201 Alpha Coal Handbook 2

Alpha Coal Handbook A reference guide for coal, ironmaking, electricity generation, and emissions control technologies.

2012 Edition Forward-Looking Statements Statements in this document which are not statements of historical fact are “forward-looking statements” within the Safe Harbor provision of the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995. Such statements are not guarantees of future per- formance. Many factors could cause our actual results, performance or achievements, or industry results to be materially different from any future results, performance, or achievements expressed or implied by such forward-looking statements. Who Is Alpha? These factors are discussed in detail in our filings with the SEC. We make forward-looking statements based on currently available information, and we assume no obligation to update the statements made herein due to changes in underlying Alpha Natural Resources is one of the world’s premier coal suppliers factors, new information, future developments, or otherwise, except as required by law. with coal production capacity of greater than 120 million tons a Third Party Information This document, including certain forward-looking statements herein, includes information obtained from third party year. Alpha is the United States’ leading supplier of metallurgical sources that we believe to be reliable. However, we have not independently verified this third party information and cannot coal used in the steelmaking process and third-largest in the world. assure you of its accuracy or completeness. While we are not aware of any misstatements regarding any third party data contained in this document, such data involve risks and uncertainties and are subject to change based on various factors, Alpha is also a major supplier of thermal coal to electric utilities including those discussed in detail in our filings with the SEC. We assume no obligation to revise or update this third party information to reflect future events or circumstances. and manufacturing industries across the country. The Company, through its affiliates, operates mines and coal preparation facilities Definitions and Descriptions The definitions, descriptions, formulas and other data used in, or referenced by, this document are not binding for purpos- in Appalachia and the Powder River Basin. More information about es of interpreting any other document, including without limitation agreements to which Alpha Natural Resources, Inc. or any of its affiliates is a party. Neither Alpha Natural Resources, Inc. nor any of its affiliates is responsible for any liabilities Alpha can be found on the Company’s website at www.alphanr.com. arising from a reliance upon the data in this document.

Design: McKenna Daniels Design Go to Contents About Alpha About Alpha

Our Purpose What is RUNNING RIGHT ? We fuel progress around the world. Running Right is an important piece of our culture, a part of who we are and how we operate. At Alpha, we believe every employee should have a seat at the table and participate actively in all aspects of our business. Our Values We conduct our business safely, ethically, honestly and with integrity at all times. Embedded within Running Right is a robust observation process that relies on participation from each and every employee to conduct observations. We care. Caring for one another helps us all return to our families safe and All employees are encouraged to cite safe behaviors, at-risk behaviors and healthy. operational improvements every day in order to improve the safety, efficiency, and productivity of all of our locations in Alpha. We treat each other how we want to be treated. Safe and at-risk behaviors are part of Alpha’s behavior-based safety approach. We trust our people and work together as a team. All employees have an The reason why we focus so much on at-risk behavior is that research has shown opportunity to contribute their ideas and share in our success. that 88 percent of workplace accidents can be attributed to at-risk behavior. At-risk behavior is often the precursor to workplace accidents. We communicate openly, build on what we know and learn, and make informed decisions to keep us ahead of the competition. Observations are reviewed daily. In many cases action can be taken right away and employees are encouraged to take action when observations occur. We embrace change, continuously improving ourselves and our business. Running Right is a big part of who we are and what we do and employee involvement and engagement are the keys to Running Right at Alpha. “We fuel progress around the world...and we do this through the energy of our people.”

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History In July 2009, Alpha consummated its largest business venture to date by completing a merger with Foundation Coal Holdings Inc. The Alpha-Founda- Alpha was formed in 2002 by members of management and by affiliates of First tion merger resulted in the third-largest coal company in America. Reserve Corporation, a private equity firm. In June 2011, Alpha acquired Massey Energy Company in a $7.7 billion We acquired the majority of the Virginia coal operations of Pittston Coal Company, transaction. The acquisition brought together highly complementary assets, which a subsidiary of The Brink’s Company, in December 2002. included more than 150 mines and combined coal reserves of approximately 5 billion tons, including one of the world’s largest and highest-quality metallurgical On January 31, 2003, we acquired Coastal Coal Company, and on March 11, 2003, coal reserve bases. we acquired the U.S. coal production and marketing operations of American Metals and Coal International. In November of that year, we acquired Mears Enterprises, Inc. and affiliated entities. U.S. Leader in Metallurgical Exports Alpha Natural Resources is the largest exporter of metallurgical coal in the United In April of the following year, we acquired substantially all of the assets of States. In 2011, metallurgical export shipments exceeded 14 million tons and we Moravian Run Reclamation Co., Inc., including four active surface mines and two expect to see growth going forward. additional surface mines under development, operating in close proximity to and serving many of the same customers as our AMFIRE business unit located in Alpha ships export coal on the East Coast through Norfolk Southern’s Lamberts Pennsylvania. That May, we acquired a coal preparation plant and railroad loading Point facility in Norfolk, VA; through Dominion Terminal Associates (DTA) in facility located in Portage, Pennsylvania and related equipment and coal inventory Newport News, VA; through Pier IX Terminal in Newport News, VA; and through from Cooney Bros. Coal Company and an adjacent coal refuse disposal site from a CSX Chesapeake Bay piers located in Baltimore, MD. Coal is also moved through Cooney family trust. United Bulk Terminal and International Marine Terminals, both located in New Orleans, LA. In October 2005 Alpha acquired the Nicewonder Coal Group including their three surface mines and a road construction and coal recovery business in southwestern Virginia and southern West Virginia. International Sales and Development Offices In 2010, Alpha opened a European sales office in Lugano, Switzerland. In early In May 2006, Alpha completed the acquisition of certain coal mining operations 2011, Alpha opened two international sales and development offices: one in New in eastern Kentucky from Progress Fuels Corp. Collectively the acquired Delhi, India and one in Sydney, Australia. Each office is focused on increasing businesses controlled 73 million tons of coal reserves. In December of that year, Alpha’s sales of coal to high-growth markets through our existing export platform, an Alpha subsidiary, Palladian Lime LLC, acquired a 94% ownership interest in as well as unique optimization opportunities. Both offices also serve to further Gallatin Materials LLC, a start-up lime manufacturing business in Verona, Ky. That develop and enhance trading opportunities, market intelligence, and strategic interest was subsequently sold in October 2008. relationships in the Asian markets.

In June 2008, Alpha acquired the Mingo Logan-Ben Creek coal mining assets in West Virginia from Arch Coal Inc. Mingo Logan consists of coal reserves, one deep mine and a load-out and coal processing plant.

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Alpha Shipping and Chartering, LLC Alpha Natural Resources U.S. Locations Alpha Shipping and Chartering, LLC, a subsidiary of Alpha Natural Resources, was formed in 2010 to provide ocean shipping services for overseas customers. Alpha is the disponent owner of two Panamax Gearless Bulk Carriers available to Alpha Coal West 2 Surface Mines transport coal or other dry bulk commodities worldwide. WY

Export Capacity Pennsylvania Services Alpha’s total export capacity from all U.S. terminals is approximately 25-30 million 2 Deep Mines tons per year via multiple ports and terminals that provide unique blending, 2 Plants & LOs storage and transportation advantages. Amfire 6 Deep Mines 10 Surface Mines Through our subsidiary, Alpha Terminal Company, LLC, we hold a 41% interest 2 Plants & LOs in Dominion Terminal Associates. The DTA facility consists of state-of-the art blending and sampling systems along with ground storage capability, allowing us to provide outstanding service to customers worldwide. We also have access to PA additional export capacity at Chesapeake Bay piers, Gulf of Mexico/New Orleans, Coal River East 11 Deep Mines and Great Lakes terminals. Coal River West 1 Surface Mine 1 Deep Mine 3 Plants & LOs 1 Surface Mine Brooks Run West 2 Plants & LOs Brooks Run North 5 Deep Mines WV 9 Deep Mines 6 Surface Mines 3 Surface Mines 4 Plants & LOs 4 Plants & LOs

VA KY Corporate Office

Northern Kentucky Southern Kentucky Virginia Brooks Run South Coal River Surface 7 Deep Mines 12 Deep Mines 20 Deep Mines 14 Deep Mines 7 Surface Mines 1 Surface Mines 2 Surface Mines 6 Surface Mines 6 Surface Mines 4 Plants & LOs 3 Plants & LOs 2 Plants & LOs 4 Plants & LOs 4 Plants & LOs

Total Mines: 132* Underground: 87 Surface: 45 Prep Plants: 34

Western Coal Operations – 2011 Eastern Coal Operations – 2011** 49.9 million tons thermal 37.2 million tons thermal 19.2 million tons met

*As of March 31, 2012 **Includes Massey LO = Loadout Go to Contents About Alpha About Alpha

Alpha Natural Coal Loading Facilities, 2011 Alpha Natural Resources Coal Exports, 2011

Barge Terminal Access*** Stockpiling

Business Unit Loadout State Railroad Europe * 7.1mm tons KRT Marmet* Rivereagle

Wheelersburg* Asia Canada/Mexico Long Fork Prep Plant KY NS 3.5mm tons Northern KY Martin County Prep Plant KY NS 2.0mm tons Sidney Prep Plant KY NS Cave Branch Prep Plant KY CSX Southern KY Roxana Plant KY CSX Clearfield PA Truck Clymer Plant PA NS AMFIRE Homer City PA Truck Portage Plant PA NS X Cumberland Plant PA NS/Mon River PA Services Emerald Plant PA CSX Brooks Run South Virginia Energy VA NS X Knox Creek Prep Plant VA NS X Mcclure Plant VA CSX Virginia Pigeon Creek Prep Plant VA NS X X Toms Creek Plant VA NS X X Erbacon Plant WV CSX South America Africa Green Valley Prep Plant WV CSX Brooks Run North X 1.7mm tons 2.0mm tons Mammoth Prep Plant WV NS X Power Mountain Prep Plant WV NS Ben Creek (Black Bear Plant) WV NS X Kepler Plant WV NS Brooks Run South XXXX Litwar Plant WV NS XXXX 2011 Export Shipments Stirrat Prep Plant WV CSX X 14.2mm tons met exports Bandmill Prep Plant WV CSX X 2.1mm tons steam exports Delbarton Prep Plant WV NS Brooks Run West X X 16.3mm tons total exports Holden 29 Loadout WV CSX X Rockspring Plant WV NS X Elk Run Prep Plant WV CSX XX Goals Prep Plant WV CSX Coal River East X Kingston Plant WV CSX X Marfork Prep Plant WV CSX XX Coal River Surface Pax (Hopkins) Loadout WV CSX Homer Iii Loadout WV CSX XX Coal River West Liberty Prep Plant WV CSX XX Omar Loadout WV CSX X Belle Ayr Loadout WY UPR Alpha Coal West Eagle Butte Loadout WY UPR * Marmet is owned by Alpha ** Wheelersburg is run by NS and rails in/out for Alpha stockpiles. Coal is typically used for our Great Lakes business serviced by Sandusky/Toledo terminals. *** We ship barges direct to customers, or down to the Gulf for export all over the globe.

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Table of Contents

Coal Supply & Demand 3 Electricity 53

World Coal Overview 4 Coal 54 U.S. Coal Overview 12 Natural Gas 60 Nuclear 64 Renewables 70 Coal 19 Cooling Systems 84 Formation of Coal 20 Turbines and Generators 86 Mining 22 Transmission and the Grid 88 Mining Laws and Regulations 30 Energy Storage 92 Mine Reclamation 32 Preparation and Processing 34 Emissions Control Technology 95 Transportation 36 Emissions Control 96 Particulate Emissions 98 Metallurgical Coal 39 SO2 & NOx 100 Metallurgical Coal 40 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 104 Coke 46 Mercury (Hg) 106 Iron Making 48 Coal Combustion Laws and Regulations 108 Finished Steelmaking 50

Additional Information 111

Definitions 112 Abbreviations 126 OTC Specifications 131 Conversions and Formulas 132 Useful Websites 141 Coal Supply & Demand

World Coal Overview 4 U.S. Coal Overview 12 World Coal Overview Coal Supply & Demand

World Coal Overview 2011 Global Coal Top 10

World recoverable coal reserves are currently estimated at 948 billion tons, Reserves (M tons) Production (M tons) Consumption (M tons) according to the U.S. Energy Information Agency (EIA), which at current United States 260,551 China 3,523 China 3,695 consumption rates is enough coal to last 118 years. Recoverable coal reserves Russia 173,074 United States 1,085 United States 1,048 represent coal that can be economically extracted at today’s prices using China 126,215 India 623 India 721 current technology. The U.S. has more coal reserves than all other countries Australia 84,217 Australia 463 Russia 257 (29%), followed by Russia (19%), China (14%), and Australia (9%). Anthracite India 66,800 Indonesia 370 Germany 256 and bituminous coal represent half of the world’s recoverable reserves, Germany 44,863 Russia 357 South Africa 206 subbituminous is 32%, and lignite is 18%. Ukraine 37,339 South Africa 281 Japan 206 Kazakhstan 37,038 Germany 201 Poland 149 South Africa 33,241 Poland 146 Australia 145 Serbia 15,179 Kazakhstan 122 South Korea 126 Total Recoverable World Coal Reserves, 2008 Total 948,000 Total 7,985 Total 7,995 Source: EIA (Reserves, 2008; Production & Consumption,Source: 2010)EIA 948 Billion Short Tons Source: EIA (Reserves, 2008; Production & Consumption, 2010)

World coal consumption is expected to increase 39% by 2035 according to the B 2011 EIA International Energy Outlook. Almost all of the future growth in world coal demand is from non-OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) countries, led by Brazil.

World Coal Demand (Millions of Tons)

Source: EIA

Source: EIA

Most of the international trade in coal is in steam coal (70%) imported by Asian countries (58%). Asia also represents 70% of the global coking coal trade market. India and China’s growing economies are driving demand for imported coal. 4 Return to Contents 5 World Coal Overview Coal Supply & Demand

Major Seaborne Coal Trade (2010) Major Seaborne Coal Trade (2011) Major International Coal Ports Source: EIA, IEA, McCloskey, Velocity Suite Major International Coal Ports Source: EIA, IEA, McCloskey, Velocity Suite

56M 88M 63M

341M 2M 283M Primary Purpose Export 17M 60M Import

27M Australia Colombia India West Poland U.S. East Coast Dalrymple Bay Puerto Bolivar Kandia Gdansk Baltimore Net Exports Hay Point Mumbai Swinoujscie Hampton Roads Abbot Point Indonesia Mormugao Gladstone Kalimantan Mundra Russia (Baltic) U.S. Gulf Coast Source: EIA, IEA, McCloskey, Velocity Suite Newcastle Banjarmasin New Mangalore Murmansk New Orleans Importer Exporter Port Kembia Navlakhi Mobile India East Pipavav Russia (Pacific) China Chennai Vostochnyy Qinhuangdao Ennore Italy Rizhao Gangavaram Piombino South Africa Qingdao Haldia Tananto Richards Bay Jingtang Karaikal Tianjin Krishnapatnam NW Europe Western Canada Guangzhou Paradip Antwerp Prince Ruppert Vizag Rotterdam Vancouver Amsterdam Immingham

6 Return to Contents 7 World Coal Overview Coal Supply & Demand

World Generation Capacity & Demand International Steel Intensity Total world electricity generation Steel intensity is a measure of steel The chart below shows the major was 20.6 trillion kilowatt hours 2011 World Electricity Generating Capacity consumption as an economy develops. steel consuming countries, sized by in 2011 according to the EIA, It is the ratio of steel consumption per their population. The line represents with coal responsible for the capita to a country’s gross domestic the typical path countries follow as most generation. Through 2035, product (GDP) per capita. Developing they develop their economies. From worldwide demand for electricity countries require growing quantities of the graphic, we can see that the is expected to grow 84% over steel to build their infrastructure, but developing countries, notably China 2008 levels, with most of that they do not have sufficient available and India, are expected to significantly generation coming from coal. economic resources to meet their steel increase their steel consumption as demand. Developed countries, on the their economies grow. With over 35% other hand, have ample economic of the world’s population, demand for resources, but their demand for steel steel in China and India should drive typically stabilizes because their infra- healthy demand for steel and metallur- structure is largely complete. gical coal in the future.

Source: EIA International Steel Intensity

Source: EIA

8 Return to Contents 9 World Coal Overview Coal Supply & Demand

Internationally Traded Met Coal Demand Internationally Traded Met Coal Supply Primary consumers of internationally coal. Imports to India and China have High quality metallurgical coal is only Developing regions of metallurgical traded metallurgical coal are Europe also grown tremendously as these found in a handful of areas worldwide. coal production are in Mozambique and Asia. Europe has a well-established countries develop. Growing Asian Australia is by far the largest producer and Mongolia. Some of the highest steel making industry but lacks the economies fueled primarily by India and exporter of met coal, followed quality coals are generally found in the metallurgical coal resources to supply and China are expected to support by the United States and Canada. United States and Australia and will its own requirements. This is also the growth in internationally traded Other major producers include Russia, likely remain in demand as there is no case for Japan which has long been a metallurgical coal going forward. Poland, South Africa, and Colombia. suitable replacement. large scale importer of metallurgical

Internationally Traded Met Coal Demand Internationally Traded Met Coal Supply

10 Return to Contents 11 U.S. Coal Overview Coal Supply & Demand

U.S. Coal Supply Major U.S. Coal Seams According to the U.S. Mine Safety & Health 2011 U.S. Coal Production by Basin Administration (MSHA), U.S. coal mines Northern Lignite produced 1.094 billion short tons in 2011. PRB Coal is mined in 26 states. Wyoming NAPP produces the most coal, followed by West Virginia, Kentucky, Pennsylvania, and Rocky/ ILB Montana. The Powder River Basin contains Uinta Basin CAPP some of the largest surface coal mines in the world. About a third of U.S. coal is produced in the Appalachian coal basins, led by West Virginia.

About 9.8%, or 107 million tons of the coal produced in 2011 was exported. The top Est. Avg. Est. Avg. % Est. Avg. % Est. Maximum Est. Maximum Basin Seam Met/Steam five countries for U.S. coal exports were the Btu/lb Sulfur Ash Depth Thickness ILB Herrin No 6 11,484 3.4 10.8 1,000 ft>42 inchesSteam Netherlands, South Korea, Brazil, the U.K, Source: EIA and Japan. About 13.1 million short tons of ILB Springfield No 5 11,756 4.2 12.0 1,000 ft>42 inchesSteam NAPP Pittsburgh 12,159 4.2 11.9 2,000 ft>42 inchesMet/Steam coal were imported into the U.S. in 2011. NAPP Lower Kittanning 13,101 2.7 11.5 2,000 ft>42 inchesMet/Steam The top five countries of origin of U.S. coal NAPP Upper Freeport 12,929 2.3 13.5 2,000 ft>42 inchesMet/Steam imports were Colombia, Canada, Indonesia, NAPP Middle Kittanning 12,785 2.4 12.3 2,000 ft>42 inchesMet/Steam NAPP Lower Freeport 13,086 2.2 10.7 2,000 ft>42 inchesMet/Steam Venezuela, and the Ukraine. NAPP Upper Kittanning 12,767 2.1 13.0 2,000 ft>42 inchesMet/Steam U.S. Coal Basins PRB Anderson 8,835 0.8 6.8 2,000 ft>10 feetSteam PRB Canyon 7,998 0.5 6.5 2,000 ft>10 feetSteam PRB Smith 9,463 0.8 8.9 1,000 ft>10 feetSteam PRB Felix 7,807 1.2 10.2 1,000 ft>10 feetSteam CAPP Coalburg 12,788 0.8 11.4 2,000 ft>42 inchesSteam CAPP Pocahontas No 3 13,862 0.7 8.6 2,000 ft>42 inchesMet CAPP Hazard 12,651 1.2 10.4 1,000 ft>42 inchesSteam CAPP Jawbone 13,085 0.9 12.2 1,000 ft>42 inchesMet/Steam CAPP Lower Elkhorn 13,069 1.1 10.4 1,000 ft>42 inchesMet/Steam CAPP Raven 12,875 0.9 6.0 1,000 ft>42 inchesMet/Steam CAPP Splashdam 13,782 1.1 8.2 1,000 ft>42 inchesMet/Steam CAPP Fire Clay 12,702 1.3 11.2 1,000 ft>42 inchesSteam CAPP Lower Banner 13,497 0.9 9.9 1,000 ft>42 inchesMet/Steam CAPP Upper Banner 13,615 0.9 8.4 1,000 ft>42 inchesMet/Steam CAPP Clintwood 13,770 1.6 6.7 1,000 ft>42 inchesMet/Steam CAPP Sewell 13,762 0.9 5.9 2,000 ft>42 inchesMet/Steam CAPP Eagle 13,564 1.5 8.2 2,000 ft>42 inchesMet/Steam Rocky/UintaLower Lower Sunnyside Sunnside 13,133 1.0 5.9 3,000 ft>42 inchesSteam Gulf Lignite Wilcox Group 6,597 0.9 12.6 UnclassifiedSteam N. Lignite Beulah-­‐Zap 6,439 0.9 7.9 UnclassifiedSteam

Source:USGS Source: Velocity Suite 12 Return to Contents 13 U.S. Coal Overview Coal Supply & Demand

How much coal does the U.S. have? U.S. total coal resources, which are The image below shows estimated coal substantially larger than coal reserves, U.S. Electricity Generation reserves and resources in the U.S. The are estimated to be over 4 trillion The United States generated over 4,100 expects coal-fired generation to estimated recoverable reserves only tons—equivalent to over 4,000 years of billion kilowatt hours of electricity increase 8.5 percent, representing include the coal that can be profitably coal supply for the United States. Coal in 2011, with over 40 percent of that 39 percent of total U.S. electricity mined with today’s mining technology at resources include all coal that has been coming from coal. By 2035, the EIA generation. today’s coal prices. identified or is assumed to be beneath U.S. soil. It includes recoverable reserves Recoverable coal reserves will last the as well as coal that is currently not U.S. approximately 239 years, based on economically accessible using today’s 2010 production levels. According to the technology. As mining technology EIA, if coal consumption grows at an continues to advance and extraction annual rate of 0.4%, U.S. coal reserves economies continue to improve, much of Future U.S. Electricity Generation will be depleted in 168 years, if mining the coal currently classified as a resource (in billion kilowatt hours) technology does not improve, and if coal will eventually be mined. prices do not rise.

U.S. Coal Resources and Reserves Billion Short tons as of January, 2011

Recoverable Reserves at Active Mines 17.9 Estimated Recoverable Reserves 259.5 Demonstrated 484.5 Reserve Base

Identified Resources

1,672.9

Source: EIA Total Resources

4,475.3

Source: EIA, North Dakota Geological Survey 14 Return to Contents 15 U.S. Coal Overview Coal Supply & Demand

U.S. Electricity Generation with Renewable Breakout, 2011 Average Retail Price of Electricity per Kilowatt-Hour, and Average RetailPercent Price of Electricityof Electricity Generated per by CoalKilowatt-Hour, (2010) and Percent of Electricity Generated by Coal (2009) Source: EIA, Velocity Suite

WA 8%

MT 62% ND 82% MN 52% ME 1% OR 7% NH 14% WI 62% ID 1% SD 33% MA 19% NY 10% WY 89% MI 59% RI 0% CT 8% IA 72% PA 48% NJ 10% NV 20% NE 64% IN OH 82% DE 46% IL 46% UT 76% 93% WV MD 54% CA 1% CO 68% 97% DC 0% KS 68% VA 35% MO 81% KY 93% NC 56% TN 53% AZ 39% OK 44% AR 46% NM 71% SC 36%

MS GA 53% 25% AL 41% TX 36% LA 23% FL Source: EIA 26%

Coal % of Total Electric Generation Source: EIA, Velocity Suite 2009 Retail Elec. Price (¢/kWh)

Greater than 14.0¢ /kWh 11.5 to 14.0¢ /kWh 8.5 to 11.5¢ /kWh 7.0 to 8.5¢ /kWh Less than 7.5¢ /kWh

16 Return to Contents 17 International Coal Overview

Coal

Formation of Coal Mine Reclamation

Formation of Coal 20 Quiz: Which are Reclaimed Mines? 32 Coal Rank 21 Coal Beds 21 Preparation and Processing

Preparation and Processing 34 Mining

Coal Mining Introduction 22 Transportation Mine Types 24 Extraction Methods 26 Modes of Coal Transport 36 Surface Mining 28 Major U.S. Coal Export Options 38

Mining Laws and Regulations

Mining Laws and Regulations 30

18 Formation of Coal Coal

Pressure – The depositional environ- Bituminous – Mined in the Appalachian, Formation of Coal ments for coal typically subside as the Illinois, and Rockies regions, most Coal is a sedimentary deposit comprised thick accumulations of plant material, peat and underlying sediments compact. bituminous coal was formed during the of the remnants of decayed plants, known as peat. This, along with fluctuating sea levels, Pennsylvanian and Permian geologic in contrast to minerals which are the allows sand, silt, and clay to be deposited ages. With a highly variable sulfur building blocks for rocks. The plant Time – Accumulations of plant material on top of the peat. This sediment content and usually a high heat content remains that contribute to coal deposits that have become coal are found in accumulates causing pressure that, along (>10,500-14,000 Btu/lb), it is used for depend on the type of plants that existed sedimentary rock layers throughout the with the heat generated by depth of power generation, cokemaking, and other at the inception of the coal formation. The world that are less than 350 million years burial, results in chemical and composi- industrial uses. depositional environment determined the old. The reason that the coal deposits are tional changes, turning peat into lignite. chemical, physical and biological changes not found in older rocks is that plants only Additional pressure turns lignite into Anthracite – Anthracite coal is the that took place to the accumulated plant evolved and became numerous enough bituminous coal, and then into anthracite highest rank, having undergone the remains over time. Like minerals found to form coal deposits about coal, a process called coalification. most metamorphosis; it contains the in rocks, the preserved plant remains are 350 million years ago. highest fixed carbon content. There are metamorphosed over millions of years Coal Rank few anthracite coal reserves around the by pressure and temperature into various Temperature – As the peat becomes more Coal rank describes the amount of world to be mined. The U.S. reserves are kinds of coal. For coal to be preserved in deeply buried, it becomes heated due metamorphosis the coal has undergone located primarily in Pennsylvania. Used the geologic record into a merchantable to the geothermal gradient. Geothermal and is used by industry to classify coals mostly for home heating, anthracite coal and mineable seam thickness requires gradient is defined as the rate of increase for certain uses. Properties of coal rank makes up a very small component of coal a depositional environment where plant of temperature with increasing depth from include carbon content, volatile matter production nationwide. Anthracite coals debris can accumulate faster than it the Earth’s surface. In areas of tectonically content, moisture, and heating value. contain heat values of 12,500+ Btu/lb. It decays. stable sedimentary rock, the geothermal is a misconception that anthracite coals gradient starts at approximately 400 Lignite – Commonly referred to as brown contain the highest heat value due to their Depositional Environments – A thick, feet of depth and is approximately 1°F for coal, lignite is soft and brownish-black rank. The highest rank bituminous coals mineable accumulation of coal requires every 100 feet of depth. in color. Lignite represents the largest contain the highest heat values. a depositional environment portion of the world’s coal reserves. This or geographic setting with geologically young coal has the lowest Coal Beds rapid plant growth. Plant Origins and Formation of Coal carbon content of all coal ranks, offering A coal bed is simply the layer of coal. material and debris are low heat value of 4,000-8,300 Btu/lb on a • Beds vary from a few inches to 100' or preserved by accumu- moist, mineral matter free (mmmf) basis. more. lating faster than they Lignite is mainly used for electric power decay. Tropical rainforests generation. • The rock layers on top of a coal bed or swamps along a are called “overburden.” The rock low-lying coastal delta Subbituminous – This dull black coal layers between coal beds are called are both examples of gives off more heat than lignite, 8,300- “interburden.” The rock layers below depositional environ- 11,500 Btu/lb, and is cleaner burning a coal bed are called “floor rock.” ments that encourage than other coals due to its lower sulfur • 60% of the world coal production content. Subbituminous coals are mined requires underground mining. in Wyoming, Montana, and a few other source: www.truthaboutsurfacemining.com western states.

20 Return to Contents 21 Mining Coal

Coal Mining Introduction Mining and water interact, as with any land disturbance. The effects Mining is one of the oldest and most Once a permit application has been depend on the location of the mine, the important contributors to modern prepared and submitted to the hydrology and climate of an area, and societies. The minerals and precious regulatory agency, it goes through a the physical and chemical properties of metals that are extracted are vital to completeness and technical review. the coal, associated strata, and residual energy, electronics, transportation, Proposed permits also undergo a materials. The quality and quantity of infrastructure, and other aspects of public notice and comment period, surface water and groundwater can everyday life. Coal mining in the United allowing the public and other agencies be protected both within a mine and States is highly regulated at both the to comment on the permit. Some in the surrounding areas if modern federal and state levels to protect mine permits may take several mining techniques and procedures the safety of miners and ensure the years or even longer to be issued. are followed. Unfortunately, in the least environmental impact possible. Regulatory authorities have consider- past, many sites were abandoned with Coal mining creates high paying jobs, able discretion in the timing of the inadequate reclamation measures, supports local, state, and federal permit issuance, including through leaving a legacy of contaminated economies, and produces one of the intervention in the courts. Before a drainage and water pollution. However, only fully domestic energy resources mine permit is issued, a mine operator today’s mitigation technologies offer available to the American people. must submit a bond or otherwise solutions to past problems caused by secure the performance of reclamation out-of-date mining practices. Permitting obligations. Before a company can begin mining, it must go through the rigorous Coal Mining and the Environment process of obtaining a mining permit. The health of the environment is The permit application process always analyzed prior to mining begins by collecting baseline data to through baseline monitoring and adequately characterize the pre-mine analysis. Then, based upon proven environmental condition of the permit engineering principles, data, and area. This work includes surveys of experience, engineers can prepare cultural and historical resources, soils, mine plans that eliminate and/or vegetation, wildlife, assessment of minimize the impacts of mining. surface and groundwater hydrology, Mine planning must mitigate those climatology, and wetlands. In impacts. Before any mining begins, conducting this work, the company the post-mine land use must be collects data to define and model the addressed in such a way that the soil and rock structures and coal that operator restore the land to a will be mined. The company develops condition capable of supporting the mining and reclamation plans using uses it could support prior to mining, this data and incorporating elements of or to “higher or better uses.” the environmental data.

22 Return to Contents 23 Mining Coal

Mine Types Slope Mine Slope mines are another kind of Open Cast Mine underground mine. Slope mining uses Open cast mining simply means mining at shafts that are slanted down to the coal the surface, rather than underground. The or mineral bed, in lieu of drilling shafts mineral deposit is covered by soil, which straight down. is removed and stored for use after mining • Slope mines are usually not as deep by large machines, and then explosives as shaft mines. break up the overburden and ore deposit. • Conveyors bring the coal out of the Overburden is the layers of soil and rock mine using the slope tunnel. that cover a coal seam. • Sometimes there are three slopes – • The greatest number of open cast mines one takes workers in and out of the in the U.S extract bituminous coal. mine and provides an intake for fresh • Globally, about 40% of coal production air, the second takes coal out on a belt involves surface mining. and the third provides an exhaust for returned or used air. Shaft Mine When the top of a vertical excavation is Drift Mine the ground surface, it is referred to as a Drift mining is used when the coal or shaft, hence the term “shaft mining.” Shaft mineral is accessed from the side of a mining uses a vertical mineshaft, a tunnel mountain. The opening to the mine is where miners travel up and down in an dug from a bench to the coal or mineral elevator. Mine ventilation is also provided vein. through the shafts. Tunnels are dug out from the mine shaft into the mine seam. • Drift mines have horizontal entries, Once the coal is mined, it is transported called adits, in the coal deposit from a to the surface typically through a second hillside. source: www.truthaboutsurfacemining.com vertical shaft. • Conveyance/transportation equipment often contains conveyor belts, rubber- tired equipment, or track equipment.

source: www.truthaboutsurfacemining.com

24 Return to Contents 25 Mining Coal

Extraction Methods

Long Wall Mining Room & Pillar Mining This highly productive underground The most common type of coal mining technique occurs when a underground coal mining involves long wall, about 250-400 meters long the excavation of a room or chamber of coal, is mined in a single slice, while leaving behind pillars of coal typically 1-2 meters thick. Long wall to support the roof. Coal seams are mining machines consist of multiple mined using a continuous miner, coal shearers mounted on a series a machine that extracts the coal of self-advancing hydraulic ceiling without interrupting the loading supports. Long wall miners extract process. Excavation is carried out in “panels,” or rectangular blocks of a pattern advancing away from the coal as wide as the mining machinery entrance of a mine. Once a deposit and as long as 12,000 feet. has been exhausted, pillars may be removed, or pulled, in a pattern Short Wall Mining opposite from which the mine source: www.truthaboutsurfacemining.com Similar to the long wall method, advanced, known as retreat mining. except the blocks of coal are no longer than 100 meters wide and removed by a continuous miner. The roof support also operates similarly to long wall shields, allowing it to collapse once the miner has advanced. It currently accounts for less that 1% of deep coal production. Coal panels are 150-200 feet wide and more than a half mile long.

source: www.truthaboutsurfacemining.com

26 Return to Contents 27 Mining Coal

Surface Mining Mountaintop Mining Auger Mining Used where the presence of Working on a contour mining multiple coal seams allow for bench, or in an open mine pit, coal extraction across the entire horizontal holes are drilled up to area rather than around edges a distance of 300 feet into a coal as in contour mining. Large seam. The coal is removed by a scale equipment is used to move special auger through a screw-like overburden from above coal action. seams and extract coal. Open-Pit Mining Contour Mining Appropriate only where terrain Follows the contours of one is flat or only slightly rolling and or more coal seams around a where coal seams are very thick. hillside where these are exposed. An open pit is excavated with Overburden is excavated and terraces, or benches, that expose the coal is removed creating a the coal seam for extraction. working bench referred to as a “contour bench.” When mining is finished the contour bench is filled in.

Highwall Mining source: www.truthaboutsurfacemining.com Holes or entries are excavated up to a distance of 1,000 feet into a coal seam. A special highwall mining machine advances into the coal seam. Its cutting head U.S. Surface Mining Fast Fact removes the coal and moves it Approximately 69% of U.S. coal to conveyor cars attached to the production is from surface mines. machine.

source: www.truthaboutsurfacemining.com

28 Return to Contents 29 Mining Laws and Regulations Coal

Mining Laws and Regulations “Permitorium” in that region. In addition, electrical In June 2009, a Memorandum of conductivity is a non-specific parameter Surface Mining Control and Other Environmental Laws and Understanding (MOU) on Appalachian that does not specifically characterize Reclamation Act (SMCRA) Regulations Surface Coal Mining was issued by water quality or define its impact on This act governs valley fill engineering, Other regulations that impact coal the Environmental Protection Agency aquatic life and therefore is an inappro- water drainage controls, stabiliza- mining include: Safe Drinking Water (EPA), Dept. of the Interior (DOI), and priate regulatory metric. tion of soils and reforestation. Mining Act, Solid Waste Disposal Act, National the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers companies must minimize disturbance Environmental Policy Act, Resource (Corps) to immediately implement It is unlikely permitting will return of the hydrologic balance within the Conservation and Recovery Act, Compre- an “Enhanced Coordination Process” to historical levels due to additional permit and adjacent area while mining, hensive Environmental Response, (ECP) to more closely scrutinize CWA tactics employed by regulating bodies and leave the land after mining in Compensation and Liability Act, Toxic fill permits issued by the Corps. such as the OSM’s Stream Protection a state equal to or better than the Substances Control Act, Migratory Bird The EPA developed a Multi-Criteria Rule, EPA’s permit veto authority, and pre-mining state. Companies must Treaty Act, Endangered Species Act, Integrated Resource Assessment the Corps’ suspension of Nationwide post bonds which cannot be released National Historic Preservation Act, and (MIRA) process to help decision makers permits (NWP 21) in Appalachia, until the post-mining plans are fully various state statutes and regulations. to make more informed decisions together with additional guidance completed and the land is demon- that included stakeholder concerns. documents that are expected in the strated to be at least as productive as Stream Buffer Zone The ECP/MIRA process was supposed near future. its pre-mining state. This rule was issued by the Office to streamline the permitting process of Surface Mining Reclamation and according to the MOU, however new Reclamation Clean Water Act (CWA) Enforcement (OSM) in 2008 under permit issuance effectively stopped. All surface mines must be reclaimed Sections of this act, along with states’ requirements of the SMCRA. The rule Over 230 §404 permits have been to a state equal to or better than National Pollutant Discharge Elimi- puts restrictions on how coal miners stalled by the EPA. In October 2011, the pre-mining state. This involves nation System (NPDES) permit, govern can dispose of coal mine waste and the D.C. District Court invalidated the restoration of disturbed land, soil stream and wetland restoration and spoils created by the mining operation. process, concluding the EPA “exceeded stabilization, water drainage control, continuous water quality monitoring at The rule requires mine operators to the authority conferred upon it by the reforestation, and water quality mining. all water discharge points from mines, avoid disturbing streams to the extent Clean Water Act.” Below is an image of a once active preparation plants and coal handling possible and when operators must mine site (left) and its current state facilities. Section 404 of the CWA maintain a buffer between mining The EPA has also issued new water (right) almost 30 years later. specifically regulates the discharge of operation and streams. quality guidance for surface mines in dredged and fill materials into waters of Appalachia, which stipulates that water Reclaimed Mine — Before and After the U.S. and is used to regulate mining. Stream Protection Rule discharging from mining disturbances The OSM is in the process of must not exceed 500 microSiemens Clean Air Act developing a new rule to replace the per centimeter (µS/cm, a unit of Limits the amount of particulate Stream Buffer Zone rule. This draft rule measurement of conductivity), and or fugitive matter that can be is referred to as the Stream Protection water in excess of as low as 300 µS/ gener­ated at a mine site. Sources Rule. OSM is conducting an Environ- cm would be cause for close, critical include dust generated by mining mental Impact Statement for the new scrutiny of the mining operation’s equipment and haul trucks moving rule and a new proposed rule may permit conditions. These values are across unpaved areas. follow after completion of the EIS. extremely low and difficult to achieve, thus effectively eliminating mining

30 Return to Contents 31 Mine Reclamation Coal

Quiz: 4. A forest in Logan County, Which of the following are reclaimed mine sites? West Virginia To learn more, go to: www.truthaboutsurfacemining.com.

1. Big Sandy Regional Airport in Debord, Kentucky

5. A farm in Southwest Virginia

2. Pete Dye Golf Club in Bridgeport, West Virginia

6. YMCA Paul Cline Memorial Youth Sports Complex in Beckley, 3. A stream in West Virginia

Southwest Virginia

Quiz Answer: Answer: Quiz All six of these images are of reclaimed mine sites in Appalachia. in sites mine reclaimed of are images these of six All

32 Return to Contents 33 Preparation and Processing Coal

Preparation and Processing Waste coal is a byproduct of coal mentary products having different processing operations, usually mining costs such that the final product After mining, coal is washed to remove mixture of magnetite and water. composed of coal, soil, and rock can achieve a customer’s price and impurities and increase heating value. Less dense coal floats to the top fragments. quality objectives. Benefits are: Preparation plants remove rock, and is skimmed off. • Optimizes plant fuel usage, sulfur, and other particulates from b. Intermediate sizes use a similar Coal Is Cleaned controlling coal quality. the run-of-mine coal. These plants After coal is mined it generally technique, however, the coal • Maximizes fuel efficiency in also allow mining companies to sort goes through a process known as and heavy media mixture is response to forecasted generation coal based on quality, enhancing their preparation or coal cleaning. Removing spun in a cyclone to speed up needs. ability to serve customers’ various the process. Less dense coal impurities from coal is done in order to: • Minimizes coal quality events, specifications. spins out of the top of the • Boost the heat content of the coal. reducing fouling, slagging, and cyclone while rock falls out of • Improve power plant capacity. emission occurrences. Each coal preparation plant has three the bottom. primary sections: • Reduce maintenance costs at the c. Fines, particles of coal usually power plant and extend plant life. less than one-sixteenth inch, are Coal Is Sized to Specifications 1. Sizing: Coal is usually separated separated first by a cyclone then • Reduce potential air pollutants, Sizing coal is the process of using grates of three sizes: coarse, recovered by froth flotation. The especially sulfur dioxide. segregating lumps of coal that are intermediate, and fines. Each size fines/rock mixture is added to similar in size. Coal passes over one or follows a different path through the a tank where special chemicals Coal Is Blended more vibrating screens and the larger plant. sizes not passing through each screen help the coal to adhere to air Blending is simply a mixture of two or a. Most utility coal specifications bubbles rising through the tank. are separated. will require a 2” x 0 (2 inch or more types of coal. This provides, for The coal is skimmed off the top. • The sizes of coal produced may vary less) product with a maximum example, the potential to mix lower The fine rock is then removed depending on customer needs and percentage of fines. This allows cost or low quality coals with higher using a thickening agent and a cost or higher quality coals and reduce type of coal. for efficient shipping & handling skimmer. of the coal before being the overall cost of the final blend. • The desired outcome is the same: pulverized for combustion. Blending of two or more kinds of coal coal that can be handled and burned 3. Dewatering: Coarse and interme- together into a shipment provides a more advantageously. b. Some customers, especially in diate coals are first rinsed to remove seller the opportunity to mix comple- the industrial sector, will request any remaining magnetite. They are stoker coal which is smaller and then spun in a centrifuge to remove relatively uniform in size since it excess water. Fines are dewatered will not be crushed again before using vacuum disk filters. The filter burning. disks are placed under a vacuum which pulls the water from the 2. Processing: This is where rock and fines. Once the vacuum pressure is other contaminants are removed. removed the fine coal falls from the a. Coarse coal is separated using disk. Fines may also go through a a heavy media bath which is a secondary thermal dryer.

34 Return to Contents 35 Transportation Coal

Modes of Coal Transport Below is a list of the options for transporting coal. There is no specific tonnage for bulk carriers, but deadweight tonnage (dwt) should be used as an estimate. Trucks – For shorter hauling distances, A common barge tow of a towboat and smaller quantities, and access to certain 15 barges can haul 25,000 tons of coal. Transportation loading points, trucks meet the need. 20% of the coal used in U.S. electricity They are used mainly in short hauls to generation travels by inland waterways. Approximate Mode nearby electric and industrial plants. Although slower, barges are cost Capacity (tons) Multimodal deliveries can include effective and fuel efficient, hauling one trucks, railcars, and barges. Trucks are ton of cargo 576 miles per gallon of fuel. Truck < 25 often the quickest and easiest way to move product and are able to be scaled Bulk Carrier – Single deck ship designed up or down as needs change. Highway to carry homogeneous dry cargoes, Rail car 100 to 125 trucks haul coal in loads typically under such as coal, ores, grains, etc. 25 tons. Unit train 10,000 to 18,750 Storage – Coal is often stored at a plant, (100 to 150 cars) Trains – Rail is an effective way to river port, or import/export terminal. move large quantities of coal over long Without some type of storage, the River barge 1,700 distances. Nearly three-fourths of the logistics of supplying coal would be coal produced annually in the U.S. far more difficult and costly. This also River barge tow 25,000 moves by rail. A typical coal train travels allows the blending of different coal (~15 barges) over 800 miles from a mine to a plant products to better meet customer needs Deadweight or terminal, carrying about 12,000 tons while optimizing the value received Mode of coal in 100 to 120 cars, but trains by the mine operators. Coal storage Tonnage (Dwt) can be up to 150 cars long. Each coal must be managed and controlled Reclaimed mines are: A, B, D, F train is about a mile long, or more. using proven practices, since some Handysize > 10,000 - 40,000 Railroads carry more coal than any other coals, especially lower rank coals, have Handymax/ commodity. Coal is about 40% of the a natural tendency to heat through > 40,000 to 60,000 annual volume hauled by rail in the U.S. spontaneous combustion. Supramax

Panamax/ > 60,000 to 100,000 Barges – The river system in the U.S. U.S. Transportation Fast Facts Post-Panamax includes 12,000 miles of waterways. For coal with access to this system, Transportation Million Tons Mode* (2011) Capesize 100,000 + barges are a good way to move it. One barge carries up to 1,700 tons of coal. Railroad 700 River 105 Truck 110 Other 63

Source: EIA *Tons of coal by mode of terminating receipt.

36 Return to Contents 37 Transportation

Major U.S. Coal Export Options Major U.S. Coal Export Options

Ridley, Prince Rupert, BC

Vancouver BC Metallurgical BNSF - CP - CN BNSF - CP - CN Seattle BNSF Coal Columbia UP & BNSF PRB

UP UP & BNSF Metallurgical Coal Iron Making Philadelphia NAPP Baltimore UP ILB CSX & NS Metallurgical Coal Overview 40 Blast Furnace Iron Making 48 Rocky Mtn UP & BNSF Metallurgical Coal Properties 41 Pulverized Coal Injection (PCI) 48 Richmond CAPP Hampton Roads

Long Beach & CN Los Angeles Charleston Coke Finished Steelmaking CSX

Jacksonville Coke Making 46 Finished Steelmaking 50 Houston Mobile New Orleans Coke Properties 47 Legend Port

Rail Movement

Water Movement

Potential Movement

Export Volume

38 Return to Contents Metallurgical Coal Metallurgical Coal

Metallurgical Coal Overview Metallurgical Coal Properties

Coal is a heterogeneous mixture of where the volatiles from the coal Petrographic analysis is used to assess • Liptinite, which is comprised of spores, organically derived plant remains escape, leaving behind what is referred the utilization potential of coals and has resins, and cuticles of the preserved which have undergone chemical and to as metallurgical coke, which reaches proven particularly useful in gaining plant remains, is also very reactive. In physical changes in response to biologic a temperature of approximately insight into their coking potential— being terms of coking properties, members and geologic processes. The right 1,000°C before being removed from the the only test available that can dissect coal of the liptinite group have much lower conditions must exist for plant materials ovens. The coking cycle normally takes into its integral parts and characterize them coke yields than their associated to accumulate and be preserved in the place in 18 hours for an oven width of by rank, type, and grade simultaneously. vitrinite and contribute more heavily geologic record. Coal formation occurred 18 inches, or one inch per hour. Coke is to the by-products during coke making as far back as 350 million years ago and used primarily as a fuel and a reducing Coal is comprised of three major maceral (i.e., gas, tars, and light oils). Liptinite as recently as 2 million years ago. agent in a blast furnace during the groups — vitrinite, inertinite, and liptinite — matures much more slowly than its smelting of iron ore into iron before it which proceeded along distinctly different associated vitrinite in the early stages Coals are classified on the basis of is converted into steel. metamorphic paths. of coalification, up through high volatile rank, type and grade. Older deposits are A bituminous in rank, and then very • Vitrinite is the predominant maceral more likely to be higher in rank as their Nearly all of the U.S. metallurgical coal quickly in the medium volatile rank constituent in nearly all coals, originating biologically digested plant remains were mines are located in Appalachia which range where it becomes optically indis- from the woody tissue of plants. It’s buried deeper, exposing them to higher extends from Pennsylvania to the north tinguishable from the vitrinite. the most abundant of the macerals and temperatures and pressures, which and Alabama to the south with the matures the most uniformly throughout advance the process of coalification. vast majority of production clustered • Mineral matter, which comprises the coalification process. Its reflectance Rank refers to the degree of alteration around the borders of southern West the ash and sulfur found in the coal, in plane polarized light is often used or metamorphism of the plant remains. Virginia, eastern Kentucky, and western can be quite variable depending on as the ultimate indicator of rank. In Type refers to the variety of plant Virginia. its origin, and its level of concentra- terms of coking properties, vitrinite remains preserved, known as macerals, tion can impact utilization potential. is the predominate reactive binder and grade refers to the minerals The inherent ash forming minerals forming the wall and pore structure associated with and/or accompanying Major U.S. Metallurgical Coal Mines which contribute to a plant’s nutrients of coke and acting as the cement the plant remains during the inception represent the more basic components necessary to assimilate and bond the of coal formation. in the ash, while its inherent sulfur is aggregate, which originates with the of the organic variety. Ash forming inertinite group. Metallurgical coal, also referred to as minerals added later as impurities met coal or coking coal, ranges from • Inertinite is comprised of various plant during or after the biochemical high volatile A through low volatile remains which achieved a high rank stage can be basic or acidic in nature bituminous in rank, and possesses the early in the coalification process such depending on their origin. Pyritic sulfur ability to soften and re-solidify into a as fusinite and semifusinite which can also be of primary or secondary coherent, porous mass, when heated originated from woody tissue exposed origin, originating from bacterial from 300 to 550°C in the absence of air to fire and converted to charcoal, or action or the precipitation from sulfur in a confined space. The conversion micrinite which is believed to be the bearing waters. Met coal, and the from coal to coke occurs in long, tall, product of accelerated decay of a variety resulting coke, must have low ash and slender chambers called coke ovens of plant tissues during the inception of sulfur content for it to be used in the Source: Velocity Suite coal formation. Most inertinite, as the steelmaking process. name implies, is inert. 40 Return to Contents 41 Metallurgical Coal Metallurgical Coal

Metallurgical coals are usually classified volatile content. Other terms used to normally applies to lower rank high quality. Ash composition has also been as high, medium, and low volatile describe metallurgical coals are hard vol coals. PCI is described in the blast found to impact coke reactivity and based on their dry, mineral matter coking, semi-soft, and PCI. Coking furnace ironmaking section. the all-important coke strength after free volatile matter (dmmf VM). High coal, by definition, must be hard and reaction (CSR) results. The composition vol coals are typically between 31% the term hard coking coal is a general Coals considered as candidates for use of the ash should have as low a base/ and 38%, while mid vols between 22% term used to describe coking coals in cokemaking must pass a barrage acid ratio as possible with low alkalis and 31%, and low vols between 17% with superior coking properties relative of analytical tests before they can (K2O and Na2O) and low phosphorus and 22% volatiles. There is usually to their semi-soft counterparts. As be considered suitable for use. Met pentoxide (P2O5) content. a strong inverse relation between described earlier, coking properties are coals are analyzed for their chemical, vitrinite reflectance and dry ash free rank dependent and the term semi-soft physical, rheological (coking process), Sulfur, like ash, must be removed from and petrographic (rank, type, and the hot metal, either within or outside Met Coal Properties grade) properties. The preceding the furnace, and like ash, contributes to table identifies the majority of char- higher coke rates and lower hot metal Analysis Focus Test Low Vol Mid Vol High Vol Importance acterization tests performed and the productivity. Moisture ideally, as low as possible consumes energy importance of each in the context of Ash ideally, as low as possible coke impurity Proximate cokemaking. The ash fusion test is performed in a Volatile 17 - 22% dry 22 - 31% dry 31 - 38% dry impacts coke yield reducing atmosphere and helps assess Fixed Carbon ideally, as high as possible impacts coke yield The amount of volatile matter in met the combined effect the ash forming Sulfur (S) ideally, as low as possible hot metal impurity coal impacts coke yield - the amount minerals have on ash softening Ultimate C, H, N, O composition of coal of coke and by-products produced per properties at different temperature Chemical Initial Deformation ton of coal charged. Increased moisture levels. Higher ash fusion temperatures Softening (H=W) low fusion temperatures has a comparable impact on coke yield prevent ash from depositing on coke Ash Fusion ideally, as high as possible - >2,700°F can cause ash to deposit Hemispherical (H=1/2W) on coke oven walls and can also impact bulk density in the oven floors and walls or freeing up Fluid ovens and the underfiring requirements fresh carbon surfaces to reactive gases.

SiO2, Al2O3, TiO2, CaO, MgO, low base/acid ratio (<0.20), low alkalis (<3% chemistry impacts coke in tems of btu/lb of coal carbonized. Ash Mineral K2O, Na2O, Fe2O3, P2O5, SO3 K2O + Na2O), low P 2O5 (<0.02%) CSR The light transmittance test was Oxidation Light transmittance test want non-oxidized coal; oxidized coal creates poor coke The ash in met coal becomes an developed to detect weathered Physical Hardness Hargrove Grindabilty Index measure's coal resistance to crushing impurity in the coke and therefore or oxidized coal found primarily

Gieseler Plastomer Test (DDPM) 20 - 1,000 <200 - 20,000 5,000 - >30,000 Tests rheological or displaces carbon in the blast furnace. in surface mined coking coal. The plastic properties - the want wide plastic temp range to blend with Consequently, ash contributes to presence of even small amounts of Gieseler Plastic Temp Range ability, when heated in other coals the absence of air, to higher coke rates, and it reduces hot oxidized coal will decrease fluidity, Rheological Plasticity Dilatometer Test (% Dilatation) <0 - +200% +100 - +250% +50 - +300% soften, swell, and then metal production due to increased slag dilatation, coke strength, and lead to resolidify to form a higher values are better, porous, hard coke Free Swelling Index volumes and the additional coke and excessive fines generation which in most coking coals >6 structure limestone required to smelt out the turn create coal handling problems best rank indicator; correlates with most ash. The composition of the ash is also and decreased oven bulk densities. Rank Vitrinite Reflectance 1.45 - 1.7% 1.15 - 1.40% 0.70 - 1.12% other coking coal important because certain components Oxidized coal also contributes to evaluation parameters Petrographic of the ash, such as the alkalis and reduced by-product yields and Optimum ratio of reactives to inerts for any particular reflectance for Type Maceral maximum coke strength phosphorus pentoxide content, will increased heating requirements also impact coke rate and hot metal during the conversion of coal to coke. Grade Mineral ash constituents, see above Source: SGS

42 Return to Contents 43 Metallurgical Coal Metallurgical Coal

Coke produced from coal charges The Dilatometer test measures the Met Coal Blends sufficiently away from the oven walls containing oxidized coal will also contraction and dilatation of a 60mm Met coal blends are generally in order to allow for its easy discharge increase the coke reactivity index (CRI) pencil of coal in an oven of rising formulated from a variety of different from the oven. and decrease its corresponding CSR. temperature. The dilatometer results ranks, types and grades of coals are particularly useful because they sourced from different geographic Other process variables in the coking Plasticity tests measure the degree indirectly measure the thickness and regions with the purpose of producing process that must be controlled to which coking coals soften, swell, viscosity of the plastic layer, and how the highest quality coke at the lowest include coal blend moisture, pulveriza- dilate, and subsequently resolidify over they are impacted by the amount and possible cost while protecting the tion, charge bulk density, and coking the temperature range from 300°C to rate of gas evolution during softening ovens in which those blends will be rate. The coal charge bulk density, 550°C when heated in the absence of and re-solidification. The Free Swelling carbonized. measured in pounds per cubic foot, air. Some plasticity tests also measure Index (FSI) also tests the plastic must be controlled to maximize oven the ability of a coal to agglomerate properties of coal; however its value as Most North American coal blends productivity and coke stability, while and assimilate inert material over this a rheological test is limited because it are formulated to fall between maintaining safe coking pressure same temperature range. The Gieseler is more of a threshold test having little 1.16% and 1.20% mean maximum and blend contraction. Increased coal plastometer test measures the fluidity quantitative value. The test involves reflectance (27.5 - 29.5% volatile matter pulverization increases coke strength or plasticity of coking coal in a cylinder heating a gram of coal in a crucible content)—a level necessary to achieve and blend homogeneity, however too with a stirrer inserted inside. The to 800°C and then visually comparing maximum coke strength safely, finely ground coal is more difficult to cylinder of coal is heated at a constant the resulting coke button to a standard after factoring in all the operational handle and often leads to lower oven rate as steady torque is applied to the chart of shapes and sizes to determine constraints of by-product slot ovens. bulk densities and more problems stirrer. As the coal heats up, it softens the FSI value on a scale of one to nine. Coal blends must perform optimally with emissions and carryover in the and the stirrer rotates. The DDPM (dial Most coking coals have an FSI value in the confined space of the ovens in by-product collection system during divisions per minute) is the maximum greater than six. Other rheological which they are carbonized, while at oven charging. The coking or heating amount of revolutions the stirrer tests used around the world include the same time ensuring oven safety. rate of the coal charge, as measured in completes. The test is logarithmic with the Gray-King test, the Roga index, the The coking pressure of the coal blend inches per hour, impacts coke strength, high volatile coals exhibiting fluidities G caking index, and the Sapozhnikov being carbonized must be kept within coke pressure, blend contraction, many multiples higher than low volatile plastometer. The sole-heated oven strict limits, based on the age and carbon formation, and oven produc- coals, with medium volatile coals test, the pressure oven test, and the height of the ovens to avoid undue tivity. Heat of carbonization and coking generating values in between those movable oven wall test are technically pressure on the walls which can lead times, which are more coal-blend extremes. Since the combined effect of classified as rheological tests but are to their premature failure. The coal related, are also impacted by changes the test procedure and equipment on intended to measure the performance blend which initially expands during its in operating practice. the ddpm results can contribute to an of formulated blends in terms of conversion to coke must also contract unacceptably high reproducibility, the contraction away from the oven walls, plastic range is a more useful indicator the pressure exerted against the oven of coking performance and ties more walls, and the quality of coke expected closely to the dilatometer results where to be produced respectively. the reproducibility is much better.

44 Return to Contents 45 Coke Metallurgical Coal

Coke Making

Most metallurgical coke is produced Coke is far stronger than coal and is Analysis Test Coke Property in airtight slot ovens operated under able to support the blast furnace burden Ash ideally, as low as possible - coke impurity slight positive pressure, whereas the which includes iron ore in the form of Chemical more recent adoption by the industry pellets, sinter, and/or lump ore as well as Sulfur ideally, as low as possible - coke impurity of non-recovery ovens operate under limestone. In addition to providing the Size consistent for blast furnace air flow slight negative pressure to avoid air required permeability necessary to blow Strength/Hardness stronger is better emissions. In both cases, the coke process wind up into the furnace, which enhances is considered complete once the center of productivity, coke also supplies much of Physical Coke Strength after Reaction > 60% the oven charge reaches a temperature the heat required to melt the iron ore and Coke Reactivity Index < 25% approaching 1000°C. The end product is the carbon necessary to complete the called coke. In slot ovens which are 18” in reduction process. width this normally takes around 18 hours Iron Ore impurities in the slag. whereas in non-recovery ovens the coking The most important chemical properties Iron ore is predominantly used for High-quality lump iron ore is also cycle per oven is between 40 to 48 hours of coke are its ash and sulfur contents, steelmaking and mined in deposits directly charged into the blast furnace. due to their thicker beds. A series of coke along with its alkali, phosphorous, and around the world. The largest ovens is referred to as a coke battery. base/acid ratio in the coke ash. Physical producing countries of iron ore are Flux properties analyzed are size, strength (or Australia, Brazil, China and India. Flux, which is crushed limestone, is In a by-product coke battery, one ton of hardness), coke strength after reaction also charged into the furnace to capture met coal yields approximately: (CSR), and coke reaction to CO2 (CRI). Iron ore pellets are the most common impurities and reduce the melting The coke reactivity index and coke iron bearing material used in North point of the slag. The calcium in the • 1,300-1,400 lbs coke strength after reaction tests are intended America; ore is processed near the limestone combines with the silicates to simulate the strength properties of • 100-500 lbs coke breeze (fines) mine sites into small pellets containing coming from the coke ash and iron coke as it descends in the blast furnace • 8-12 gal. tar 60% to 65% iron. ore burden, and any sand that might and is exposed to increasing quantities of be added at times to balance the slag • 20-28 lbs ammonium sulfate reducing gases at higher temperatures. Iron ore sinter is most common in basicity to the desired levels in order • 15-35 gal. ammonia liquor CSR has become a more important quality Europe and Asia. Iron ore sinter is optimize the capture sulfur, alkali and parameter for blast furnace operators as • 2.5-4.0 gal. light oil processed at the steel plant where iron other unwanted impurities. coke rates have declined and the amount ore is heated along a slow moving belt • 9,500-11,500 cu. ft. coke oven gas of pulverized coal and other fuel injectants to form lumps of sinter. (~550 Btu/cu. ft.) increased. Both pellets and sinter can be of the North America has the capacity to make acid or flux variety. Many operators roughly 19-20 million tons per year have found it advantageous to use of coke. flux burdens because the gangue in the pellets and sinter can displace some of the limestone used to capture

46 Return to Contents 47 Iron Making Metallurgical Coal

Blast Furnace Iron Making Diagram of a Blast Furnace

Coke is combined with an iron (Fe) metal, hardens as it cools, and then Top Gas bearing material to be smelted into pig is granulated to make aggregate. The iron. Coke, iron oxide, and limestone liquid iron is then transported to the are charged into the top of a blast next stage of the steelmaking process. furnace in alternating layers. Ore Pulverized Coal Injection (PCI) Coke Within the blast furnace, the iron Additional fuels, specifically natural oxides are reduced; meaning oxygen gas and/or coal, can be injected into Stack Zone is removed in a chemical reaction. In the blast furnace to reduce the use the lower part of the furnace direct of expensive coke. Coal must be reduction occurs where carbon (C) in pulverized and injected directly into Cohesive Zone the coke and PCI (see below) reacts the bottom of the furnace in a process with the FeO to produce Fe and CO, called pulverized coal injection (PCI). which is a very endothermic reaction. PCI has a high installation cost, but When the hot air blast ignites the increases the productivity and reduces carbon contained in the coke and overall operating costs of a blast Active Coke Zone pulverized coal it also produces CO. furnace, making it an attractive option Higher up in the furnace, indirect to integrated steel makers. Some reduction occurs where reducing facilities co-fire PCI coal and natural Stagnant gases like carbon monoxide (CO) and gas together. Coke Zone Hot Blast Raceway hydrogen (H) originating with coke,

PCI, and moisture in the blast are used Low rank high vol and high rank Hearth Slag to strip away oxygen (O2) from Fe2O3 low vol coal or blends of both are Hot Metal and Fe3O4. This reaction is only slight commonly used for PCI. Other fuels endothermic. The lowest amount of like natural gas and recycled oil are Source: OSTI heat required to convert iron oxides to also used to supplement coke rates. iron is achieved with a balance of 55% Variations in their hydrogen, carbon indirect and 45% direct reduction. content, and heat of combustion result Eventually the reduced iron oxide in varying coke replacement ratios, other fuels is that it has the potential to well and its grindability must match the becomes molten and accumulates but in general terms one pound of replace the largest quantity of coke in equipment design in order to achieve at the bottom of the furnace. The coal injected through the tuyeres at the blast furnace; today some furnaces the rated capacity for the installation. As limestone flux descends through the the bottom of the blast furnace will regularly operate with as much as in the case of coke, lower ash and sulfur furnace and bonds to the sulfur in the replace approximately one pound of 550 pounds of injectant per ton of hot of the PCI is more desirable as they iron, and becomes part of the slag. coke per ton of hot metal produced. It metal. Since the coal is pulverized to effect coke rates and iron production When the furnace is tapped, liquid is also becoming more commonplace 70-80% minus 200 mesh before it can be much the same way elevated levels in metal (pig iron) and slag flow out. The to see coal and gas being co-fired. injected into the furnace, whatever coal the coke do. The same can be said about slag is skimmed off the top of the liquid The advantage of using coal over source is chosen for PCI must handle the ash composition of the PCI.

48 Return to Contents 49 Finished Steelmaking Metallurgical Coal

Finished Steelmaking Diagram of Steelmaking Primary steelmaking is the process of iron, or direct reduced iron, giving further refining blast furnace hot metal. operators additional flexibility. In Electric Arc Furnace Steel Refining Produces Molten Steel Facility There are two types of steelmaking: general, nations further into their basic oxygen furnace (BOF) and electric industrial lifecycle, such as the U.S, Iron Ore arc furnace (EAF). produce a greater percentage of EAF steel while developing nations, such as

In a basic oxygen furnace, molten China produce a greater percentage of Coal Injection pig iron, along with as much as 30% primary steel. scrap steel is charged into the furnace. Natural Gas Oxygen (O ) is blown through the Direct Reduction 2 Steel Fast Facts Produces Solid, hot metal, igniting and reducing its Coal Metallic Iron carbon (C) content, forming CO and from Iron Ore 2 1.43 tons of coal per ton of coke CO. During this process, the hot metal Recycled Steel is further refined to remove impurities 0.40 tons of coke per ton of iron Basic Oxygen Furnace Produces Molten Steel such as sulfur and phosphorus; 0.80 tons of iron per ton of liquid steel Coke Oven special additives such as nickel and 1.07 tons of liquid steel per ton of finished steel Coal manganese are incorporated to do this. By-Products BOF accounts for about 42% of U.S. Global crude steel production (2011) = 1,490 million tonnes steel production, and about 90% of the Slag Molten Iron steelmaking in China. Top crude steel producer (2011) = Limestone China; 683 million tonnes Blast Furnace Produces Molten Pig Pig Iron Casting Iron from Iron Ore Secondary steelmaking involves the U.S. crude steel production (2011) = recycling of steel scrap in an electric 86 million tonnes arc furnace (EAF), which accounts U.S. coke production (2011) = 15.4 million tons for about 58% of U.S. production. An electric arc is generated and U.S. met coal exports (2011) = 69.5 million tons passes through the furnace melting Source: WSA, EIA its contents. These furnaces can be charged with either scrap and/or pig Slabs Thin Slabs Continuous Casting

Blooms Billets

Source: OSTI

50 Return to Contents 51 Electricity

Coal Renewables

Steam Turbine/ Pulverized Wind Power 70 Coal Combustion 54 Hydropower 72 Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle 56 Geothermal Power 74 Fluidized Bed Combustion 58 Solar Power 76 Hydrogen Fuel Cells 78 Natural Gas Biomass Power 80 Ocean Power 82 Combustion Turbine 60 Combined Cycle 62 Cooling Systems

Nuclear Cooling Systems 84

Nuclear Fission 64 Boiling Water Reactor 66 Turbines and Generators

Pressurized Water Reactor 68 Turbines and Generators 86

Transmission and the Grid

Transmission 88 The Grid 90

Energy Storage

Energy Storage 92 Coal ElectricityElectricity

Steam Turbine/ Pulverized Coal Combustion Diagram of a Coal-Fired Steam Turbine PlantPlant Much of the world’s coal-fired Supercritical plants operate at tempera- electricity is produced using pulverized tures and pressures in excess of the coal combustion. Coal is crushed critical point of water, 705°F and into a powder and blown into a boiler 3,208 psi (374°C/22.1 MPa), where with air where it is combusted. This liquid water and steam are indistin- provides heat that is used to produce guishable. A typical supercritical plant superheated steam. The expanding operates around 1,100°F and 3,500 psi Boiler steam drives turbines and generates (593°C/24.1 MPa). (Furnace) Turbine electricity. The average efficiency for an existing coal plant in the U.S. is 34%. Ultra-supercritical plants operate Steam A typical new supercritical pulverized around 1,400°F and 5,000 psi Transmission Lines coal plant has an efficiency around (760°C/35 MPa). Coal 40%, while ultra-supercritical plants have potential efficiencies around 47%.

The most technologically advanced plants use high-strength alloy steels, which enable the use of supercritical Water Generator and ultra-supercritical steam pressure. Transformer A typical pulverized boiler heats the River water to around 1,050°F and to Condenser Cooling Water Condenser 2,400 psi (566°C/16.5 MPa).

Source:Source: TennesseeTennessee Valley Valley Authority Authority

Ranking U.S. Coal-Fired Steam Turbine Fast Facts

Clean Coal-fired steam turbine capacity (GW) 332

Inexpensive Efficiency of current fleet (%) 32 Domestic Number of units 1,309 Abundant Reliable Number of plants 542 Safe Percentage of U.S. generation (2011) 41

2011 Capacity factor (%) 63

Source: Velocity Suite

54 Return to Contents 5555 Coal Electricity

Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) Diagram of an Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) Coal is gasified with steam and rapidly turns a turbine to generate air under high temperatures, and electricity. Second, the exhaust heat pressures in a gasifier. Heat and from the gas turbine is sent to a heat Particulate Syngas Removal pressure break the chemical bonds in recovery steam generator (HRSG) to the coal, which reacts with steam and produce steam to power a traditional Entrained-Flow Gasifier oxygen to form syngas, mostly carbon steam turbine, producing additional Slurry Candle Plant Second Stage monoxide and hydrogen. The sulfur electricity. Filter Coal dioxide (SO ) and nitrogen oxides Syngas 2 Water Cooler Sulfur Removal (NOx) can be removed from the syngas The combined cycle, therefore, & Recovery before it is combusted in a turbine to combines the electricity produced from Steam generate electricity, eliminating the a combustion turbine and generator, constituents. and a heat recovery steam generator Char and turbine, resulting in high efficiency. Oxygen Liquid Sulfur Plant By-Product The integrated gasification combined Greater efficiency means less fuel and First Stage cycle (IGCC) system generates fewer emissions to produce the same Slag Slag Quench Fuel-Gas electricity in two ways. First, a gas power. Water Steam Preheat turbine burns syngas similar to a jet engine. Because coal cannot fuel IGCC plants can emit 40% less carbon Steam a combustion turbine without coal dioxide (CO2) than a typical coal ash particles damaging the turbine combustion plant, as well as little to no components, the coal must first be SO2 and NOx emissions, depending on converted to syngas. The exhaust the removal rate in the syngas. Slag By-Product Stack Generator Generator Steam Heat Recovery Steam Generator

Steam Turbine Gas Turbine

Source: NETL

Ranking U.S. IGCC Fast Facts

Clean Capacity (GW) 0.6 Inexpensive Efficiency of current fleet (%) 33 Domestic Number of units 2 Abundant Reliable Number of plants 2 Safe Percentage of U.S. generation (2011) 0.03

2011 Capacity factor (%) 31

Source: Velocity Suite

56 Return to Contents 57 Coal Electricity

Fluidized Bed Combustion Diagram of a Coal-Fired Atmospheric Fluidized Bed Power Plant

Fluidized bed combustion (FBC) FBC reduces NOx and SO2 emissions suspends solid fuels on upward compared to traditional coal boilers. blowing jets of air. The turbulent action FBC is being widely implemented Atmospheric Circulating Fluidized-Bed Boiler provides more effective chemical largely due to its ability to burn virtually reactions and heat transfer than a any combustible matter such as coal, Cyclone Heat standard boiler. FBC reduces SO2 biomass, or municipal waste, as well as Exchange emissions when the flue gas mixes with its ability to control emissions without Cyclone Fabric Filter added limestone in the boiler. external controls such as scrubbers. Coal Limestone Combustion temperatures are typically The first generation of PFBC was a Combustion Chamber Stack between 1,400°F and 1,700°F, below “bubbling bed” technology – where Partition the 2,500°F threshold where NO are air is used to suspend, or fluidize, the Fly Ash x Secondary Steam formed. NOx emissions from FBC are combustible materials. This technology Air 70% to 80% lower than conventional uses a low air velocity to suspend Steam boilers. the bed with the heat exchanger to Air Air generate steam. Ash Atmospheric fluidized bed combustion To Boiler Feed Water (AFBC) operates at atmospheric The second generation of PFBC is a Generator pressure. Pressurized fluidized circulating fluidized bed (CFB). CFB bed combustion (PFBC) operate at uses increased air velocity to move pressures 6 to 16 times greater than the combusting materials to cyclone atmospheric, enabling higher efficiency separators before the cleaner flue gas Steam Turbine Source: NETL Solid Waste To Disposal by generating enough flue gas energy contacts the heat exchanger to produce to drive a gas turbine and operate in a steam. This reduces emissions and combined cycle. increases efficiency. Source: NETL

Ranking U.S. FBC Fast Facts

Clean Capacity (GW) 6.8 Inexpensive Efficiency of current fleet (%) 30 Domestic Number of units 64 Abundant Reliable Number of plants 44 Safe Percentage of U.S. generation (2011) 0.5

2011 Capacity factor (%) 42

Source: Velocity Suite

58 Return to Contents 59 Natural Gas Electricity

Combustion Turbine Diagram of a Natural Gas-Fired Combustion Turbine Power Plant Natural gas-fired combustion turbines gases expand through the turbine are designed to start quickly and blades, spinning the turbine. The cycle repeatedly to meet demand turbine in turn spins a generator to for electricity during peak operating produce the electricity. periods. Turbine Exhaust Approximately two-thirds of the usable Air Turbines operate like a jet engine energy rotates the air compressor Intake where outside air is drawn into the blades and the remaining one-third Compressor Transformer unit and compressed. The compressed spins the electric generator. air is mixed with the fuel (natural gas) Combustion and ignited, where it rapidly expands. Chambers Generator Instead of using steam to drive the turbine, a combustion turbine uses expanding air. The hot combustion Natural Gas

Source: Tennessee Valley Authority

Ranking U.S. Natural Gas Combustion Turbine Fast Facts Clean Inexpensive Capacity (GW) 143 Domestic Efficiency of current fleet (%) 27 Abundant Number of units 2,366 Reliable Safe Number of plants 902 Percentage of U.S. generation (2011) 2.0

2011 Capacity factor (%) 6.2

Source: Velocity Suite

60 Return to Contents 61 Natural Gas Electricity

Combined Cycle Diagram of a Natural Gas Combined Cycle Power Plant In a natural gas combined cycle (CC) Second, the exhaust heat from the operation, electricity is generated in turbine is captured to produce steam to two steps. drive a steam turbine. The steam hits the blades of the turbine, causing it to First, natural gas is used to fuel a gas spin, which in turn spins a generator to Shaft turbine which spins a generator to produce additional electricity without Steam Steam Generator produce electricity. In a gas turbine, using additional fuel. Turbine outside air is compressed, mixed with Electricity fuel (natural gas), and ignited, where Combined cycle plants are very it rapidly expands through the turbine efficient since the waste heat is used to blades, spinning the turbine, which in produce additional electricity, instead Boiler turn spins a generator to produce the of being released. New natural gas Condenser electricity. combined cycle plants can achieve Feed water around 50% efficiency. pump Heat from 2 condenser Exhaust Heat sent to lake or cooling tower.

1 Shaft Combustion Generator Turbine Electricity

Gas Flame Source: EIA

Ranking U.S. Natural Gas Combined Cycle Fast Facts Clean Inexpensive Capacity (GW) 247

Domestic Efficiency of current fleet (%) 46 Abundant Number of units 662 Reliable Safe Number of plants 512 Percentage of U.S. generation (2011) 20

2011 Capacity factor (%) 45

Source: Velocity Suite

62 Return to Contents 63 Nuclear Electricity

Nuclear Fission During nuclear fission, a neutron hits There are three main types of nuclear Diagram of Nuclear Fission the nucleus of a U-235 atom. When the power plants; each uses water in one of neutron is absorbed by the nucleus, it three ways: becomes a highly excited U-236 atom. The U-236 atom then splits, resulting • Boiling water nuclear reactor in two fission fragments (Ba-141 and Kr-92) and three neutrons, along with • Pressurized water nuclear reactor large amounts of kinetic energy. These • Pressurized heavy water nuclear neutrons then hit other uranium atoms reactor in a chain reaction.

The energy from nuclear fission is used to heat water to create steam. The steam expands through a turbine causing it to spin, which in turn spins a generator creating electricity.

Source: EIA

64 Return to Contents 65 Nuclear Electricity

Boiling Water Reactor Diagram of Boiling Water Nuclear Reactor Power Plant In a boiling water reactor, water is The United States has recently pumped through the reactor and is terminated its plans to develop a heated by the fuel rods. The heated nuclear waste disposal facility at Yucca fuel rods, heated by the nuclear fission Mountain in Nevada. There are no process, boil the water creating steam. countries currently with an operational nuclear waste disposal facility. The expanding steam drives turbines which spins generators to make Reprocessing, or separating the electricity. The steam is then cooled fissioned material from the unfissioned back into water and reused in the material to be reused as fuel, is reactor. not currently practiced in the U.S. Radioactive waste must decay to New fuel rods are needed every 18 become harmless, a process that can to 24 months to replace spent rods. take hundreds of thousands of years. Currently there is no long-term solution for waste disposal. Spent rods are typically stored onsite in steel-lined concrete pools or above ground concrete and steel canisters.

Source: TVA

Ranking U.S. Boiling Water Nuclear Fast Facts

Clean Capacity (GW) 37

Inexpensive Efficiency of current fleet (%) 30 Domestic Number of units 35 Abundant Reliable Number of plants 24 Safe Percentage of U.S. generation (2011) 6.5

2011 Capacity factor (%) 89

Source: Velocity Suite 66 Return to Contents 67 Nuclear Electricity

Pressurized Water Reactor Diagram of Pressurized Water Nuclear Reactor Power Plant In a pressurized water nuclear reactor, A pressurized heavy water nuclear high-pressure water is pumped through reactor is a Canadian-designed reactor the reactor and heated by the fuel rods. which uses heavy water for moderator High-pressure water does not boil, and coolant, and natural uranium for remaining in a liquid state. fuel. This design is also referred to as CANDU, for Canada Deuterium The hot, pressurized water from Uranium. the reactor passes through a steam generator, heating a secondary loop of Natural uranium widens the source water. The water in the secondary loop of supply and there is no need for is heated and turns to steam by the enrichment. Heavy water, or deuterium pressurized water in the primary loop. oxide (D2O) does not absorb neutrons

like H2O, and as a result, natural The expanding steam drives uranium can be used. Heavy water is turbines, which spins generators to 10% heavier than ordinary water due make electricity. The steam is then to the extra neutrons. There are no cooled back into water and reused in heavy water nuclear reactors in the the system. United States.

Source: TVA

Ranking U.S. Pressurized Water Nuclear Fast Facts

Clean Capacity (GW) 70

Inexpensive Efficiency of current fleet (%) 31 Domestic Number of units 66 Abundant Reliable Number of plants 40 Safe Percentage of U.S. generation (2011) 13

2011 Capacity factor (%) 88

Source: Velocity Suite

68 Return to Contents 69 Renewables Electricity

Wind Power There are two types of wind turbines Conversely, there are two types of Diagram of a Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbine used today, Horizontal Axis Turbines Vertical Axis Turbines, the Darrieus and and Vertical Axis Turbines. the Savonius. The Darrieus turbine has vertical blades that rotate in the wind – Horizontal Axis Turbines are the described as looking like an eggbeater, most common wind turbines used and the Savonius turbine is a slow today. Horizontal Axis Turbines have turning S-shaped drag type turbine a fan-like rotor that sits on top of a useful for grinding grain and pumping tall tower, usually consisting of two or water but not good for electricity three blades. Each blade works like an generation. airplane wing – creating lift when the wind blows causing the rotor to spin, which spins a shaft and generator to produce electricity.

Source: EIA, EERE

Ranking U.S. Wind Power Fast Facts

Clean Capacity (GW) 49 Inexpensive Efficiency of current fleet (%) N/A Domestic Number of units (turbine groups) 1,063 Abundant Reliable Number of plants (unit groups) 770 Safe Percentage of U.S. generation (2011) 3

2011 Capacity factor (%) 28

Source: Velocity Suite

70 Return to Contents 71 Renewables Electricity

Hydropower Hydropower plants use the energy of high electrical demand. Electricity from Diagram of Conventional Hydropower Turbine and Generator moving water to create electricity. a nearby power plant is used to pump water to the higher reservoir at night Impoundment hydropower uses a dam when demand is lower. During the day to store surface water in a reservoir. the upper reservoir is drained to turn a Water released from the reservoir turbine and generate electricity. flows through a turbine, which turns a generator. There are two main types of hydropower turbines used in Diversion hydropower channels a hydropower. Impulse turbines use the portion of a river through a canal and velocity of the water to strike the blades may not require a dam. Water flowing to move the runners, while reaction through the channel turns a turbine to turbines sit in the water stream, and generate electricity. use pressure and moving water to flow over the blades instead of striking. Pumped storage hydropower stores energy through pumping water from a low reservoir to a high reservoir, releasing the water during periods of

Source: USGS

Ranking U.S. Hydropower Fast Facts

Clean Capacity (GW) 100

Inexpensive Efficiency of current fleet (%) N/A Domestic Number of units 4,778 Abundant Reliable Number of plants 1,986 Safe Percentage of U.S. generation (2011) 8

2011 Capacity factor (%) 31

Source: Velocity Suite 72 Return to Contents 73 Renewables Electricity

Geothermal Power Geothermal power uses the energy the future will most likely be binary from heat deep within the Earth, plants because moderate temperature accessed through water or steam water is the most common geothermal wells. The heated water or steam is resource. channeled to a turbine used to drive electric generators. Geothermal temperature increases with depth. Away from the boundaries of Dry steam plants use steam direct tectonic plates, temperature typically from underground reservoirs to drive increases by 25°C to 30°C (77°F to 86°F) turbines. per kilometer of depth. The heat source deep within the earth mostly comes Flash steam plants are the most from radioactive decay and partly common today. High-pressure water from residual heat from planetary (360°F +) is pumped into a lower accretion. Roughly 80 to 100 kilometers pressure tank causing the water to beneath the surface, temperatures vaporize, or flash, which is then used to range between 650°C to 1,200°C power a turbine and generator. (1,200°F to 2,200°F). At the center of the earth, temperatures are estimated Binary-cycle plants use hot geothermal to be over 5,000°C (9,000°F). As a point fluids to heat a secondary fluid with a of comparison, temperatures in an lower boiling point, which causes the ultra-super critical plant reach 750°C secondary fluid to flash to a vapor to (1,400°F). drive a turbine. Geothermal plants of Source: EERE

Ranking U.S. Geothermal Fast Facts

Clean Capacity (GW) 3.5

Inexpensive Efficiency of current fleet (%) 16 Domestic Number of units 238 Abundant Reliable Number of plants 64 Safe Percentage of U.S. generation (2011) 0.4

2011 Capacity factor (%) 70

Source: Velocity Suite 74 Return to Contents 75 Renewables Electricity

Solar Power Photovoltaic (PV) materials convert Photovoltaic Cell, Module and Array sunlight into electrical energy by Concentrated solar power (CSP) does transferring the energy in the sunlight not use PV materials. CSP technologies to electrons in the atoms of the PV concentrate sunlight to create heat that cell. The electrons escape from their is used to produce electricity. CSP tech- atoms and become part of an electrical nologies use mirrors, called heliostats current. PV cells, also known as solar to reflect and concentrate the energy of cells, connect to form PV modules that the sun. There are three types of CSP can be several feet in length and width. systems: power tower, linear concen- Modules connect to form arrays. trator, and dish/engine.

Flat-plate photovoltaic systems are Power tower systems focus sunlight the most common array design. Array onto a receiver at the top of the tower. panels are fixed in place or track the Fluid within the receiver is heated by movement of the sun. the concentrated sunlight, which in turn Source: DOE, EERE heats water into steam, which powers a Concentrator photovoltaic systems turbine and electric generator. capture solar energy from a large area and focus that energy onto a solar cell Diagram of a Concentrated Solar Power System using lenses. Concentrating the light energy increases the cell’s efficiency and uses fewer PV cells. Concentrator systems however are significantly more expensive.

Ranking U.S. Solar Fast Facts

Clean Capacity (GW) 2.4

Inexpensive Efficiency of current fleet (%) N/A Domestic Number of units 950 Abundant Reliable Number of plants 797 Safe Percentage of U.S. generation (2011)* 0.02

2011 Capacity factor (%) 23 Source: EIA Source: Velocity Suite *Value represents photovoltaic generation for transmission

76 Return to Contents 77 Renewables Electricity

Hydrogen Fuel Cells

Hydrogen fuel cells produce electricity The electrolyte membrane allows the Hydrogen Fuel Cell using only hydrogen and oxygen. protons to pass through to the cathode, Water and heat are the only byproducts the electrons must flow around the emitted if pure hydrogen is used. membrane through an external circuit, forming an electrical current. Fuel cells have two electrodes, an anode (negative) and a cathode At the cathode, the negatively charged (positive) sandwiched around an electrons and positively charged electrolyte, a substance that conducts protons (hydrogen ions) combine with charged ions (protons). oxygen to form water (H2O) and heat.

Hydrogen (H2) fuel is channeled to the anode, where the catalyst separates the negatively charged electrons from the positively charged protons.

Source: EIA

Ranking U.S. Hydrogen Fast Facts

Clean Hydrogen fuel cell technology has not yet Inexpensive been developed for large scale commercial generation. Hydrogen rarely exists in elemental Domestic form in nature and often is obtained by Abundant chemically breaking down fossil fuels such as coal and natural gas. Reliable Safe

78 Return to Contents 79 Renewables Electricity

Biomass Power Types of Biomass Biopower is the generation of coal-fired plants can be reduced with electricity from biomass resources co-firing and is a low-cost renewable Types of Biomass – organic matter such as plants, agricul- energy option for power producers. Source: EIA tural and forestry residue, and organic municipal and industrial wastes. Anaerobic digestion, or methane recovery, uses bacteria to decompose Direct combustion of biomass is the organic matter in the absence of most widely used form of biopower. oxygen to produce methane and other Conventional boilers use primarily byproducts that form a renewable wood products as fuel to heat water natural gas. Municipal wastes that Wood Garbage Crops and create steam to spin a turbine and contain significant amounts of organic generator to produce electricity. material can produce methane that can be harvested in a landfill. Landfill Co-firing involves replacing a portion of gas facilities can combust the gas to fuel in coal-fired boilers with biomass. produce energy.

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions of

Landfill Gas Alcohol Fuels

Ranking U.S. Biomass Fast Facts

Clean Capacity (GW) 0.6

Inexpensive Efficiency of current fleet (%) 26 Domestic Number of units 199 Abundant Reliable Number of plants 94 Safe Percentage of U.S. generation (2011) 1.3

2011 Capacity factor (%) 63.6

Source: Velocity Suite 80 Return to Contents 81 Renewables Electricity

Ocean Power Diagram of a Tidal Turbine Ocean thermal energy conversion Wave energy systems harness energy (OTEC) uses heat energy stored in the directly from surface waves or from Earth’s oceans to generate electricity. pressure fluctuations below the surface of the water. Tidal energy generation uses the energy in the moving water during Ocean energy technologies are not changing tides to turn underwater economical as they require substantial turbines, similar to an underwater up-front capital investment and there wind farm. are limited areas in the oceans in which they can be deployed.

Ranking U.S. Ocean Power Fast Facts Source: DOE

Clean Ocean power has not yet been developed for Inexpensive large-scale commercial generation. Domestic Abundant Reliable Safe

82 Return to Contents 83 Cooling Systems Electricity

Cooling Systems Thermoelectric power plants running discharged as a water vapor plume, Diagram of Water Use in a 520MW Coal-Fired Tower Cooled Plant on coal, nuclear, oil, biomass, or and the remaining water is recirculated natural gas accounted for 89% of U.S. in the plant. electricity generation in 2011. Every kilowatt-hour of electricity produced Cooling towers must withdraw and typically requires around 25 gallons consume a significant amount of water of water, primarily used for cooling to replace the losses of evaporation purposes, although pollution control, and blowdown water – which prevents ash handling, wastewater treatment, the buildup of sediment and minerals and wash water are other required uses in the water and cooling tower. Cooling of water at a power plant. ponds are used to cool the water though natural conduction/convection There are three main types of cooling heat transfer to the atmosphere. systems used in thermoelectric plants: Wet cooling systems can have • Once-through cooling adverse impacts on aquatic life. The impingement of fish on screens meant • Wet recirculating to keep them from entering the cooling • Dry cooling system is an issue. Another issue is the entrainment of small fish and other Once-through cooling involves taking aquatic life with water entering the water from a local body of water, such cooling system. The EPA has recently as a lake, river, or ocean, and returning proposed a rule to address these Source: NETL the water after it is used. This type of issues. This rule could have substantial cooling requires a large amount water economic impacts on electric to be withdrawn, but very little water is generating facilities nationwide. consumed. Dry cooling systems employ either Wet recirculating cooling uses either direct or indirect air-cooled steam to evaporation, as the air and water do in a closed heat exchanger, preventing cooling towers or cooling ponds to condensers. not contact. Direct air-cooled systems evaporation of the cooling water. chill the hot water. The hot water from require no cooling water. Dry cooling systems use little to no the power plant’s steam condenser In a direct air-cooled system, steam make-up water, but their cooling effi- is cooled in a cooling tower mostly is pumped into a pipe or tubes Indirect air-cooled systems use a ciencies are lower than wet systems, through evaporation and partially surrounded by moving air. Heat water-cooled condenser to convert and capital costs and operating costs through direct heat transfer to the is transferred to the air through the steam to water, however the heat are higher. atmosphere. The evaporated water is conduction without the loss of water from the water is transferred to the air

84 Return to Contents 85 Turbines and Generators Electricity

Turbines and Generators Diagram of an Electric Generator A turbine converts the kinetic energy of A generator converts mechanical a moving fluid (steam, water, or gas) to energy into electrical energy. The mechanical energy. Turbines consist of generator has a series of coiled copper a number of blades attached to a shaft wire that form a stationary cylinder. that rotates with the force of the fluids This cylinder surrounds an electro- on the blades. The rotating mechanical magnetic rotor. When the excited energy of the turbine is sent to a rotor spins, it creates a small electrical generator to create electricity. current in the wire coil. The small electric current in each of the wire coils Steam turbines create most of the are added together to form a large electricity in the United States. Steam is current, which is then transmitted to produced through the heating of water the customer. with fossil fuels or nuclear fission. In a gas turbine, high-pressure hot Electric power generation stations use gasses produced from the combustion turbines, engines, or water wheels to of natural gas or syngas are passed create the rotating mechanical energy through the turbine, which spins the to drive an electric generator. generator, producing electricity. Hydro- electric turbines use flowing or falling Source: EIA water as the energy to spin a turbine, and wind turbines use the energy in the wind to produce electricity.

86 Return to Contents 87 Transmission and the Grid Electricity

Transmission Power Transmission & Distribution System

Electricity delivery consists of a complex Typical voltages leaving a step-up 345,000 Volts network consisting of over 160,000 miles substation are: Overhead Transmission Lines of high-voltage transmission lines, also known as the “grid.” Local distribu- High voltage (HV) ac: 20,000 Volts 4,000 Volts tion systems consist of smaller, lower 69 kV-230 kV voltage power lines to deliver electricity to the end customers. Extra-high voltage (EHV) ac: 345 kV-765 kV Electricity generated at power plants Power Step-up Distribution Industrial Generation Transmission Substation Customer travels through a series of substations, Ultra-high voltage (UHV) ac: Plant Substation transmission lines, distribution stations, 1100 kV-1500 kV and distribution lines on the way to the 69,000 Volts Overhead Subtransmission Lines customer. Direct-current high voltage (dc HV): ±250 A substation is a high-voltage electric kV- ±500 kV 440 Volts system facility using transformers to change voltage from one level of Step-down transmission substations are the distribution system to another. located at switching points in the grid, Industrial Distribution Step-down connecting transmission lines to sub- Customer Substation Transmission Substations may also measure and Substation regulate voltage, switch transmission transmission lines or distribution lines. and distribution circuits into and out of Step-down transmission substations 13,800 Volts Distribution System the grid system, and connect electricity typically reduce the transmission voltage to 69 kV sub-transmission voltage. generation plants to the system. 220/440 V 120/240 V 20,000 V

There are four types of substations: Distribution substations are located near the end users and change the voltage Step-up transmission substations to lower levels, where the power is Distribution Industrial Commercial Residential Substation Customer Customer Customer receive electric power from a generating distributed to industrial commercial and plant and increase the voltage for trans- residential customers. mission to distant locations. Increasing voltage decreases electricity losses Underground distribution substations during transmission. are also located near end-users and further reduce the voltage for delivery to customers. Underground Underground Distribution Lines Distribution 120/240 V Substation

Source: OSHA Source: OSHA

88 Return to Contents 89 Transmission and the Grid Electricity

The Grid NERC Interconnections and Regions The grid is made up of many local inter- independent, federally regulated entity connected grids, providing dependable established to coordinate regional trans- networks for electricity delivery. mission in a non-discriminatory manner and ensure the safety and reliability of The Federal Energy Regulatory the electric system. RSOs are a utility Commission (FERC) is the federal agency industry concept that FERC embraced that regulates the interstate transmission for the certification of voluntary groups of electricity, natural gas, and oil. responsible for transmission planning The North American Electric Reliability and use on a regional basis. Corporation (NERC) was established to ensure the reliability of the North ISOs/RTOs American power delivery system. NERC California Independent System Operator is a non-government organization with (CAISO) legal authority to enforce reliability Electric Reliability Council of Texas standards with all users, owners and (ERCOT) operators of the power system in the Midwest Independent Transmission Source: NERC, Velocity Suite U.S., Ontario and New Brunswick, System Operator (MISO) Canada. There are eight regional entities of NERC. ISO New England (ISO-NE) New York Independent System Operator RTOs/ISOs NERC Regional Entities (NYISO) Florida Reliability Coordinating Council PJM Interconnection (PJM) (FRCC) Southwest Power Pool (SPP) Midwest Reliability Organization (MRO) Alberta Electric System Operator (AESO) Northeast Power Coordinating Council (NPCC) New Brunswick System Operator (NBSO) Reliability First Corporation (RFC) SERC Reliability Corporation (SERC) Ontario Independent Electricity System Operator (IESO) Southwest Power Pool (SPP) Texas Regional Entity (TRE) The U.S. power delivery system is made Western Electricity Coordinating Council up of three grids: the Eastern Intercon- (WECC) nection, the Western Interconnection, and the Texas Interconnection. Electricity Independent System Operators (ISOs) generated within an interconnect is and Regional Transmission Organiza- used almost entirely within the intercon- tions (RTOs) are regional organizations nect. Very little electricity is transmitted with similar missions. ISOs are an between interconnections. Source: NERC, Velocity Suite

90 Return to Contents 91 Energy Storage Electricity

Energy Storage Diagram of Pumped Hydro Storage Electricity generally must be consumed as Redox flow batteries store energy in it is generated. This leads to challenges to liquid electrolytes that convert chemical match the changing demands throughout energy into electrical energy as the liquid the day, especially when demands are at flows through a cell stack. the greatest, or peak. Advanced lead-acid batteries, based on Energy storage technologies can help mature technologies, have large-scale manage loads during peak periods and energy storage potential due to low allow less reliable energy sources, such costs; however, the batteries have short as wind and solar, to be dispatched as life cycles, minimizing their effectiveness. needed. Pumped-hydro storage is a mature Most energy storage technologies with technology where water held in a low the potential to serve the grid are fairly reservoir is pumped to a higher reservoir new, with the exception of pumped- during periods of low-demand, and hydro storage. A few of the most releases the water from the higher promising technologies today are: reservoir during high-demand periods . through a turbine, which generates • Lithium-ion batteries, electricity. • Sodium based batteries, • Redox flow batteries, Compressed air energy storage (CAES) • Advanced lead-acid batteries, uses power generated at low-demand • Pumped hydro storage, periods to compress and store air in • Compressed air energy storage, and underground salt domes, aquifers, gas • Flywheel storage. fields or in above ground pipes or tanks. Lithium-ion battery technologies offer The compressed air is released during high energy and power density, along periods of high demand, heated and with almost 100% efficiency. Lithium-ion expanded with natural gas in a turbine to batteries are widely used in mobile generate electricity. electronics and are considered the most promising technology for use in hybrid Flywheels store kinetic energy in the and electric vehicles. momentum of a rotating wheel or cylinder. The energy in a flywheel is Sodium based battery technologies proportional to its mass and the square are being researched because of their of its velocity, which leads to two . large-scale energy storage potential. techniques, heavy wheels spinning Sodium (Na) is readily available and slowly and light wheels spinning quickly. Source: USGS cheaper than other elements, such as lithium, used in energy storage.

92 Return to Contents 93 Emissions Control Technology

Emissions Control Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Emissions Control 96 Carbon Capture and Storage 104

Particulate Emissions Mercury (Hg)

Electrostatic precipitators 98 Activated Carbon Injection 106 Fabric filters 98 Coal Combustion Laws and Regulations SO2 & NOx Sulfur Dioxide 100 Major Coal Combustion Laws and Regulations 108 Nitrogen Oxide 102 Emissions Control Emissions Control Technology

Emissions Control Electricity Generation and Emissions

How are NOX, sulfur dioxide, and technologies are also used to capture notable ionic elements like some emission post combustion. species of mercury controlled? Mercury emissions have declined as a Sulfur emissions can be cut signi- co-benefit of existing emission controls cantly by washing the coal in a coal for particulates, sulfur dioxides, and preparation plant (see Preparation and nitrogen oxides. In addition, there are Processing) prior to combustion. In post combustion mercury capture addition, sulfur scrubbers are added to methods to further reduce emissions. coal fired plants to capture remaining sulfur post combustion. Electricity generation from all sources has been steadily increasing since

Nitrogen oxides (NOX) emissions have 1990, and over that period coal has been reduced through the use of new consistently generated about half of combustion technologies that prevent the generation. So while coal burn the formation of the pollutant. Nitrogen has remained steady, emissions have is a common element in the air we continued to decline thanks in part to breathe, but the extreme temperatures new and ever improving emissions achieved during combustion can cause control technologies that make coal a the nitrogen atoms to combine with viable and cleaner source of energy. oxygen, forming NOX. Nitrogen capture

Source: Historical Emissions - EPA, Projections and Generation - EIA

96 Return to Contents 97 Particulate Emissions Emissions Control Technology

Particulate Emissions Diagram of an Electrostatic Precipitator Particulate emissions are fine solids Fabric filters (FF), or a baghouse, and liquids emitted from power collect particulates by passing the flue stations that can affect respiratory gas through tightly woven fabric, much systems, impact local visibility, and like a vacuum cleaner bag. create dust problems. Control tech- nologies for particulates include electrostatic precipitators and fabric filters, also known as baghouses.

Electrostatic precipitators (ESP) can remove 99% of particulates from flue gas. They work by creating a positive charge on the particles, then attracting the particles to negatively charged plates.

Source: EPA

98 Return to Contents 99 SO2 & NOx Emissions Control Technology

Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) Diagram of an Advanced Flue Gas Desulfurization Process

Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) forms during Hydrated lime sorbent can be injected the combustion of coals containing directly into the ductwork before sulfur and can lead to acid rain. Sulfur the particulate control device. The emissions reductions of 90% or more hydrated lime reacts with the SOX, are achieved in a process called wet or sulfur oxides, and is collected in flue gas desulfurization (WFGD), the particulate control system. Sulfur otherwise known as a scrubber. oxides are compounds containing sulfur and oxygen, such as sulfur

Flue gas desulfurization works by dioxide and sulfur trioxide (SO3). removing the SO2 from the flue gas exiting the coal boiler. A mixture of Trona is the most common water and limestone is sprayed into the sodium-based sorbent (sodium flue gas, causing a chemical reaction sesquicarbonate Na3H(CO3)2. Finely to occur with the SO2, resulting in ground trona is injected into the hot the formation of gypsum (a calcium exhaust gases, reacting with the SO2. sulfate) which is used in the construc- The reacted salts are then collected in tion industry. Modern scrubbers also an electrostatic precipitator (ESP) or a have varying degrees of effectiveness baghouse (filter fabric). removing particulates, acid gases, mercury, and other heavy metals. DSI with trona is often advantageous to wet flue gas desulfurization due to Dry sorbent injection (DSI) is another much lower capital investment, less technology used to reduce SO2 physical space, less modification of emissions from coal-fired boilers. existing ductwork at the plant and the Sulfur dioxide reductions greater than environmental benefits from avoiding 80% have been demonstrated with the use of water in the process. Source: NETL systems using sodium-based sorbents. Higher stack temperature also leads to a higher plume rise and improved local air quality. DSI with Trona also consumes less energy to operate compared to WFGD.

100 Return to Contents 101 SO2 & NOx Emissions Control Technology

Nitrogen Oxides (NOX) Diagram of an Overfire Air Boiler with SNCR and DSI Emission Controls

Nitrogen oxides (NOX) form from two 4) Flue gas recirculation (FGR) recir- sources when coal is burned. First, culates part of the flue gas to the nitrogen embedded in the chemical furnace, lowering the temperature structure of the coal combines with and oxygen, reducing NOX oxygen in the air to form NOX, and emissions. second, the heat from combustion causes the nitrogen in the air to There are three post-combustion combine with oxygen to form NOX. treatment technologies available for

reducing NOX emissions from coal-fired

To reduce NOX emissions, there are plants: four combustion modification options coal-fired plants can employ: 1) Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)

involves injecting ammonia (NH3) into the flue gas before passing 1) Low NOX burners (LNB) involve over a catalyst, which promotes a staged combustion, which reduces Source: NETL flame temperature and oxygen reaction between the NOX and NH3 concentration, reducing NO to form nitrogen and water vapor. X Diagram of a Coal-Fired Boiler with SCR Emissions Control Technology emissions. Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) 2) Selective non-catalytic reduction 2) Overfire Air (OFA) technology (SNCR) uses a reducing agent,

injects air above the normal typically NH3 or urea, injected into combustion zone. The burners the furnace above the combustion

have lower than normal air-to-fuel zone, where it reacts with the NOX. ratio and combustion occurs at 3) A hybrid process involving SCR lower temperatures, reducing NOX emissions. and SNCR used together, or either process can be used in conjunction 3) Re-burning technology introduces with LNB’s. a portion of the boiler fuel in a re-burn zone, reducing the

NOX formed in the normal combustion zone.

Source: NETL

102 Return to Contents 103 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Emissions Control Technology

Carbon Capture and Storage Diagram of Pre-Combustion CO2 Capture Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is a pre-combustion, post-combustion, and process of capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) oxyfuel combustion. Air Air N CO to Storage 2 CO 2 that would otherwise be released into the Separation 2 Compression atmosphere, compressing it after capture, In pre-combustion capture the CO2 Unit transporting it, and then injecting it into is separated from the fuel before it is O O deep underground geological formations. burned. Coal gasification produces two 2 2 gases; hydrogen and carbon monoxide Fuel CO & H CO & H H Combined 2 Water-Gas 2 CO Capture 2 Carbon sequestration is not a new (CO). The hydrogen syngas is used as Gasifier 2 Cycle Power Shift Reactor Process technology; it has been used for years in fuel in an IGCC power plant and the Block the natural gas industry and to produce CO is converted to CO2 to be captured food and chemical-grade CO2. Capturing and stored.

CO2 from electric power producers Diagram of Post-Combustion CO2 Capture is more difficult than the successful In post-combustion capture, the CO2 processes used today in industrial is separated from the other gases after applications where the gas streams combustion of the fuel. Chemicals called Air CO & N CO CO 2 2 2 2 CO contain high concentrations of CO . Flue amines bond with the CO in the flue Boiler Capture 2 2 2 Fuel Compression Process gases from a typical coal-fired power gas. The CO2 is then removed from the plant contain roughly 75% nitrogen, CO2-saturated amine solution, and the Steam N2 10% to 15% CO2, 8% to 10% water. amines can be re-used in the process. CO Storage The CO2 levels found in the flue gas of Current amine-based post-combustion 2 power producers is more diluted and capture technology would increase the Power Block the scale of power plants is much larger cost of electricity about 80% and the than industrial applications. Current electricity required to regenerate the technology costs between $60 and $114 amine solution and compress the CO2 per tonne of CO2 avoided, where 70% results in a 30% energy penalty. to 90% is associated with capture and Diagram of Oxyfuel Combustion compression. These barriers must be Oxyfuel (oxyfiring) combustion, or the overcome in order to have widespread combustion of coal in pure oxygen CO2 Recycle commercial development of CO2 capture and recycled CO2, can also be used in the U.S. CO2 capture systems currently to capture carbon. Without nitrogen Air O CO working at coal-fired generating plants present at combustion, the CO2 in the Air 2 2 CO Separation Boiler 2 Compression are capturing 75,000 to 300,000 tons flue gas is highly concentrated and Unit of CO2 per year, however a 550MW easier to capture. Oxy-fuel combustion coal-fired plant capturing 90 percent of systems require high-capital costs and N2 Fuel Steam

CO2 would capture around 5 million tons. energy consumption due mainly to CO2 the air separation unit to produce the Compression Power Block There are three technologies oxygen, in addition to the sequestration for coal-fired carbon capture: and compression costs. Source: NETL 104 Return to Contents 105 Mercury (Hg) Emissions Control Technology

Mercury (Hg) Mercury Removal Rates by Coal Rank and Emission Controls Mercury emission reductions from Activated carbon injection (ACI) is the coal-fired boilers are currently achieved most promising technology to specifi- as a co-benefit through existing cally target mercury emissions. This controls for particulate matter (PM), technology involves injecting dry, sulfur dioxide (SO2), and nitrogen powdered activated carbon (PAC) oxides (NOX). Particulate-bound into the flue gas. The mercury in the mercury is captured with existing flue gas is absorbed into the activated PM controls and soluble mercury is carbon and then collected in electro- captured with existing WFGD controls. static precipitators or a baghouse. ACI Research also shows increased is projected by some to become the mercury capture in downstream FGD most widely used process for mercury controls in boilers employing SCR removal from flue gas. for NOX controls. The following chart shows mercury removal rates as a Activated carbon removes impurities co-benefit at plants with no mercury from liquids (liquid or gas) by a specific control technologies. Plants process called adsorption: molecules burning bituminous coals with fabric accumulate on the surface of the filter PM controls tend to capture the internal pores of the activated carbon highest amount of mercury due to the and only occurs where the internal higher halogen content of the coal and pores are larger than the molecules Source: EPA the tendency of more unburned carbon being adsorbed. accumulating as filter cake on the fabric filter, allowing for greater adsorption of the mercury.

106 Return to Contents 107 Coal Combustion Laws and Regulations Emissions Control Technology

Major Coal Combustion Laws and Regulations Recent and Proposed technology for minimizing environ- Regulations mental impact. The proposed rule • The Acid Rain Program was applies to over 1,500 industrial facilities Major Environmental Laws Cross-State Air Pollution Rule (CSAPR) established by the Clean Air Act including power plants or other manu- Clean Air Act The rule, promulgated by the EPA as the market allowance system to facturers that use large volumes of This federal law was enacted by the (proposed as the Clean Air Transport cap SO and NO by establishing cooling water from surface waters to U.S. Congress to control air pollution 2 X Rule), requires 27 states to significantly cool their plants. on a national level. It requires the EPA an emissions trading program that reduce SO2 and NOX emissions that to develop and enforce regulations to allows coal-burning power plants to contribute to pollution in other states. Coal combustion residuals (CCR) protect the public from exposure to buy and sell emission permits. Emission allowances have been set These are by-products associated with airborne contaminants that are known by the EPA for each coal-fired unit Resource Conservation and Recovery the burning of coal at electric power to be hazardous to human health. The and state. States are divided into two Act (RCRA) plants. The residues include coal ash Clean Air Act was last amended in groups with group 1 states required This act establishes a “cradle-to-grave” as well as by-products associated 1990. The Clean Air Act also establishes to make additional SO reductions in 2 with pollution control technologies. primary and secondary National Ambient system governing the disposal of 2014. CSAPR replaces the EPA’s 2005 Concerns about the potential environ- Air Quality Standards for six pollutants: solid and hazardous waste management Clean Air Interstate Rule (CAIR) which mental impact from the impoundment SO , particulate matter, NO , ozone, lead, activities. Subtitle C of this regulation 2 X was remanded without vacatur by the of CCRs in landfills and ponds sparked and CO. A number of programs under reclassified fly ash from a waste to a D.C. Circuit Court in 2008. In December the development of this rule. Two the Clean Air Act also affect fossil fuel reusable material, exempting coal ash 2011, the U.S. Court of Appeals stayed possible options both fall under the power generation facilities. from the regulations for hazardous waste. CSAPR pending judicial review, putting Resource Conservation and Recovery the CAIR requirements in place during • The ozone National Ambient Clean Water Act Act (RCRA). The first proposal would review. Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) This act regulates the quality standards treat CCR under subtitle C of RCRA controls ground-level ozone, a for the Nation’s surface waters in as special wastes. The less stringent Mercury and Air Toxics Standards principal ingredient in smog linked order to maintain their integrity. Under second proposal would treat CCR (MATS) for Power Plants to respiratory illnesses. The Clean the regulation, it is unlawful for any under subtitle D for nonhazardous Commonly referred to as Utility Air Act requires the EPA to set amount of pollutants to be discharged, waste. MACT, this EPA rule aims to reduce NAAQS for ozone and the five other both directly and indirectly, into the emissions of toxic pollutants, pollutants. surface waters. Facilities that intend The combination of the above rules is primarily mercury and acid gases, from to discharge into surface waters can expected to have a significant impact • The New Source Review and New power plants. The EPA set maximum obtain a permit that will set conditions on coal-fired generation, electricity Source Performance Standards, achievable control technology (MACT) and limitations on the discharge. prices and the power grid reliability in also under the Clean Air Act, apply standards for electric power plants, the U.S. Of primary concern is the time to all new facilities and expansions. both new and existing. Emergency Planning and Community line of these regulations. Generators Right-To-Know Act (EPCRA) would have to finance design, permit, • The National Emission Standards Cooling Water Intake Rule (316(b)) Created by amendments to the Su- engineer, and construct control tech- for Hazardous Air Pollutants program The EPA, under §316(b) of the Clean perfund, this act improves community nologies in a shortened time frame regulates eight air toxic substances Water Act, has proposed that the access to information about chemi- to comply with proposed regulations. which are to be controlled based on location, design, construction, and cal hazards and potential emergency Significant increases in electricity best demonstrated control technolo- capacity of cooling water intake gies and practices. responses. cost are expected as retrofit expenses systems reflect the best available will be passed on to rate payers.

108 Return to Contents 109 Coal Combustion Laws and Regulations

Other concerns involve the reliability of the entire electricity grid including resource adequacy and the cost of new transmission to reroute power from different areas. Additional Information

Definitions 112 Conversions and Formulas 132

Abbreviations 126 Useful Websites 141

OTC Specifications 131

110 Return to Contents Definitions Additional Information

Ash fusion temperature (AFT): Bench: A division in a coal seam either mine, prep plant, during shipment, or at Definitions Temperature at which coal ash begins to separated by rock or formed by the the generating station. 404 Permit: Section 404 of the Clean Water deform and melt. It is measured at four process of cutting the coal. Act regulates the discharge of dredged, defined points during the deformation Boiler: A tank that heats water and excavated, or fill material in wetlands, process. The test begins with a molded Beneficiation: The treatment of mined produces steam. streams, rivers, and other U.S. waters. cone shaped sample of ash which is material to enrich or further concentrate The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers is viewed as it is heated. The first of the four that material. Borehole: A hole created by drilling into the federal agency authorized to issue defined pointed is initial deformation and soil or rock. Section 404 permits for certain activities occurs when the point of the cone begins Berth: Defines a specific location in a conducted in U.S. waters. to melt. The softening temperature is next port or harbor where a vessel may moor, Bottom: The underlying surface of an and is defined as the point when the base usually for loading or unloading. excavation site, typically referred to in an Activated carbon: a form of carbon that of the cone is equal to the height. The underground mine as the “floor.” has been processed to make it extremely hemispherical temperature is next and Bill of lading: A shipping form which is porous and thus to have a very large occurs when the base of the cone is twice both a receipt for property and a contract Bottom ash: Agglomerated ash particles surface area available for adsorption or the height. The final phase is the fluid for delivery of goods by a carrier. formed in pulverized coal furnaces too chemical reactions. Activated carbon is temperature and occurs when the cone is large to be carried by the flue gasses. used to capture mercury from flue gases. spreads into a mass no more than 1.6mm Binder: A streak of impurity in a coal Bottom ash is commonly used as an in height. seam. aggregate substitute. Adit: A horizontal passage or opening from the surface, providing access to the Ash: Residue remaining after burning coal Bituminous coal: Rank of coal formed Breeze: Residual fine coke particles mine. or coke; also referred to as mineral mater when subbituminous coal is subject that remain after the coke crushing and in coal. to increased heat, pressure and time. screening process. Coke breeze is mainly Air dry (ad): Coal quality data calculated Bituminous coal has less moisture and used as a fuel for the iron ore sintering to a basis in which only inherent moisture Auger: A rotary drill that penetrates, higher heat content than subbituminous process. Breeze can also be formed is associated with the sample. Inherent breaks, and transports the drilled material coal. Bituminous coal also contains a into bricks and used to feed the Cupola moisture is moisture held within the coal by using a screw device. higher percentage of carbon than subbitu- furnace which is used as a melting device itself as opposed to surface moisture. minous coal. It is the most common coal at foundries. Breeze is also used as an For some ranks of coal such as subbitu- Back: The roof in an underground mining found in the United States and is used to anti-fissurant in making foundry coke and minous, air dry moistures can be below cavity. generate electricity and to make coke for as a fuel and reductant in a number of inherent. the steel industry. non-ferrous and chemical processes. Backfill: Rock and mine waste returned Anthracite: The highest rank of coal to a mined area from which the coal has Blasting agent: An explosive material that British thermal unit (Btu): The amount which contains the highest fixed carbon. been removed. consists of a fuel and oxidizer mixture of heat required to raise the temperature Anthracite has been subject to higher used to fracture and loosen material of one pound of water from 39° to 40° heat and pressure of the Earth longer Beam: The width at the widest part of a Fahrenheit. Used as a measure of coal’s than lower rank coals. It is hard, brittle, ship. Bleeder or bleeder entries: Special air heat content, expressed in Btu/lb. and shiny, containing a low percentage of courses designed to ventilate air-methane volatiles. Bearing plate: A plate used for the distri- mixtures away from the active workings Brown coal: Generally, subbituminous and bution of a load. In roof bolting, it is the and into mine-return air courses. lignite rank coals. As received (ar): Coal quality data plate used between the bolt head and the calculated at a basis in which all moisture roof. Blending: The practice of mixing or Bump (or burst): Severe stresses in the is associated with the sample. As received combining coals with different properties rocks surrounding the mine workings analysis includes both inherent and Bed: A stratum of sedimentary deposit, to produce a coal product that optimizes which cause a disturbance or dislocation surface moisture of the coal sample. typically coal, rock, or soil. desired characteristics depending on of the mine workings. use. Blending coal can reduce the cost of generation. Blending can occur at the

112 Return to Contents 113 Definitions Additional Information

Bunker fuel: Fuel oil used aboard ships. Carbon dioxide (CO2): Naturally occurring Coal is primarily composed of carbon, as Coking coal: See metallurgical coal. gas in the Earth’s atmosphere. It is well as other elements such as hydrogen, Calorific value (CV): Measure of the colorless, odorless, and considered a sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen. Colliery: A British term for “coal mine.” heating value of coal. Heat content is greenhouse gas as it traps the sun’s usually expressed in metric units of Kcal/ infrared energy inside the Earth’s Coal gasification: The process of Combustion chamber: The space within a kg or English units of Btu/lb. atmosphere. CO2 is released as a converting coal into gas. The coal gas can device where fuel is oxidized or burned. by-product of fossil fuel combustion. be refined to reduce impurities then used Cannel coal: Large, non-caking block coal. as fuel. Competent rock: Rock capable of It is characterized by fine, even grain and Carbonization: The conversion of any sustaining openings without any structural a conchoidal fracture. It is easy to ignite, organic substance into carbon or a carbon Coal liquefaction: The process of support (except pillars and walls left due to its high percentage of hydrogen containing substance. Carbonization is converting coal into liquid fuel. during mining). and burns with a long, yellow flame. the primary process used in coke making, where metallurgical coal is heated in Coal mine: An area of land and any Compliance coal: Coal that meets sulfur Capacity (power plant): Maximum rated the absence of air to drive off volatiles structures or equipment used in extracting dioxide emission standards for air quality output of electric power production such as water and gases leaving behind coal from its natural deposits in the Earth. without the need for emission controls. equipment. Power unit capacities are carbon-rich coke. This also includes the coal preparation The current maximum sulfur content for expressed as nameplate capacity, net facilities compliance coal is 1.2 pounds per million summer capacity and net winter capacity. Cast: The overburden above the coal is Btus. The nameplate capacity is the unit’s thrown directly into the previously mined Coal washing: The separation of maximum output as designated by the area. impurities or undesirable material from Conductivity: A measure of a given manufacturer. The net summer capacity coal, based on differential densities. quantity of water to conduct electricity at is the units output measured between CIF (cost, insurance, freight): The seller a specified temperature, predicated upon June 1 and September 30 whereas the delivers the goods on board the vessel or Coke: A hard, dry carbon substance that the presence of dissolved solids, which net winter capacity is measured between procures the goods already so delivered. forms when coal is heated to a very high conduct an electrical charge. December 1 and March 31. In general, The risk of loss of or damage to the goods temperature in the absence of air. The the net winter capacity is greater than the passes when the goods are on board manufacture of iron and steel requires coke. Continuous miner (CM): A machine that summer’s because of the impact of air the vessel. The seller must contract for extracts coal without interrupting the temperature and density. Generating units and pay the costs and freight necessary Coke strength after reaction (CSR): loading process, to be distinguished from can intake a greater amount of cooler, to bring the goods to the named port of Measurement of the strength of coke a conventional unit which must stop the dense “winter” air than comparably destination. after heating and reaction. This is one of loading process to extract coal. warm, less dense “summer” air increasing the major quality considerations when rated capacity. Clean spread: Estimated gross margin of assessing the coking coals. To test this Contract price: Price agreed to in a coal a gas or coal-fired plant in which costs quality parameter a sample of coke is sales contact. The contract price may differ Capacity factor: A measure of how often include fuel, plant efficiency, and carbon heated to simulate the blast furnace. Once from the current market or spot price. an electric generator runs; it compares cost. The clean spread is commonly cooled the sample is placed in a drum and how much electricity a generator actually used to track energy markets and fuel rotated for 30 minutes. The percentage of Core sample: A cylindrical sample produces with the maximum it could competition. coke that is greater than 10 mm in size is obtained by drilling an area of the ground, produce, during a specific period of time. the CSR. generally 1” to 5” in diameter, used to Cleat: The joints within coal seams that collect a geologic and/or chemical analysis Capesize vessel: Large dry bulk carrier break when mined, which creates vertical Coke reaction with CO2 (CRI): Rate at of the overburden and coal. vessel class with deadweight tonnage cleavage in the coal seam. which carbon in coke reacts with reducing typically above 100,000. The beam and gases such as CO2. Coke is heated to Crop coal: Coal from the outcrop of the draft on these vessels makes them unable Coal: A combustible black or brownish- simulate blast furnace conditions. After seam usually considered to be of inferior to transit the Panama Canal and must pass black sedimentary rock formed by the cooling the amount of weight lost during quality due to partial oxidation. the Cape of Good Hope. partial to complete decomposition of the reaction is measured. organic matter over millions of years.

114 Return to Contents 115 Definitions Additional Information

Crosscut: A passageway created between Dip: The inclination of a geologic structure Entry: an underground passage used for Feeder: A machine that evenly feeds coal an entry and its parallel air course for (bed, vein, fault, etc.) from the horizontal, haulage or ventilation, or as a manway. onto a conveyor belt. ventilation purposes. In vein mining, an measured downward at right angles to the entry perpendicular to the vein. strike. Free alongside ship value (f.a.s.): The Force majeure: Clause included in many seller delivers when the goods are placed types of contracts that frees both parties Crucible swelling number (CSN): See Free Dragline: A large excavation machine used alongside the vessel (on a quay or barge) from obligation due to an extraordinary Swelling Index. in surface mining to remove overburden nominated by the buyer at the named port circumstance. The clause is commonly covering a coal seam. The dragline casts of shipment. The risk of loss of or damage used in coal sales agreement when an Culm: Waste from anthracite preparation a wire rope-hung bucket to collect the dug to the goods passes when the goods are example of a force majeure may be a plants, consisting of rock fragments and material by pulling the bucket toward itself alongside the ship, and the buyer bears all natural disaster. up to 30% small-sized coal. on the ground with a second wire rope (or costs from that moment onwards. chain), elevates the bucket, and dumps the Fouling: The buildup of deposits Dark spread: Estimated gross margin of a material on a spoil bank, in a hopper, or Face: The exposed area of a coal bed from inside a boiler in sections that are not coal-fired power plant where generation on a pile. which coal is extracted. directly exposed to the flame. Fouling costs include only fuel and plant efficiency. can decrease the boiler’s efficiency by The dark spread is commonly used to Draught (or draft): The vertical distance Fall: A mass of fallen roof rock or coal restricting heat transfer between the track energy markets and fuel competition. measure from the waterline to the lowest found in any part of a mine. combustion gases and convention pass submerged part of a vessel. tube surfaces. Deadweight tonnage (dwt): The difference Fault: An area between two portions of the between loaded displacement and Drift: A horizontal passage underground Earth’s surface that have moved relative Fixed carbon: The amount of carbon left lightship, consisting of the total weight of that follows the vein, as distinguished to each other, caused by severe Earth in coal after the volatiles are driven off. cargo, fuel, fresh water, shores, and crew from a crosscut that intersects it. stresses. Measurement is used to estimate the which a ship can carry when immersed to amount of coke that will be yielded from a a particular load line. Dry ash free (daf): Basis of reporting and Fault zone: An area that consists of sample of coal. . assessing coal quality similar to the dry any amount of smaller interconnecting Demurrage: Money paid by the charterer, basis, however in addition to assuming faults, or a fracture hundreds and even Float dust: Fine coal-dust particles that shipper, or receiver for occupying port zero moisture content the ash content is thousands of feet wide. Also a confused can pass through a No. 200 sieve carried space beyond a specified period of time also unaccounted for. zone of gouge, breccia, or mylonite. by air currents and deposited in return allowed in the charter party. entries. Dry basis (db): Basis of reporting and Federal coal lease: A lease between Dial divisions per minute (DDPM): assessing coal quality in which no the federal government and a mining Floor: The bottom or underlying surface of Measure of the fluidity of coking coal moisture is associated with the sample. company specifying the terms regarding an underground excavation, upon which a during the coking process. This is a The sample is free of both surface or the extraction of federally owned coal person walks and equipment travels. primary quality parameter of coking coal inherent moisture and moisture associated from a defined area. The mining company valuation. To test, a sample is placed with the coal itself. is required to pay royalties to obtain Flue gas desulfurization (FGD): A process in a cylinder with a stirrer inserted. The the lease. These leases are typical in that removes sulfur compounds formed cylinder of coal is heated at a constant EIA: The U.S. Energy Information Admin- the Powder River Basin where mining during coal combustion. The devices, rate as steady torque is applied to the istration. companies must periodically obtain commonly called “scrubbers,” combine stirrer. As the coal heats up it softens and leases. the sulfur from gaseous emissions with the stirrer rotates. The DDPM value is Electrostatic precipitator: An electrical another chemical medium, forming waste, the maximum amount of revolutions the device that removes fine particles (fly ash) Federal Energy Regulatory Commission which must then be removed for disposal. stirrer completes. In general, low volatile from combustion gases before they are (FERC): Independent agency that regulates coals have low fluidity while high volatile released from a power plant stack. the interstate transmission of natural gas, coals achieve higher fluidity. oil, and electricity. FERC also regulates Energy: the potential to do work. natural gas and hydropower projects.

116 Return to Contents 117 Definitions Additional Information

Fluidity: Measure of how fluid coking coal Free swelling index (FSI): Standard Hazardous air pollutant (HAP): Pollutants Hydrocarbon: A class of compounds becomes during the coking process. As measure used to determine if coal has that cause or may cause cancer or other containing only hydrogen and carbon. the coal is heating in the coking process coking properties. A small sample of serious health effects. The EPA is required Naturally occurring hydrocarbons found it becomes a liquid. The fluidity of coal coal is heated and forms a button which to control these pollutants. in coal, mineral oil, petroleum, natural during the coking process as expressed is compared to a series of standards. gas, paraffin, fossil resins, and the solid is DDPMs is a primary measure of coking Standards are ordered 1 through 9, with 9 Heat rate: The amount of heat required bitumens in rocks are generally formed coal quality and is used in formulating indicating the most swelling. to generate one unit of power. Primary in association with the decomposition of coking coal blends. measure of an electric generating unit’s organic matter. Gasification: The chemical process by efficiency usually expressed as Btu/kWh. Fluidized bed combustion (FBC): A which coal is turned into a syngas. Inertinite: A maceral which has been process to remove sulfur from coal during Head section: The portion of a belt or altered or degraded in the coal formation combustion with a high rate of effec- Gross as received (GAR): The heat content chain conveyor that discharges material. process. North American coals have tiveness. Coal is burned in a bubbling, of coal under laboratory conditions where inertinite content ranging from 5% to 40%. fluidized mixture while an upward the impact of the coals moisture on Heaving: When the removal of coal from stream of hot air suspends the coal and reducing heat content is removed. GAR, the floor of a seam causes the bottom to Inherent moisture: Moisture found within limestone in the bottom of a boiler. The also known as high heating values, are the rise. coal. The term is usually referenced in the sulfur combines with the limestone, thus standard in American reporting. coal sampling and testing process. creating a solid compound recovered with Henry Hub: A natural gas pipeline located the ash, as opposed to releasing harmful Gob: Loose waste in a mine, or the waste in Louisiana used as the official pricing In situ: In the natural or original position, emissions. used to fill up an area of a coal mine from point for natural gas futures on the New from the Latin, translated literally as “in which coal has already been removed. York Mercantile Exchange. Settlement position.” This term describes rock, soil, Fly ash: A product of burning pulverized prices at the Henry Hub are used as or fossil found in the situation in which it coal in a boiler, removed from the exhaust Handymax vessel: Class of dry bulk carrier benchmarks for the North American was originally formed or deposited. gases by electrostatic precipitators and/ or typically rated at 40,000 to 60,000 tons natural gas market. baghouses. Some classes of fly ash have deadweight. Joint Line: The term commonly used to pozzolanic, or cementitious, properties Highwall: An unexcavated face of exposed describe the Powder River Basin (PRB) and are commonly used in cement and Handysize vessel: Class of dry bulk carrier overburden and coal. Applies to a surface railroad line located in Wyoming which concrete applications. typically rated at 10,000 to 40,000 tons mine, or the face, or bank on the uphill is jointly owned and served by BNSF deadweight. side of a contour mine excavation. Railway and Union Pacific Railroad. Fracture: A discontinuity in a body of rock, caused by a mechanical failure, whether Hard coal: Generally, anthracite and Highwall miner: A remotely controlled Kerf: The undercut of a coal face. by shear stress or tensile stress. Fractures bituminous rank coal. continuous miner, which extracts and include joints, shears, faults, and planes of simultaneously conveys coal by augers, Kilocalorie (kcal): Amount of energy fracture cleavage. Hardgrove Grindability Index (HGI): belt, or chains to the surface. The cut is required to increase the temperature of Quality measure of the hardness of coal, typically a rectangular, horizontal cut. 1 kilogram of water by 1°C. The unit is Free on board (FOB): used to measure the ease of pulverization. used to measure the heat content of coal, The seller delivers the goods on board The higher the HGI value the softer the Hogsback: A sharp rise in the floor of a expressed in kcal/kg. the vessel nominated by the buyer at the coal. seam. named port of shipment or procures the Lift: The amount of coal obtained from a goods already so delivered. The risk of Haulage: The horizontal transport of ore, Hoisting: The vertical transport of coal, continuous miner. Typically refers to one loss of or damage to the goods passes coal, supplies, and waste. supplies, and waste. mining cycle. when the goods are on board the vessel, and the buyer bears all costs from that Haulage rights: similar to trackage rights, moment onwards. but the tenant’s traffic is hauled in the owner’s trains.

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Lignite: Sometimes referred to as brown Maceral: Organic particles found in coal. Mineable reserves: See recoverable Parting: A small joint in coal or rock, a coal, lignite is the lowest rank of coal Macerals are can be broken into three reserves. layer of rock in a coal seam, or a side track and is characterized by high moisture basic groups: the vitrinite group, the or turnout in a haulage road. and low calorific content. Lignite is most liptinite group, and the inertinite group. Net as Received (NAR): The heat content commonly used for steam generation in Each of these groups is characterized by of coal under laboratory conditions where Petcoke or Petroleum Coke: A residue power plants. It is also a feedstock for the source of their organic matter. the absorbed water in the coal is included. high in carbon content from the cracking activated carbon used to capture mercury Net calorific values, also known as low process or refining of petroleum products. in coal fired utility flue gas emission Man trip: A carrier of mine personnel to heating values are standard in European Petcoke is generally lower ash, moisture, streams. and from a work area, by rail or rubber reporting. and volatiles than steam coal, however it tire. is also contains a higher heating value and Liptinite: Maceral derived from waxy or Netback: Calculating the market value of higher sulfur content. Petcoke is mainly resinous part of plants. Liptinite usually Maximum achievable control technology coal at the source. Used to determine the used as an energy source for cement makes up 5% to 15% of North American (MACT): National emission standard used potential price at the mine by subtracting production, power generation, and iron coal and is usually more prevalent in to control HAPs. MACT standards require all transportation and handling costs from and steel production. Appalachian coals. pollutant sources to achieve certain a delivered price of the coal. Typically emissions levels already achieved by used to determine the necessary FOB Petrography: Microscopic study of coal Liquefaction: The process of converting their best performing peers. The expected price for CAPP and NAPP coals into used to determine its exact rank and type. coal into a synthetic fuel. benefit of this approach is to not penalize Europe. (i.e., API 2 market price – ocean sources who already have effective freight – terminal fees – rail freight = Pig Iron: Crude iron resulting from a blast Lithology: The study of the character of emission controls. netback price.) furnace which is later refined into steel, or a rock. This is described in terms of its other iron products. structure, color, mineral composition, Metallurgical or met or coking coal: Coal Opencast mine: See surface mine. grain size, and arrangement of its that has the unique ability to soften, Pillar: typically square or rectangular component parts. Lithology is the basis of transition through a plastic phase before Openpit mine: See surface mine. sections of coal left behind in an correlation in coal mines, and is usually re-solidifying into a porous substance underground room and pillar mine. The reliable over a distance of a few miles. called coke. This transition occurs in a Overburden: Layers of soil and rock that pillar is left in order to support the roof. temperature range between 300°C to cover a coal seam. In surface mining Long ton: 1,016 kg or 2,240 lbs. 550°C in the absence of air. operations, large equipment removes Pillar robbing: The systematic removal of the overburden from the site prior to pillars to regulate the subsidence of the Longwall mining: This highly productive Methane: The principle component of mining. After the area has been mined, the roof. underground coal mining technique natural gas, formed from the decompo- overburden is used as backfill, taken to a occurs when a long wall, about 250 sition of organic matter. It is frequently dump site, or stored. Pinch: A compression used to squeeze to 400 meters long of coal is mined in found in underground coal mining out the coal, either between the walls of consecutive slices, each typically 1-2 operations, and is kept within safe limits Oxidation (coal): the absorption of oxygen a vein, or between the roof and floor of a meters in depth. Long Wall mining in a mine via ventilation systems due to its from the air by coal resulting in degraded coal seam. machines consist of multiple coal shearers potentially explosive nature. chemical and physical properties of the mounted on a series of self- advancing coal. Power: energy flow or energy divided by hydraulic ceiling supports. Long wall Metric ton (t): 1,000 kg or 2,204.6 lbs. time. miners extract “panels,” or rectangular Panamax vessel: Bulk carrier with a blocks of coal as wide as the mining Mine mouth electric generating plant: maximum beam of 106ft. Such vessels are Portal: The structure surrounding the machinery and as long as 12,000 feet. A coal-fired electricity generation plant capable of transiting the Panama Canal. immediate entrance to a mine. located near a coal mine that supplies the plant. Panel: A coal mining block that generally Preparation plant: A plant where coal is comprises one operating unit. cleaned, sized, and prepared for market.

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Proximate analysis: A physical, or Recoverable reserves: The portion of Rib: The side of a supporting pillar or the Sampling: The collection and proper nonchemical test of the composition of reserves that can be economically and wall of an entry in a coal mine. storage and handling of a relatively small coal or coke; an assay of the moisture, physically mined using current techniques quantity of coal for laboratory analysis for ash, volatile matter and fixed carbon and after allowing for normal mining losses. Rider: A thin seam of coal that overlies a the purpose of coal resource assessment, may also include calorific and sulfur deter- thicker seam. production and processing assessment, minations. Provides a determination of Recovery: The amount of coal and ore and shipment or receipt monitoring for commercial value rather than preciseness. mined from the original seam or deposit. Roof: Layer of rock or other material which adherence to coal contract specifications. overlays the coal seam. This layer acts as Prompt: The term is used in the pricing Recovery factor: The clean coal portion the “roof” of an underground coal mine. Scrubber: A device that removes sulfur of coal and refers to the nearest delivery of mined material. During the mining compounds from the flue gas formed term actively being traded. For example, process impurities are mixed with the Roof bolt: A long steel bolt that is driven during coal combustion. They combine prompt month in May is slated for June coal, which are then removed in the into the roof of an underground mine. Its the sulfur from gaseous emissions with delivery. Prompt can also be applied to coal preparation plant. The ratio of clean purpose is to support the roof and help a chemical medium to form a disposable quarter or year in addition to month. coal to the amount of mined material is prevent falls which can endanger miners. waste product, referred to as “sludge.” referred to as the recovery factor. Pulverized coal injection (PCI): process Roof support: Support given to a rock Seam: A stratum or bed of coal. used by blast furnace operators in which Reflectance: The ability of coal to reflect overlying a coal seam in an underground coal is crushed into a fine powder then light. Macerals are exposed to light and mine. Posts, jacks, roof bolts, and beams Self-contained breathing apparatus: A injected into the furnace. Blast furnaces their reflectance is measure to determine are typically used for support. self-contained supply of oxygen which implement PCI in order to reduce their coal rank. Reflectance is the most accurate permits freedom of movement for use usage of expensive coke. Lower grade measure of a coal’s rank. Room and pillar mining: A method of during rescue work (coal mine fires, metallurgical coals that aren’t necessarily underground mining in which approxi- explosions, etc.). suitable for coke making are used in PCI Reserves: The quantity of coal that is mately half of the coal is left in place for applications. economically and physically recoverable roof support in the general mining area. Self-rescuer: A small filtering device using current mining techniques. “Rooms” of coal are extracted, while carried by a coal miner underground, Rank: The classification of coal by degree support “pillars” are left behind. either on his belt or in his pocket, to of hardness, moisture and heat content. Resource (indicated): The quantity, quality, provide him with immediate protection See anthracite, bituminous, subbitu- and rank of coal that can be estimated to a Royalty: Consideration, typically against carbon monoxide and smoke in minous, and lignite. In terms of Btu or factor to support economic development. monetary, paid by a producer to the case of a mine fire or explosion. It is a heating content, anthracite has the highest mineral owner/lessor for the production small canister with a mouthpiece directly value, followed by bituminous, subbitumi- Resource (inferred): The quantity, quality, and disposition of coal or other minerals. attached to it. The wearer breathes nous, and lignite. and rank of coal that can be estimated but Coal royalties are generally calculated on through the mouth, the nose being closed not confirmed for a reserve. a percentage of the selling price or on a by a clip. The canister contains a layer of Raw coal: Coal which has received no per ton basis. fused calcium chloride that absorbs water preparation other than possibly screening. Resource (measured): The quantity, vapor from the mine air. The device is As mined coal. quality, and rank of coal that are estimated Run-of-mine (ROM): Refers to the coal as used for escape purposes only because to a factor that supports economic it leaves the mine before it is washed or it does not sustain life in atmospheres Reclamation: The process of restoring development. sized in the preparation plant. Run-of-mine containing deficient oxygen. The length land and environmental values to a coal produced at some mines contains of time a self-rescuer can be used is surface mine site. This is done after the Respirable dust: Dust particles 5 microns rock from within, above, and/or below the governed mainly by the humidity in the coal is extracted, by restoring topsoil and or less in size. seam which is removed in the preparation mine air, usually between 30 minutes and planting native vegetation. plant to enhance its quality one hour. Retreat mining: A system of pillar robbing. The line through the faces of the Shaft mine: An underground mine which pillars being extracted retreats from the uses a vertical shaft as its primary point boundary toward the shaft or mine mouth. of entry.

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Short ton (T): 907.18 kg or 2,000 lbs. Strike: The direction of the line that Swell: The increase in volume as material Tuyere: Nozzle located at the base of a intersects a bed or vein with a horizontal is disturbed from its compacted state by blast furnace through which hot air and Skip: A large bucket or hopper hoisted plane. Strike is perpendicular to the mining or excavation, as a percent. fuel is injected. from a slope or shaft. direction of the dip. The strike of a bed is the direction of a straight line that Tailgate: A subsidiary gate road to a Ultimate analysis: Precise determination, Slag: Byproduct formed in the smelting of connects two points of equal elevation on conveyor face that commonly acts as a by chemical means, of the elements and iron in a blast furnace. Slag floats on the the bed. return airway, supplying road to the face. compounds in coal. surface of the molten iron, allowing it to Opposite of a main gate. be skimmed off and cooled into a coarse Stripping ratio: The amount of overburden Unit train: A long train of between 60 and aggregate used in concrete and road that must be removed to gain access to Tail section: The part of a belt or chain 150 or more hopper cars that transports a building. a unit amount of coal. Stripping ratios conveyor system consisting of a frame, single commodity between a single mine are expressed as a ratio of overburden either a tail pulley or tail sprocket, and a and destination. Slagging: The buildup of deposits inside a to coal either in the form of thickness, tensioning device around which the belt or boiler in sections that are directly exposed volume or mass. Stripping ratios are used chain travels. Vitrinite: Maceral which is derived from to the flame. to determine the feasibility of surface the cell walls of plants. This group is the mining. Thermal coal: See Steam coal. most common and can make up between Slope mine: An underground mine with a 50% and 90% of most North American downward or upward inclined access from Subbituminous coal: Has a heating value Time Charter: Chartering a ship for a coals. the surface opening to the coal or ore to between bituminous and lignite. It has period of time at a daily cost to the owner. be mined. low fixed carbon and high percentages of Crew and equipment are paid for by the Volatile matter: Constituent of coal, not volatile matter and moisture. ship owner. including moisture, that is given off as Sloughing: The deterioration and crumbling vapor when coal is combusted. Volatile of material from the roof, rib, or face. Subsidence: The gradual sinking, and in Tipple: Facility used to load coal into matter is measured by heating the coal some cases the abrupt collapse, of the railcars or trucks. in laboratory conditions. After heating, Slurry: A mixture of coal, coal waste, and/ rock and soil layers into an underground the weight loss of the coal, excluding or rock and liquid that is a by-product of mine. Structures and surface features Ton-mile: the movement of one ton of moisture, is measured. Volatiles are a key the coal mining and preparation process. above the subsidence area can potentially freight a distance of one mile indicator of the quality of coking coals. Slurry is normally impounded behind an be affected. earthen dam at the mine site. Trackage rights: An agreement in which Waste: Rock or mineral removed from a Sulfur: Naturally occurring element one railroad (“tenant”) negotiates the mine which has no use or value. Spark Spread: Estimated gross margin of found in varying concentrations in fossil rights to operate its trains over specified a gas-fired power plant where generation fuels. When fossil fuels are combusted track segments owned by another railroad Watt: A unit of power which is equivalent costs include only fuel and plant efficiency. the sulfur forms sulfur dioxides which (“owner”), typically without rights to serve to one joule per second. contribute to air pollution. Coal contains customers along that portion of the line. Spot Price: The current market price of varying amounts of sulfur with lower Yield: 1) The amount of coal after coal or other commodity. sulfur coals of similar rank demanding Trona: The most common sodium- processing as a percent of total input. 2) premium prices. Coal plants are able to based sorbent (sodium sesquicarbonate The ratio of clean coal to raw coal feed Steam or thermal coal: Coal which is reduce sulfur emissions by implementing [Na3(HCO3)]) used in Dry Sorbent as a percent. 3) When a pillar of coal in a burned, producing heat that is used to scrubbers allowing them to meet federal Injection (DSI) technology used to reduce mine begins to deform. generate steam. The steam expands emissions standards. SO2 emissions from coal-fired boilers. DSI through a turbine, which in turn spins a with trona is advantageous to Wet Flue generator, producing electricity. All ranks Surface mine: A mine in which the coal Gas Desulfurization (WFGD) due to lower of coal can be used for steam generation, lies at a sufficiently shallow depth to be capital costs, avoiding water use, and however the varying heat content between economically extracted by first removing lower energy consumption. ranks impact the volume of coal necessary the overburden. The coal is extracted by to produce equivalent amounts of steam. removing the covering layers of rock and soil.

124 Return to Contents 125 Abbreviations Additional Information

Abbreviations DC Direct current ddpm Dial divisions per minute AC Alternating current dmmf Dry, mineral-matter-free basis ACI Activated carbon injection DOE U.S. Department of Energy AFT Ash Fusion Temperatures DSI Dry sorbent injection AAD Audibert-Arnu Dilatometer ad Air dried DTA Dominion Terminal Associates (Hampton Roads, VA; CSX) API2 CIF ARA price benchmark Dwtat Deadweight tonnes all told API4 FOB Richards Bay, South Africa price benchmark EAF Electric Arc Furnace API 6 FOB Newcastle, Australia price benchmark EERE DOE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy ar As received ARA Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Antwerp EIA U.S. Energy Information Administration ARP Acid Rain Program EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials ESP Electrostatic precipitator atm Standard atmosphere Fas Free alongside ship bbl Barrel FBC Fluidized bed combustion bit Bituminous coal bn Billion FC Fixed carbon BNSF Burlington Northern Santa Fe Railway FCPA U.S. Foreign Corrupt Practices Act BOF Basic oxygen furnace FERC Federal Energy Regulatory Commission BS Rvr Big Sandy River FGD Flue gas desulfurization Btu British thermal unit CAPP Central Appalachia FGR Flue gas recirculation CAES Compressed air energy storage FOB Free on board CAIR Clean Air Interstate Rule (EPA) FRCC Florida Reliability Coordinating Council CC Combined cycle FSI Free swelling index CCS Carbon capture and storage FTC U.S. Federal Trade Commission CIF Cost, insurance & freight cm Centimeter FX Foreign exchange CN Canadian National Railway g Gram CO Carbon monoxide GAD Gross air dried CO Carbon dioxide 2 GAR Gross as received CP Canadian Pacific Railway cP Centipoise GW Gigawatt CRI Coke reaction index (coke reactivity) GWh Gigawatt hour CSAPR Cross-State Air Pollution Rule HAP Hazardous air pollutant CSN Crucible Swelling Number HCC Hard Coking Coal CSP Concentrated Solar Power Hg Mercury CSR Coke strength after reaction CSX CSX Corporation (Rail) HGI Hardgrove grindability index cSt Centistokes HV High Vol CV Calorific value HVA High Vol A cwt Hundred weight HVB High Vol B daf Dry, ash free basis db Dry basis IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency

126 Return to Contents 127 Abbreviations Additional Information

IDT Initial deformation temperature Mt Million tonnes IEA International Energy Agency Mtce Million tonnes of coal equivalent IGCC Integrated gasification combined cycle Mtoe Million tonnes of oil equivalent ILB Illinois Basin mtpa Million tonnes per annum IM Inherent moisture MV Medium volatile IMF International Monetary Fund MW Megawatt IPP Independent Power Producer MWh Megawatt hour ISO Independent System Operator Na Sodium J Joule NAPP Northern Appalachia kcal Kilocalories n mile Nautical mile kg Kilogram NAICS North American Industry Classification System km Kilometer NAR Net as received kV Kilovolt NERC North American Electric Reliability Corporation kW Kilowatt NETL National Energy Technology Laboratory (DOE) kWh Kilowatt hour NFDL Nonfatal days lost L Liter NGCC Natural gas combined cycle lb Pound NMA National Mining Association

LCOE Levelized cost of electricity NOx Nitrogen oxides

LNB Low NOx burners NOLA New Orleans, Louisiana LNG Liquefied natural gas NPCC Northeast Power Coordinating Council LPG Liquefied petroleum gas NPDES National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System LV Low volatile NRC Nuclear Regulatory Commission MACT Maximum achievable control technology NS Norfolk Southern Railroad MATS Mercury and Air Toxics Standard (EPA, proposed rule) ntp Normal temperature pressure Mcf million cubic feet O&M Operations and Maintenance MF Maximum fluidity OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development MHC Moisture holding capacity OFA Over-fire air MISO Midwest Independent Transmission System Operator OSHA U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (DOL) MJ Megajoules OSM U.S. Office of Surface Mining MM Mineral matter OSTI U.S. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (DOE) mmBtu Million Btus OTC Over-the-counter mmmf Moist, mineral-matter-free basis oz Ounce MMR Mean maximum reflectance OZ Australia Mon Rvr Monongahela River Pa Pascal MRO Midwest Reliability Organization PCI Pulverized Coal Injection MSHA U.S. Mine Safety and Health Administration (Dept. of Labor) PJM Pennsylvania Jersey Maryland power pool MT Million tons ppm Parts per million PRB Powder River Basin

128 Return to Contents 129 Specifications Additional Information

PV Photovoltaic Over-the-Counter (OTC) Specifications RGGI Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative RFC Reliability First Corporation Over-the-counter (OTC) coal markets are used by producers, consumers, and ROM Run of mine traders of coal to hedge against price volatility. Most OTC activity occurs around RTO Regional Transmission Organizations the CAPP 12,000 Btu/lb Big Sandy barge coal, the CAPP 12,500 Btu/lb CSX rail coal, S Sulfur and the PRB 8,800 Btu/lb coal. SAPP Southern Appalachia Central Appalachia NAPP Powder River Basin cif ARA fob RBCT SCR Selective Catalytic Reduction OTC Specs SE Specific energy NYMEX CSX 1.2 CSX < 1% NS 1.2 NS < 1% Pitt 8 3.4# PRB 8800 8400API 2 4 SEC U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission Btu/lb 6,000 6,000 12,000 12,500 12,500 13,000 8,800 8,400 SERC SERC Reliability Corporation guarantee kcal/kg kcal/kg 5,850 5,850 Btu min reject 11,750 12,200 12,200 12,800 8,600 8,200 SG Specific gravity kcal/kg kcal/kg Sulfur % or SMCRA Surface Mine Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 1.0% 1.2# 1% or 1.6# 1.2# 1% or 1.6# 3.0# 0.8# 0.8#1.0% #SO2 SNCR Selective Noncatalytic Reduction Sulfur max 1.0% 1.2# 1% or 1.6# 1.2# 1% or 1.6# 3.4# 1.2# 1.2#1.0% reject SO2 Sulfur dioxide Ash % 12.0 12.0 12.0 8.0 5.5 11-­‐15 SOx Sulfur oxides SPP Southwest Power Pool Ash max reject 13.5 13.5 15.0 sshinc Saturday, Sunday, holidays included T Short Ton (2,000 lbs) Moisture % 10 7 7 8 27 30 12-­‐15 Volatile matter t Tonne or metric ton (1,000 kg) 30 30 22-­‐37 22-­‐37 % min reject TCE Time charter equivalent TM Total moisture HGI min reject 38 40 44 toe Tonne oil equivalent 7,750 10,000 10,000 14,500 1,000 1,000 Contract size metric metric TRE Texas Regional Entity (tons) 5 barges unit trains unit trains unit trains unit trains unit trains unit trains tonnes tonnes TRIR Total recordable injury rate TS Total sulfur Ohio River Big Sandy Big Sandy Thacker Thacker Dual Line Dual Line Richards FOB Origin Bay, South UMWA United Mineworkers of America Big Sandy Kanawha Kanawha Kenova Kenova Africa

UP Union Pacific Railway Transport Barge CSX CSX NS NS NS-­‐CSXBNSF-­‐UP USACE U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Mode USEC United States East Coast USGC United States Gulf Coast VM Volatile matter Vol Volatile matter WECC Western Electricity Coordinating Council WFGD Wet flue gas desulfurization

130 Return to Contents 131 Conversions and Formulas Additional Information

Conversions and Formulas Length Conversion Formulas International Desired Units: Kilometer How to use the conversion tables: Foot (ft) Yard (yd) Meter (m) Mile (mile) nautical mile (km) To convert into DESIRED UNITS multiply GIVEN UNITS by the value in the Given Units (n mile) appropriate box. For example, to convert 100 metric tonnes to short tons, multiply Foot (ft) 1 0.3333 0.3048 3.048 x 10-­‐4 1.894 x 10 -­‐4 1.646 x 10 -­‐4 by 1.102. (i.e., 100 metric tonnes x 1.102 = 110.2 short tons) Yard (yd) 3 1 0.9144 9.144 x 10-­‐4 5.682 x 10 -­‐4 4.937 x 10 -­‐4

Meter (m) 3.281 1.094 1 0.001 6.214 x 10-­‐4 5.4 x 10 -­‐4 Mass Conversion Formulas Kilometer (km) 3,281 1,094 1,000 1 0.6214 0.54 Desired Units: Short ton Metric Ton Pound (lb) Kilogram (kg) (ton) (tonne) Given Units Mile (mile) 5,280 1,760 1,609 1.609 1 0.869 Short ton (ton) 1 0.9071 2,000 907.2 International 6,076 2,025 1,852 1.852 1.151 1 nautical mile (n mile) Metric Ton (tonne) 1.102 1 2,205 1,000

Pound (lb) 0.0005 0.000454 1 0.4536 Volume Conversion Formulas Desired Units: Cubic inch Cubic foot Cubic yard Cubic meter Kilogram (kg) 0.001102 0.001 2.205 1 3 3 3 3 Given Units (in ) (ft ) (yd ) (m ) Cubic inch (in3) 1 5.787 x 10 -­‐4 2.143 x 10 -­‐5 1.639 x 10 -­‐5

Area Conversion Formulas Cubic foot (ft3) 1,728 1 0.03704 0.02832

Square 3 Desired Units: Square inch Square Square Square meter Square Mile Cubic yard (yd ) 46,656 27 1 0.7646 2 2 2 2 2 Kilometer Acre Given Units (in ) foot (ft ) yard (yd ) (m ) (mi ) 2 (km ) Cubic meter (m3) 61,024 35.31 1.308 1 Square inch (in2) 1 6.94 x 10-­‐3 7.716 x 10 -­‐4 6.452 x 10 -­‐4 2.491 x 10 -­‐10 6.45 x 10-­‐10 1.594 x 10 -­‐7

Square foot (ft2) 144 1 0.1111 0.0929 3.587 x 10 -­‐8 9.29 x 10-­‐8 2.296 x 10 -­‐5 Energy Conversion Formulas

Square yard (yd2) 1,296 9 1 0.83613 3.228 x 10 -­‐7 8.36 x 10-­‐7 2.066 x 10 -­‐4 Desired Units: British Kilowatt Kilocalorie Megajoule Therm Horsepower Given Units Thermal Unit hour (kWh) (kcal) (MJ) (therm) hour (hp h) Square meter (m2) 1,550 10.7639 1.196 1 3.861 x 10-­‐7 1.0 x 10 -­‐6 2.471 x 10 -­‐4 British Thermal Unit 1 0.000293 0.252 0.001055 1 x 10-­‐5 3.930 x 10 -­‐4 (Btu) 2 9 7 Square Mile (mi ) 4.0145 x 10 2.788 x 10 3,097,600 2,589,988 1 2.586 640 Kilowatt hour 3,412 1 859.8 3.6 0.03412 1.341 Square Kilometer (kWh) 1.55 x 109 10,763,910 1,195,990 1,000,000 0.3861 1 247.105 2 Kilocalorie (km ) 3.968 0.001163 1 0.0041868 3.968 x 10-­‐5 0.00156 (kcal) Acre 6,272,640 43560 4840 4046.856 1.653 x 10 -­‐3 4.047 x 10 -­‐3 1 Megajoule 947.8 0.2778 238.8 1 0.009478 0.3725 (MJ) Therm 100,000 29.31 25,200 105.5 1 39.3 (therm) Horsepower hour 2,544 0.7457 641 2.685 0.02544 1 (hp h)

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Coal Conversions Useful power generation factors:

1 MWh = 3,600 MJ Calorific Conversion Formulas 1 MW = 1 MJ/s 1 MW (thermal power) = approx. 1,000 kg steam/h Desired Units: Kilocalorie/kilogram Megajoule/kilogram British Thermal 1 MWe = approx. MW (thermal power) / 3 Given Units (Kcal/kg) (MJ/kg) Unit/pound (Btu/lb) Kilocalorie/kilogram 1 0.004187 1.8 Approximate Btu Values of Selected Energy Sources: (Kcal/kg) Megajoule/kilogram 238.8 1 429.9 1 Gallon of Gasoline = 125,000 Btu (MJ/kg) 1 Gallon of Heating Oil = 139,000 Btu British Thermal 0.5556 0.002326 1 1 Gallon of Propane = 91,000 Btu Unit/pound (Btu/lb) 1 Cubic Foot of Natural Gas = 1,021 Btu 1 Kilowatt hour of Electricity = 3,412 Btu

Other Conversions Coal Utilization

Annual coal consumption of a 1,000 MW plant operating at 36% efficiency and 70% utilization: See Power Plant Burn formula.

Coal Type Btu/lb. Tons PRB 8,400 3,500,000 PRB 8,800 3,300,000 ILB 11,500 2,500,000 Nymex 12,000 2,400,000 Area CAPP Rail 12,500 2,300,000 1 acre foot coal in place = 1.850 short tons (approx.) Pitt #8 13,000 2,200,000 Cubic ft. of water = 7.48 gallons = 62.321 pounds

Temperature Celsius = C° = 5/9 x (F° – 32°) Fahrenheit = F° = 9/5 x C° + 32° Atmospheric pressure = 14.7 lbs/in2 Heat of vaporization = 970 Btu/lb

134 Return to Contents 135 Conversions and Formulas Additional Information Conversions and Formulas ConversionsConversions and and Formulas Formulas Coal Trading Formulas Standard Btu Price Adjustment: CoalCoal Trading Trading Formulas Formulas

%% S Sulfurulfur to to lbs lbs SO SO2/mmBtu:2/mmBtu: !"#$%& !"#/!" − !"#$%&'$ !"#/!" !"# !"# !"#$% !"#$%&'()& = !"#$% ∗ !"#$%&'$ !"#/!" %% Standard SO2 Price Adjustment ($/ton):

!"#$"%!"#$"% Emission Price = price of SO2 emission allowance ($/ton of SO2 emissions) !"#!"# !" !"₂/₂!!"#$/!!"#$== ∗ ∗2020,000,000 Example:Example: If Ifcoal coal has has 1% 1% s ulfursulfur and and!"#!"# 12,000 /12,000!"/!" Btu/lb, Btu/lb, then then Example:Example: If Ifcoal coal has has 1% 1% s ulfursulfur and and 12,000 12,000 Btu/lb, Btu/lb, then then

!"₂ !"#$% !"#$%&'()&

! ! 11 2 2 !"#$%&'$ !"# !" − !"#$%& !"# !" ∗ !"#$%& !"#/!" ∗ !""#$$#%& !"#$% 11 !"!" 2 2 = ∗ ∗2020,000,000==1.1∗67.∗672 2 !"#= !"#=1 .167 .67/ !"#!!"#$/ !"#!!"#$ !" !"/!!"#$/!!"#$ 1,000,000 1212,00012,00012,000,000 ∗ ∗ 0 . 00001.0001 Power Plant Capacity Factor (%): LbsLbs SO SO2 per2 per mmBtu mmBtu to to % % Sulfur: Sulfur: MWh = power plant generation in one year Capacity = plant capacity measured in MW

! ! !"#!"#/!"/!" !"#!"# !" !" !"# !"# !!"#$ !!"#$ ∗ ∗ 1010,000,000 %% !"#$"% !"#$"%== !"ℎ 22 !"#"$%&' !"#$%& = !"#"$%&' !" ∗ 87.6 %% Ash Ash to to lbs lbs Ash/mmBtu: Ash/mmBtu: Power Plant Annual Burn (tons): Capacity = power plant capacity Capacity factor = utilization of the power plant (%) %% !" !"ℎℎ Heat rate = thermal efficient of a power plant (Btu/kWh) !"#!"# !" !"ℎ/ℎ!!"#$/!!"#$== ∗ ∗22 Btu/lb = heat content of coal consumed by the plant !"#!"#/!"/!" ∗ ∗ 0 . 00001.0001

$/mmBtu$/mmBtu to to $/ton: $/ton: !"# !""#$% !"#$ = !"#"$%&' !" ∗ 4,380 ∗ !"#"$%&' !"#$%& ∗ ℎ!"# !"#$/( ) !" $$ !"#!"# Emissions – Ashing Rate: $$ !!"#$!!"#$ !"!" == !"#!"# 500500

$/ton$/ton to to $/mmBtu: $/mmBtu: !" !"ℎ % !"ℎ ∗ 10,000 = !!"#$ !"#/!" Emissions – SO2 Rate:

$$ *Assumes 100% conversion to SO2 $$ ! ! 500 500 ==!"#!"# !!"#$!!"#$ !"#!"# !"!" !" !"₂ % !"#$"% ∗ 20,000 = !!"#$ !"#/!" 136 Return to Contents 137 123

122122 Conversions and Formulas Additional Information Conversions and Formulas Conversions and Formulas

Fuel Cost of Generation: Calorific value conversions

Heat rate is measured in Btu/kWh / Btu/lb to kcal/kg: !"# !"

$ !.!"" ∗ !"#$ !"#$ $/!"ℎ = !!"#$ 1,000 Kcal/kg to Btu/lb: /

!"#$ !" ∗ 1.799 Gross As Received (GAR) to Net As Received (NAR): Calorific Value Conversions Where: H = % Hydrogen, M = % moisture, O = % oxygen

Kcal/kg Btu/lb kcal/kg GAR to kcal/kg NAR:

/ / 15,000

Btu/lb!"#$ GAR!" to !"# Btu/lb= !"#$ NAR:!" !"! − 50.6 ! − 5.85 ! − .0191 ! 8,000 14,000 / /

7,500 The approximate!"# !" !"# difference= !"# !" s !"# between− 91.2 gross ! − 10 and.5 !net− values0.34 ! for typical 7,228 13,000 bituminous coals (10%M, 25% volatile Matter) are: 7,000 6,950 12,500 260 kcal/kg or 470 Btu/lb 12,000 6,500 As Received to Dry Conversion:

AR = as received 11,000 6,000

!" % !"ℎ ∗ 100 % !"# !"ℎ = 10,000 100 − % !"#$%&'( 5,500

!" % !"#$"% ∗ 100 % !"# !"#$"% = 100 − % !"#$%&'( 5,000 9,000

4,893 8,800 !" !"#!"#$ !"#$% ∗ 100 4,670 8,400 % !"# !"#$%&' !"#$% = 100 − % !"#$%&'( 4,448 8,000

138 Return to Contents 139 126

124 Conversions and Formulas Additional Information

Conversions and Formulas

Heat rate conversions Useful Websites

Alpha Natural Resources www.alphanr.com Plant Efficiency (%) = Organizations !,!"# The Truth about Surface Mining www.truthaboutsurfacemining.org !"#$ !"#$ National Mining Association www.nma.org Friends of Coal www.friendsofcoal.org Federation for American Coal, Heat Rate = Energy and Security (FACES) www.facesofcoal.org !,!"# American Coalition for Clean Coal Electricity www.americaspower.org !"#$% !""#$#%&$' (%) CORESafety www.coresafety.org American Coal Foundation www.teachcoal.org American Coal Council www.americancoalcouncil.org Heat Rate Conversions American Coal Ash Association www.acaa-usa.org National Coal Council www.nationalcoalcouncil.org Coal Utilization Research Council www.coal.org Heat Rate Plant Efficiency National Energy Education Development Project (NEED) www.need.org (Btu/kWh) (%) North American Electric Reliability Corporation www.nerc.org World Coal Association www.worldcoal.org 3,412 100 West Virginia Coal Association www.wvcoal.com Kentucky Coal Associatoin www.kentuckycoal.org Pennsylvania Coal Association www.pacoalassn.com Virginia Mining Association www.virginiaminingassoc.com

60 Wyoming Mining Association www.wma-minelife.com 5,687 American Legislative Exchange Council www.regulatorytrainwreck.com

6,204 55 Government U.S. Department of Energy www.doe.gov DOE National Energy Technology Laboratory www.netl.doe.gov 6,824 50 DOE Office of Fossil Energy www.fossil.energy.gov DOE Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy www.eere.energy.gov 7,582 45 DOE Office of Electricity Delivery & Energy Reliability www.energy.gov/oe Energy Information Administration www.eia.gov 8,530 40 EIA’s Kid Page www.eia.gov/kids Mine Safety and Health Administration www.msha.gov MSHA’s Kid Page www.msha.gov/kids/kidshp.htm 9,749 35 U.S. Geological Survey www.usgs.gov Bureau of Land Management www.blm.gov 11,373 30 Environmental Protection Agency www.epa.gov DOI Office of Surface Mining Reclamation 13,648 25 and Enforcement www.osmre.gov Tennessee Valley Authority www.tva.gov Federal Energy Regulatory Commission www.ferc.gov U.S. Army Corps of Engineers www.usace.army.mil

140 Return to Contents 141 125 201 Alpha Coal Handbook 2

Alpha Coal Handbook A reference guide for coal, ironmaking, electricity generation, and emissions control technologies.

2012 Edition

One Alpha Place | P.O. Box 16429 | Bristol, Virginia 24209 | www.alphanr.com