attitude.
The score on the ATFI Scale provides an operational measurement of the constructs liberal and conservative
attitudes toward feminist issues.
The ATFI Scale measures attitudes towards issues in nine areas which form the subscales listed below:
a. Human reproduction
b. Child care
c . Politics and legislation
d. Employment
e . Overcoming self-denigration
f . Marriage and family
g. Consciousness-raising in media
h. Religion
i. Education
In 1975, the ATFI was administered to 61 introductory women's studies students, and 44 introductory psychology students. The difference between the means of both groups was significant (.05 level of significance) for all subscales and for the total score with women's studies students responding with a more liberal feminist position. 48
The independent variables of sex and course type
were compared for pre-course and post-course
administration of the ATFI. The results indicated that
women's studies students and women responded with a more
liberal feminist position than introductory psychology
students and men respectively. Intercorrelations among
the subscale scores and total score for the sample were
factor analyzed using an image analysis with a varimax rotation. The result indicated that the ATFI is a one
factor unidimensional scale. The researchers identified the dimension as a global factor of feminism.
Reliability and Validity of the ATFI Scale
A pre-test/post-test administration of the ATFI Scale administered to introductory women's studies students and introductory psychology students resulted in Pearson product moment correlation coefficients greater than .70 for total score and seven of the subscales. The exceptions were the subscales of Child Care (.61) and
Education (.47) suggesting the need for further revision of these two subscales (Brodsky, Elmore, & Naffinger,
1976) .
The ATFI Scale appears to differentiate between men and women, between women studies and introductory psychology students, and the before and after effects of a 49
women's studies class. The content validity of the scale
was established based on the item construction, and
contruct validity through high internal consistency of the
subscales (Elmore, Brodsky, & Naffinger, 1975).
Athletic Subscale (see Appendix E)
Since the investigator was also interested in
athletic issues an additional subscale was added to the
survey. After a review of literature on current issues in
athletics, 50 statements were developed to assess the
perceptions of today's undergraduates on the progress made
in athletics since the implementation of Title IX. The 50
statements were given to a panel of four experts (a sport
psychologist, an educator, a coach, and a statistician)
who were asked to assess the statements to determine
readability, comprehensiveness of the issues covered, and
content validity for the subscale.
Thirteen items were selected for inclusion. Issues
included in the subscale were increased opportunities for women participants, coaches, and administrators; equal
access to salaries, budgets, and facilities; and fair
coverage in the media for women's sports. The statements were worded to be consistent with the items on the ATFI.
A five-point Likert scale from strongly agree to strongly disagree defined the response pattern. 50
Analysis of Data
Participants in the study were asked to mark their responses on computerized test sheets. These test sheets were then surveyed for missing data, extraneous marks, and properly marked responses. The computer sheets were then electronically coded by the Human Services Department at the Ohio State University and transmitted to the VAX system at Kenyon College. The Statistical Package for the
Social Sciences (SPSS) was utilized to analyze the data.
Frequencies, ranges, means, and other descriptive data were calculated for all responses on the questionnaire.
Total scores and subscale scores were determined for each group. Discriminant statistics were used to test the hypotheses in Chapter I. CHAPTER IV
RESULTS
The purpose of this study was to gain an
understanding of the attitudes toward gender issues held
by undergraduate majors in physical education, sport, and
leisure studies. The Attitudes Toward Feminist Issues
Scale (ATFI) developed by Brodsky, Elmore, and Naffziger
(1976) was selected as a measurement instrument which was
expanded to include an additional subscale on athletic
issues (ATFIA). A five-point Likert scale from strongly
agree (1) to strongly disagree (5) defined the responses.
A sample of introductory psychology students was
selected as a comparison group. The ATFIA was administered to 97 physical education majors (50 men and
47 women) and 100 psychology students (50 men and 50 women). High standard deviations occurred on all of the subscales and on the total score suggesting a high degree of variability of response. The means and standard deviations for the sample by group are presented in Table
1. Table 2 is a summary of the means and standard deviations of the sample by gender.
51 5 2
Table 1
Summary of Subscale Scores on ATFIA by Group
Physical Education Psychology
Subscale (No. of items) N M SD N M SD
Reproduction (N=6) 97 12.577 3.878 99 12.919 4.247
Childcare (N=5) 97 9.124 3.029 99 10.253 3.265
Politics (N=16) 97 30.722 8.075 99 31.020 9.202
Employment (N=15) 97 34.454 8.123 99 35.626 7.650
Self denigration (N=8) 97 19.753 5.115 99 19.970 5.060
Family (N=17) 97 43.258 8.383 99 43.232 8.038
Media (N=12) 97 34.206 7.382 99 35.273 8.426
Religion (N=ll) 97 28.990 6.645 99 29.051 7.141
Education (N=4) 97 8.155 2.324 99 8.333 3.027
Discrimination (N=26) 97 47.227 13.387 99 50.121 16.115
Athletic (N=13) 97 28.423 10.046 99 29.788 9.686
Total 97 268.46 99 275.80
Note: A low numeric scale value indicated a liberal feminist position; a high numeric value indicated a conservative feminist position. 5 3
Table 2
Summary of Subscale Scores on ATFIA by Gender
Female Male
Subscale (No. items) N M SD N M SD
Reproduction (N=6) 97 11.887 3.415 100 13.600 4.443
Childcare (N=5) 97 8.753 2.829 100 10.600 3.260
Politics (N=16) 97 26.804 6.294 100 34.830 8.735
Employment (N=15) 97 31.722 6.667 100 38.220 7.664
Self denigration (N=8) 97 18.083 4.625 100 21.570 4.897
Family (N=17) 97 40.608 8.520 100 45.800 6.950
Media (N=12) 97 31.691 7.784 100 37.680 6.868
Religion (N=ll) 97 26.072 6.360 100 31.820 6.165
Education (N=4) 97 7.320 2.352 100 9.110 2.734
Discrimination (N=26) 97 44.361 12.930 100 52.970 15.384
Athletic (N=13) 97 23.608 7.584 100 34.430 8.814
Total 97 247.30 100 296.54
Note: A low numeric scale value indicated a liberal feminist position; a high numeric value indicated a conservative feminist
position. 54
Hypothesis One
Hypothesis one investigated whether or not there was a significant difference between the physical education group and the introductory psychology students. To investigate possible differences between groups, an ANOVA was performed on the total score to test for the main effects of gender, group and the interaction of gender and group. No significant difference was found for group or the interaction of group and gender. However, a significant difference was found for the main effect of gender (j> < .001). Table 3 summarizes the results of the analysis of variance on the total score.
Table 3
Summary of Analysis of Variance for the Total ATFI Score
Source of variation df MS F
Gender 1 119551.79 56.31* Group 1 3412.67 1.61 Gender x Group 1 3574.38 1.68
Within 192 2122.99 Total 195
* > E < .001. 55
To further investigate possible differences among groups, a MANOVA was performed to examine the effect on all of the subscales for a) gender; b) group; and c) the
interaction of the two variables. The results of the multivariate analysis of variance are reported in Tables
4, 5, and 6.
The multivariate F test for the interaction of gender and group was not significant (p < .50) nor were any of the univariate tests significant. The multivariate F test for group effect was likewise not significant (p < .26), but the univariate F value for the childcare subscale was significantly different by group (F (1, 192 = 7.31, p <
.01). The physical education group responded with a more liberal position (M = 9.12, SD = 3.03) than the psychology group (M = 10.25, SD = 3.27) on the issue of childcare.
Hypothesis Two
The second hypothesis of this study sought to determine if there were significant gender differences on the total score on the ATFI and on the 10 subscale scores.
An ANOVA performed on the total ATFI score produced a significant difference for the main effect of gender
(F (1, 192) = 56.31, p < .001) . 56
Table 4
Summary of Univariate F Tests of Gender by Group Interaction Effects from MANOVA
Variable df MS I
Reproduction 192 34.21 2.17
Childcare 192 15.82 1.75
Politics 192 48.82 .83
Employment 192 13.33 .26
Self denigration 192 14.10 .62
Family 192 146.79 2.43
Media 192 24.71 .46
Religion 192 83.56 2.15
Education 192 .26 .04
Sex discrimination 192 96.96 .48
Athletic 192 39.83 .59 57
Ta b l e 5
Summary of Univariate F Tests of Group Effects From the MAWOVA
Variable df MS F
Reproduction 192 6.64 .42
Childcare 192 66.06 7.32 *
Politics 192 10.07 .17
Employment 192 83.10 1.61
Self denigration 192 3.95 .17
Family 192 .20 .00
Media 192 68.59 1.27
Religion 192 1.36 .04
Education 192 2.31 .35
Sex discrimination 192 457.48 2.26
Athletic 192 125.20 1.85
* .001 < p < .01. 58
Table 6
Summary of Univariate F Tests of Gender Effects from the MANOVA
Variable df MSF
Reproduction 192 142.89 9.05*
Childcare 192 173.35 19.19**
Politics 192 3175.95 53.85**
Employment 192 2134.81 41.33**
Self-denigration 192 608.06 26.55**
Family 192 1325.80 21.95**
Media 192 1800.41 33.37**
Religion 192 1662.54 42.67**
Education 192 165.27 25.36**
Sex discrimination 192 3635.65 17.94**
Athletic 192 5859.68 86.59**
* .001 < p < .01.
** < p < .001. 59
The multivariate F test for gender effect was
significantly different (Pillais statistic = 8.94,
<.001). In addition, all of the univariates were significantly different with reproduction significant at p <.01 and all other subscales significant at p < .001.
On all subscales the women responded with a more liberal position than the men. For specific means refer to
Table 2.
Reliability Data
Inter-item reliability coefficients on the ATFI subscales, total score, and the athletic subscale were determined by calculating Cronbach's alpha. The coefficients for all of the subscales and total score indicated fairly high internal consistency (Ary, Jacobs, &
Razavieh, 1985) with a low of .71 and a high of .97.
Internal consistency coefficients were as follows: reproduction (.71); childcare (.76); politics (.89); employment (.84); self denigration (.85); family (.78); media (.90); religion (.87); education (.78); sex discrimination (.95); athletic (.93); and total ATFI score {.91). 60
Athletic Subscale
Since the investigator was interested in determining attitudes toward athletic issues as well as the issues on the ATFI, a separate analysis was conducted on the athletic subscale. The frequencies and percentages of response for the total group, by men and women are presented in Tables 15-27 (see Appendix G ) .
Hypothesis Three
Hypothesis three investigated whether or not there was a significant difference between the physical education group and the introductory psychology students on the athletic subscale. To investigate possible differences among groups, a MANOVA was conducted to examine the effects of group and the interaction of group and gender. No significant difference was found for group or the interaction of group and gender on the athletic subscale.
Hypothesis Four
The fourth hypothesis of the study sought to determine if there were significant gender differences on responses to the athletic subscale. A significant difference was noted between the responses of men and women on the athletic subscale (p < .001). 61 5 # Hotelling's T‘ test with gender as the independent variable was then conducted on each of the thirteen items within the athletic subscale. The multivariate F test for gender was significant (Pillais statistic = 8.561, p <
.001). There was a significant difference in response between men and women on all of the items on the scale according to the univariate F tests (p < .001). For each item, females showed more liberal responses than males.
The results are summarized in Table 7.
The athletic subscale was designed to measure response on three different areas of interest: increased opportunities for women participants, coaches, and administrators; fair coverage in the media for women's sports; and equal access to salaries, budgets, and facilities. Responses to individual items on the athletic subscale were significantly different with women responding with a more liberal position than men on all thirteen items. However, there was also a great deal of variation within each group. The item in each subgroup which received the strongest agreement was t-tested with the other items in that subgroup to determine if there was a significant difference to within-item response for the men and the women. The results are summarized in Tables
8- 1 0 . 6 2
Table 7
Results of Univariate Tests of Gender Effects on Items on Athletic Subscale
Variable df MS F
Passage of equity legislation 193 25.00 21.63*
Women's networks 193 20.99 28.24*
Pursue non-compliance 193 18.57 31.75*
Coaching/admin, opportunities 193 12.15 27.80*
Equity in administration 193 24.% 31.18*
Actively hire women 193 29.68 33.96*
Equal media ooverage 193 73.83 68.07*
Public service announcements 193 25.85 24.37*
Fair coverage 193 28.49 39.66*
Producers hire women athletes 193 22.53 26.88*
Equitable coaching salaries 193 79.03 83.04*
Equitable athletic budgets 193 94.20 83.80*
Equitable athletic facilities 193 52.59 68.58*
* < p < .001. 6 3
Table 8
Results of T-tests on Gender Differences of Response to Athletic Subscale Item 124
Item 124: Opportunities should be provided for wcmen to develop experiences in coaching and administration of sports (Wcmen: M = 1.64, SD = .92/Men: M = 2.11, SD = .72).
Variable N SD df t
WHEN
Passage of equity legislation 97 2.09 1.05 192 4.50**
Women's networks 97 1.90 .88 192 2.60*
Pursue non-compliance 97 1.87 .72 192 .00
Equity in administration 97 1.71 .85 192 .70
Actively hire women 97 2.02 .97 192 3.80**
MEN
Passage of equity legislation 100 2.79 1.10 198 6.80**
Women's networks 100 2.53 .86 198 4.20**
Pursue non-compliance 100 2.47 .81 198 3.60**
Equity in administration 100 2.40 .95 198 2.90*
Actively hire women 100 2.77 .95 198 6.60**
* .001< p < .01. ** < p < .001. 6 4
Table 9
Results of T-tests on Gender Differences of Response to Athletic Subscale Item 129
Item 129: Fair coverage of women in sport should be encouraged (Women: M = 1.75, SD = .79/Men: M = 2.47, SD = .96).
Variable N M SD df t
WCMEN 00
Equal media coverage 97 1.81 • 192 .43
Public service announcements 97 2.27 1.01 192 3.71**
Producers hire women athletes 97 2.03 .79 192 2.00*
MEN
Equal media coverage 100 3.01 1.23 198 3.86**
Public service announcements 100 2.96 1.08 198 3.50**
Producers hire women athletes 100 2.68 .91 198 1.50**
* .01< p < .05. ** < p < .001. 6 5
Table 10
Results of T-tests on Gender Differences of Response to Athletic Subscale Item 133
Item 133: Facilities for men's and women's teams should be equitable (Women: M = 1.42, SD = .59/Men: M = 2.46, SD = 1.08).
Variable N M SD df t
WCMEN
Equitable coaching salaries 97 1.55 .74 192 1.30
Equitable athletic budgets 97 1.59 .82 192 1.70
MEW
Equitable coaching salaries 100 2.80 1.18 198 2.43*
Equitable athletic budgets 100 2.98 1.25 198 3.06**
* .01< p < .05. ** .001 < p < .01. 66
There was a significant difference in response between men and women on all items on the athletic subscale (p < .001) with women displaying a more liberal position than men on all thirteen items. In addition, an inter-item analysis revealed significantly different within-group response for both men and women on subgroups within the athletic subscale.
There was agreement between men (80%) and women (94%) that opportunities should be provided for women to develop experience in coaching and administration of sport.
However, both men and women displayed significantly different responses to the other items in the subgroup measuring increased opportunites for women in sport.
The within-group response for women was significantly different (indicating less agreement) for the items: need for passage of legislation for equity (p < .001); establishment of women's networks (p < .01); and the active hiring of women (p < .001). The within-group response for men was significantly different (indicating less agreement) on all five of the items in the subgroup: need for passage of legislation for equity (p < .001); establishment of women's networks (p < .001); EEOC involvement in non-compliance (p < .001); inclusion of women at all levels of athletic administration (p < .01); and the active hiring of women (p < .001). 67
On the subgroup concerning media coverage, 57% of the men and 90% of the women agreed that fair coverage of women in sport should be encouraged. Women had
significantly less agreement on the items: women in sport commercials aired as public service announcements
(p < .001); and the hiring of female athletes by producers
(p < .05). The men showed significantly less agreement on the items: equal media coverage (p < .001); and women in sport commercials aired as public service announcements
(p < .001) .
Women (94%) were in agreement that facilities for men’s and women's teams should be equitable and showed no significant difference in response to equitable budgets and coaching salaries. On the other hand, 80% of the men agreed that facilities should be equitable but significantly disagreed that budgets should be equitable
(p < .05) or that coaching salaries should be equitable
(p < .01).
Additional Findings
The ATFI was developed by Brodsky, Elmore, and
Naffziger in 1976. They surveyed 61 introductory women's studies students and 44 introductory psychology students.
The means for 66 women and 36 men were compared and a significant difference (p <.05) was found between men and women on total score and on all of the subscales except 68 childcare. In all cases where statistical difference was noted, women responded with a more liberal viewpoint than men.
Elmore and Vasu (1979) administered the ATFI to 188 inferential statistics students. The means of 98 men and
83 women were compared and a significant difference
(p < .05) was found between men and women on all of the subscales except human reproduction. Women took a more liberal stance than men on the issues.
In this study (Moore, 1992), the ATFI was administered to 100 introductory psychology students and
97 physical education, sport, and leisure majors. A comparison of the means of 100 men and 97 women showed significant difference (p < .001) on the total score and on all subscales. Again, in all cases, the women responded with a more liberal position than the men.
A comparison of the means for these three studies provides a picture of change over time. The means and standard deviations for each of the three studies are reported in Table 11. The results of the Brodsky et al.
(1976) study and the Elmore et al. (1979) study were compared using a t-test for statistical difference. The results are summarized in Table 12. Again, using a t-test for statistical difference the Moore (1992) results were compared to both of these studies. The results are reported in Tables 13 and 14. 6 9
Table 11
Svnnarv of Subscale Scores on ATFI by Study and Gender
Brodsky et al (1976) Elmore et al (1979) Moore (1992)
Subscale (No. Items) N M SD N M SD N M SD
MEN
Reproduction (N=6) 36 10.69 4.09 98 12.57 4.81 100 13.60 4.44 Childcare (N=5) 36 11.36 3.78 98 11.51 4.66 100 10.60 3.26 Politics (N=16) 36 36.00 10.50 98 33.29 10.05 100 34.83 8.74 Employment (N=15) 36 35.44 8.33 98 36.24 8.98 100 38.22 7.66 Self-denigration (N=8) 36 19.92 6.44 98 19.58 5.38 100 21.57 4.90 Family (N=17) 36 46.61 9.36 98 45.27 12.03 100 45.80 6.95 Media (N=12) 36 32.36 9.24 98 34.44 8.85 100 37.68 6.89 Religion (N=ll) 36 28.44 7.69 98 28.40 9.85 100 31.82 6.17 Education (N=30) 36 52.06 19.10 98 57.80 18.85 100 53.08 18.11
Total 36 272.89 68.20 100 2%. 54
WOMEN
Reproduction (N=6) 66 9.17 3.27 83 11.33 4.07 97 11.89 3.42 Childcare (N=5) 66 10.17 4.45 83 10.01 4.25 97 8.75 2.83 Politics (N=16) 66 27.36 8.31 83 26.70 6.91 97 26.80 6.29 Employment (N=15) 66 29.55 7.29 83 30.22 7.38 97 31.72 6.67 Self-denigration (N=8) 66 16.06 5.82 83 16.33 4.32 97 18.08 4.63 Family (N=17) 66 39.14 12.10 83 39.66 8.22 97 40.61 8.52 Media (N=12) 66 27.77 9.95 83 28.10 7.88 97 31.69 7.78 Religion (N=ll) 66 23.41 8.47 83 23.53 7.64 97 26.07 6.36 Education (N=30) 66 45.38 16.06 83 44.93 14.37 97 51.68 15.28
Total 66 228.00 64.35 97 247.30 70
Table 12
Results of T-tests Cogparing ATFI Subscale Scores from Brodsky et al. (1976) and Elmore et al. (1979)
Brodsky et al . (1976) Elmore et al. (1979)
Subscale (# items) N M SD N M SD df t
MEN
Reproduction (N=6) 36 10.69 4.09 98 12.57 4.81 132 2.21* Childcare (N=5) 36 11.36 3.78 98 11.51 4.66 132 .20 Politics (N=16) 36 36.00 10.05 98 33.29 10.05 132 1.32 Employment (N=15) 36 35.44 8.33 98 36.24 8.98 132 .48 Self-denigraticn (N=8) 36 19.92 6.44 98 19.58 5.38 132 .28 Family (H=ll) 36 46.61 9.36 98 45.27 12.03 132 .67 Media (N=12) 36 32.36 9.24 98 34.44 8.85 132 1.16 Religion (tt=ll) 36 28.44 7.69 98 28.40 9.85 132 .02 Education (N=30) 36 52.06 19.10 98 57.80 18.85 132 1.53
WOKEN
Reproduction (N=6) 66 9.17 3.27 83 11.33 4.07 147 3.54** Childcare (N=5) 66 10.17 4.45 83 10.01 4.25 147 .22 Politics (N=16) 66 27.36 8.31 83 26.70 6.91 147 .52 Employment (N=15) 66 29.55 7.29 83 30.22 7.38 147 .55 Self-denigration (N=8) 66 16.06 5.82 83 16.33 4.32 147 .31 Family (N=17) 66 39.14 12.10 83 39.66 8.22 147 .30 Media (N=12) 66 27.77 9.95 83 28.10 7.88 147 .22 Religion (N=ll) 66 23.41 8.47 83 23.53 7.64 147 .09 Education (N=30) 66 45.38 16.06 83 44.93 14.37 147 .18
* .01 < p < .05. ** < p < .001. 7 1
Table 13
Results of T-tests Comparing ATFI Subscale Soares from Brodsky et al. (1976) and Moore (1992)
Brodsky et al. (1976) Moore (1992)
Subscale (1 items) N M SD N M SD df t
MEW
Reproduction (N=6) 36 10.69 4.09 100 13.60 4.44 134 4.28*** Childcare (N=5) 36 11.36 3.78 100 10.60 3.26 134 1.05 Politics (N=16) 36 36.00 10.05 100 34.83 8.74 134 .59 Employment (N=15) 36 35.44 8.33 100 38.22 7.66 134 1.72 Self-denigration (N=8) 36 19.92 6.44 100 21.57 4.90 134 1.38 Family (N=17) 36 46.61 9.36 100 45.80 6.95 134 1.52 Media (N=12) 36 32.36 9.24 100 37.68 6.89 134 3.11** Religion (N=ll) 36 28.44 7.69 100 31.82 6.17 134 2.35* Education (N=30) 36 52.06 19.10 100 53.08 18.11 134 .27
WHEN
Reproduction (N=6) 66 9.17 3.27 97 11.89 3.42 161 5.04*** Childcare (N=5) 66 10.17 4.45 97 8.75 2.83 161 2.29* Politics (N=16) 66 27.36 8.31 97 26.80 6.29 161 .46 Employment (N=15) 66 29.55 7.29 97 31.72 6.67 161 1.92 Self-denigration (N=8) 66 16.06 5.82 97 18.08 4.63 161 2.35* Family (N=17) 66 39.14 12.10 97 40.61 8.52 161 .85 Media (M=12> 66 27.77 9.95 97 31.69 7.78 161 2.68** Religion (N=ll) 66 23.41 8.47 97 26.07 6.36 161 2.16* Education (N=30) 66 45.38 16.06 97 51.68 15.28 161 2.49*
* .01 < p < .05.
** .001 < p < .01.
*** < p < .001. 72
Table 14
Results of T-tests Cccparing ATFI Subscale Soares from Elmore et al. (1979) and Moore (1992)
Elmore et al. (1979) Moore (1992)
Subscale (1 items) N M SD N M SD df t
MEN
Reproduction (N=6) 98 12.57 4.81 100 13.60 4.44 196 1.56 Childcare (N=5) 98 11.51 4.66 100 10.60 3.26 196 2.75** Politics (N=16) 98 33.29 10.05 100 34.83 8.74 1 % 1.15 Employment (N=15) 98 36.24 8.98 100 38.22 7.66 196 1.66 Self-denigration (N=8) 98 19.58 5.38 100 21.57 4.90 1 % 2.73** Family (N=17) 98 45.27 12.03 100 45.80 6.95 196 .41 Media (N=12) 98 34.44 8.85 100 37.68 6.89 1 % 2.84** Religion (N=ll) 98 28.40 9.85 100 31.82 6.17 1 % 2.92** Education (N=30) 98 57.80 18.85 100 53.08 18.11 1 % 1.78
WOMEN
Reproduction (N=6) 83 11.33 4.07 97 11.89 3.42 178 .98 Childcare (N=5) 83 10.01 4.25 97 8.75 2.83 178 2.29* Politics (N=16) 83 26.70 6.91 97 26.80 6.29 178 .10 Employment (N=15) 83 30.22 7.38 97 31.72 6.67 178 1.42 Self-denigration (N=8) 83 16.33 4.32 97 18.08 4.63 178 2.61** Family (N=17) 83 39.66 8.22 97 40.61 8.52 178 .75 Media (N=12) 83 28.10 7.88 97 31.69 7.78 178 3.07** Religion (N=ll) 83 23.53 7.64 97 26.07 6.36 178 2.24* Education (N=30) 83 44.93 14.37 97 51.68 15.28 178 3.04**
* .01 < p < .05.
** .001 < p < .01. 73
Between the study conducted by Brodsky et al. in
1976, and the one conducted by Elmore et al. (1979) very little change was noted. The one exception was that both men and women were significantly different on the reproduction subscale. Men and women both took more conservative stances on the issue of reproduction.
The results of this study, conducted thirteen years later, show that this trend toward conservatism continued.
Comparing the results of this study with the findings in the Brodsky (1976) study indicates that men were significantly different on the reproduction, media, and religion subscales. In all instances where statistical difference was found, the responses were more conservative. The women in the comparison were significantly different on scores for six of the nine subscales: reproduction, childcare, self-denigration, media, religion and education. Women were more conservative on all of the subscales except for childcare on which they were more liberal in viewpoint.
The results of this study also show significant differences when compared to the findings in the Elmore et al. (1979) study. In that comparison, men responded more conservatively on the self-denigration, media, and religion subsales. The other significance for men was 74 found on the childcare subscale where the men expressed a more liberal view. Women were more conservative in response to the self-denigration, media, religion, and education subscales. The women were again more liberal in response to the childcare issue. CHAPTER V
DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Discussion
Although a lot of research has been done on attitudes toward sex-role differentiation, very little has been done to measure attitudes toward individual women's issues. In response to this need, Brodsky, Elmore, and
Naffziger (1976) developed the Attitudes Toward Feminist
Issues Scale (ATFI) which was designed to measure attitudes towards specific women's issues. The 120 item scale addressed issues concerning women's rights in the areas of human reproduction; child care; politics and legislation; employment; overcoming of self-denigration; marriage and family; consciousness raising in the media; religion; and education. A five-point Likert scale from strongly agree to strongly disagree defined the response pattern.
The developers of the ATFI contended that a low score on the ATFI represented a liberal feminist viewpoint while a high score indicated a conservative position. The terms liberal and conservative were not operationally
75 76
defined, but the authors stated in the literature that a
low score represented a position more accepting of change
from the status quo (Brodsky, Elmore, Naffziger, 1976).
The ATFI while proving to be a reliable and valid
instrument with potential research value in measuring
attitudes toward specific women's issues (Brodsky, Elmore,
Naffziger, 1976) has been administered to limited samples
in only a few studies conducted by the developers in the
late 1970's and early 1980's.
An issue that is not addressed in the ATFI was
attitudes toward equity in athletics. This issue has been virtually unexplored in the research. Despite the drastic changes that have occurred in athletics since the
implementation of Title IX, little research has been conducted to determine if issues in women's athletics have been equitably addressed. To begin to explore these issues, the investigator developed a separate subscale designed to assess attitudes toward increased opportunities for women participants, coaches, and administrators; equal access to salaries, budgets, and facilities; and fair coverage in the media for women's sports.
The intent of this study was to assess the attitudes toward gender issues among physical education, sport and leisure studies majors at The Ohio State
University. The study proposed an investigation of the 77 similarities and/or differences of physical education, sport, and leisure studies majors and a comparison group of introductory psychology students as determined by their scores on the nine subscales of the Attitudes Towards
Women's Issues Scale (ATFI). An additional subscale to measure attitudes toward issues in athletics was developed by the investigator (ATFIA).
The subjects in the study were 197 students enrolled in classes at The Ohio State University winter quarter
1992. A total of 97 physical education, sport, and leisure students (50 men and 47 women) were sampled while
100 introductory psychology students (50 men and 50 women) representing different disciplines in the university responded to the questionnaire.
This chapter will focus on a discussion of the information obtained in this study. In addition, the limitations of the study and recommendations for future research is presented.
Discriminant analysis was used to statistically treat the data in this study to determine differences between the two groups surveyed, the effects of gender, and the interaction of gender and group. Results reported in
Chapter IV indicated that there was no significant difference based on the interaction of group and gender on the ATFI and the athletic subscale (p < .05). No 78
significant difference was noted for the main effect of group except on the univariate childcare (p < .01) such
that the physical education group had a more liberal view
toward child care issues (M = 9.12, SD = 3.03) than the introductory psychology students (M = 10, SD = 3.27).
This finding is inconsistent with previous studies
(Britton & Elmore, 1976; Brodsky, Elmore & Naffziger,
1976; Elmore & Vasu, 1979, 1980, 1986) using the ATFI which indicated that there were significant differences between students in women's studies classes and those in introductory psychology classes on all subscales and total score (p < .05). Students in women's studies classes responded with more liberal views than the students in the introductory psychology classes.
In addition, studies have reported that physical education students and athletes have conservative viewpoints (Schaefer & Phillips, 1970; Rehberg & Cohen,
1976; Snyder & Kivlin, 1977; Kenyon, 1965). However, the results of this study indicated that there were no significant differences on the total ATFI score or on any of the subscales including the athletic one between physical education students and introductory psychology students. For specific means refer to Table 1.
Brodsky, Elmore, and Naffziger (1976) reported a significant difference (p < .05) between the responses of 79 men and women in their study on total score and on all
subscale items except for childcare. Women tended to hold a more liberal attitude toward the issues than men. This
is consistent with the results reported by Elmore and Vasu
(1979) who found that women exhibited significantly more
liberal feminist attitudes (p < .05) than men on total score and all subscales except human reproduction.
The results of this study supported previous research using the ATFI for gender differences. An ANOVA performed on the total ATFI score produced a significant difference for the main effect of gender (F (1, 192) = 56.31, p < .001). Significant differences were noted on all of the subscales with human reproduction significant at p <
.01 and all other subscales significant at p < .001. In all cases, women responded with more liberal views than men. For specific means consult Table 2.
Since this was the first study used to explore attitudes toward athletic issues, no data was available to predict an outcome on group difference on the athletic subscale. The subscale developed to measure attitudes toward issues in athletics included items on increased opportunities for women participants, coaches, and administrators; equal access to salaries, budgets, and facilities; and fair coverage in the media for women's sports. The items were designed to fit the same response 80 pattern as the ATFI, so the researcher hypothesized that there would be a similar difference between groups on this subscale as was hypothesized for the ATFI.
In contrast to previous research results which indicated group differences, there was no significant difference noted for the main effect of group on the total
ATFI score and nine subscale scores in this study. In addition, no significant difference for group effect was found on the athletic subscale between the physical education group (M = 28.42, SD = 10.05) and the introductory psychology group (M = 29.79, SD = 9.69).
Again, no previous research was available to be used in predicting gender differences on the athletic subscale.
Based on the previous research using the ATFI which indicated significant differences of response between men and women, the researcher hypothesized that there would be a significant gender difference on the athletic subscale as well. It was hypothesized that the women would take a more liberal position on the issues than the men. The multivariate F test for gender indicated a significant gender difference on the subscale (p < .001). As predicted, women responded with a more liberal position on the issues than men.
Hotelling's T4 test with gender as the independent variable was then applied to each of the items on the athletic subscale. There was a significant difference in 81 response between men and women on all of the items on the
scale according to the univariate F tests (p < .001). For each item, women showed more liberal responses than men.
The results are summarized in Table 7.
A further analysis of the athletic subscale revealed
significant inter-item differences of response within group (men and women). While both men (80%) and women
(94%) showed agreement that opportunities should be provided for women to develop experience in coaching and administration of sport, both men and women showed significantly less support for the methods in which to achieve greater opportunities. The within-group response for women was significantly different (indicating less agreement for the items: need for the passage of legislation for equity (p <.001); establishment of women's networks (p < .01); and the active hiring of women
(p < .001). The within-group response for men was significantly different (indicating less support) for the items: need for passage of legislation for equity
(p < .001); establishment of women's networks (p < .001);
EEOC involvement in non-compliance (p <001); inclusion of women at all levels of athletic administration (p < .01); and the active hiring of women (p < .001).
On the issue of fair coverage in the media men (57%) and women (90%) agreed that it should be encouraged. 82
Again there was significantly less agreement on ways to
achieve fairer representation. Women had significantly
less agreement on: women in sport commercials aired as public service announcements (p < .001); and the hiring of women athletes by producers (p < .05). The men showed significantly less agreement on: equal media coverage (p
< .001; and women in sport commercials aired as public service announcements (p < .001).
Despite the fact that Title IX specifically addressed equitable distribution of budgets and salaries and equal access to facilities, the results of this study show a remarkable gender difference on this issue. The strongest agreement for both men (69%) and women (94%) was on equitable facilities. Women showed no significant difference on the issues of equitable budgets and coaching salaries. In contrast, the men showed significantly less agreement on equitable budgets (p < .05) and coaching salaries (p < .01).
Conclusions
Despite the second wave of feminism which occurred in the United States in the 1960's and 1970's and brought women's issues to the forefront, it is apparent from the results of this study that much needs to be done to liberalize attitudes toward gender issues. The Attitudes 83
Toward Feminist Issues (ATFI) was developed by Elmore,
Brodsky, & Naffziger in 1976. They surveyed 61 introductory women's studies students and 44 introductory psychology students. The means for 66 women and 36 men were compared and a significant difference (p < .05) was found between men on total score and on all of the subscales except childcare. In all cases, the women responded with a more liberal viewpoint than the men.
Elmore and Vasu (1979) administered the ATFI to 188 inferential statistics students. The means of 98 men and
83 women were compared and a significant difference
(p < .05) was found between men and women on all of the subscales except human reproduction. Women took a more liberal stance than men on the issues.
The findings of this study are consistent with previous use of the ATFI. In this study the ATFI was administered to 100 psychology students and 97 physical education, sport and leisure majors. A comparison of the means of 100 men and 97 women showed a significant difference (p < .001) on the total score and on all subscales. Again, women took a more liberal position than the men.
A comparison of the means of these three studies provides a picture of change over time. Between the study conducted by Brodsky et al. in 1976 and the one conducted 84 by Elmore et al. (1979), very little change was noted. The one exception was that both men (p < .05) and women
(p < .001) were significantly different in their responses on the reproduction subscale. Men and women both took more conservative stances on the issue of reproduction.
The results of this study, conducted 13 years later, show a continued trend toward conservatism. In comparison with the Brodsky et al. (1976) study, men in this study were significantly different on the reproduction (p <
.001); media (p < .01); and religion (p < .05) subscales.
In all instances the responses were more conservative.
The women in the comparison were significantly different on six of the nine subscales: reproduction (p < .001); childcare (p < .05); self-denigration (p < .05); media
(p < .01); religion (p < .05); and education (p < .05).
Women were more conservative on all of the subscales except for childcare on which they were more liberal in viewpoint.
In comparison to the Elmore et al. (1979) study, men responded more conservatively on the self denigration
(p < .01); media (p < .01); and religion (p < .01) subscales. In contrast the men took a more liberal stance on the issue of childcare (p < .01). Women were more conservative in response to the self-denigration 85
(p < .01); media (p < .01); religion (p < .05); and education (p < .01) subscales. The women were again more liberal in response to the childcare issue (p < .05).
This trend toward conservatism is apparent in the athletic subscale as well. There is a significant difference between the responses of men and women, and in the inter-item analysis significant within-group variation was noted.
There is no doubt that the implementation of Title IX in 1972 created a major explosion in the participation of girls/women in sport. However, there have been disturbing changes in women's athletics that appear to be masked by the growth. One issue is the need for increased opportunities for women in coaching and administration.
The decline in the percentage of women in coaching and administrative positions is well documented [Acosta &
Carpenter (1988); Abner & Richey (1991) ; Geadelmann
(1985); Hart (1982); Lehr (1982); SMathes (1982)]. The results of this study indicated that both men and women agreed that opportunites should be provided for women to develop experience in coaching and administration.
However, there was far less support for the methods in which to achieve greater opportunities: passage of legislation, women networking, EEOC involvement in non- compliance, and including women in all levels of administration. 86
Another issue addressed was the need for fair coverage in the media. Again both men and women agreed with the general concept, but there was significantly less agreement with the concepts of producers hiring female athletes, equal coverage, and women in sport commercials being aired as public service announcements. These findings are consistent with much of the work being done with mass media and the portrayal of women athletes [(Kane
& Parks (1990); Boutilier & SanGiovanni (1983); Tuchman
(1978); Molotch (1978); & English (1988)].
The last issue addressed was equitable facilites, budgets, and salaries. Both men and women showed support for equitable facilities. The women showed no significant difference in response to equitable budgets and salaries.
However, the men were significantly less supportive of equitable budgets and facilities. These findings are also consistent with the literature on salary and budget inequities [(Mottinger & Gench (1984); Hoferek (1986);
Felshin (1981); Geadelmann (1985); & Griffin (1984)].
The results of this study indicate that a gender gap still exists in attitudes toward such issues as increased opportunities for participants, coaches, and administrators; equal access to salaries, budgets, and facilities; and fair coverage in the media for women's sports. The ramifications of the changes which have 87
occurred in women's athletics need to be brought to the
attention of both young men and young women who will become future teachers, coaches and leisure specialists if equity is ever to be achieved.
Limitations of the Study
1. The findings of this study were based on the responses
of this sample and any conclusions made may only be
generalized to the defined sample.
2. Due to the sensitivity of some of the issues, the
validity of the results are dependent on the honesty
of the subjects responses. There is a tendency in
survey research for respondents to give what they
feel are socially acceptable answers.
Recommendations
On the basis of this research project the following recomendations are suggested for further study:
1. Additional research on different samples should be
conducted using the Attitudes Toward Feminist Issues
Scale (ATFI) to determine significant differences
between groups and gender. 88
2. A social desirability scale such as the Minnesota
Multiphasic Personality Inventory (Hathaway &
McKinley, 1967), or the Social Desirability (SD)
scale (Edwards, 1953) should be administered in
conjunction with the ATFI and athletic subscale.
3. The ATFI should continue to be administered over
time to see if the trend toward more conservative
views continues.
4. The athletic subscale should be expanded and refined
into an instrument that can be used to measure
attitudes toward a broader scope of athletic issues.
5. This study should be replicated on different
samples to determine if the conservative trend from
1976-1992 was specific to this sample or indicative of
a wider view.
6. Demographics should be used to test for the main
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Inn,__ 2C2fi2i_2!ii_lela'i[£ UDslstBtflilufllcfl Bl._JLlit_illila_Slatc HulvcraTty______ Dr_;_ Bnrlwira, HeJnoji ______or his/her nuthorltcil r cpi e sen t a 11 vt has (Principal Investigator) i! xp I n I noil thn purpose of the study, the procedures to he lolluwrd, and the expected duintinu of my (my ch ild 's ) 1 pn1 Ic I pa 11 on. Possible henellts of the study hove licen dencr Ihcd nn hove alternative proceduien, II such procedures .ire nppllcahlc and svnllnhle. I acknowledge that I have lind the opportunity to ohtslu additional lnIorm.it Ion regarding tliu study nnd tlwit nny queutlons I have ruined have huen onswered to ny lull not Iuluc11 on. Euither, I understand that I am (my child Is) Irae lo withdraw consent ot any time nnd to discontinue part Ir Ipat lull111 the study without prejudice to me (my child). F inally, I acknowledge that I have rend nnd lu lly uudci stand the cunsent lurei. I sign It Itecly and voluntarily. A copy has been given to mo. I l a t o l______Signedl (Purl Iclp.m t) S IgnedI Signed I (Principal Investigatornr Iiis7 (Person Authorized to Connenl her Authorized Representative) (or Participant - 11 Required) Witnesst IIS-0/7 (Rev. 3/87) --(To be used only In connection with social and behavioral research.) APPENDIX B INFORMATION SHEET 109 INFORMATION SHEET You may have some questions about participating in this study. This information sheet should answer your questions, but feel free to ask any other questions. Who is doing the study? My name is Sandra Moore and I am a graduate student in physical education at Ohio State. I am also the field hockey and lacrosse coach at Kenyon College. Why is the study being done? I am interested in determining the attitudes that physical education, sport and leisure undergraduates hold towards gender issues and how these attitudes are similar or dissimilar to other groups of undergraduates. What do I have to do? Today, I will give you a questionnaire to fill out on which I seek your opinion. Your participation is completely voluntary. Who will know how I answered the questions? I, the director of the study, am the only person who will have access to your questionnaire. Your name does not appear on the questionnaire so your anonymity is assured. Results will be reported for the group and all information will be kept strictly confidential. Thank you for your cooperation in my study. 110 APPENDIX C DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION FORM 111 DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION FORM Male ______Female______ Age ______Birth date: / / Year in school FR ______SO JR___ SR Major ______ Are you presently on an athletic team at OSU? _ If yes, for how many years have you been on the team? Were you on an athletic team(s) in high school? If yes, for how many years were you a member of the team(s)? ______ 112 APPENDIX D ATTITUDES TOWARD FEMINIST ISSUES SCALE 113 Attitudes Toward Feminist Issues Scale Directions: This scale is designed to obtain information about attitudes toward feminist issues. The following statements have some relevance to individual issues that women's rights organizations have supported. Our interest is in the degree and direction of your opinions toward each of these individual statements. We are interested in your attitudes and feelings at this moment. Please do not consider the probability that the laws and practices or your own feelings may change later. Mark your responses on the answer sheet according to the following code: A - Strongly agree B - Agree C - Neutral, neither agree nor disagree D - Disagree E - Strongly Disagree Human Reproduction 1. Limiting one's own reproduction is a basic human right. 2. All public hospitals should offer sterilization to anyone requesting it. 3. All public hospitals should offer abortion to anyone requesting it. 4. Free contraceptives should be available to anyone through public hospitals or clinics. 5. Public funds should be used to develop new methods of contraception which are safer and more convenient. 6 . Public funds should be used to develop new methods of sterilization which are safer, easier and more readily obtainable. 1 1 4 115 Child Care 7. Society has a responsibility toward all children to insure that they are properly cared for and educated. 8 . Government-sponsored child care centers should be available to all. 9. Child care facilities should be freely available to all economic and social groups. 10. Financial support for day care should come from the power structure in labor, industry and government. 11. The issue of obtaining comprehensive day care for all should become a high priority for politicians and lawmakers. Politics and Legislation 12. Sex discrimination should be forbidden in employment. 13. Sex discrimination should be forbidden in education. 14. Sex discrimination should be forbidden in housing. 15. Sex discrimination should be forbidden in public accommodations. 16. Sex discrimination should be forbidden in government services. 17. The legal position of women and men should be equalized in regard to child care responsibilities. 18. The legal position of men and women should be equalized in regard to prostitution. 19. The legal position of women and men should be equalized in all areas. 20. The U.S. Government should not sanction any nation where women do not have the vote. 21. Unions should insure equal rights for women on the job. 116 22. Unions should insure equal rights for women within their own labor organizations. 23. A distinguished woman should be appointed to fill the next vacancy on the Supreme Court. 24. Women should be included on all levels of political party activity on an equal basis with men. 25. Political parties should seek out and run women candidates who represent women's rights and needs. 26. Passage of legislation to further the case of women's rights is necessary. 27. Women's rights groups should work to support women's rights issues and candidates. Employment 28. The minimum wage act should cover all female employees. 29. Women should be legally assured equal pay for equal work for female professional, executive or administrative positions. 30. All laws should be repealed which deny women the same freedoms, conditions and privileges as men have for borrowing money, owning real estate and operating businesses. 31. All restrictive and protective legislation which discriminates against women should be repealed and men should be included in all valid state protective laws. 32. All civil rights laws should contain provisions to eliminate sex discrimination. 33. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission should be granted the power to enforce antisex discrimination laws. 34. Help wanted ads should not refer to sex. 117 35. Newspaper offices should be picketed, publishers confronted, and complaints filed with civil rights commissions until newspapers no longer accept or print classified ads which refer only to one sex or which suggest differential treatment of applicants according to sex. 36. Career counseling should be available to all women. 37. Women in business and businesses for women should be encouraged and supported. 38. Government loans and contracts available to minority businesses should be available to businesses run and owned by women. 39. Women should pool their money to form economic co ops for businesses. 40. The work week should be shortened to open more jobs for women and to allow men more time to spend in the home. 41. If the private economy cannot provide jobs for all women, the public economy must. 42. A guaranteed income should be adopted which would eliminate and prevent extreme poverty for members of either sex. Overcoming Self-Denigration 43. Women must redirect their anger away from themselves and other women to the discriminatory laws, politics, and attitudes of our society. 44. All women should recognize their sisterhood with other women. 45. Women in our society have been socialized to accept negative stereotypes and labels. 46. The stereotypes and labels which women are socialized to accept in our society must be examined and overcome. 47. All women regardless of age, economic status, race, or religion should recognize that they share many common problems and injustices. 118 48. Women must learn to trust each other. 49. Skills of communication between women should be developed. 50. Women should be educated in public speaking, organization, sensitivity, and desexigration techniques. Marriage and Family 51. Marriage should be an equal partnership with shared economic responsibility. 52. Marriage should be an equal partnership with shared household responsibility. 53. Care of children should be shared equally by both spouses. 54. The economic responsibility for the family should be shared proportionately according to income if both partners work outside the home. 55. If only one partner works outside the home, half the income should by law belong to the other partner. 56. Maternal and paternal leaves of absence should be granted by all institutions without prejudice or loss of job security or seniority. 57. A pamphlet covering the legal rights of both partners and divorce and population statistics should be issued with the marriage license. 58. The Social Security law should be altered to provide separate deductions for employed persons and their dependent spouses in recognition of the fact that the employer receives the services of the household spouse as well as the employed person. 59. Full Social Security payments should continue to children regardless of the remarriage of their parents. 60. A dependent spouse should be guaranteed continued social security coverage regardless of the years of marriage or financial arrangements of the divorce. 119 61. Upon dissolution of a marriage, the dependent spouse should be guaranteed health and accident insurance by the government. 62. The dependent spouse should be guaranteed government-sponsored retraining for re-entry into the job market. 63. Company pension plans should include coverage when desired for widowers and widows. 64. "End of marriage" insurance should be available for purchase to provide a pension, based on years of service, to an economically dependent spouse. 65. The wife should be able to keep her own name or the husband should be able to take his wife’s name, and/or there should be the option of both partners choosing a neutral second name to be used also by the children, or the children should use both the wife's and husband’s name. 6 6 . A women's title should be Ms. without differentiation as to marriage. 67. A women should use her given first name (not her husband's). Consciousness-Raising in Media 6 8 . Feminist views should receive equal time on TV and radio. 69. Complaints should be filed with the FCC against unfair media representations of women. 70. Commercials emphasizing a positive image of women should be subsidized and aired as public service announcements. 71. Feminist psychologists and writers should be hired by the producers of programs to help the media present a fair picture of women. 72. Awards similar to Oscars or Emmies should be offered for best yearly progress toward eliminating male- female stereotypes. 73. The media should have more women executives. 120 74. More women should be seen on news and substantive TV programs. 75. Negative consumer pressure should be placed on companies who use ads which are particularly offensive in their treatment of women. 76. Fair coverage of the women's movement should be encouraged and commanded. 77. Newsstands should be picketed to urge boycotts of newspapers which are particularly unfair and biased in regard to their coverage of women and the women's right movement. 78. Sit-ins should be used to produce desirable changes in the treatment of women by the media. 79. Reporters who write articles which are unfair, dishonest, or snickering toward women or the women's movement should receive no further cooperation from women. Religion 80. Church bodies should restate theological concepts which contribute to a false view of women. 81. The National Council of Churches should give stronger leadership to efforts to eliminate discrimination against women in society and in the life of the church. 82. The rights of women to be ordained should be recognized in all religious bodies. 83. Personnel policies and practices should be developed that will achieve more adequate representation of women at all levels of the executive staff of the National Council of Churches and its affiliated churches. 84. Women should be included in significant numbers among the planners, leaders, speakers, and participants in all religious conferences. 85. Seminaries have doctrines which perpetuate negative stereotypes of women and support male domination of women. 121 8 6 . Seminaries should initiate women's studies courses which expose church and other social forces that deny women their basic human dignity. 87. Seminaries should actively recruit, enroll, financially aid, and seek equal placement for women as theological students. 8 8 . Seminaries should actively recruit, employ, and justly promote women theologians and other staff in all departments. 89. Churches should not separate help-wanted ads by sexes in their own publications. 90. The Civil Rights Acts should be amended so that religious groups no longer have legal sanction to discriminate on the basis of sex. Education 91. Prompt action should be taken to insure that all universities and colleges that are federal contractors end discrimination against women. 92. Female Studies, both curricular and extracurricular, should be established. They should be designed to raise consciousness and expose the biases and ignorance about women, especially in the fields of history, literature, psychology, sociology, and marriage and family. 93. Studies of hiring and other areas of discrimination against women should be instituted. 94. Educational institutions should erase sex discrimination wherever it exists. Specifically, educational institutions should erase sex discrimination in the following: 95. Admissions 96. Scholarships 97. Fellowships 98. Loans 99. Assistantships 122 100. Textbooks 101. Guidance counseling 102. Division of students by sex in home economics 103. Division of students by sex in shop courses 104. Division of students by sex in sports 105. Division of students by sex in vocational training 106. Dormitory restrictions 107. Differential conduct on dress codes 108. Part-time attendance policies 109. Policies on marriage, pregnancy, and parenthood of students, faculty, and staff 110. Hiring policies 111. Salaries 112. Tenure rules 113. Nepotism rules 114. Administrative appointments (such as college presidents) 115. Part-time employment policies 116. Provision of role models outside traditional sex role stereotypes 117. Day care for students and employees 118. Availability of library materials in female studies areas 119. Availability of female studies courses, seminars and colloquia 120. Language must be restructured to reflect a society where women have status equal to men. APPENDIX E ATHLETIC SUBSCALE 123 Athletics 121. Passage of legislation to further the case of women's equity in sports is needed. 122. Women's networks should be established to increase opportunities for women in coaching and administration. 123. The Equal Opportunities Commission should be encouraged to seek out and pursue non-compliance of Title IX in equalizing opportunities in women's sports for participants, coaches, and administrators. 124. Opportunities should be provided for women to develop experience in coaching and administration of sports. 125. Women should be included at all levels of athletic administration on an equal basis with men. 126. Athletic departments should actively seek out and hire women candidates for coaching and administrative positions. 127. Women's sports should receive equal newspaper and TV coverage as men's sports. 128. Commercials emphasizing women in sport should be aired as public service announcements. 129. Fair coverage of women in sports should be encouraged. 130. Female athletes should be hired by producers of programs to help the media present a fair picture of women. 131. Salaries for coaches of men's and women's sports should be equitable. 124 125 132. Budgets for women's athletics and men's athletics should be equitable. 133. Facilities for men's and women's teams should be equitable. APPENDIX F HUMAN SUBJECTS REVIEW 126 DEMAVORIAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES X Original Review HUMAN 8UDJECTS REVIEW COMMITTEE Continuing Review THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY Amendment Research Involving Human Subjects ACTION OF THE REVIEW COMMITTEE With regard to the employment of human subjects in the proposed research protocol: 91B0199 ASSESSING THE ATTITUDES TOWARD GENDER ISSUES AMONG THYSICAL EDUCATION, SPORTS, AND LEISURE UNDERGRADUATES AT THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, Barbara A. Nelson, Sandra L. Moore, Health, Physical Education, and Recreation THE BEHAVORIAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES REVIEW COMMITTEE MAS TAKEN THE FOLLOWING ACTION: APPROVED DISAPPROVED >f APPROVED WITH CONDITIONS* WAIVER OF WRITTEN CONSENT GRANTED * Conditions stated by the Committee have been met by the Investigator and, therefore, the protocol Is APPROVED. It Is the responsibility of the principal Investigator to retain a copy of each signed consent form for at least four (<1) years beyond the termination of the subject's participation In the proposed activity. Should the principal investigator leave the University, signed consent forms are to be transferred to the Human Subjects Review Committee for the required retention period. This application has been approved for the period of one year. You are reminded that you must promptly report any problems to the Review Committee, and that no procedural changes may be made without prior review and approval. You are also reminded that the identity of the research participants must be kept confidential. Date: November 1. 1991 Signed: (Chairperson) IIS-025B (Rev. 8/90) 127 ( APPENDIX G FREQUENCIES AND PERCENTAGES ON ATHLETIC SUBSCALE ITEMS 128 129 Table 15 Frequencies and Percentages of Response on Question 121 (N=197) Item 121: Passage of legislation to further the case of women's equity in sports is needed. TOTAL Valid Cumulative Value Label Value Frequency Percent Percent Percent Strongly agree 1 45 22.8 22.8 22.8 Agree 2 66 33.5 33.5 56.3 Neutral 3 48 24.4 24.4 80.7 Disagree 4 29 14.7 14.7 95.4 Strongly disagree 5 9 4.6 4.6 100.0 TOTAL 197 100.0 100.0 M 2.447 SD 1.131 WOMEN Strongly agree 1 33 34.0 34.0 34.0 Agree 2 36 37.1 37.1 71.1 Neutral 3 16 16.5 16.5 87.6 Disagree 4 10 10.3 10.3 97.9 Strongly disagree 5 2 2.1 2.1 100.0 TOTAL 97 100.0 100.0 M 2.093 SD 1.052 MEN Strongly agree 1 12 12.0 12.0 12.0 Agree 2 30 30.0 30.0 42.0 Neutral 3 32 32.0 32.0 74.0 Disagree 4 19 19.0 19.0 93.0 Strongly disagree 5 7 7.0 7.0 100.0 TOTAL 100 100.0 100.0 M 2.79 SD 1.104 1 3 0 Table 16 Frequencies and Percentages of Response on Question 122 (N=197) Item 122: Women’s networks should be established to increase opportunities for women in coaching and administration. TOTAL Valid Cumulative Value Label Value Frequency Percent Percent Percent Strongly agree 1 45 22.8 22.8 22.8 Agree 2 84 42.6 42.6 65.5 Neutral 3 50 25.4 25.4 90.9 Disagree 4 16 8.1 8.1 99.0 Strongly disagree 5 2 1.0 1.0 100.0 TOTAL 197 100.0 100.0 M 2.218 SD .925 WOMEN Strongly agree 1 36 37.1 37.1 37.1 Agree 2 41 42.3 42.3 79.4 Neutral 3 15 15.5 15.5 94.8 Disagree 4 4 4.1 4.1 99.0 Strongly disagree 5 1 1.0 1.0 100.0 TOTAL 97 100.0 100.0 M 1.897 SD .884 MEN Strongly agree 1 9 9.0 9.0 9.0 Agree 2 43 43.0 43.0 52.0 Neutral 3 35 35.0 35.0 87.0 Disagree 4 12 12.0 12.0 99.0 Strongly disagree 5 1 1.0 1.0 100.0 TOTAL 100 100.0 100.0 M 2.530 SD .858 1 3 1 Table 17 Frequencies and Percentages of Response on Question 123 (N=197) Item 123: Hie HOC should be encouraged, to seek out and pursue non-compliance of Title IX in equalizing opportunities in women's sports for participants, coaches, and administrators. TOTAL Valid Cumulative Value Label Value Frequency Percent Percent Percent Strongly agree 1 43 21.8 21.8 21.8 Agree 2 85 43.1 43.1 65.0 Neutral 3 62 31.5 31.5 96.4 Disagree 4 6 3.0 3.0 99.5 Strongly disagree 5 1 .5 .5 100.0 TOTAL 197 100.0 100.0 M 2.173 SD .821 WOMEN Strongly agree 1 32 33.0 33.0 33.0 Agree 2 46 47.4 47.4 80.4 Neutral 3 19 19.6 19.6 100.0 Disagree 4 0 0 0 100.0 Strongly disagree 5 0 0 0 100.0 TOTAL 97 100.0 100.0 M 1.866 SD .716 MEN Strongly agree 1 11 11.0 11.0 11.0 Agree 2 39 39.0 39.0 50.0 Neutral 3 43 43.0 43.0 93.0 Disagree 4 6 6.0 6.0 99.0 Strongly disagree 5 1 1.0 1.0 100.0 TOTAL 100 100.0 100.0 M 2.470 SD .810 1 3 2 Table 18 Frequencies and Percentages of Response on Question 124 (N=197) Item 124: Opportunities should be provided for women to develop experience in coaching, and administration of sports. TOTAL Valid Cumulative Value Label Value Frequency Percent Percent Percent Strongly agree 1 57 28.9 28.9 28.9 Agree 2 114 57.9 57.9 86.8 Neutral 3 19 9.6 9.6 96.4 Disagree 4 7 3.6 3.6 100.0 Strongly disagree 5 0 0 0 100.0 TOTAL 197 100.0 100.0 N 1.878 SD .718 WOMEN Strongly agree 1 42 43.3 43.3 43.3 Agree 2 49 50.5 50.5 93.8 Neutral 3 5 5.2 5.2 99.0 Disagree 4 1 1.0 1.0 100.0 Strongly disagree 5 0 0 0 100.0 TOTAL 97 100.0 100.0 M 1.639 SD .632 MEN Strongly agree 1 15 15.0 15.0 15.0 Agree 2 65 65.0 65.0 80.0 Neutral 3 14 14.0 14.0 94.0 Disagree 4 6 6.0 6.0 100.0 Strongly disagree 5 0 0 0 100.0 TOTAL 100 100.0 100.0 M 2.110 SD .723 1 3 3 Table 19 Frequencies and Percentages of Response on Question 125 (N=197) Item 125: Wcmen should be included at all levels of athletic administration on an equal basis with men. TOTAL Valid Cumulative Value Label Value Frequency Percent Percent Percent Strongly agree 1 61 31.0 31.0 31.0 Agree 2 86 43.7 43.7 74.6 Neutral 3 29 14.7 14.7 89.3 Disagree 4 19 9.6 9.6 99.0 Strongly disagree 5 2 1.0 1.0 100.0 TOTAL 197 100.0 100.0 M 2.061 SD .967 WOMEN Strongly agree 1 47 48.5 48.5 48.5 Agree 2 36 37.1 37.1 85.6 Neutral 3 10 10.3 10.3 95.9 Disagree 4 3 3.1 3.1 99.0 Strongly disagree 5 1 1.0 1.0 100.0 TOTAL 97 100.0 100.0 M 1.711 SD .853 MEN Strongly agree 1 14 14.0 14.0 14.0 Agree 2 50 50.0 50.0 64.0 Neutral 3 19 19.0 19.0 83.0 Disagree 4 16 16.0 16.0 99.0 Strongly disagree 5 1 1.0 1.0 100.0 TOTAL 100 100.0 100.0 M 2.400 SD .953 1 3 4 Table 20 Frequencies and Percentages of Response on Question 126 (N=197) Item 126: Athletic departments should actively seek out and hire women candidates for coaching and administrative positions. TOTAL Valid Cumulative Value Label Value Frequency Percent Percent Percent Strongly agree 1 40 20.3 20.3 20.3 Agree 2 73 37.1 37.1 57.4 Neutral 3 51 25.9 25.9 83.2 Disagree 4 31 15.7 15.7 99.0 Strongly disagree 5 2 1.0 1.0 100.0 TOTAL 197 100.0 100.0 M 2.401 SD 1.013 WOMEN Strongly agree 1 34 35.1 35.1 35.1 Agree 2 37 38.1 38.1 73.2 Neutral 3 16 16.5 16.5 89.7 Disagree 4 10 10.3 10.3 100.0 Strongly disagree 5 0 0 0 100.0 TOTAL 97 100.0 100.0 M 2.021 SD .968 MEN Strongly agree 1 6 6.0 6.0 6.0 Agree 2 36 36.0 36.0 42.0 Neutral 3 35 35.0 35.0 77.0 Disagree 4 21 21.0 21.0 98.0 Strongly disagree 5 2 2.0 2.0 100.0 TOTAL 100 100.0 100.0 N 2.770 SD .953 1 3 5 Table 21 Frequencies and Percentages of Response on Question 127 (N=197) Item 127: Women's sports should receive equal newspaper and TV coverage as men's. TOTAL Valid Cumulative Value Label Value Frequency Percent Percent Percent Strongly agree 1 49 24.9 24.9 24.9 Agree 2 73 37.1 37.1 61.9 Neutral 3 31 15.7 15.7 77.7 Disagree 4 31 15.7 15.7 93.4 Strongly disagree 5 13 6.6 6.6 100.0 TOTAL 197 100.0 100.0 M 2.421 SD 1.208 WOMEN Strongly agree 1 38 39.2 39.2 39.2 Agree 2 45 46.4 46.4 85.6 Neutral 3 8 8.2 8.2 93.8 Disagree 4 6 6.2 6.2 100.0 Strongly disagree 5 0 0 0 100.0 TOTAL 97 100.0 100.0 M 1.814 SD .833 MEN Strongly agree 1 11 11.0 11.0 11.0 Agree 2 28 28.0 28.0 39.0 Neutral 3 23 23.0 23.0 62.0 Disagree 4 25 25.0 25.0 87.0 Strongly disagree 5 13 13.0 13.0 100.0 TOTAL 100 100.0 100.0 M 3.010 SD 1.227 1 3 6 Table 22 Frequencies and Percentages of Response on Question 128 (N=197) Item 128: Caimericals emphasizing women in sport should be aired as public service announcements. TOTAL Valid Cumulative Value Label Value Frequency Percent Percent Percent Strongly agree 1 31 15.7 15.7 15.7 Agree 2 64 32.5 32.5 48.2 Neutral 3 64 32.5 32.5 80.7 Disagree 4 25 12.7 12.7 93.4 Strongly disagree 5 13 6.6 6.6 100.0 TOTAL 197 100.0 100.0 M 2.619 SD 1.098 WOMEN Strongly agree 1 25 25.8 25.8 25.8 Agree 2 33 34.0 34.0 59.8 Neutral 3 29 29.9 29.9 89.7 Disagree 4 8 8.2 8.2 97.9 Strongly disagree 5 2 2.1 2.1 100.0 TOTAL 97 100.0 100.0 M 2.268 SD 1.005 MEN Strongly agree 1 6 6.0 6.0 6.0 Agree 2 31 31.0 31.0 37.0 Neutral 3 35 35.0 35.0 72.0 Disagree 4 17 17.0 17.0 89.0 Strongly disagree 5 11 11.0 11.0 100.0 TOTAL 100 100.0 100.0 M 2.960 SD 1.082 1 3 7 Table 23 Frequencies and Percentages of Response on Question 129 (N=197) Item 129: Fair coverage of women in sport should be encouraged. TOTAL Valid Cumulative Value Label Value Frequency Percent Percent Percent Strongly agree 1 52 26.4 26.4 26.4 Agree 2 92 46.7 46.7 73.1 Neutral 3 35 17.8 17.8 90.9 Disagree 4 14 7.1 7.1 98.0 Strongly disagree 5 4 2.0 2.0 100.0 TOTAL 197 100.0 100.0 M 2.117 SD .948 WOMEN Strongly agree 1 39 40.2 40.2 40.2 Agree 2 48 49.5 49.5 89.7 Neutral 3 6 6.2 6.2 95.9 Disagree 4 3 3.1 3.1 99.0 Strongly disagree 5 1 1.0 1.0 100.0 TOTAL 97 100.0 100.0 M 1.753 SD .791 MEN Strongly agree 1 13 13.0 13.0 13.0 Agree 2 44 44.0 44.0 57.0 Neutral 3 29 29.0 29.0 66.0 Disagree 4 11 11.0 11.0 97.0 Strongly disagree 5 3 3.0 3.0 100.0 TOTAL 100 100.0 100.0 M 2.470 SD .958 1 3 8 Table 24 Frequencies and Percentages of Response on Question 130 (N=197) Item 130: Female athletes should be hired by producers of programs to help the media present a fair picture of women. TOTAL Valid Cumulative Value Label Value Frequency Percent Percent Percent Strongly agree 1 39 19.8 19.8 19.8 Agree 2 77 39.1 39.1 58.9 Neutral 3 57 28.9 28.9 87.8 Disagree 4 19 9.6 9.6 97.5 Strongly disagree 5 5 2.5 2.5 100.0 TOTAL 197 100.0 100.0 M 2.360 SD .988 WOMEN Strongly agree 1 34 35.1 35.1 35.1 Agree 2 34 35.1 35.1 70.1 Neutral 3 22 22.7 22.7 92.8 Disagree 4 6 6.2 6.2 99.0 Strongly disagree 5 1 1.0 1.0 100.0 TOTAL 97 100.0 100.0 M 2.031 SD .791 MEN Strongly agree 1 5 5.0 5.0 5.0 Agree 2 43 43.0 43.0 48.0 Neutral 3 35 35.0 35.0 83.0 Disagree 4 13 13.0 13.0 96.0 Strongly disagree 5 4 4.0 4.0 100.0 TOTAL 100 100.0 100.0 M 2.680 SD .909 139 Table 25 Frequencies and Percentages of Response on Question 131 (N=197) Item 131: Salaries for coaches of men's and women's sports should be equitable. TOTAL Valid Cumulative Value Label Value Frequency Percent Percent Percent Strongly agree 1 70 35.5 35.5 35.5 Agree 2 62 31.5 31.5 67.0 Neutral 3 32 16.2 16.2 83.2 Disagree 4 25 12.7 12.7 95.9 Strongly disagree 5 8 4.1 4.1 100.0 TOTAL 197 100.0 100.0 M 2.183 SD 1.168 WOMEN Strongly agree 1 55 56.7 56.7 56.7 Agree 2 34 35.1 35.1 91.8 Neutral 3 5 5.2 5.2 96.9 Disagree 4 3 3.1 3.1 100.0 Strongly disagree 5 0 0 0 100.0 TOTAL 97 100.0 100.0 M 1.546 SD .736 MEN Strongly agree 1 15 15.0 15.0 15.0 Agree 2 28 28.0 28.0 43.0 Neutral 3 27 27.0 27.0 70.0 Disagree 4 22 22.0 22.0 92.0 Strongly disagree 5 8 8.0 8.0 100.0 TOTAL 100 100.0 100.0 M 2.800 SD 1.181 1 4 0 Table 26 Frequencies and Percentages of Response on Question 132 (N=197) Item 132: Budgets for women's athletics and men's athletics should be equitable. TOTAL Valid Cumulative Value Label Value Frequency Percent Percent Percent Strongly agree 1 65 33.0 33.0 33.0 Agree 2 63 32.0 32.0 65.3 Neutral 3 26 13.2 13.2 78.6 Disagree 4 28 14.2 14.2 92.9 Strongly disagree 5 15 7.1 7.1 100.0 TOTAL 197 100.0 100.0 M 2.301 SD 1.263 WOMEN Strongly agree 1 54 55.7 55.7 55.7 Agree 2 32 33.0 33.0 88.7 Neutral 3 5 5.2 5.2 93.8 Disagree 4 6 6.2 6.2 100.0 Strongly disagree 5 0 0 0 100.0 TOTAL 97 100.0 100.0 M 1.594 SD .815 MEN Strongly agree 1 11 11.0 11.0 11.0 Agree 2 31 31.0 31.0 42.0 Neutral 3 21 21.0 21.0 63.0 Disagree 4 23 23.0 23.0 86.0 Strongly disagree 5 14 14.0 14.0 100.0 TOTAL 100 100.0 100.0 M 2.980 SD 1.247 1 4 1 Table 27 Frequencies and Percentages of Response on Question 133 (N=197) Item 133: Facilities for men's and women's teams should be equitable. TOTAL Valid Cumulative Value Label Value Frequency Percent Percent Percent Strongly agree 1 73 37.1 37.1 37.1 Agree 2 83 42.1 42.1 80.0 Neutral 3 21 10.7 10.7 90.8 Disagree 4 11 5.6 5.6 96.4 Strongly disagree 5 9 3.6 3.6 100.0 TOTAL 197 100.0 100.0 M 1.954 SD 1.017 WOMEN Strongly agree 1 59 60.8 60.8 60.8 Agree 2 33 33.0 33.0 93.8 Neutral 3 2 2.1 2.1 95.9 Disagree 4 3 3.1 3.1 100.0 Strongly disagree 5 0 0 0 100.0 TOTAL 97 100.0 100.0 M 1.421 SD .594 MEN Strongly agree 1 14 14.0 14.0 14.0 Agree 2 50 50.0 50.0 64.0 Neutral 3 19 19.0 19.0 83.0 Disagree 4 10 10.0 10.0 93.0 Strongly disagree 5 7 7.0 7.0 100.0 TOTAL 100 100.0 100.0 M 2.460 SD 1.077