Education -And Service Conditions of Teachers in Scandinavia The

Education-andServiceConditions Par ofTeachersinScandinavia

TheNetherlandsandFinland 410

a By ALINAM.LINDEREN----- Specialistin WesternEuropeanEducation b

**. BULLETIN1940, No.9

-al

at,

1/4

AI&

4 FEDERALSECURITYAGENCY - ' - Paul V.Mc Nuu,Administrator U. S. OFFICEOFEDUCATION- JOhnW. Studebaker,Conimissioner

UNIT= STILT=GOTIRIIIIIINT PRINTING OFFICI - . . . . WMIRINGTON:1941

"..- Pier We bythe cl Superintendent dDocuments,Waal:install, D.C.-..- ----a-gdos 20coats

.r1't...A...

,*; i ti:. al I . s, .+.1 ,. '''''. - - .__ -' = at IL-..---,0111 _i_ Contents q Page FOREWORD _ VII INTRODUCTION_ _ 1 DENMARK______5 Education, appointment,andremuneration ofteachers______Elementary schools.._ _ _ _ _ 7 Elementary andsecondaryeducation priorto April 1,1938_ 7 Organization ofelementaryeducationafter April1, 1938__ _ 7

Eflucation______9 Seminaries _ __ 9 Examination forteachers 12 State High Schoolfor Teachers 13 Appointment _ 15 Remuneration 16 Secondaryschools 19 Organization ofsecondaryeducation _ __ _ 19 Education . 21 General examinationin philosophy 22 Language-historyprofessional examinationfor teachers_ 22 Professional examinationfor teachers inthe facultybf

mathematics-naturalscience _ I. 24 Professional educationof secondaryschoolteachers__ _ _ 27 Appointment _ _ 28 Remuneration 28 Bibliography______29 NORWAY______31 Education, appointment,and remuneratioilof teachers 33 Elementary schools 33 Organization ofthe elementaryschool incities 33 The elementary schoolin thecountry 34 Education _ _ _ . 1 35 Schools for theeducation ofelementary schoolteachers_ 35 Examinations 40 Additional educationfor elementaryschool teachers___ _ 41 Appointment 42 Remuneration 43 _ Secondary schools _ 45 Organization of thesecondary school 45 t, Education 50 Language-historyprofessional examination______50 Mathematics-naturalscience professionalexamination__ 52 Pedagogical Seminary 53 , Special subjectteachers 55 Appointment 55 Remuneration 56 Bibliography 56 III Iv CONTENTS

Page &WEDE 4. 59 Educatiou, appointment, andremunèration ofteachers _ _ . 61 Primáry and elementaryschools 61 Organization of elementary edúcation______61 Education, _ _ _ _ _ 62 General data 62 Seminaries for theeducation ofprimary schoolttachers_ 63 Seminariesforthe educationof elementaryschool teachers_ 66 Appointment__ _ 70 Remuneration__ v _ 71 Secondary schools______73

Organization of secondary __ _ _ education_ _ ...... _ _ 73 V Education _ . 4 _ _ _ _ _ ..... _ _ _ _ . 75 Preparation ofsecondary schoolteachers throughuni- versity study______77

_ _ Examinations_ am ...... M 4. OW Gam 78 Year of practicaleducation so Royal Seminaryfor the Education 'ofSeCondarySchool Teachers__ 81 Appointment______83

44 _ _ _ Remuneration_ _ _ 84 Bibliography__ .4' 84 THE NETHERLANDS______89

Education, appointment, . and remunerationof teachers______44 91 Elementary schools _ _ 91 Organization ofelementaryeducation 91 Education_ 93 Prescribed regulations 93' Present practice., 93 Regulationswiaerconsideration 98 Stateexaminations 98 Teachersof 'pliysiCally *andmentallyhandicapped children 101 Appointment 102 Remuneration 102 Secondary schools 104 Organization of thesecondary school 104 m Education ______108. Preparation forsecondary schoolteaching throughuni- versity study 109 Preparation forsecondary schoolteaching throughState examinations I 111 .1 Appointipent 114 Remuneration 115 Bibliography 117 V. 4

deb -to CONTENTS V

, FINLA ND Page Education,appointment,and 119 remuneratiovofteachers__ _ , . 121 Primaryandelementaryschools , _ _- . _ Otganizationofelementary 121 education_ 121 Education` , .% , Seminariesfor the educatiosk 122 of\primaryschoolteachers_ Seminariesfbrthe 123 education otteachersat higher(lie-

mentary _ schools______. _ PedagogicalHigh 125 Schoolat .1y%:0;y1ii 1/. . 130 Appointment___ Remuneration__ 132 133 Secondaryschools__ _ _ . . . Organizationof (sit 13.5 secondaryschools__ Education 135 140 Degreeofcandidäteinphilosophy_ Degreeoflicentiate 140 M- inphilosophy__ Degreeofdoctor of 143 philosophy__. _ 143 Candidateexaminationfor teacher___ 143 Examinationinpedagogy_ 144 Practicalexaminationinteaching., %1 144 Appointment______144 Remuneration ______146 Bibliography______148

i los

1. .1...

Foreword This is Tfirst oftwo studiesbasedondatagatheredby author in* the andinavia,theNetherlande,andFinlandin thespring and earlysummer of1938, andcontinuedbeyondthat timethrough documentation. BeforeDr. Lindegrenvisitedthesecountries,meetingsheldunder thedirectionof the U. S.CommissionerofEducationwith-Members of thOU.S. Officeof Educationstaffinterestedin thefield ofteacher education resiiltedinanoutlinemadeupfromsuggestionsfor siderationin her con- studies.At, thesame time abopt200 letterswere sent toCity superintendents,deans ofcollegesofeducation,presidents of teachers colleges, andleaders ofcomparativeeducationaskingthem forsuggestions as to whatproblemsoughtto be studiedandincluded in thereport. Thisbulletin is an account of teachereducationfor eachcountry separately,aboutas itwasin thesummerof1939.Thesecondand smallerstudyon "SomeQuestionsontheEducationandService Conditions'of Teachers .7 inScandinavia,the*Netherlands,andFin-. land" willbe devoted to answeisto specificquestionsonm'ajorissues in teacher 411. educationandto what thefivlecotAntries;do inregardto 'each ofthem. To themany personsandorganizationsin theUnitedStates,Den- mark,Norway, Sweden,theNetherlands,andFinland,whohave aidedin bringing this studyto completion,theU. S.Office ofEduca- tionexpressesits gratitude. BESSGOODYKOONTZ A8sietantU. S.CommissionerofEducation 4 VII

dr a Educationand ServiceConditionswofTeachersin Scandinavia,the Netheilands,andFinland r

InitToduction -This s-tudydealswithaspecial phaseof theeducationsystem.$ of five smallnationsthathave contributedmuch to.theadvancementand civilization.ofmankind.They are highly literatepeoplesaccustomed toself-government'andcapableof carryingiton eirectively,acapa- bilitythat isduein'great, measure to tireirgoodschools.Asnear neighborstheyhavemany common racial,cultural,andling.uistic inheritancesandhavepa.sed thrQughmuchthe.same politicaland socialdevelopment,facing simila:dangeN,sharingthesame hopes and aspirations,andbasingtheir liveson principlesthattheyandother folk ofculturebelieveto be funitanwntal.Thofteprinciplestheyare handingon to theirchildrenandare educating do it. theirteachersto help Yeteachofthesenationshasitspeculiar kinguage,literature, characteristicsof culture,andform ofgovernment andin the ofeducationhas field setup a distinctivesystem workedout through centuriesanddecadesforitsspecialpurposes. Those - differencesmakeitnecessary topresent foreach separate äccount countrya of theeducationoft44whersandto explain organization theschool and thekinds ofschoolsin whichtheywork. theseseparate Butfrom statementscettaingeneralaspectsmay advance. betakenin National control.Thenationalgovernmentcontrolsand largeshareofthe supplies a. fundsforeducationin all ofthefive countries.. Eachhasanationalministryof education,prasumablyequalinim- portanceto theministries offoreignaffairs,finance,commerce, etc., withaminister'who isamemberofthesabinetasitspresiding Theschoolsystem is officer. national,or as it ismore commonlytenniedin Europe,"State,"andin thèsubsequentparsthe used word"State"is regularlytomean "national."'Moreover, minutely educationin eachis regulatedby'parliamentarystatutes thathave edactedafter generallybeen carefulconsideration.'itfollowsnaturally centralizedState fromthis controlthatteachershave6yd-servicestatus just asothergovernmentemployees. Comptatory edueraion.---Sinceallthepeoplein each'ofthese providethroughtheir nations Stateofficialsandout ofacommon fund forthe do I Throughoutthis bulletinthewards "Ministry"and"Minister,"unlessotherwise Ministryof Educationand Ministerof Education. specified.mean 2 ZDUVATION, APPOINTMENT, AND REMUNERATION OF TZAckR8 education of all the children, _the corollary is that the bpp6rtunity, mustbe uswed andtothat end oompulsory education lawsaregeneral and kre carefully enforcod.In Finland childrenmust attend school from 7to13yearsofage,andon,who hasnotattained the prescribed standard of information andskillmust attendanadditionalyear. 'Moreover,anychild who completes the elementary curriculumand does not continue atBOmeothertypeof schoolmust take continuation coursesfor 2years.The compulsory educationagein Denmark, Norway, Sweden, andthe Nbtherlandsis 7to 34years. Mutating the kachera.Teachers for elementary schoolsaretrained in institutions especially provided for,that,purpose;t.6y haveno ot)aer fufiction.Usually theyarecalled seminaries.In Sweden and Finlandafiefinite line is drawnbetkeenprimary and elementary education and different curriculaareoffered for thetwogrades of teachers.No such markeddistiiictionexists in the other countries. Admission to the seminaries isopentoersonsaround 17yearsof age,sound in health, of good moral chracter,and withaneduca- tion somewhat beyond that required for graJuation fromanelemen- taryschool of thecountrybutnotgenerallyup tothe completion of asecondary school curriculum.The regular seminary curriculum is ordinarily 4years;in Finland it is 5, and plansare'underway to extend it to 5 in the Netherlands.Shorter curriculaareoffered for students who enter withmoreadvanced training.Sincenoneof these countries requiresalarge teaching titaff, the number of students admitted eachyearis generally Puked.In Norway, Sweden, and Finland the limit is set annually by the Ministry of Education. To , thefirst Flaps in each seminary in Denmark 30 studentsareallowed admisaimi yearly.The acconunodations of the schools determine air number of admissions in the Netherlands.In all these countriescom- petition is keen and the qualifications of those finally admittedare usually .above the minimum' requirements, especially with reference toprevious schooling. Teachers for secondary schoolsareusually university graduates in the subjects theyarecalleduponto teach.Theymustofcoumò havé been graduated fromasecondary school before enteringauni- versity.ProfessiOnal studies in pedagogy andsomepractice teaching, in additionto theuniversity studies,arerequired izi Denmark, Norway,'Sweden,and Finland, In4Anot in the Netherlands. Appointment.---On completion of the prescribedcourseataschool for the education of elementary school teachers the future teacher attains qualification for appointment through suocessinastate-controlled --examination.Corresponding qualification is attained for secondary school téachingonsuccessful completion óf the period of professionalorpractical education. INTRODUCTION 3 .-- On attainingqualificationto teach, thecandidateis readyfor bational pro- appointment butgenerallyhastoserveforsome timeas substitute9r part-time teacher. Teachersat ( state schoolsaregppointkxdeither bytheMinistryof Education%orwith its approval,teachersatmunIcipalschoo4,by the municipalor communalauthoritieá;andat privateschools,.by theauthorities oftheschoolconcerned. Vacancies . for teat:hingare announced quitegenerallyinajourntil for official announcements of the co.untryconcernedandineduca- tional journals.Theannouncement givesdetailsconcerning position, the includingthe timewithinwhichand theplacewbere ,cation for appli- it shouldbe'filed. . - Unlessa . teacherhas servedunderpermanentappointmentin previous a position,2yearsof successfulserviceonprobationare required for permanentappointmentexcept. in Norwaywhereelemen- tary school teachersinky receive permanentappointment,after 1 yearofsuccessftilwork. 4 /I As m4 be , noted intheaccounts of theindividualcoilark's,teach-. ere are prepared for thespecifictype of worktheyintendtpursue. Thusa secondaryschooltocher whohasattainedqualific4tionto teachscience and mathematicscanreceiveappointment.ina,competi- tive system of appointmentonly inthesubjectsin whichqualification has beenattained. '1 ., Statua.In allfivecountriesthose whob6cometeachersandreceive permanentappointment rarely-leavebeforetheagoofretirement. Among.thecontributingfictors forthissarethespirit ofloyaltyand pride of ., the teachersthemselvesin theirprofession,thehighregard. in whichthe professionis heldby thosein otherfiefasofwork, andthe feeling ofmodestsecurityateathermayhave forhimselfand 'his dependents afterattaining thegoal ofpermanentappointment. Statisticaldata.Theareasandpopulationsof thewcowriesneed to be kept inmind inorderto havean understanding of therelative sizes of the schoolsystems and mainpopulation classisthattheyserve. The Netherlandsis thesmallest ofthecountriesbut ithas thelargest populationand, forapeoplemorethan50percent rural,anamazing number ofpeople foreachsquaremile.Denmark alsois densely populatedandmorethan halftheinhabitants,areclassedasrural. Norway, Sweden,and:Finlandaresparselypopulatedsaida corn-

r"re 4

p EDUCATIONZAPPOINTMENT, ANDREMUNERATIONOR TEACHERS

paratively lowpercentageof the ,peopleareurban dwellers.These and otherimportant ,faqtorsareindicated inthe followingtable:

. Table 1.-Areaand popidation data forScandinavia, theNetherlands, and Finland

.. . . , Population Date Area in ,Pountry of data squaremiles , Per . . Urban Rural . . Total slam .. , . . . . mile .i. ,,I --_,-Li._....._____ , ?), 1 3 3 4 4 . 5 I I 7 , i . ..______,_ I t .. - , ______Denmark__ 1935 I 16, 575 1,644, 403 2, 061', 046 3, 706,349 224. 00t'l Norway...... 1 930 124, 588 800, 514 2, 013, 680 2, 814,194 22. 59. Sweden 1938 1 173, 341 2, 278, 413 4, 031, 801 6, 310,214 .o 36. 43 Netherlands__.._ 1936 12, 704 34, 253, 645 4, 303, 275 8, 556,920 173. 56 Winland ___ 1934 4 147, 800 794, 177 3, 012, 986 $3, 807,163 25. 75 Total 475,008 9, 771415% 15,-423, 688 25, 194,840

, 16 I Includes 236square miles of inlandwiter. slIncllides 14,947square miles of inland water. 3 Division into urban and ruralpopulation is estimated. 4 Includes 13,252 square miles of inland water. 4 .0"

4, fr 110

v... -

. I

r. ( 41%

if s.

, J

..s

I TV t'. 0. Denmark

41%

.11

7- a- b0 9

441.616

\.. so. , e 5

s ' %fa., ..tt&I 'e '5411nil 7A.

- .. ...Jo. °' . . doh school examination fi school and the school-with-ar_4: Theoretically and Dated work. is provide nation. general middle closing Melliunskole), be skole), school . (Mellemskole). elementary elementary examination real with which studies In As schooling (Realklasse) three ranged each Denmark 1938.Prior optional Education, The Organization uniform Organization middle-schoot-without-examinatiajci Copenhagen hitherto or system. the as middle-school-with-examinkiion year (class) (4-aarig middle From teachets. middle-school-without-examination, with subjects modern also or a4-yearfoundation qualified school from entered A and middle and a in was community may a school the school boy (p. 21). or to a 1-year they the a practical type. a that is, o need school Grundskole) to ,Aprii Appointment, examination 2-y6ar of middle *!ation of a ,f middle a 4-yearmiddle of Within be or the . for school After the viewpoint 6-, 7-, . elementary t law of the elementary are equal. girl who not be tisk in 'cities attached s e elementary In admission may the school real elementary 3-year gimnasium. school middle school that is examination rural 1, 1938, a city,however, Mellemskole) or 8-yearschool Elementary regular May offered unle'ss a part be and class completion wished (p. 20) of has with to dui comprises education of tv¡to and a school. examination, areas a 3-yearmainschool examination 18, 1937, Praciically, to the school theoretical sc:-1.6- and pri)paring school a theoretical Y middle V ,, .. o( the secondary school one ; to the theoretical division's: the the (p. 20) Schools. pursue intermediate Remuheration. elementary teacher In the of and after (Elcsamensfri offering wills !fey 1-year (Mellemskole) at least either school and elementary secondary effective with 4 1 a partof,the elementary (Eksawnsmellemskole), for Irises middle or The education or a 4-yearmiddle April however, tbe closing asium, the real latter to it A the a separateteacher 5 modern middle a 4-yearfoundation middle of the . 10 pupil, instruction middle may -schools a 4-year years a 5-year April school 6-yeár 1, 1938. modern school school with the the without (3-aarig school Mellemskole). prior class, be former schools the completion schciol. of school of elementary school or theoretical fourth 1, 1938, a are desig-. desire school in cities elementary and (teoretisk fotinda- By Teachers to April practical real system; 7 middle- or with generally in the Hoved- exami- student period a school v. must higher closed real year muit the class with the the the wx. for of in 1, ost 1111U1SHIMIRESINffilimitia a .1P . _ of thelast3 school, it andwhointhejudgmentofschoolwill derivebenefittherefrom. 'Ay beattendedonlybypupilswhoseparents givetheirconsentfor classes ofthepracticalmiddleschoolconsideration isgiven at close ofa4-yearschool.Through specialdispensation'meoftheschoolswerepermittedtooon as practicable for foundation schoolplusphysics,slbydforboys,andhonleeconomics offfg ineachclass tical middleschoolGerman,English,andmathematics a year. sloyd, schoolbaths,andgardening. not is Although gymnastics andplay,singing,drawing,handworkforgirls. peninanship, arithmetic,religion,history,geography,natural instruction isplannedinsuch 6 clockhours. during the school day a year; the foundationschoolhas720hoursof50minuteseach.ofinstruction accordink may geneial classes isdividedinto and and adapted school. be completion ofclass middle schooland information andmaturity 8 I ThealmindeligForberedelseseksamen isasurvivalofan equivalent tothe modernorreal During its7 In thefinalclassofmainelementaryschool andixithelast2 The main The subjectsofinstructionintheföundatjonschool least 6,480hoursof50 minuteseachofinstruction, Instruction anddurationofschoolyear.Eachthefourclasses If In the additional subjects;andinthefinalclassof themainelementary "girls. an included untilthefourth a a be attached course EDUCATION, APPOINTMENT,ANDREMUNERATIONOFTEACHERS 4-year mainschool(4-aarigHovedskole).Acontinuationclass an rural communitywishes,it =divided school(udeltSkole)withthenumber a class 5ofthosein.Copenhagen,atleast1,200hours. preparatory examination(almindeligForberedelseseksamen) anomaly inthe The subjectsofinstruction country to thenumberofpupils,but foreign language. to next 2 to cannot years elementar¡ ihe (Fortsaettelsesklasse the futurevocationallifeofpupils. years plan forcityschools. -at:least to an years, at regular exceed duringthefirst2 the school.' 4 ofthefoundationschoolpupilswithsufficient elementary schoolwithlessthanfourclasses a, the elementaryschoolincountry least 960hours. examination (p. a 3- system theyhavegownand school andthepracticalMiddle 5 clockh9urs,andinclassCopenhagen, 3-year preparatoryschool(3-aarigForskole) 1,200 hoursof50minuteseachinstruction or may Instruction intheseadditionalsubjects year. 4-year practical manner be admitted 20).. may samt The curriculum that are examinstloit abonsbedinMILIt organize itselementaryschool a Kursus) preparingforthe the all . flourished. TheForberedelasseksamen school withfour to the subjects same as middle school. years, class Iofthemiddle includiiig may may 4 clockhours; those forthe are: In the include also as m be offered of classes as such or more Danish, s - far prac- must After each may The at the The are as er r 41/ MOMOMMIIIHNIMMIIIIMMINIMIMMEMollmommilmlmmmllmmmlimban 4 DENMARK a 9 Schoolyeartint/ .sizeof c1ag8e8."Theschoolyearbeginsregularly onApril1. When the average number ofpupilsperclass for2 successive inacity school years exceeds33orina country school35,steps mustbe takento reducethenumber. Statistics..In1936,Denmarkhadin itscities274elementary schoolsof which 134 intcludedmiddleschooland realclasses.The 140 schoolswithoutmiddleKhooland realclasseswere attended 64,869 pupils, by including31,864 girls;andtaught by2,077teachersof whom981werewomen. The schoolswith middle claws schooland real were attended by104,973elementaryschoolpupils,including 52,415 girls.Thenumber ofteacher, ii;cludingthose forthe schooland real middle classes,were 3,851 of whom 1,817werewomen. In Turaldistricts therewere 3,867 elementaryschools,including 169 withmiddle schoolandre,a1classes-.The3,698 schoolswithout middleschool and realclasseswere attended by421,553pupils, including208,321 girls; andtaughtby6,804 teachersofwhom2,281 werewomen.The schoolswithmiddleschooland realclasseswere attendedby120,606 elementaryschoolpupils,including60,096 girls.Thenumberof teachers includingthose forthemiddleschool and realclasseswere 503 of whom181werewomen. Education Seminaries(Seminatier).----Thenineteenseminariesfor tion of theeduca- elementaryschoolteachersinclude12 privateand7 State I seminaries ofJonstrupat Copenhagen,Skaarupat Svendborg, at Vejle, Jelling Ranumat Logstor,andthose ofHaderslev,Tonder, Ribe.That and at Ribe isforwomen, those ofJonstrupandJellingare formen,andthe.remainingfour are coeducational.' EetherState private,they or aregovernedby -theseminary lawof Ap4il15, ministerial 1930, and regulationsof May18, 1938,whichrequethatinstruc- tion bearrangedwith specialregardto the studentsuture workas teachers andat thesame time withgivingtheminformation for the andskill furtheranceof theirgeneralderelopment.Instructionat the Stateseminariesis free. Private seminaries(PrivateSeminarkr).Privateseminaries directors whose are recognized bytheMinisterofEducationasquailed, -andwhichoffer a 4-yearcourse equivalent inrequirementsforadmis- sion,content, andpurpose to that of theStatesell ;ries, including practicaleducation, may,afterapprovalofbuildings,equipment,and practiceschoolbe authorizedfor6years atatimeto offer theexamination forelemen schoolteachersand theprescribedinstructionin preparationfor e examination.Seminariesthusaccreditédare underthesame supervision isthe Stateseminaries. 2817412"--41--2 9 41,

:th:41 , lo EDUCATION,APPOINTMENT,ANDREMUNERATIONOFTEACHERS

Repirementsforadmission.Foradmissionto class Iofaseminary the applicant Mustbeat last 17yearsof age before.thme 1 oftheyear - in which admission isdesired.Hemust presentevidenceofgood character andanattestationfromaqualifiedphysicianthat heis in good healthand freeofanyphysicalailmentthat wouldhindereffective workasteacher, andmustpass an entranceexamifiation.An appli- cantmaybe exemptedfrom theentrance examindtionwith theconsent of the Ministry,if hehas passedoneòfthefollowinglisted examinations withat least thenumberof pointaindicatedwithin 4yearsof thetime of theapplication: 1. Student examination(Studentereksamenp.21) withan averagemark of at least6. 2. Realexamination (Realeksarnenp.20)orthe finalexaminationofa girls'school (Pigeskoleeksamen)withan average markof atleaat7.1 3. Generalpreparatoryexamination(almindeligForberedelseseksamen p.8) with an average 6f at least105 pointsif itincluded 2languages; 112 pointsif it tneludect8 languages. Thequestions forthe writtenpart of theentranceexamination whichincludesDanish,arithmetic,writings haiidworkforwomen, and historyorgeographyaremadeout by theMinistry.The examination isofferedat all seminariesonthesameday andthepapers after beinggraded bytheexaminer inthesubjectanda censorare forwardedto the Ministry.The oralexaminationincludesthesubjects of the writtenexamination,rand religion,naturalhistory,andmusic. Those whopassbutarenot admittedimmediatelyaregivenacertificate of admissionvalid for4years. A graduateofasecondaryschool whohaspassed thestudent examination (p.21) withan average mark ofat least 7maybeadmitted to class II ofaseminary bypassinganentafanceexaminationin Bible history, arithmetic,and music. Plan ofstudio.Theseminaries offera 4-year curriculum.They purpose to give the studentsthegreatest possibleopportunityfor independentwork. Theprospectiveteachershouldcomein first- handcontact with thesourcematerial,books, andoollectionsin the various4subjects,and learnto observelivingnature.Someidea of thenature and characterof theinstructionmaybeobtainedfrom the following planof studies:

a The Pigeskoleeksamenwas offered originallyat the old privategirls' schoolsin Copenhagen.It is quivalentto the realexamination (p.X». -sv,-"---

DENMARK

Table 2.Plonof stvdies of the"wineriesfor the.d&motion ofelementarysch teachers

Hoursa week per schoolyear 4 Subject ofinstruction

.1 f 11 III ! IV

1 2 2 4 ..i , 01. .-.1 Drawing 2 ,... 2 Penmanship _ .. Arithmetic 1 I .... 2 3 ...... Mathematics.... . 3 Physics 4 . Ow 3 4 Natural history . 3 3 e.a p 61ohy___-______2 ...... _. _ 2 , 2 . .. Religion 4 4 3 3 Germanor English 3 3 3 2 ., 3 2 3 3 History 4. 3 2 Pod,'4 011 t 2 f. 2

. 4 3 . ,Sol_.1 teaching Music 4 , 9 Gymnastics 2 I 2 f 2 Handwork far 3 3 3 3 . _ women; aloyd farmen _ ___ . .._ 2 = Special readingor home economics. 2 2 2 _ . . . _ - : 5 5

Total_ . _ _ 38 36 34 34

The outlinesof all thecourses listed above need not begiven here butitisadvisableto explain extent those thatare more strictlyprolossional,namely,pedagogics, to 'ow reading and homeeoonotnicscourses. practice teaching,and thespecial

Pedagogie8.Thestudy ofpedagogicscomprises: 1. Psychology, includinggeneralpsychology,child-psychology,psychology of childrenof schoolageand ofadolescence.Witha coriesporídilig reduction inspecialpsychológya seminarymay offer logic. 2. Pedagogy,including: (a) Generaltheory ofeducation andinstruction. (b) History of educationto thepresent.Thestudentshouldacquire first-handacquaintancewithpedagogicalliterature. (c) Historyof theDanishschoolsystem anditspresentorganization. (d)Fundamentalsof schoolhygiene. Practiceteaching .1 (PraktiskSko1egerning).4Attachedto eachsemi- miryisapractice school(Pvelsesskole)whichmaybeestablishedand opiratedfor theseminary,or may beacommunalschoolor part of co a unal schoolsubsidizedby theState.In thelatterinstancethe after au arrangements withthecommune has considerablein- fluenceon thecontent andarrangemitntofinstruction.Ondecision of thedirectortheinstructorsin theseminaryareobliged to teach Os classes inthepracticeschool. -Under thesupervisionof thedirector oftheseminary,thehead muter of thepracticeschool(ØvelsesskolensForstelaerer)has of the charge practicaleducationof theseminarystudents.Theplanfor this ismadeout by the seminary andsubmittedto the Ministryfor f. e approval. The'purpose of thepracticeschoolwork(Vejledning praktisk i Skolegerning)isto give thestudent,throughpersonalobser- c-.

" ill 12 EDUCATION,APPOINTMENT,ANDREMUNERATIONOF TEACHERS'

vation,acomparativelycomprehensiveview oftheformsand of methods instructionandpractice invarioustechniquesof Part of instruction. the timeis devotedto instructioninmethods,including guidance inthe useofinstructionhandbooks,schoollibrary,black- board,illustrativematerial,etc. Ifconditionspermit andaseminarywishes, itmay supplement student the teachingin itspracticeschoolwithpracticeteachingunder O supervisionat schools nearby forshortperiodsandforperiodsof uninterruptedworknot exceeding3 weeks.Whensucharrange- mentsare made,thedirector oftheseminary andtheheadmaster of thepractice school must keep intouchwith theworkotthestudentat, the outside schoolthroughpersonalobservationandrequiredreports made by.the studentontheorganizationof theschool,itsmethods: ofinstruction,and otherphasesof specialinterestand value. Special reading(Speciallaesning).--Theaim .ofthesecoursesisto givethe studentsopportunityformore profound studyleadingto ,independentwork inspheres ofinteresttheymay Ontinue after graduation.Inlanguage-historyspecialreadingmayincludeDanisl/ and Swedish, andvarioushistoricalfieldsselectedby theseminttry, such *as specificperiods ofworldorNordichistory,thehistory ofliterature,art,or religion.Inmathematics-iiaturalscienceitmayrelateto given sections ofmathematics,physics,geography,naturalhistory,or selected phases ofnaturalhistory.In eachlineipstructionis offered bin two subjects.Thecoursesare not coveredbytbeteachers' examination(p. ,12),butacertificationofparticipation,giving the subject groupandanevaluationof thework, isincludedamongthe regularentriesonthegraduationcertificate. Home economics(SkokkOkkengerning).Inplace ofspecialrearling womenmkty select homeeconomics.Thepurposeisto give thosewho desireto becometeachers ofhomeeconomicsan opportunitytocom- plete the firstpart 6f theirpreparationwhileattendingtheseminary. The work is plannedsothata youngwomanwho hastaken thecourse may, on completion ofa5-monthcourseafter graduationfrom the seminary,attainpreparationin homeeconomicsequivalentto that offered in the subjectat the StateHighSchoolforTeachers (i).13). For th9summerof1940s5-monthcourse, to be offeredforthe first time,wasplannedspecificallyas a continuationofthe 2years of5 hoursaweek ofwork inhomeeconomiesit the seminaries. the State Only Seminaryof Ribeand N.Zahle'sSchOol(N. ZahlesSkole), ,4aprivateseminary_ for 'theeducation ofelementaryschool in teachers' Copenhagen,were to give thesecoursesof35 hours ofintensive instructionaweeek. Examinationforteachers(LaererprOven).-Instructionat the seminaries is validatedwith theexaminationforteachers,calledalso the examinationformenandwomenteachers(Laerer-og J.daererindeek- _

DENMARK 13 samen),It is intwo parts. Part 1is offeredat the closeof thesecond yearof study and is indrawing,penmanship,arithmetic,inathe- , matics,physics,naturalhistory,geography,Danish,and Part II is religion. offeredat the close ofthe fourthyearandincludesDanish, religion, andthe remainingsubjectsof thecurriculum(p. 11). Thequestions forthe writtenpart of theexaminationare madeout bycensors appointedby theMinistryforaperiodof3years.In other respects it is conducted ina manner similarto that oftheentrance extunination.in the oral examinationtheteachersof theseminary areexaminers but thespecificsubjectsare determinedby thesuper- vising censors the day beforetheexaminationafterconsultationwith the examiners. Success inthe examinationis markedbya certificate ofhaving passed the examinationforelementaryschoolteachers(Eksamensbevis for LaerereiFolkeskolen)givingthesubjectsandthemarks In additionto the earned. entry with referenceto thespecialreadingor home economics (p. 12) themarks forgymnasticsandmusic,including singing,areenteredon the certificate. Examinationin practiceteaching.Followingisan excerpt fr6m tberegulationsgoverning thefinal examinationinpracticeteaching:3 'Theexamination isheldin thepracticeschoolpriorto the nation period. regularexami- In the exaininationthe examineeshall showhisabilityto instructchildren in suchmanner that accordingto thenature ofthe be assignmenttheremay opportunitynot only forpresentationanddiscussionbutalso for anceof thepupils in guid- independentwork inthesubject.Theexamineeshould, as arule, beallowedtime tocompletethe subject. Each examinee isgivenan assignment ineach oftwoelementary subjects,including school one assignment inDanish,religion,or arithmetic.No assignmentmay be given inaforeignlanguage,sloyd, or drawing. singing,penmanship, Unlesstheseminaryconcernedso wishes andcan suggest suitablework,no examination isgiven in theinstruction*ofsmallchildren, i.e.,childrenin thefirstyear of school. The examineereceives hisassignment2 boursbeforethe time examination.Under of the supervisionhe shallhaveopportunitytoprepare himselfwith thesuitablemeans of assistance. Immediatelybefore the beginningof thelessontheexamineepresents theoe4sors withabrief writtenlesson plan. Ifopportunityisakorded the examineeshould demonstraieduringthe lemon hisskill inblackboarddrawing. StateHigh $choolfor Teachers(State*LaererhOjskole).TheState HighSchoolfor Teachersat Copenhigenwas opd in1856asthe MonradCourse(MonrailskeKursus)by D.G.Mrad,Heid tor of Burgher Direc- and CommonSchoolEducation,forteacherswho to workin real wished schools.In1889 itbecamea 1-yearcoursefor real I Usder4loningszainistelets Bekesdtarsieeat 18. Msji9 Bekondtvirsioscan OptsgelsesprOvea, Undervientsgenog de abluttendePr0vorpas 8sm1narionis. Obenhavn,J. H.SchultzForks.p 38-37. 14 EDUCATION,APPOWTMENi,ANDREMUNERATIONOF TEACHERS

school teachers,and in1895 itwasreorganizedand broadenedalong lines leadingtoitspresent development. In itstwo divisions---2-main division(Hovedafdeling)and home economics divisimi(Skolekokkenafdeling)theschool offersoppor- tunity for further stu-dyto teachers of elementaryschools, public secondary schools,seminaries, and folkhigh schools.Itscourses are openalsotounemployed graduates oftheseminaries for theeducation of elementary schoolteachers.Instructionis free.Students whoare not residents of Copenhagenmaybegranted Statescholarshipsof 40 Kroneramonth if singleand60 Kroner ifmarried.' The chiefaim of the schoolisto assist the student inacquiring ability for independentstudy andresearch.NoeIaminationsare offered, kit successfulattendance ismarked byaleaving certificate (Afgangsbevis) indicatingthe characterand quality ofthe work completed.Studyatthe schoolcarries withitnorightsorprivilegfts. The schoolyearbegins September1, and closes the lastpart of June.Each Decemberannouncement is made of ihecourses tobe offered die followingyear.Those announcedfor schoolyear 1940-41 are..6 1. Ow-yearcourse inthe maindivision (AarskursuspaaIlorydaf- delingen) ,.The four subjectgroupsof thecoursewith thenumberof hours allitek for eachsubjectaregiven in thefollowing table:

Table 3.--Progrome ofstudiesin tie 4 seOect-reapsof the Ilipar coarse I.themein division

Hoursaweekper subject in subject , group Subject of instruction ,

I , I I I I 1 V I III-

1 I 8 6 6 1- 1 History of religion 3 .

Danish.. _ ... 1 13 1 s e

8wedish ... .. 3 , 3 English elp a e ..... OOOOO German .. (0 6 6 tbi6 . Frenoll 6 6 History _ .. 0 6 . .. _ 4 =La ...... e Zoology . 4 ..... 4 Geology 2 ... 2 . . Physics ... 6 Botany ..... 4 Hygiene ,. 2 Voice training _ 4 Phonetics 2 Clyks .... , ...... 3 4. ea.

, _ ._ _a .. Danish in AP,I inshldaslitarstan% 6 bows;Janus. 4; readiag, 2.DanishIngroupII, includes Megaton, 4 hours; 0=-' 1. s I and II with rehreDosto Zoglisb, Choloso,andboo*indicatetheBestWadawedyearof studyof the language coaternsd, PmmulitoItsadmissionto the snoodyear iscompletionofownsI, 012Taw Vonwormy or muss la s ant amodostiass whackingiodsdtheknow (p. 21). IOneEnosetmintperwas worth MX oasts in United StatesmossyonApril 1,lea I Folksskolso. Thigtvat Dommarks lasfindarsolog.imam It Nr.IL 111. Deossabscaess. P. 110-70. DENMARK 15 Instructionin subject-groupI ofthetableisofferedin the noon;in thesubjectsof the fore- othergroups, mainlyin theafternoon. Eachstudentmays'electup to 18 hours of classworkaweek.An applicant fora scholarshipmustregisterforat least work. 14-15hoursof Inadditionto thefoursubject-groupsthe 111, 6 course includesEnglish hours,practiceteaching,4;Danish literatureandhistory,4, plus 2hours oflaboratoryandschool libraryworkevery.2woeks; gardening,10, plus2 hoursofpracticeand noons a week; aloyd, demonstrations3 after- 7; appliedpsychology,18, including 'psychologyand its general significance,5; childpsycholoa.2,mentally , retardedanddelinquent children,2,intelligencetesting,3, hygiene infants andschool of childrenandpsychiatry,i; experimental chology,5. psy- 2. One-yearcourseinhome economicsdinision(Aarskurtuspaa SkolekOkkenafdelingen).Thiscomprises30' houNofinstructiona weekinhousekeeping, physiology,nutrition,chemistry,kvgiene, first aid,andpedagogical&dance. 3. Short courses (Kor(eKureus).SinceI937 theschool in successive hat+offered yearsinashortsummer sessiona beginning, tion, ahdfinal contirpla- courtio in each ofSwedish,German,English', Danish,chemistry, French, history,mathematics,physics,and Onlyonesubjectmaybe biolop. takenduringa session andforadmissionthe studentmust beateacher of thesubject.For1940 theplanwas to offer thecourse from July8 to 25. 4.Correspondencecounts (Fjernkursus).Correspondencework maybe tikeninpedagogyor inoneofesubjectsofinstructionof theelementary,middle,or realschi.1,includingfora teacher of EiagliahorGerinanat'a middleorrealschiziolwhohasnot attended the StateHighSchoolfor Teachers,acourse in thestyleofwriting in thelanguage he.teaches.' Appointment 0,10 Theheadmaster of an elementaryschoolin thecityiscalled Overiaerer;in thecountry,Forstelaerer(literally A "firstteacher"). 14eitchersdhoolhasan Enelaerer(one-or sole-teacher). Incities the announcement ofvacancy inapositionto be filled permanent by appointmpntis madebythemunicipalcouncil "Communal (literOly administration"Kommunalstyrelsen). Whenthe periodoffilingisover thecouncilforwardstheapplicationsto Skole- kommissionenaschooloommissionorboard for appointedbythecouncil generalsupetvisionof theschoolswithinthe among three municipality.From applicantsrecommendedbytheboardthe selectedbythe teacheris municipalcouncilsubjectto theapprovalof the MinisterofEducation. In ruralareastheannouncementofvacancy 16 EDUCATION,APPOINTMENT,AND REMUNERATIONOFTEACHERS I.

and the sekctron of theteacherareboth madeby thecounty school board (Skoledirektionen). - Forpermanent appointmentasteacheratanelementary schoolthe

applicant.Rtustbeatleast 24yearsofageandbe ableto present: _t_te t 1. A certificate of nealth(11e1bredsattest.),includinwaspecial certificate showing absenceof tpliesymptoms of tuberculosis. 2..Evidence'orhavingpassed thefinal-(xamination Ofaseminary

for theoduCationof elementaryschool teachers(p. I 2). 3. Evidei)ce of having servedsuccessfullyasasplrant(teacher onprobation) forat,least 2yearli.Serviceaspart-time teacher (Timelaerer)or as permanent substitute (fast Vikar) may count asipart of tbe period of probationbut niit beyond Iyear. ForperThanentorprobationaryappointmentto's I-teacher school or asheadmasterofa countryschool the,applicantmustbeatleast '25yearsofageand have servedat least 2years 118elementary school teaclier.Head'masters of city. schools aild elementaryschoolin- spectors are-appointed by the Kingina mannersimilartothat of rectors and inspectorsecondary schools(p. 28).

1,1 Remuneration Saiaries.Thepayisabasic salary* iith'regularincreases, plusa supplementaryamountbasedonprice level and,for.sorne teachers,a second supplementbasedonlocality.The supplementsdonot count toward theamount of pensionateachermayreceive later.In cities and ruralareaswith city schoolregulations, teacher'sarepaid in advanceat the beginning or each month.In ruralareas notunder citysclioolregulations the basicsalary an0thepart of the remainder forwhichthe communityis whollyresponsiblearepaid monthlyin advance; therest, quarterly in advance. In cities tbe basic annualsaláry andregular increasesare: Headmuters andinspectors: 5,460kroner withincreases of600 kroner trienniallyupto 6,669 kroner. Assistant Inspectors:3,120 kroner withincreases of 330iwner triennially up to5,100 kroner. Teachers:2,880 kroner withincreases of 330ironer 'trienniallyup to 4,860 kroner. Special provisionfor additionalsalary forteachers connected with ihepractical educationof seminarystudentsmaybe includedin the finance law. In ruralareasthe basic annualsalary andregular increaiesare: Headmasters andteachers of 1-tegeher icbools: 2:700kroner with Increases of 3 30kronertrienniallyupto4,680 kroner. DENMARK 17 Other rmulartearhers(Andenlaerer):2,n0*roperwith kroner ¡ncni'&seof 300 trienniallyup to 3,120kroner,thereafter330 kroner to 3,7Wkroner. trienniallyup 71 ow e r at communal practiceschwlsin thecountryrsonnectedwith State meminarieis fortheeducation oreiementaryschool with teachers.3,000kroner increases`of3 30kronertrienniallyup to 4,980kroner Teachem ofmiddle and realschoolshaveabasicsalaryof3,000 kroner withaIriennial increaseof330 kroneruntila,maximumof 4,980 kroneris reacho41. The number of hoursofmstructlonaweek forheadmasters anti assistantinspectors'are fixed bytheMinistryofEducationOnthe recommendation- of thc:aunicipaicouncil.If the av.ertige houni of number ogf instructionaweekforateacher.exceeibi36, additional pensat ion is given cotw- accordingtoa rate fixed bytheMirfistry. LocalityRuppl;Inent (Stedidlaeg).--;--Citiesandsomeruralcommun- itiesaredividedinto five clawswithreferencetothee:Istofliving. The annualaininint of thesupplementreceiVedbyteaclivmliving withinthewateas is: 411 .1 .1 GROUPA 4180 kroterbutnotover 32 percentof thehaditiesalary Gamut: II- -432kroner butnotcurer30perrent of thehairgalary CsnorpC-318 kroner butnotover 20perrent ofthe bard('salary GROUP11-228kroner butnotover 15 perrentof theIta,oiemalitry. `. GROUPE-108 kroner tortnotover 8 perrentofthebasicsalary: A teacherwithfreehousingreceivestwo-thirdsof the concerned. supplement. Levelingsupplement (Regula,ringstillaeg).Theamount ofthis supplementwhichis based on changes intheprice levelwithreferefice to thecostoffood,clothing, fuel,light,andrent, is fixedeachfiscal year.'Marriédtoachers andsingleteacherswithspecialresponsi- bilitietireceivefull supplement.Otherteachersreceivetwo- thirds ofthesupplementif they areover 40yearsofage; onothird,if they aieunderdiqyearsofage. Waiting money (Ventepenge)-.Ateacherover 30years of permanent age with appointmentwhosepositionis aboli5111'edand for thereis nòsuitable whom openingis entitledto receivewaitingmoney for years amountingduring 5 each ofthefirst3 monthsWillisbasicsalary plusage increments,and afterthatto two-thirdsof theamount.He must, hosiever,acpept any suitableposition o6redhim.Ifno openingarises heis placed onpensionat the closeof tir5-your withthe5 period yearsofwaitingcouptingás5 years'ofseryia;: Pension.--Likeother State emiayeesapublicschoolteachermay retireafterattaining65 years d.age, aridmust doso atthednd of monthin whichhe the tines 70 Years ofage.Therighttò pension.pr pensionagebeginswhenateacher , hasserved5years underperma- next sppointmentafterattaining30 A yn ofago.-The , pensionbasis e

-41e- 18 EDUCATION, APPOINTMENT, AND REMUNERATIONOF TEACHERS

tr. comprises theaverageof the basic salary plusageincrements forthe jast 3yearsof service.If the pensionageis less than3years,the pension basis is theaverageof thè basic salary plusageincrements for the period of service Eater beginningofthe pensionage. The amount of pension forapensionageof less than1yearis 1/10 of the pension basis; 1 to 3years,2/10; 3to 5years,3/10;.aiadso on to 10 years.Forapensionageof 10to 12yearsthe pension is 31/60of the pension basis.After that it increases 1/60 bienniallyfor10years, then annually for 6years.Forapension'ageof 28yearsaiidover,

Ithe pension comprises 42/60 of the pension basis.

.1ncaseofpartials'disability contracted in servicethe teachermust acceptalesser position for which he is suited withreferenceto echica- ----a-11bn' and state of health, if suchaposition is available.Theformer . . salary continues andonretirement the pension is thesame asif he had continued in hi§ regular work. .,.._.. The pension for total ,disability is equitalentto two-thirdg of the basic salary plusageincrements regardless ofage or'period of service under pensionage. For personal pension and for pension for his widow andchildreh ,under 18yearsofagethe teacherpaysannually 5percent of his basic salaryplusageinci.ements. Pension fortviAwsand children.For each of the first3 months afterthe death ofateacher the widow,orif there isnowidow:the children under 18yearsofagedraw X, of his annual salary if hewasin

. si3rvice,orof his w-aitingmoney,pensionorsupport if hewasnot iji riseivice.If housingwas apart of the teacher's salary that also is inclt ulAt the end of this period ofpost income (Efterindtaegt) the. arpension begins. If thetéacher died in service the pension forthe widow comprises one-fifth of his basic salary plusageincrements; if hewaspensioned, one-third.If death occurred in the performance of dutyor_ asthe

. result of injuries incurred in the performance of duty, the widosi's

pension is also one-third. _The pensionmust be at least 400 kronera . yearbut nót ovér--4,-500 kroner,nor canit exceed one-half phe ,basic salary plusageincrements received by the teacher. The annual pension for children under 18years'ofage,including adopted children for whom the teacher assumed responsibility,. is180 kroner foronechild, 330 fortwo children, 450 for three, and 100 kroner a yearfor each additional child.'However,the widow's pension plus that for the children under .18yearsofagecalinot exceed % of the teacher's basicsalary:plugageincrements. Similar pensionsmaybe 'granted fQr children ofadeceAsedwoman teaCher if thewidower isnot in the civil service oe is not palsioned and is unable to support properly their childrenorchildren for whom

thewomanteacher had assumed responsibility. .

CA, id11;"'" necessary to digress selves schools stand' f. middle school, includes the a.ç. , 1 Organization ( , School Pupil's Graph No.1. both the have 4. am and the A year a. (4. age before Pronation frost* genentialrikamml a /I theoretical, based - preliminary subjects the real 1 Organization 7 of Foundation School they sets an smo,sirinthe briefly Copenhagen 2 S-7ear Will) in class, that 1 enter 9 3 or Secondary / ry education.The of Element schooling Theoretilltgrdle 10 and explain rd 4 examination teachers 0 0 0 and the' / /AUV upon DENMARK Main 11 . /71Z/Z, AMP,/ 5 I. Middle School Middle School Theoretical Vio Practical ALWArmososo School 12 Middle School 6 GrAPA Middle School their that those Theoretical Schools. gymnasiuin, must handlein and Second Practical School Examination fr 13 I t 7 the middle professional School 14 // é PrA programs of thetheo- ' I 1 1 i I word Real! m Math-Nat. u ii y n d s a Is teachers to the 9 I it 1 I I Education school, Sci. line' Mod. Lang 1 Classical, y : a a Mod.Lang. iioa; 0 , Cl. 1 a e x R E 16 3.0 In order line line Sci. line Math-Nat. "secondary" Classical m OrilASNIS 1 the secondary a e R line line studies, it a 17 11 must them- the - 1 1 n t e a d u S Danmark t 18 12 o t n m 1 a 1 to under- I practical iS n t t e a d u S t o i n m i a here is 1 9

I1li 1111111111111111111111111 11111111111111;10 111011111111111iiiiIIIMIlumminmem 20 EDUCATION,APPO "NT,AND REMUNERATIONOF TEACHERS retical middleschool, the realclass, and thegymnasium: Theprac- tical middleschool isnot included because few,ifany,teachersha.ve had their preliminaryschooling in it. Theoreticalorexamination middleschool (TepretiskorEksamens- mellemskole).--Oncompletion ofthe4-or5-year foundátion school (p. 7) boys and girlswho planto enter institutions ofhigher educa-, tion attenda4-year theoretical middleschool, whichmaybecon- nected directlywithanelementary schoolorpart ofapractical middle and real school.A gymnasium alwayshasanattached examination ortheoreticalmiddle school.Almost all thesemiddle schools,havea 1-year real class whichprovidesacontinuation andamplificationof their work. . Success in the middleschool examination(Mellemskoleexamen) carries with it littlerightexcept that of admissiontoagymnasium, butsuccessin themodernorreal examination(Realexamen)with which the realclass closes,entitlesa young man orwoman to enter lower civil-servicepositionsormiddle positions inindustry andcom- merce.With certainsupplementary examinationsit also qualifiesfor admissionto institutions of universityrank, not includingthe Univer- sity of Copenhagen. Instruction in the theoreticalmiddle school andthe subsequent rbal class isihesamefor all pupilsand include& the subjectsof the' following curriculum:

Table 4.Plan of studiesfor the theoretical middle schoolcifnd real doss . 1 --4- , . , 4 Hoursaweekperschooear

_ Sub)ect ofinstruction Middle school Real .-, class I U III IV 1 .

1 3 3 ,4 Il 6

Religion . _ . 2 2 2 1 ....,__ . Danish 5 4 4 5 4 English _ 6 3 3 3 4 German...... _ . _ . 5 4 4 4 History 3 2 3 2 2 Geography . 2 2 2 2 2 Biology 2 2 2 2 2 Physics andchemistry. 2 2 2 2 2 Mathematics 4 a 6 7 4 ,i PenmAnship ... 2 1 1 1 Draw1g 2 2 1 1 0 ymnutios 4 4 4 4 4 Singing__ 2 2 1 Electives ' 8 , Total 36 I 36 35 34 36. , , / \ I If Latin is offered duringthe fourthyear,penmanship and drawingareomitted andthenumber of hours, n Danish ieduced to 4. 3 Among the electivesare singing, manual training, religion, and I.

-vt

sa; DENMARK a 21 s ;I Gmaynsium.The6gymnasiumoffersá3-yearcoursfwhichmaybe taken inoneof threelines:Classiclanguage(Klassisk-Sproglig), modem language (Nysproglig);andmathematics-naturalscience (Matematisk-Naturvidenskabelig).Instructionis governedby royal regulations issuedMarch9, 1935.It closeswith theitudentexami- nation(Studentereksamen)which isthe regularrequirementfor admissionto theUniyersity ofCopenhagen.Thenormalplan of study for eachof thethree linesofinstructionis givenin thefollowing t_. table: Table5.Plan ofstudies' for thegymnasium

floursa week per schoolyear

Subject *instruction Classical Modernlan- ; Mathematics- guage Natural science II I. Il III , I II. III Ir --Ij 2 3 4 I 7 8 9 IS

on _ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Danish_. _ . _. .._ . _ 4 English 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 5 5 German (I) 5 3 3 (I) 4 4 4 (I) (I) French 4 4 Latin 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 6 4 4 3 Greek. 6 6 6 Archaeology _ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 HiStory . _ _ _ . - 3 3 4 3 3 4 3 3 4 Geography andbiology. 2 4 2 4 2 2 Physics andchemistry.. 2 4 Mathematics 2 6 6 6 2 2 2 2 6 Gymnastics,singing,etc 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

Total_ 1 36 36 ! 36 36 36 36 36 1 38

IDuring years I and II of theclassical andmathematics-naturalscience lines week of eitherEnglishor German,as he chooses. the pupil has3 hoursa 4 Education Teacher8 forthe middle8ch001s.QualifiCationforappointmentto teach at's:middleschool,eitherpracticalortheoretical,must in each instance beapprovedby theeducationinspectorfor middleand real schools(UndervisningsinspektorenforMellemogRealskolene).For qualificationto teachat practicalmiddleschools,completionofa seminary fortheeducation ofelementaryschoolteachersis sufficient. To teach atatheoreticalmiddleschoolorin therealclassrequites in addition completionofcourses at the State High -AchoolforTeachers (p. 13).Nospecialexaminationneed bepassed. Qualifiedalsoto teach in thereal classisonewho haspassedthe subject examinationforteachers (F:;1'.;rerexamen).Preparationfor this isacquiredthrough2or3ye of privatestudy ineach subject, butonewho haspassednoteachingexaminationexcept the subject examinationforteacherscanbeemployedonlyataprivate sChool; f

DENMARK -//I 23 Aliexamination group comOrisesamajoi.(Hovedfig)andtwo minors (Bifag).Exceptfor Latin,-GreekCivilization,music,gymnastics,and geography,whichmay betakenasminorsonly,andclassicalphilologx which isaI.:joronly andassuchisequivalenttòamajorandone vminor,stuentsarefree in theselectionofcombinations.However, Greekcivilizationmay becombinedonlywithLatinorreligionasthe secondminor; geography,onlywithhistoryasmajor;religionasminor only withclassicalphilology orhistoryasmajor,and inthelattercase the otherminormust beGreekçivilizationorLatin. In additionto therequiredsubjectstheexamineemaytake plementary a sup- examinationinoneof theothersubjects.Inthisthe limitationswithreferenceto Greekcivilization,religion,and apply. geography Throughouthisstudiesthestudentshouldstriveto acquire hensive compre- knowledgeandskillin theelementsandbasicphasesof his subjectsothat bythe time oftheexaminationhe willhaveacomplete mastery of thematerialnecessaryforschoolinstruction.In the heshouldhave major informationand skillforinstructionin allclassesof thegymnasium, in eachminor, forinstructionin themiddleand real classesand be ablethroughindependentstudytoprepare himself instruction for in thegymnasiumclasses.In Greekcivilization, and music, gymnasticsthe examinationin dieminorshouldqualify struction for in- immediatelyin allclassesof thegymnasium;in shouldqualify Latin it forteachingLatin inthemodern,languageline gymnasium. of the Preparationforthe examinationrequiresnormally6.years of full- timestudy.The fihal examinationcomprisestwoparts, thesecond of whichhiust bepassed . not later than1yearafter thefirst.Not than2years earlier after *esstudentexaminationnorlaterthan2 yeárs forepart I of the be- -finalexaminationa preliminary:examination prove)must be taken (For- in themajorand inthe minorshistoryandmusic if theyareincludedamong the subjectsofstudy. As in allexaminationsin allfacultiestheexamination ject is Ineachsub- conductedby theuniversityinstructorof thesubjectin the %presenceofcensors appointedforaperiodof3years after by the'Ministry consultationwiththedean ofthefaculty.Inreligionthe in- structionandexaminationarein chargeofinstructorsin the of faculties philosophyandtheology;intheoreticalgymnasticsand ofoneor more geography, iristructorsin,gaathemitics-naturalscience.The aminationin ex- gymnasticsisattended alsoby theteacher ofspecial gymnuticsat theInstituteofGymnasticssinceone presenting self forthis him- examinationmust havecompletedthef-yearcoursefor teachersofgymnasticsofferedby theinstitute(p. 26). Acandidatein theologywhomadeat' leastthemark"haudillaud- 24 EDUCATION, APPOINTMENT, AND REWINERATION OF TEACTIERS

abilis primi gradus" in his candidate examination and passedan examination in history of religionmayattain the rights ofonewho has passed the professional examination for teachers in the facultyof philosophy by passing this examination inamajoror4ntwo minors, notincluding Greek civilization. Profe88ional examination for tea6ve8 in the faculty of mathematics- natural, 8cie1ce (Skoleembedseksamen i det Matematisk-Naturviden.ska- belige Kikullet).In the faculty of mathematics-natural science thisexamination is offered intwosubjectgroups:Mathematics-physicsand natural history-p aphy.In the foriner the normal period ofpreparation for the d eeof "cand. mag." is 4yearsbeyondsuccessin the student examination.Most students,' however, require from5 to 55 years.In the natural history subjectgroupthe normal periodof preparation is 5 to 6years. Profes8ional examination for teazhers in the m4ithematizs-physic8sub- jectgroup(Skokcmbedseksamen i den molematisk-Fysi8ke Faggritppe). This examination comprises preliminary tests, teaching tests, and subject tests, whichmaybe taken inone orinseparate examination terms. The preliminary and teaching tests include the four subjects of the examination andarethesamefor all students.The subjecttestsare limited tooneof several special phases within the subjectgroup. Gymnasticsmaybe included in this examinationas asubstitute for the subject tests, in whichcasethe examination becomes the professional examination for teachers of gymnastics. Preliminary te8t8 (ForprOen).Preparation for thesemaybe tom- pleted in 4 semesters and the theory and lectures include: 1. Mathematica.Mathematical analysis, analyticalPlaneand solidgeometry, infinitesimal geometry, descriptive geometry,theoreticalmechanics. 2. Physics.Mechanical physics, heat, electricity, light. 3. Chemistry.Fundamentals of general, inorganic, and organic chemistry. 4. Astronomw_Antroduction to astronomy, elemebts of the theoryof celestial movements, spherical astronomy. In practical work, before taking the final tests the studentmust present evidenceof having completeda1-semestercourseof 3 hours aweek in each of geometric drawing and experimental physics; and the collective equivalent ofa3-semestercourseof 3 hoursaweek in inorganic qualitative analysis, quantitative analysis, andChemical exercises ofaz_eneralnature. The examirC: tion includes in mathematics 2 written and 3 oral tests; in physics, 2 written, 2oral;in each of cher!istry and astronomy, 1 written, 1 oral.Each written test must be mptltetewithin 4 hours. 47 4,-64 .4 Teachingted8(LaererpOven).--:-PreparatioiiItiiifties'emay' becom-

if) DENMARK 25 pleted in2semesters of study beyondsuccessin thepreliminary s. tests and includes:

. 1. Mathetnatics.Thoroughknowledge ofthesystem of elementarymathe- matics fromdidactic andscientificviewpoints.Knowledgeofthe elements of Euclidand ofcharacteristic oldandnew'poops ofinstruction.History of thebasic questionsin matheníatics. 2. Physica.Knowledgeof techniqueand ofexperimentalinstructionin physics; oftypicalelementarytextbooks, andof theuseof handbooks and statisticaltables ininstruction.History offundamentalquestions in physics. 3.Chemistrd.Preparationand workingout of experimentsin theteaching of chemistry.Typicalelementary textbooks.History ofbasicques- tions inchemistry.Elementaryknowledge of iinportantchemicalin- dustries. 4. Astronomy.Basicconceptions ofastrophysicsand stellarastronomy. Histort ofastronomy.Application ofthe principlesof.propaedeutic astronomy in simpleobservations. p iLforadmissionto the examinationthe studentmustpresent evidence ofhavingcompleteda 1-semestercourseof3 hoursaweekin each oftechniquein physicsand experinwitalinstructioninphysics; a 2-semestercourseof 3 hoursaweek inexperimentalinstructionin chemistry;anda cpurseinsextant observations. Inmathematicsthe teachingtests,compriseawrittenproposition to be completedwithin14'days andanoraltest; physics,an8-hour A practicaltest andatheoreticaltest whichmaybe eithera4-hour written testor anoraltest;Chemistry,a4-hourwrittentest andan oraltest;astronomy,anoraltesti Subjectte8t8(FagprOven).--1-Preparationfor thesetests beginssimul- taneously with thatfor theteahingtests andmaybecompletedin2 years.Thetestscover alimitedfield whichmay comprisesome phase ofasingle subjectorincluderelated phasesoftwoor more subjectsof thegroup:Beforethe workofpreparation forthetests is begun, approval ofthelimitation of thefield andof thespecialstudyorthesis within tbefieldmust be obtained fromtheinstructororinstructors concerned. Theexaminationincludesawrittenorpracticaltest in thethesis fieldwhich isto be completedwithin 4 weeks,a4-hourwrittentest, andtwo oraltests. Professionalexaminationfor teachersofgymnastia(Skoleembede- eksameniGymn44tik).Thisis similarto the regularprofessional examinationof the subjectgroup, except that gymnasticsconstitutes thespecial fieldof thesubjecttests.Afterpassingthepreliminary tests the studyofanatomy and physioloiybeginstogetherwithprep- aration fortheteachingtests.After passingthe latter,thestudent attendsthe1-yearcoursefor teachersofunpasticsat the.Institute IN742--41---11

111. 26 EDVCATION, APPOINTMENT, AND REMUNERATION OF TEACHERS of Gymnastics.1Sinceanatomyind physiologyareincludedamong universityoudies theyareomitted in thecourse atthe institute. Theexaminationpresupposesknowledge of the basic factsof human anatomy.Theory of umnastics includes all the main phasesof physiology with special reference to the physiology of muscles, muscle movements,and muscle work; alsosomeknowledge of themost im- porta.ntphYsiologicalmethods and technique of elementary physiology. The thesisorspecial work is selected within the field of the theoryof gymnastics. Profe4gionalexamination .for leathers in the natural hi.tiory-geogrdphy gubjectgroup(Skoleembedseksameni den Naiurhiztorisk-Geograftske Faggruppe).The examination comprises three parts preceded bya preliminary- examinatiok.Parts I and IIaretbesamefor all students. Preliminary examination (Forberedelgesehamen).This isanoral examination in chemistry and physics taken normallyatthe closeof the firstyearof university study.One who passed the studentexamination in the mathematics-naturial icience line withat least the mark "Very good" in physics isexemptin that subject in the preliminary 'examination. Part I (FØrste Del) comprisesa4-hour writtenorpartly practical examination andanoraltestin eaqh of botany, zoology, geology,and geography. Preparation for it requires about 1%yearsof study beyond successin the preliminary examination. Part II (Anden Del) comprisesa4-hour writtenorpartly practical examination andanoraltest ineach of the six subjeots of thegroup: Botany, plant physiology and ¡genetics,zoology, zoophysiology, geology, and geography.The examination is taken normallyat the close of the fourthyearof university study. Part III (Tredie Del) comprisesamajor selected fromamong one of the six subjects of thegroupandathesis (Speciale) coveringsome special phase of the major.Work.onthe. major is,1:. un1yearbe- fOrepartII of the examination and requires normally about2years of preparation.With botanyas amajor the studentmustprepare anherbarium includingatleast 400types of Daz*h plants. The examination includesawrittenorpractical project basedon the thesistobe completed within4 weeks,a4-hodwrittenórpartly practicaltest,andanoriltest. Professional examination Jot teachers of gymnadies.--Forthisgym- nastics is tfsedasmajor inpartIII and zoophysiology replacedin partII by the study ofanatomy and physiology.In gymnastics the

sTh State Institute of Gymnastics (State= Gymnestikinstitut)at Copenhagenwas foundedin 1911. It offersa 1year course open tograduates of the seminaries far the educationof elementfry school teachers who 1.1to specialise u teachers of gymnutics, and to students of the University of Copenhagenwbo selectI..%idosl edvostion asa part ofthe professional examination far tssoben. Theowns includes anatomy, physiology, specialtheory tgymua.tks, hygiene andfirst aid methods, gymnastics,ball Play. ing; athletics, swimming, practice %caching in gymnastics* and ban playing and dosswitha State moor- Mod ezazaination.

Jo.....s.1 - vows nadirdietNaurvideaskabellge an MOND perhaps retical andpractical. with specialreference visningsinspektoren forGynmasieskolene) undef thesupervisionofStat course practical preparationforteaching. the "cand.mag."attends the university natural histoiy-geography preparation fortheprofessional mathematics-pkysics subject for theprofessionalexamination of gymnastics requirements, includingattendance I Maybetakenduring 1 MaybetakeninsemesterVI IltudIsOlaner tUilkoleembedsakeemen The theoreticalphaseincludes Professional educationofsecondary examination intheoretical pedagogicsandschool Study pkn.Aplanofstudies Astronomy General Praotionm inpography Geology Stratigraphic Paleontology Practicum in Dynamic Mineralogy Pt physloic Practicem inthsflophyt*andmicroblolog7 Zoophyskilogy Botany Praotionm in Practice= inplant Prectioum insoophysiology Praotioum inhistology Histology andembryology 74o logy Pratte= In Human anatomy. Praotionm inphysics Physics Chemistry Praotiouro inobenilsi Philosophy imbues Fabiltstet. rOsnhava. Bonder is underthedirectionofthpdirector Table 6.Stay on PoltradY geo Sub)ect of Thorndike, andschool hygiene. . pIa geology sootomy oo, covers at and genetics t physiolorgandgenetics tification ofminerals .. any Iof IL - ...... I instruction the Instituteof anatomy andarobe- . plan forthenaturalhistory-geography or the firstIsemesters. subject I. qi VII. to Denmark,pedagogical psyc_hology Faultst a ...... subject og MagisterkonferensldenNaturhistorisk-Owailake 1-semester t group _ matter DENMARK saint dedent)hrendeAnordninger _I 4 1 i i 1 I .- . a .. . I Gynmastics, .... 2 I ... brief 2 I 6 for thefirst 3 4 7 group examination for (p. 25). inspector for ..... 1 i of the For hisprofessional onli. school teachers. II 3 2 course 2 6 3 3 4 7 teachers of iL course Hours follows: In and hisstaff. 2 1 2 4 2 2 p. 1-year It does ii The of the 10. a weekperRernester at ...me are in pedagogical 8 semestersofwork ly 2 2 2 4 2 4 a - - gymnasia (Under- identical courses gymnasium. course prnmastics 2 y 2 1 2 4 o 2 subject gymnasium and hygiene. co not includethe teachers ------1 i I Instruction vl 3 2 2 2 og 2 7 3 2 2 1 .for teachers Bekendgiireiser. M. a. roup It istheo- I close with education . 1 VII with those . 2 3 2 2 gm. M..M 2 3 3 8 2 3 2 1 . .. history , - based in the e VIII in the . 2 3 2 II - 3 2 SW . 2 3 2 The 1 1 Fag at 27 in

IIITI T MIMI^ utp , 28 EDUCATION, APPOINTMENT,AND REMUNERATION OFTEACHERS

The practical phase comprises12 hoursaweek of practiceteaching in the major and minor subjectsundertwoorthree .teachers.It begins with auditing followedvery soonbyattempts to teach for partofanhour under the supervision ofthe claw teacher.Later the teaching extends for theentire class hour andis attended alsoby the director.About the middle of thesemester the candidatemust teach for2or3 hours before the class teacher,rector,and Statecom- mittee.This is followed byanintensive criticism.At the closeof thetermthe State committee again observesthe teaching.Noper- sonfd criticism is givenonthis occasion butadecision ofpass or not passis made followed byawritten certificate givingadetailedesti- mateof the candidate's qualificationsasteacher. Appointment The applic,iitin for appointmentasteacherat aState schoolis madetothe -Nlinistry of Education;atacommunal school,to the communal authorities; andataprivate school,tothe authoritiesof the school. Aftera"cand. mag." has completed his professionaleducation and before he is ready forpermanent appointment he mustservefor2 years uadjunctonprobation (AdjunktpaaProve) andpassthe examination forpermanent appointment (fast Ansaettelses Prove). Onsuccessin this examination which isanexamination in teaching beforeaState committee hemay'receivepermanent appointmentas adjunct.After about 15yearsof additional teaching hemaybe appointed lector (Lektor). A"cand. mag." who has completed his professional educationmay begin teaching alsou asubstitute (Vikar) forateathervirt'ois illor

. onleave of absence,or aspart-time teacher (Timelaerer) whenthere areirregular hourstobe filled. The regular teaching load for lectors and adjuncts is 27 hour.; of 50 minutesaweek; for other secondary school teachers,30 hours. After 55yearsofagethismaybe reduced by the Minister of Educa tion to 24 and 27 hours,,espectively.. Remuneration Salaries.--Atagymnasium the basic annual salary is for the Rester-8,400 kroner plus triennial increases of 600 kroner eachupto 9,600 kroner. Lectors-5,700 kroner plus triennial incrfases of 600 kroner eachupto 7,500 kroner. Adjunct.-- ti540 kroner plus triennial increases of 360 kroner eachupto 4,980 kroner, and thereafter of480 kroner eachupto 5,940kroner. Other permanently appointed teachers-3,120 kroner plus triennial increases ci 830 kroner eachupto 5,100 kroner. k. Penaions.-4rPensions for secondary school teachersaregovernedby thesameregulationsasthose for elementary school teachers (p. 17). DENMARK' 29 Bibliography Source Material (Dosizh)

Anordning angasendeUndervisningen iMellemskolen.26. Maj1904.lijobenhavn, J. H. Schultz,1904.8p. Anordning angaaendeFordringerne vedog Eksamensopgivelsernetil ,Mellem- skoleeksamenm. m.3. August1906.Kjobenhavn, J. H.Schultz,1906. 6p. Anordning angaaendeFordringerne vedog Eksamensopgivelsernetil Realeksamen m. m.27. April 1907.lijobenhavn, J. H.Schultz,1907. 4p. Anordningang.aaendetndervisningen iGymnaaiet.9. Marta 1935.Kobenhavn, J. H. Schultz A/8,1935. 15p. AnordningornProver i PaedagogikogSkolehygiejnesmut Undervisningdaer- dighed for Laerereved Gymnasieskoler.3. Ilecerpber1927. Kobenhavn, J. H. Schultz, 1927.6p. Catalogues, studyplans, andexaminationregulations fromthe Universitiesof Copenhagen and Aarhus. Det StatistiskeDepartement.Borneskoleni Aarene1932-1936.Danmark.. Statistik.StatistiskeMeddelelser4. Raekke,108.Bind,3.Haefte. Uobrnhavn,GyldendalskeBoghandel-NordiskForlag, 1939.83p. . Statistisk Aarbog1938. DanmarksStatistik.Aargang 43.Koben- havn, GyldendalskeBoghandel-NordiskForlag,1938.XXXI+ 291p. Lov (Nr.130-1930)omSeminarier.15. Aptil1930. Kobenhavn,J. H.Schultz A/8, 1930.8p. Lov (Nr.167-1931)ornLonningerm. m. for FolkeskolensLaerere.28. April 1931.Kobenhavn, J. H.Schultz A/8,1931.32p. Lv (Nr.211-1933)orn StyrelseogTirsynogTilsynetmed private Skoler.20. MajÍ933.Kobenhavn, J. H.Schultz AIS,1933. 19p. Lov (Nr.160-1937)ornFolkeskolen.18. Maj 1937.Kobenhavn,J. H.Schultz A/8, 1937.20p. Luitnawan, J.Aarsberetning fraStatensGymnastikinstitut.Kobenhavn,Thor M011er-Bogtrykkeri A/8, 1937.12p. Raahttraaitx, VILHELM.StatensLaererhojskole.Laeseaaret1936-37.Koben- havn, ThereBogtrykkeri Chr.& G. Lind,1937. 71p. Undervisningsminiateriet.BekendtgorelseangaaendeUndervisningeni Mellem- akolen.1. Juli 1904lijobenhavn, J. H.Schultz,1904.15p. . BekendtgorelaeangaaendeUndervisningeni Gymnaaiet.13. Marts 1935.Kobenhavn, J.H. SchultzAIS, 1935.20p. . . Den PraktlakeMellemakole.BetaenkningvedrorendeLaeseplaner m. v. for den UdvidedeFolkeskoleaigivet af detafUndervianingaminiateriet under 23. Maj 1933pectinate Udvalg.Kobenhavn, AMJ. H.Schultz Bogtrykk9ri,1936.204p. Undervizninpminiaterieta4ekendtgorelse at10. Marts1938.Bekendtgorelse om Ekaameneordningen vedde hojereAlmenzkolersoffentligkontrollerede Ekeaminer.Kobenhavn, J.H. SchultzA/8,1038.10p. UndervianingeministerieteBekendtgoreleeaf 18. Maj1938.Bekendtgorelaeorn fovea, Undervizningenogde afaluttendeProverpaa Seminarierne. Kobenhavn,J. H. SchultzA/I3, 1938.29p. 44. flm , a s. 30 EDUCATION,APPOINTMEINIA)% ANDREMUNERATIONOF TEACHIRS

Scondaryworks (Erighah) BODELSEN, A. and WAAGE,OLAF. TheUniversityof Copenhagen. urvey of itaorganitation A brief andactivities.Publishedwiththe financial aasistanceof theRaak-OrstedFoundation and theUniversity.Copenhage_n, a Levindt Munksitaard-Einar Munksgaard,1038.64p. Periodicals (Daysish) Folkeskolen..I'dgivetafDanmark', Ir Lacrerforening Aarhus

I 4-

4 ee* 11.

,11141.. c o 0 o- 31

.. e I a - gm,

Education, Appointment,andRemunerationofTeachers

A ElementarySchools Asan introduction to thediscussionof theeducation,appointment, andremunerationofelementaryschool teachers,it isadvisabletoCell. how theelementaryschoolsare organized, thesubjectsthat in them, and are taught the lengthoftimetheyareinsessionannually. form the first They step in theeducationof theteachersthatcome to them, and whattheyaim to domust be theguidingprinciplefor theeducation of theirfutureteachers. Organizationof the elementaryschoolincities.---1Poritscityand country elementaryschoolsNorwayhasseparate laws.Further, those for thecities arewritten inbokmAl,theDano-Norwegianor literary language andthose forthecountry inNynorsk(NewNor- wegian), calledalsoLandsmaal(countryspeech). In thecities theelementaryschoolcomprisesthreedivisions: Division I (försteavdeling)forchildrenfrom7 to10yearsofage. Division II (armen avdeling)forchildrenfrom10 to12yearsof age. . Division III(tredjeavdeling)forchildrenfromito 14yeafs of age. . School year.TheschoolyearbeginsonJuly1. Holidaystotal from13 to 14 weeks,includinga summer vacationofat least7 weeks. Underspecial conditionsthe totalnumberof freedaysa yearmaybe increasedto 16 weeks. Size of classes.Thenormalnumber ofpupilsinaclassby July1, 1942, is planned as30.With theconsent of thedistrictschooldirector (overtilsynet)the numbermaybeincreasedtemporarilyto 35.The corresponding number ofpupilsinaclassheretoforehas been35 to40. Plan ofetudies.Forthe7 successiveclasses(years) ofanelementary school aminimum of168 andamaxiniumof192 weekhoursof instructionarefixed by law.Of theseno'classmayhave lessthan18 nor more than 36 hours.Threenormalstudy planshave beenworked out,oneeach for schoolswith186 to192 hours ofinstruction;180to 186 hours; and168 to 176 hours.In eachplanthemaximumnumber of hoursis forschools thatincludeEnglish,which isoptional,as a subject ofinstruction.An hourofinstructionn;tay notbe lessthan 45nor more than 50 mitutesinduration.In general,however,the 45-minutehour hasbeenadopted.The planof studiesfqracity school withatotal óf186 to192 weekhours ofinstructionfollows: 33 34 EDUCATION, APPOINTMENT, AND REMUNERATION OFtEACHERS

Tab li.7.Pian of stirdies for the 7-class city elementary school Numbersinparen'thesesarefor girls.Numbers in italicare forpupils who select Engliohas asubject of study)

Hoursaweekperschoolyear Subject of instruction II IV VI VII

1 3 4 4 7 r Religion 2 2, 2 ;-3 2-3 2-3 2 Norwegian 10 9 (8) 8(7) 6 6 6 (5) 7 (6-6) Study of environment_ 3 3 Ilisory. 1 2 2 2 (1) Geography _ . _ _ ------2 2 2 2 (1) Natural science_ _ - - - - _ 2 2 3 (2) 3 (2) Arithmetic 3 4 4 5 6 (4) 15-4 (5-4) 5 (5-4) Penmanship 2 2 2(1) 2-1(1) 1 Drawing 2(2-1) 2 2 2

Singing 1 2 , 2 1 (1) Handwork______2 (4) 2(4) 3(4) "a3 (4) 4-1 (4-3) 4-, (4) Gymnastics 2 (1) 2 3 3-2 3 (2) 3 (2) Home economics (2) (4) English (optional) 6 6

Total 18 24 24 30 30 30-33 30-33

Experimental work.With theconsent of the Ministry okEduca- tion opportunitymaybe given for experimental work inmethods of teaching,newforms of organization, andnewplans of work.Ina circular of April 10, 1937, the Ministry with referencetothisstates: It is not the idea that all schools shall experiment withnewmethods of teaching, etc.Only teachers with special qualifications forthe finding of newmethods of instruction should 136 permitted to try experimentalwork and that under control.In thismannerthe schoolas awholemaybenefit later from the results of the experiments made.The local school board (skolestyret) and the school directors (overtilsynet)aretoexpresstheir opinions before the Ministry of Educationgives consent for suchan experiment to be made. Leaving examination.Elementary schooling closeswithawritten examination in Norwegian and arithmetic.In the aforementioned circular the Ministryátatesthat the elementary schoolisnotan ex- aminationschool and therefore the marksin Norwegian and arithmetic for the leaving certificate should befixed with dueregardto the marks mdde in these subjects duringthe schoolyear.Itsug- gests also that the severalcommunesclooperatein makingout the questions for the written examination in orderthat the demandsbe not too high, ind that each school board in adopting fietherregula- tions take into consideration that theexamination, fromthe viewpoint of the elementary schoolasthe foundation schoolinaunified schoolsystem, must not harm that part of elementary schoolwork whichcanbe represented neither byexaminationnorgrades. The elementary whoa in the country.Thiscomprisestwo divisions: Division I (fyrste hogda)orprimary school (literally "small school" 1 NORWAY 35 smAskulen)forchildren from7 to10yearsofage;and divisionII dre hogda)orelementaryschool(literally"largeschool" storskulen)for thosefrom10 to14. Each division,as arule, hasitsown separatedaises..Ina2-class school the tottt:number ofpupilsshouldnot exceed35; 3-classschool, 54; 4-class school,90; 5-classschool,110.Thesenumbersmaybe increasedata2-c1ass schoolbynotmorethan5additionalpupils; 3-class school,9; 4-classschool,12; and 5-classschool',15.Further, except for the 4upperclassesata6-class schooland thq5upperclasses Ata7-class school-in whichthemaximum numberof pupilspercliss maybe35, theremay notbemorethan 30inaclass.The total' number of pupilsfnanundivi6dclasscannöt exceed12. The schoolyearfor eachclass inthe primaryschoolcomprises16 weeks; in theelementaryschool,18 weeks.Thismaybe increased for both schoolstoayearlyaverageof 27weeksmakingILtotal of 189 weeks fora7-classschool.A decreaseof2 weeksfrom the prescribednumberof weeksmaybe allowedwhen thenumberof pupils in theprimarydivisionis 10orless; intheupperdivision,15 orless; and inanundividedschool lessthan8. Inmatters ofadministration,curricula,andinstruction,country sthoolsarequite similarto those in thecity.Ata countryschoCA with theminimumhours ofinstruction thaestudy ofaforeignlanguage is generallyomitted.

Education Elementary schoolteachers.--Teacherswhocarry aload ofat least 24 hours ofinstructionaweekareregularorfull-timeteachers (laerere i fullstendigeposter). Instructionip suchspecial subjects assinging,gymnastics,drawing,homeeconomics,handwork,and foreignlanguages;and inpositionswithfewei.'than24 hours of teachingaweekmaybeassignedto part-timeteachers(literally "hourteachers"timelaerere).Botharepreparedfor theirduties in the.schoolsfor theeducation ofelementaryteachers. Schools forthe educationof elementaryschoolteachers(laererskoler til utdaningavlaerereoglaererinderforfolkeskolen).Norwayhas eight oftheseinstituti9E Levenof themareState;oneis private. A Tbe Stateschools called,respectively,the Elverumoffentlegelaererskole (ElverumState Scitolfor theEducationof ElementarySchool Teachers),Kri,stian8an4soffentlegelaererskole,etc.,arelocatedat Elverum,Kristiansand, SU:hid,Levanger,Troms0,Volda, andNesna. The privateschool isat Oslo (Oslolaererskole). .1 Under thecontrol ofParliament(tortinget) theMinistrygives detailedregulationsconcerningtheorganizationand workof the schools,including theplans ofinstruction,examinationregulatiohs, 36 EDUCATION, APPOINTMENT, AND REMUNERATION OFTEACHERS the number of studentstobe admitted, and the'number of clawsat each school.The Ministry is assisted byaLaerer8koleia2d,orboard comprisingachairman and four other members(men and women) appointed by the Kingtoservefor'5yearseach.At leastone mem- bermustbeanelementary school teacher; andat leastonemember, ateacherataschool for the education ofelementary s1 teachers, The direct supervision of each schoolis in charge ofa tor (rektor) assisted byafaculty council (literally "schoolcouncil"skolerkd) comprised of the permanently appointed teachersof the school. Instructionattheschoolsis organized in4- and 2-year curricula, with tbe 2-year curriculum offeringtwo lines: Regular line (vanlege lina),and English line (engelsklina). The 2-year curriculumparallels the 4-year.The time is shorterbecause the requirementfor admission is much higher. Requirement8 for adminion.Applicationfor admissionto either curriculum must be presentedto the rector of the school.Itmust be accompanied by the prescribeddocuments, includingacertificate of health showing that the applicant hasnophysical ailmentdetri- mentalto future workasteacher, and evidence ofeducational quali- ficatiori.The faculty council thendecidesonwhoareto be admitted tothe entrance examination for the4-year curriculum, andsendsa recommendation of thosetobe admittedto the 2-year curriculumtb the Laererskolerdd which makes thefinal decision. The examination for admissionto the 4-year curriculum (upp- takingsprove) is offeredat each, school under the directionof Laerer- rddet.In it the applicantmust show that he has maturity,information, and skill correspondingat least to that of-onewho hascompleted the elementary schoolanda6-monthcontinimtionschool (framhaldsskole)or a youngpeople's school (ungdomstikole).' Admissiontothe 2-year curriculumis basedonthe certificate of having passed the artiumexamination (vidnesbyrdombestAtt artium) which is the regulargraduation diplomafromagymnasium andentitles-theholderto admission toauniversity (p. 46).If the applicant wishestotakeupstudies in the- Englishline, hemust have pas-sed the artiumin that lineorshowto the satisfaction of the Laererskolerdd that he hasamastery of English equivalentto that ofonewbo has passed theexamination. ID For admissiontoclass I of the 4-yearcurriculum theiPplicant

I Norway has three typesof young people's schools: Folk highschools patternedonthose of Denmark, privateyoung people's schools generallyfounded by religious and missionarysocieties, and county, schools (fylkeskolar).All aim to offerto young people of at least 17insomeinstances 16years ofage further education basedon completed elementary schooling.Most of the schools offera 6-month winter course andapracticalsummer course. NORWAY ,s 37

must beat least 17yearsofagebeforeJuly1 of theyearin whichhe wishesto be admitted;to classI of the2-year,at least 19years. Afterschoolyear 1932-33 whenatotal of304 studentsweread- mittedto class I of the7 blic and3 privateschools fortheeducation ofelementaryschool teaclìèrsthen inexi;Atence,no new admissions were,. authorizeduntil1936-37 when32 applicants,including19 women,wereadmittedto class I .ofthe4-year curriculumat Nesna And30applicantsto class I ofthe2-yearcurriculumat each of the 1schoolsat Volda,Levanger,and Oslo.Of the90 studentiadmitted to the lattei52werewomen. Plan of studies,Theplan ofstudies forthe4-year curriculumand for each of thetwo lines. ofthe2-year curriculumaregiven inthe followingtables: Table 8.Piandóistudks forthe4-year curriculumfor.theeducation ofelementary schào teachers I. *41 , . Hoursa week per schoolyear

.., Subject ofinstruction I II III I V Total . - _ 1 .1 s I IP e e 6_ Christianfty .. , . 2 3 0,2 3 10 Norwegian __-_-__ 7 English 6 5 5 23 : 5 3 2 10 History andcivics. 1 ...... 3 3 3 9 Geography __ _ . _ _ __ . 3 2 _ __ _ . _ _ Physics _ 5 and chemistry_ ... __ 2 3 3 Biology ______, 8 ------______----- 2 2 2 2 8 Mathematics . ______4 4 r 4 3 _ 11 Pedagogy_. . 2 4 4 10 Practice teaching_ . , _ _ __ . ______. 4 9 Singing ___ 13 Music , 2 1 2 2 7 (instrumental)______1 Drawing 1 . ... ._._ .. . . 2 Penmanship 2 2 2 2 8 1 . , ..... __ , ______. 1 Handwork_ .. s 2 2 .2 2 8 Gymnastics_ . ___ _ Garden* 4 3 3 4 14 - _ Library_ (I) Home (I) economical__ ..--_ _ .f- 4 _ 3 .....,._ . Total, excludinghours inlibrary and home economics 37 37 37 . 36 147 . ,, I Total of 18hours takenfrom workin biology.In addition ns. practical workin the schoolgarden during totaltal of 18hoursas afternoon work. 3 Optional. The studentsare exempt fora number of hours inother subjects.

r, 38 EDUCATION, APPOINTMENT,AND REMUNERATIONOF TEACHERS

Table9.Pian of studiesforthe 2-year curriculumfor the educationof elementaryscitool teachers

Hoursaweekper each school year

Subject of instruction General line English line -a

I I I Total 1 I I Total

I 4 & I 1 7

, Christianity _ ...... 4 4 8 3 3 6 Norwegian 2 1 3 2 2 English . lo 10 20 Civics 1 1 1 ! 1 Natural science . .. 3 e'3 6 2 2 i 4 Arithmetic 1 1 1 .. ' 1 6 13 4 5 9 Pe teaching 5 84 13 5 8 13 Singing 2 3 5 2 2 4 Music (instrumental) . 1 1 2 Drawing ...... 4 3 7 2 2 4 Penmanship 1 1 Handwork 3 , 3 .6 2 2 4 Gymnutics 4 4 8 3 3 6 Gardening _ ..... Q) Library...... (n Home economicss 4 3 4 74 .41111- Total, excluding hours in library and home economics . 37 1 37 74 37 37 74

I Total of 18 hours taken from workin biology.In addition practical workin the school gardenduring afternoons. I A total of 18 hoursasafternoon work. sOptional. The studentsare exempt for a number of hours in other subjects. In special instancesvariations in the curriculummaybe made for individual students.Thus students with physicaldefects whichwill nothinder them from doingeffective workasteachiersmaybeexempt whollyorin part from handwork, drawing,and gymnastics;and those who lack, all filusicaltalentorability neednot take the instruction in music and singing in thetwoupperclasses.Further,astudent who canshow that he alreadyhas the requiredmastery ofasubjectmay be excused from classwork in it. Pedagogy.In tile4-year curriculum and in each ofthetwo lines of the2-year curriculum instruction in ppdagogicsincludes: Fundamentals of psychology, specialchild psychology,with stressonthe mental life and development ofthechildduring schoolage. Theory of education and instructionfrom the historicalviewpoint.Thor- ough knowledge a the methods ofinstruction in eachof the various elementary school subjects. Survey of the developmentof education in Norway.The elementary school of Norway, legislition,the regulations,and plans of instruction in force. Thorough knowledge ofschool hygiene. The English lineof the 2-year curriculumrequires in additiona thorough knowledge ofthe methods ofteaching English. Practice teaching(praktiak laerergjerning).Thepractice sohooi4 (Ovningsskolen)maybearegular elementary schoolor anelementary NORWAY 39

schoolconducted'by theState withsubsidiesfrom the localcom- munity.If it. is theformer,the school forthe educationof elementary schoolteachersafterarrangements with' themunicipalitydecides in the mainonthe organizationand instructionat the school.If it.is aState schoolit is entirelyunder thesupervision anddirectionof the laerer8kok.Following isatranslation ofthe regulationsforpractice' teaching in the4-year curriculumgiven in thestudy planpresented ,,oradoption in1938: 1.Thestudents of theschool for theeducation ofteachers shalllearnto ¡Leep school;that is,not only howto offer instruction butalso howto handle children.They shouldhavepractice work in boththe seven-clamschool and in schoolswithoneteacher in chargeof twoor more classes. 2. Each schoolfor theeducation of teachersis obligatedtoseethatthe sttdentaof class IV haveopportunity forobservation andat least fourlessons in practiceteaching in eachdivision ofaschool withteachers incharge of twoor more classes located withinreasonable distance. 3. Aboutthree-sevenths ofthe practiceteaching shall bedevotedto the primary school(smAskolen) and four-seventhslethe elementaryscn-n1 proper (storskolen).Practíceteaching should bèat first one-halfhouin duration; later1, 2, 3 hours. 4. For practicework the studentsin each ofclasses III and IVare divided p. in fourgroups.In class IIIthere should be four,and in class IV,9 hours aweek forobservation,practice work,criticism, andinstruction. 5. The firstweeks and laterthe beginning ofeach shift insections ofwork is devotedentirelyto observation ofinstruction atthe practiceschool. I;1class III thestudents shouldassist the regularteachers* forat least 3days in springand inautumn in orderto become familiarwitb the innerwork of the schooland to obtainpractice in therelationshipwith children.In class IV theyshould observeother classes inaddition to. their observationof group mates. 6. Beforeobservation thestudents shall beinstructedasto thesubject and methodsof procedure.Later the instructorand ,the studentsdiscuss the pointsnoticed. 7. Practiceteaching co4prises:(a)separate hours in eachsubject; (b) half-day teaching,i.e.,teaching forseveral hours insuccession ipthesame class; (c) teachingin series, i.e.,teaching 2or morehours in thesame class on successive days; (d)some practice, preferably during thelastyear,in group teaching (gruppeoplaering)and in directingindividual work. 8. Theteaching assignmentsinasubject shouldalways correspondwith

Ilk the work planof the regularteacher of title class. 9. The 'studentsshould receivetheir assignnients insufficienttime for thoroughpreparation.At first thestudent shouldwrite out andpresenta written planshowing thelogicaldevelopment of the lessonand indicating whatever illustrativematerial,etc., he is planning touse. 10. Theentiregroup orclaspasthecase maybe shouldbe gatheredfor the hour ofcritique.In this,endeavor should be madeto have thestudents discuss freelyand franklythe work theyhave attended.Theremainder of the périodshould bedevoted to specialproblems with referenceto the work ahead.The instructorshould impress the studentswith theneed of always usingnatural andcorrect language in talkingto the pupilsof the practiceschool. 40 EDUCATION, APPOINTMENT, AND REMUNERATIONOF TEACHERS

11. Tbeaver4enumber of hours in the .individualsubjects duringthe 2yearsof practice teaching, should be: Religion, 5; Norwegian,8; arithmetic, 5; study of environment,-5; ..history,2; geography, 2; naturalscieuce, 5; drawing, 2; gymnastics, 2; handwork, 2; singink, 2;penmanship, 1;making total of 41 hours. 12. The schedule shouldbèarranged in suchmannerthat the numberof hours of regular work lost at the laererskole be reducedtoaminimum.As' much practice workaspossible shouldcome onthesameday and be confined to half and whole daysasfarasit ,isadvisable. . 13. Where it is convenient the student shouldarrange tovisit otbertypes of schools, suchas youngpeople'sschools, work schooli; higherschools, special schools, school homes,etc. 14. The student should receive instruction in keeping ofrecords, school statistics, arrangement ofmaterials, schoolbook oollection andreading material, inspection, practical hygienicarrangements, etc. 15. The practice teaching instructors should for their part,seek the best possible 000peration with the subject-matter instructors ofthe laererskole, especially with the instructors in pedagogy, drawing, penmanship,and gymnastics. Theregulationsfor practice teaching in the 2-year schoolare practically thesame asfor classes III and IV in the4-year school. Examinatio s.Except forthetwoprescribedexaminations, described below, the Ministry decidesontheextent to which yearly examinations shall be required. Promotion examination (optlytningsprOve).At the close ofthe firstyear apromotion examination is held.On the basis ofit and other data gathered by the schpol concerning the student, thefaculty council decides whether he has the required maturity and skillin the elementary school subjects and also the qualificationsnecessaryfor the continuation of study in preparation for teaching.A regular studentmayremain for 2yearsin each class. Examination for leathers (laererprOve).Instructionat the schools for the education of elementary school teacheis closes withaleaving examination(avgangsprove) called the examination for teachers offerecfunder the direction and supervision of Laererskolerddet. Detailed regulations governing the examinationarein preparation.

Meanwhile the writtenpart of the examination comprises: . 1. Pedagogics.In both the 4- and 2-year curricula,atheme writtenin bokmiklornynorsk dependingonthe choice of the examinet. 2. Norwegian.In both the 4- and 2-year curricula,atheme in Norwegian written in the language form not used in the theme in pedagogics. 3. Arithmetic and geometry.In the 4-year curriculum the leavingalumina- tionoomesat the close cif the thirdyear. 4. English.In the English line of the 20-year curriculum, two thetirsone main, the other supplementary. '*

. Regular studentsareexempt fromaleaving ationm practice teaching.Further, to theextentthatastudent has beenexempt fromasubjectot'abranch ofasubject he isexemptfrom final examin&- tion in the subject. NORWAY 41

In special instances the Ministrymayadmitaprivatisetothe examination for teachers.Thé applicationfor thismustbeaccom- panied by certificates identical with those required for admissionas a regular student, and thesame agelimits apply. Additi&nal education for elementary teachers.Opportunitiesfor elementary school teachérs to have additional professional education areoffered in the Norway High School for Teacherscoursesfor further education, studies in English, and meetings forcountry school teachers.These will be discussed briefly in tbe order listed. The Norway High School for Teachers (Norges Lacrerhoiskol(). This schoolwasopenedatLadenearTroldheim in the fallof 1922. It isaState institution offeringa1-yearcckursefor the furthereduca- tion of teachers in elementary, continuation, andyoungpeople's schools who have passed the examination just discussed.Instruction is offered through lectiree and prartica in pedagogics, Norwegian, history, physics, mathematics, chemistry, botany, zoolou, sloyd,and history and psychology of religion.Except for pedagogicswhichmust be taken by-all students the subjectsareoptiorial.Asyetthe school offersnoexaminations.It hasanannual attendance ofabout60 students. Courses for the further educationqf tewhers (kurs .forridereuidaning avlaerere).Eachsummer,vacationcoursesofafew weeksduration areoffered in various cities of Norwayfor'the further.educationof teachers of elementary, continuation, andyoungpeople's schools. The instruction is in the form of lectures and practiea in'elementary school subjects and in subjects of importanceto teachers of these varipustypesof schools.Theco vzareconducted byvarious teachers organizations suchasNorges reriagand NorgesLaerer- Il inneforbund and generallyaresubsidizedby the State. Studies in' English (upplaering i engelsk).:Thenewregulations for the schools for the education of elementAry school teachersstatethat when fundsareappropriated for thepurposeLaererskolerddetmay arrange a coursein English for those who have passed the examination 'for 'elementary pchool teachers and who'canshow inanentrance examination that they haveamasteryof English correspondingto that ofonewho has passed the artium examination in the English line,The objectives of the courséaretobe thesame asthose for the English line of the 2-year curriculum at the schools/or theeducation of elementary school teachers.The regulation sfates furtherthat thecoursemaybé offeredat the NorwayHigh School forTeachers. Meetings fár countryackool tethers with the schooltimid of the herad.On thesummonsof the school board (skolestyret) all-teachers ofatownship (herad)meetwith the board twicea yearto discuss the I Qpe who has prepared for án examinatIon through private studyorthrough attendanceat a school without the right of examination. 286742*---41-4 4 42 EDUCATION,APPOINTMENT, ANDREMUNERATIONOF TEACHERS 4 work and conductof the schooland considersteps to be taken forthe furtherance of the.objectives of theelementaryschoolin ruralareas. When possibleoneof the meetingsis heldataschool wherethe teachers mayattend instrtiction. Attendanceatthe meetings iscountedas a partof theregWar work of instruction.

Appointment Appointment of elemenlaryschool 1eacher8.---Afterpassing theleaving examination of the schoolsfor theeducation ofelementaryschool teachers (p. 40) thecandidate is readyforpermanent appointment. In practice,however, this is riotusually obtaineduntil afteraperiodof, serviceassubstitute(vikar) andteacher intemporary positions. Appointmentasregular teacherrequires inaddition thatthe applicant beat least 20yearsofageand ableto speak the languageof thecountry. Whenahill-time teachingposition isto be filled, the localschool board (skolestyret)announcesthevacancyin t4e Nora*KunngØrel- sestidende, and generallyalso inwidely readeducationaljournals. Theannouncement includesadescriptionof theposition andthe period oftimeat least4 weekswithinwhichapplicationmust be made.Unless otherwisespecified allpositionsare open tomenand womenalike. Appointmentsaremade by thelocal schoolboardsubjectto the approval of thedistrict schooldirector (skolokirektor)who together with directorsof otherdistricts isresponsibleto the Ministryfor carryingout the State regulationsconcerningelementaryschools. If the board andthe directorcannotagree ontheselection ofateacher and if theselection by theboardwasmade byless thantwo-tbirds majority, thecase maybe presentedto the Ministry. One-third of the full-timepositionsmust be subjectto dismissal on3 months' noticein order that commtinitiesmaybe freeandun- hindered inanyrequiredreorganization oftheir schools.There- maining two-thirdsof the full-timepositionsarefilled bypermanent appointment.A teacher'sfirstappointmenttoafull-timeposition is foraprobationary periodofnotmorethan1year. In citiesaprincipal (bestyrer,forstelaerer,overlaerer)maybe appointed for eachschoolor groupof schools.His teachingload is reduced inpropprtionto the number of hoursneeded foradministra- tion andsupervision. Acitymayhave also.anelementaryschool inspector whomaybéexempt whollyorinpart from teaching.Foi appointmentasprincipalorinspector theapplicantmust have served forat least 5years as an elementary sbhoolteacher.In eachinstance the appointmentis made inthesame mannerasforaposition in full- e time elementaryschool teaching. , With referenceto appointments forpart-timepositions,temporary NORWAY 43 positions (konstituerteIaerere)and substitutes(yikarer)the school board makesputa report tothe schooldirectorof thedistrict. Thelprocedure for theappointment ofteachersat elementary schools in thecountry is identical inhe mainwith thatin thecities.The local authority forappointmentis the schoolboard(skolestyret)of the township (horad).As in thecities, theState isrepresented I.)ythe school director ofthe district.Identical alsoarethestandardsof qualificationforappointmentto each of thevarioustypes of positions. Full-timepositions in thecountry includeat least 30 schoolweeksa year.They compriseteaching in'eitherorbah divisions. ofthe elementary school,orin t.ht elementaryandcontinuation'school.In- struction thatcannot be assignedto full-time positionsmaybe assigned to assistant teachers (hjelpelaerere).

Remunerationr- 4 Salariesin cities.Thestilariesaregovernedby Staterigulations of July5, 1927, and June3, 1939.Accordingto these, theminimum in cities forateaching positionof 36 hoursaweekis 3,200kroner with 5 increases of 350 kronereacb after3, 6, 9, 12, and15yearsof service.' For positionswith fewer than36 hours ofteachingaewt%.eith.e b6gin- ning salary andeach, increasearecorresPondinglylower.Unless housing is free withthe position,teacherA withafamilyreceive in addition towardhouserent (husleiebidrag) at least400.kroneribt; those without family,25Q kroner.Whena maw and, wifeareboar teaching in thesameconimunity ,theyreceive togetherat least 400 kronera year orfree housing.Headmastersorprincipalsand inspectors receive the regularsalary ofatetkcher plusanaMountfixjd by the communalboard (kommunaistyra)onrecommendationof the local schoolboard.Large citiesfrequhtlypay,their teaéhers salaries abovethe established miniinum. Salaries in thecounfry.Theminimairisalary forteachersof thp upperdivision of theelementaryschpol in thecountry comprises60 ..kroner for eachweek of36 hours ofinstruction plusaStiff)Supple- ment(Rikstillegg)of600krónera year,and4 salary increasesof350 kroner each after3,6;9, and 12yearsof service,resPectively. Lii addition theteacher has freehousingorreceives inlieu,thereofat least 300 kronera year. A Foraposition withfewer than36 hOursaweek of instruction andin the primaryschool inwhichafull-timeposition comprises30 hoursaweek, eachof the4 salary items iscorrespondingly, lower. The prbicipal ofanelementary schoolin the countryreceivesa regular salaryasteacher plusanadditionalainountrangingtrom200 kronera yearfor,a scho91if 100 pupilsto 500 kroner fot-a a school of

p One kroneat mintparwas :worth 46.37 cents IUnited 8tatesmoney on April1,1940. e.

-,44 EDUCATIO'S,APPOINTMENT, AND REMUNERATION OF TEACHS118

morethan 300 pupils.With referencetoinspectorstwoor more communes mayhaveaninspector incommonand share in thepayment of the supplemental.), salary.' Substitute fund (rikarkasse).--ln cities teachersmay pay up to 2 A.- percentof the salary and increases towardasubstitute fund.In the countryeachcounty(fylke) hasafundtowhich teachersmaybe asked tocontributefrom Sto 2 percent of their salaries.The remainderis paid by thecountywithanassistance of 20percenteach from the State ,and the township (herad). Pension (pensjon).Elemektaryschool teachers have beenmembers of the State Pension Fund (Statens Pensjonskasse) sinceJuly1, 1918. The Fund is organizedon aself-supporting basis.Each memberpays 10percentof his entire salary,. including free housing andanyaddi- tional salary paid by communities beyond that requiredby law. f Thetwtountof pension received is basedonthe annual incomeand te amoufit of the contribution paidtothe funduptogibetime of ..ving service.The teachermayreceivearegularpension based lnthe ageofretirer.nefit,or apension for disability (literally"invalid pension"invalidpensjou).The former begins.;.10yearsofagefor t menand65 forwomen.Onemayretireon Insion5yearsearlier pros'ided the number ofyearsofageplus the numberofyearsof service total 85. Full pension Comprises66 percent ofabasic contributionof 6,000 kroner and is diminished by 0.003 for each krone abovethatup to

10,000. . Thus'onewho has accumulatedafund of10,000 kroner receivesapension of54 percent of that amAunt. Pension for disability (invalidpensjon).One who becomes incapari. 40,0for service to the extent that it isnecessarytoask forextended 'leaveofilbsénce'orresignation before theageof retirementhas been attained is entitledto pensionfor disability.Theamount'isdeter- mined in each instance by the directors oftheepension fundonthe basis of the period 6f service and thenatureof the disability. Pension for widows and orphans (enke-ogbarnepensjon).Forthe first month after the death ofateacher the heirs receive his fullsalary, if hewasretired, his full pension. -After that the widowreceivesa widow's pension. comprising 50percentof the-regularpenáion the teacher would hAve reoived if he had remained in serviceto theage of retirement.Children under 18yearsofagereceive single pension if the mother is alive; double pension. if she is dead.Single ponsion for1child comprises 40percentof the widow's pension; fot2 children, 60 percent; 3 children, 75 percent; &children, 90percent; 5or more children, 100percent. NORWAY 4ò ,econdary Schools 4 OrganLigation -of thesecondary school.---.Thearrangement of secondary instruction in Norway issomewhatcomelicated.It will bedescribed hereasbrieflyasis consistentNithago6dunderstandingoftileeduca- tion that secondary schoolteachersmusthave beforethey undertake pwfessiodalpreparation, andanequalcomprehensiQnofi the kindof-.'.., work theymustdo when theyreturn to the secondaryAmok. Secondary education,1896to Priortothe falloi1939,sec- .ondary educatinwasgoverned byregulationgissued in1896.These ,f provided fora3-year gymnasiumbasedOn5yearsof elementary schooling followed bya 4-yearmiddle school.Accordingtoasupple- mentaryregulation of1920, effectiveasof schoolyear1921-22, only 3-yearmiddle schoolsbasedpn a completed 7-yearelementary-scbool were toreceive State aid.This automaticailyreorganizivdthe regular preparation for admissiontoinstitutionsof universityrankto. 7years of elementary schoolingplus6 tvears ofsecondaryschoolingdivided betweenamiddle schoolandagymnasium of3yearseach.instruc- .tionatthe middle schoolwasthe§apiefor aR pupil;but. thegymna- slum could offerinstruction inone or'mofe lines,includingareal lino (reallinje), Englishline (engelsklinje),Latintitle(latiniinie),anda Norwegian Jim(norron linje). In addition, thecountry gymnasiums(Landsgymnaser)atVosas, llornnes, and Eidsv9Ileeach offeieda 47year curriculum intended mainly foryoungpeople of abilityin thecountry and basedon completed elementaryeducation anda6-mon\th'continuation schoolcourse. Secondarmducationafter 193».Accordi.ng.toti,4law ofMay10,1935, public secbndaryschoolsbeginningwith thefaliof1939 comprise gymmisiufils and real(modern) schools.Thegymnasium.and real schoolareparalleltypes basedonthe7-year elementaryschoolwhich it is their idealogicpurpose tocontinue andextend.Theyareunder the general supervisionof theMinistrythroughOverstyretordivision concerned withsecondaryschools.This isassisted byanUnder- \visningiradoPCouncil ofEducationcomposed ofachairmanand sevenmembers whoareschool folkin activeservice. The schoolsarecoeducational.The maximumtuition thatmaybe chargedatagymnasium is350 kroner;atalower,secondaryschool, 200 kroner.Themoneyis usedtopaythe feesoffmanciallyindigent pupils.At Oslo secondaryschoolsarefreeto all'pupils. School year.Inadditiontoatotalvacationperiod of13 to14 weeksa year,includinga summer vacation ofatleast7 weeks, and if the schoolwishes, 3 daysfor outdoorathletics)therector ofaschool

1 46 EDUCATION; APPOINTMENT, ANDREMUNERATION OFTEACHERS

maydeclarenotvcceeding10 individualholidays.The schoolday is 6 school hours of45 minutes each withanumber of fleé'minutes between the succeedinghours. trvI Gymnasium(gymnas).. The gymnasiummaybea4-, 5-,or6-year school.Its typical formisa5-ytar school basedoncompleted elementary. - education withafoieignlanguage, generallyEnglish, in, classes 6 and7.In localities wheresuchagymnasiuMcannot well be established theMinistrymayallow theestablishment of5- and 6-year gymnasiums basedonelementary educationwithoutaforeign language. The4-year gymnasium is thecpuntry gymnasium of thepreceding .period (p. 45).As formerly itis, bas0onthe elementary school's withoutaforeign language anda.6-monthcontinuation schoolor equivalent schooling.In addition6-year wintergymnasiums with shorteryear course 1na67be est.ablishedforyoung people in' thecountry.These also areIasedonthe elementitryschool withoutaforeignk language. To the four lines ofinstruction offeredby atlegymnasium prior to. 1939,anatural science line(naturfaglinje) hisbeen added.Some idea of instruction inthe gymnasium,Rarticularly withreferpnceto

the subjects of instructionand the relativestress placedonthem e

in each of thevarious linesmityA. be obtainedfrom thefollowing curricula for thereal, English, and,Latin linesof the5-yeargymnasium basedonelementary instructionincluding English. r,

Tabli10.Pion of studiisfor the real line of S-yeargymnasiumbasedonelementary school instructioit,i.ç ding English, [Hours in parenthesesare for girls) Ato

Hoursaweekperschoolyear Subject of instruction UI Iv Total

4 7

Religion 2 1 6 Norwegian 4 5v 5 25 German_ _ ___. ..;...... , ...... _ 6 6 4 21 English 4 4 2 10 French 4 3 History 1- 5 12 . 2 2 3 2 _ 4 13 Geography 2 2 2 1 7 Biolwy (botany andzoology) 1 1 _ 2 4 Phyogy - 1 1 Chemistry,4:- C 3 e as,_ _ _ .. ..._ 3 Physics 2 2 Mathematics 6 16 . a .5 6 6 7 29 Drawing 2 2 1 1 6 . .1 Penmanship 1- 1 1 Handwork 2 2 4 Gymnastics 3 3 4 4 4 18 Singing (1) 1 1 4 (5)

Total. . 36 als 36 36 38 180

% k- NORWAY 47

Table 11 .Plan of studies for theEnglish andLatin lines otthe5-teer .1 gymnasium based onelementary schoolinstruction includingEnglish [Hours inparenthesesare for girls]

Hoursa week perschooiyear _. ... 1 I-n as ; Subject ofinstruction same English lint. I Latin line ; for real , line 1-- _ IV I II III I ll Ill a- .- -

it 3 4 I 7 S

- ,

Religion. _ , 3 1 1 1 1 I Norwegian ., 1 ...... 9 , 5 5 6 5 5 6 German . . ., 12. ' 4 5 , 2 4 5 _ English..... I ii 5 , i 2 i French . I - i 4 , 5 : 6 , , 5 _ I i Latin...... :... i 7 ;) History_ 4 3 2 4 i .. 4 Civic 3 2 1 4 or social economics 1 ; 1 Geography. . . , 4 2 ; 2 , Biology (botanyand zoology). 2 2 . 2

Physiology... 1 1 t 1 . Chemistry_ _ . 3 1 3 Physics 4 , Mathematics 10 3 .4 4 3 4 4 . Drawing_ ...... _ ...... 4 _. Penmanship. 1 1 Handwork. , 4 Gymnastics I I 6 4 4 44 4 4 4 Singing_ _ 1 (2) 1 1 1 .1 1 1 i 1 . i ,

_ Total .... 36 38 1 I 36 36 36 , 36 I 36:j i .:

Real school (reatqkoie). In additionto offering geueraleducation s. beyond that of theelementaryschool thePeal schoolmay serveas a foundation for furtherspecialstudy andas aplice ofpreparation for appointment to variouspositions inpublic andindustrial life.Itmay

bea2-, 3-,or4-year school. 3 The.typical realschool isa3-year school basedoncompleted elementary schooling includingEnglish.WhereEnglishcannotcon- veniently begiven in theelementary schoolthisrequirementmaybe omitted.In clasA IIIinstructionmaybe offeredin the general(van- leg), practical(praktisk), andcommércial(handels)lines.In rural áreas3-year winter real schools(vinterrealskoler)with shorteryear courses maybe establishedbasedonelementaryschoolinstruction without English. The2-year real schools andreal schoolclassesareintended for pupils with abilityto completetheprescribedrequirements of thereal Khool in2years.They includealso2-year real schoolswith instruction in English.At the latter, oppórtunityforinstruction inasecond foreign languageshall be providedfor pupilswith therequired ability. The4-year real khool isintended for girls. The curriculafor the generalline ofthe3-year real school basedon elementaryinstruction includiwEnglish; and ofthe general,practical, and commerciallines ofthe3-year real schoolbasedonelementary schooling withoutEnglish follow:

.4 = 48 EDUCATION,APPOINTMENT,ANDREMUNERATIONOF TEACHERS Table12.Plan of studies for the3-yeór,realschool basedonelementary schoolinstruction including English ,

[Flours inparenthesesare for girls] 41. ,

. Hoursa week persclo%I . year

Subject of , instruction oneral I II line Total III , 1. s 3 4 1 _.- . . _

I Religion______. . _ 2 1 1 4 Norwegian _. ______4 5 5 14 German _ _ _ . __ . . _ _ _ _ ... _ _ _ __ ._ _ 6 6 5 17 English._ . .11. 4 4 4 I 12 __ _ History. ... _ .... _ - 2 Geography'. 2 4 8 ..... ___. _ . 2 2 2 6 Biology(botany andzoology) i Physiology_ 1 _ 2 - - _ _- -_ - 1 1 Chemistry._ _. . _ _ 2 2 Physics _ _ - ______- ______2 2 4 . Mathematics _ _ . . _ 5 _ _ _ Civic 5 ._ 10 or social mathematics..._ 3 3 Bookkeeping. _ . ... . _. _ . 2 2 ._ . Drawing . .___ .. 2 2 .. 1 5 Penmanship..______1 _ ... __ _ _ 1 Handwork _...... _ _ .. _ _ _ __ ..... 2 2 2 6 Gymnastics._ 3 3 3 . 9 Singing.._ _ _ __ . , (I) 1 1 2 (3) .

Total _ fl _ ... 36 36 36. 108 - I . . , \ I Plus 10 hoursin theelementary school. Table13.---Plon ofstudies for the3-rear real schoolbasedonelementary schoolinstruction without English [Hours inparenthesesare for girls]

, 04 -.rtf 4 Hours 4 r a week per school )! I . year.. tilt III , Subject .0 of instruction. 44 I II , GeneralPracti-'Com- line cal mercial line line

I 2 3. 4 5 e s Religion 2 1 i 1 1 Norwegian . 5 4 5 5 5 German ,. English 7 9 9 9 History 6 6 4 2 4 3 2 4 2 2 GeographiPy 2 2 2 Naturalscience 2 2 3 3 3 6 (3) 3 Arithmetic,mathematics,bookkeep- s . ing______._mai 5 Drawing 5 4 4 4 4 1 2 Penmanship 1 Handwork 2 2 Gymnastics 3 3 , 3 2 3 Singing (1) ...... Homeeconomics _____, -60 Total 38 36 36 36 384 I Or/and handwork. Admiiìrion.Adiissionto the 5-yeargymnasium basedonelementary schoolingwithEnglish,the6-year gymnasium,and the3- and at-year Nal scho'ols-isordinarilybycertificate ofgraduation froman elementarysch6o1(p. 34).Applicantsfromothertypes of schools NORWAY 49 areadmittedbyentranceexamination.Admissiontoa 4-year gymnasium,5-yeargymnasiumbasedonelementaryschoolingwithout English,6-year wintergymnasium,3-year winterreal school,or2-year

4. Oraph No. 2.-Organization or1 and Secondary Education-Norrrriar Schoolyear 1 2 3 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Pupil'sage 7 9 12 13 14 15 Ciaas In 16 17 18 19 II PIVTI I II III IV VI A 6-yearGymnuiun rE basedon Elementary School tx withoutEnglish ia u m

3-year RealIR E School e x (Elem.Sch. wela a English) I 1m

A 5-yearO1TItaeiu1 I r E (Elan.ea. Sch.Sch. with I tx English) ia 46 u m NI a 5-year Real R E School 6x I pA. ELEMENTART (Elem.Sch.IN'a a or woo.Eng)1a -SCHOOL

A l 5-year rE Gymnasium x I (Elem4Sch. without t English) i a u m

. 2-year RealSch.1R E 8 x 1(E166.F-chivo a a En lish)1 a

A 6.00 4-year Country r E ICon.I 071anasium t2c V' Sch.(Elem.Sch.withoutia English) u a a

4-yearRealSchoolR 3 I. forGirls 16 X (Elea.Sch.w.o.Eng.)Ia a 1a real schoolrequiresa certificate ofgraduationfromanelementary schoolplussuccessinan entrance examination. When thenumberofapplicantsforadmissionataschoolexceeds thenumber forwhomthere isroom,selectipn ofthoseto be admitted is madeonthe basisof thecharacter oftheentrance examinationand 50 EDUCATION,APPOINTMENT,ANDREMUNERATIONOF TEACHERi3 of theleaving certificatefromtheelementaryschool.A pupilwho is not readyfor promotionafterattendingasecondaryschoolclass for 2yearsis to be droppedfromthe schoolunlessfailureis duèto validcause. Examinations.Graduationfromthegymnasiumis markedbya certificate of havingpassed the ariiumexamination(vidnesbyrdom bestAtt artiiim),which isthe regularrequirementforadmissiontoan institution ofuniversityrank inNorway.Graduationfromthereal school is markedbyacertificateof havingpassedthe realschool examination(vidnesbyrd ombestAttrealskoleeksamen). Bothexam- inationsareoffered under thedirectionofUndervisningsreidet

Mathematics-natural8cier:ceprofessional examination(matematisk- naturvidenskapelig embedseksamen).Studyin preparation forthis examination pre4ipposessuccessin the artium examinationin the real line (p. 46).Graduatesofanyother gymnasidm linemustpass a supplementary examination in mathematicsand physics.Further, in addition to the preliminary examination inphilosophy(p. 51) students who donotinclude mathematicsas afield of universitystudy mustpass apreliminary examinationin mudthematics basedon a 2-semestercourseof 2 hours of instructionaweek. The professional examination inmathematics-natural science,like that in language-history, is madeupof the adjunct and thelector examinations, and the duration of theperiods of study is aboutthe same.But the adjunct examination in thefaculty of mathematics- natural science isarequired preliminarytothe lector examination, while in language-history itmay or may notbe the firstpart of the lectorexamination.' The professional examination in mathematics-natural s'ciencemay includeany4 of the 11 subjtcts of the examination.In preparation for teaching, howeser, the'student is advisedtoselect generouslyfrom subjects included in the secondary schoolcurriculum.Whenaschool subject suchasbiology includes zoologyand botany, whicharo separate subjects atthe university,astudent who has passedaregular examination in onlyoneof themmust takeasupplementarycourse

. (tilleggskurs) in the other (p. 46). Adjunct exaTination .(acljunkteicsamen).Theadjunct examination includes three of the following listedsubjects with therequirements indicated for each.The student accordingto hismushchoice is examined inone or moresubjectsatatime.Success in theexamination carries with it the degree of kandidatmagister (candidatus magisteriae) usually written" cand. mag." is Mathematics: (a) Elementary subjects,a2-semestercourseof 2 hours of instructionaweek. . (b) Analysis and infinitesimals,a2-semestercourseof 5 hours of instrpctionaweek. (c) Geometry (chiefly analytical planeand solidgeometry, andpro- , jective geometry),a2-semestercourseof 4 hours of instructionaweek. (d) Didacticcourse,2 semesters of 1 hour of instructionaweek. 2. Mechanics: A 4-semestercourseof 4 hours ofinstructionaweek. 3. Physics: A 4-semestercourseof 4 hours of instructionaweek, including mechanics, acoustics,optics, study of heat,magnetism, andelectricity; anda1-semestercourseof about 300 hours ofpractical work with special regard to theextent of its application inschool.' 4. Chemistry: About 180hours distributedbetween 4 semesters, anda 1-semestercourseof about 300 hours ofpractical work. 5. Astronomy:, A4-semestercourseof 2 hours of instructionaweek. NORWAY a 53

6.Geography: A4-seme4tercourseof 4 hours of instructionaweek ;a 2-hour practicalcoursefor 1 semester, andfield trips. 7. Mineralogy and petrography: A 3-semestercourseof 3 to 4 hoursof instructionaweek plus field trips and about 50 hours ofpractical work. 8. Historical geology and paleontology: A 3-semestercourse-of4 hours of instructionaweek with practical work andheldtrips. 9. Botany: A 2-semestercourseof 5 hours of instructionaweek plus about 80 hours of practical work and field trips. 10. Zoology and physiology: Zoology,a3-4 semester courfrof 3 hours of instructionaweek plus about forty 2-hour periods of practical work andfield trips. Physiology,a1-semesterelementiry couiseof 2 hours ofhistruction aweek. Lector examination (kktoreksamen).In additionto the three sub jects of the adjunct examinationasminor subjects, the leCtorexamina- tion includesafourth subjectas amajor. A student wishingtouse anadjunct examination subjectas amajormustfulfill therequire- mentsof the adjunct examination in anotriersubject beforeadmission toexamination in the major (hovedfageksamen). The lector examinationcomprisesageneral andaspecialpart. The generalpart(almindelig del) is identical with theadjunct examination in thesamesubject. . The specialpart(spesielle del) isanoral examination which accordingto the nature Qf the subjectmaybe modified toan answerin writingortoapractical project;and'a writtenreporton anassigned subject completed withinalimited time, or athesis basedonscientific investigation insomephase of themajor subject.The. oral examinationcoversthe entire field of themajor with requirements limited, however,totheextentthat thestudent should be ableto complete them normally within 3aor 4semesters. Success in the lector examination carries with it thedegree of kandidat real (candidatus real) usually written "cand. real," Candidate in theology (teologisk kandicka).--A candidatein theology, that is,onewho has passed the professional examinationin theology, mayacquire the rights ofonewho has passed the adjunctexamination by passing the latterexaminatioiiinalanguageorifi history;and the rights ofonewho has passed the lektoreksamen bypassing this examination inamajor. Pedagogical Seminary (Det PeclagogiAke Seminar).Theopening of the Pedagogical SeminaryatOslo in 1907 marked the culminationof a movementbegun in the 1830's for the theoreticaland practical education of teachers.It isaState institution under thegeneral', direction ofaboard composed oftwoprofessors,oneeach fromthe' facultyofhistory-philosophyand mathematics-naturalscience selected by theAcademic Council of the University bf Oslo;two secondary schoolmen appointed by the Ministryand the director of the Seminary appointed by theKing. The seminary offersa1-semestercoursein theoretical and practical " a azi EDUCATION, APPOLNITMENT,AND REMUNERATIONOF TEA.CHERS

pedigogicsopentothose who havepassed theprofessionalexamination in language-history,mathematics-naturalscience,ortheology (p.50).In special instancesadmissionmaybe grantedbythe Ministrytoa personwho has completedonlyapatt ofoneof these examinations, suchasthe adjuncteximination. Theseminarycanaccommodate45 students eachsemester.In- struction is free,but for admissionto the pedagogical examination, with whichthe work of thecoursecloses,afee of20 kronermust be paid.The fallsemester begins September1 and closes December20. The correspondingdates for thespringsemesterareJanuary15 and the beginningof June. Instrurtion.Thetheoretical instructionis conductedat the seminaryfor 9 hoursaweek, includingschool hygiene,1, psychology,1; methods(1 hour in each of thestudent's subjectfields),3; pedagogy,4. For their12houisaweek of practicalwork the studentsaredistrib- utedamongthe Nitriousaccreditedsecondary schoolsin andnear Oslo accordingto the arrangements madebetween thedirectorof the seminary and therectors of the schools. Practice teachingamounts to about 100 hours ofobservation,teaching under supervision,and teaching alone,dividedamongthe candidate's subjectfields.The first monthis devotedmainlyto observa- : tion of thr regular daisteacher (literally"guidingteacher"Veile- dende laerer)with relatedconferences.The studentthen begins toteach underthe guidance finddirection of the %class 'teacher,who criticizes his lessonplans beforeteaching and latfrthe teachingitself. Effort is made alsoto acquaint the student withthe work ofateacher other than that ofpureinstruction.From timeto time the director and inspector ofthe seminaryattend thestudent's teachingand assist with criticismand advice.'Thefiñalmark'in practiceteaching is madeout after consultation between,the guidingteacher,the inspector, and the director. Peclagogiad*examination(pedagogiakeelcsamen).As.alreadystated, permanent appointmentuteacheratasecondary itchoolcanbe obtained only after passiigateaching examinationat the university and the pedagogicalexamination offered bythe PedagogicalSeminary (p. 53).The latter examinationis offeredat the close of eachsemester.

It is confinedto theoretical pedagogicsincluding: % .(a) The mi.intrends in the historyof modernpedagogics. (b) Developmentand presentorganization of theschoolsystem of Norway with specialreference to the secondaryschool. (c) Generaltheory of instruction. (d) Methodsin the varioussecondary sChoolsubjects. .(e) Psychology. 10 (f) Schoolhygiene. it* The writtenexambiation is basedonmaterial coveredin lectures, weeklyconferences, andwork assignedfor independentstudy.It NORWAY, 55 consists ofanswering two dkaver(themesor propositions),each within6 hours. One isselectedfromsubjects(a), (b),and(c) and is thesamefor allcandidates;the otherisdevotedto methods. The oral examinationincludesallots thetheoreticalsubjects as arule and shouldnot lastmorethan.1 day foreach"'candidate. Special subjectteachers.Intheeducationof specialsubjectteachers there ismuch variation.Many havehadelementaryschooltraining plusspecial courses.For specialteachersinspcondaryschools definite no preparationhasas yet been outlined.Thesubject 'has under been discussionandconsiderationbutremainsstillan unsolved problem. Among thesesubjects,gytnnasticshasatpresent thebest opportunityforfurtherstudyat StatensGymnastikSkole. Appointment Appointmentof 3 secondaryschoolteachers.Annduncementsof vacanciesand openingsinsecondaryschoolpos¡tionsaremadein the samemanneras forthose intheelementaryschools(p. 28).The announcement gives thespecificsubjectorsubjeCtsto be taught,anda candidatewho thinkshimselfqualifiedmayapply.Fromthgview- 'point ofthe State.nodistinction ismade-betweenmenandwomen refernce lkiith to appointment.At timesanoommunemayprefera man, but ingeneralthéref-isno difference.' Rectors, lectors,andadjunctsat Statesecondaryschoolsare appointed by dieKing;at communalsecondaryschools,by styret. Over- Appointmentaslectororadjunctrequiresinadditionto the prescribededucationalqualifications2yearsofteachingon probation. If theapplicant alreadyhascompleted2yearsofsuccessfulteaching orserveda probationalperiodinalowerpositionatasecondary,school hemayreceive permanentappointnentimmediately.Beforereceiv- ingpermanent appointmentateachermustpresentaspecialmedical .certificatethat heis freefromtuberculosis. One whohas receivedpermanentappointmentataStateschoolis obligedat/ therequest ofOverstyretto takea corresponding without position change ofsalaryat another Stateorconutunalkhoolif it is decidedthat the schoolin whichhe. hasbeenservingmust beclosed, reorganized,.or reducedto theextent that hisservicesthereare no longerneeded. , , NonpermanentteachingPositionsarefilledbyOverstyretwith the rightofdismissal on3 months'notice.Substitutes(vikarer)are appointedby the rector foraperiod ofservice of1 monthorless;for aperiodbeyond that, byOverstyret.Teachersat privatesecondary schoolsmay also beappointedbyOverstyret ifthe boardofdirectors of theschoolsodesires.

4 As a matter of fact,however,the largernumberor majority of teachers of Noma in the highersecondaryschools are.men.Thisis dueto the fact thatfewerwomen prepare for teachingin thesehigherlevels and generally'rompretire fromteaching whentheymarry. 56 EDUCATION,APPOINTMENT, ANDREMUNERATIONOF TEACHERS

Remuneration 4. . Salariet4.Accordingto regulations effectiveasof July1,19374, rectorsorStatesecondary schoolsand ingroupI of communalsecondaryschools receiveabasic salaryof9,000 kroner, and2 increasesof 900 kroner each .after3 and 6yearsof service.RectorsingroupII ofcomniunalsecondary schoolsreceiveabasic salaryof8,100 kroner with 2'increases of900 kroner eachafter 3 and6yearsof service. A lector receives4,500 kronerasbasic salaryand 6 increasesof4 50 kroner each after3, 0,9,412,145, and 18yearsof serviceandi of 900 kroner after21yearsof service.An adjunctreceives a.basic salary of 3,950 kroner and 6 increases. 43(450kroner eachafter3, 6, 9, 12, 15, and 18yearsof service.Other secondaryschool teacher'sr:eceivea basic salary of3,600 kroner with5 increases of350 kronereach after 3, 6, 9, 12, and 15yearsof service. Pen4ion.,-The pensionregulations forsecondary sChoolteachers arethesame asthose forelemeniaryschool teachers(p. 44).. Bibliography sp Source Material (Norwegian) Catalogues, study plans,and examinationregulations from TheRoyalFredérick University at Oslo. Den PárlamentiriskeSkolekommisjon. V. Lovornhoiere skoler.Bilag 11 til Ot.prp.19. 1934.Oslo, Det MallingskeBogtrykkeri,1927.244p. Finansdepartementet:Lonnsregulativ forde OffillieTjenestemenn.Baer- trykk for Kirkedepartementet.Oslo, Det MEIngskeBoktrykkeri,1938. 13P. Kirke-og Undervisningsdeparte.mentet.Innstilling I fraPlankomiteenfor den nyeskoleordning. pmforbindelsen mellemfolkeskolenogden hoiereskole, engelskundervisning i folkeskolenm.m.Oslo, Det MallingskeBogtrykkeri, 1936.62p. Innstilling II fra Plankomiteenfor dennye skoleordning. Om .ti fordelingenogilndervisningqni dennyeskole,orn elevenes,helseogskol beidet,ombygdeekolerog orn ordningenav Undervisningsrildet.Oslo, Det Mallingske Boktrykkeri,1938. 105p. Laereplan for Laerarskulen.Forelobig utkast.[Oslo?(mimeographed) 1938?). 118p. Ot.prp. nr.19. (1934) Omutferdigelseav nylovornhoiere almenskoler. [Oslo? Det MallingskeBoktrykkerin 1934.250p. Rundskri.velsetil samtligeskoledirektorerog byskolestyrer.Oslo, 3. september 1927.2p. Rundskrivelse til samtligeskoledirektorer, fylkeamenn,fylkesskolestyrer oglandaakoleatyrer.Oslo, den6te September 1927. 1p. Skolestatistikk (Folkeskoler,Framhaldsskoler,Ungdomsskoler, Laerer- skoler, de Hogre Skoler, m.m.)1936-37.Norges OffisielleOtatistikk.IX. 185.Oslo, i kommiajonhos H. Aachehoug& Co., 1940.73p. a NORWAY 57 Lampe C.(redaktir). NorgesStatska1enderfor Aret1938. Efteroffentlig foransialtning.Oslo, H. Aschehoug& C.(W.Nygaard)1938. 1466p. Lovav11 februar1938 um laerarskularog provor forlaerarar ifolkeskulen. . Oslo, Gronaahl& Son.,1938. 12p. LovomFolkeskolen i Kiop8taedene(av 16. Juli1936)'medFotklaringav Kirke.= og Undervisningsdepartementet (i rundskrivelseav 10. april1937).Oslo, Grondahl& SonsBoktrykkeri,1937.55p. Lovomhoierealmenakolerav10 mai1935. 10p. es Lovum Folkeskulen pi Landet 41 (ay 16. Juli1936)med Tolkingavkyrkji--og Undervisningsdepartementet rundskrivav20.jtinuar1937). 'Oslo. Grondahl & SonsBoktrykkeri,1937.72p. * Oslo skolestyresihontor. Beretningotn OsloFolkeskole,Internatskoleog Fortsettelskolefor skoleixt41. Juli 1938-30.Juni1939.Oslo, J.Chr. Gundemens Rokfrykkeri,1940. 71p. Reglement for det paedmogiskeseminarog paedagosiskeksamen. 4p.

1,1 SecondaryWorics

w (Norwegian) P ANDERMEN, OTTO.Det Paedagogiske,Seminar19077-1917. Kristiania,H. Aschehoug & Co.(W.Nygaard),1918. 84p. AazzLrr, B. W.(redaktor). NorskSkoleuog Undervisningskalender,Oslo,Olaf Norli, 1938.352p. SLIP, DIDRII ARUP.Unikitrsitetetog Studentexe.Oslo,Olaf NorlisForlag, 1937.40p. Periodicals (Norwegian) NorskSkoletidende.Hamar. Skolebladet, Organfor Norsk Skolevaesen.Oslo. A

.11

6111187426-411---5

Education, Appointment,andRemunerationoc Teachers Primary andElementarySchools Organization of ekmentaryeducation.Accordingtoaroyal regulation of June 12, 1936, the elementaryschopl be 1'rig withschoolk year1948-49, will compriseseven 1-year classes.iftil thenitmay bea6-or7-year school.Thetwo lower class l'eomprisethepri- maryschool (literally"smallschool"smAskola);the remaining4-5 'classes, the elementaryschoolproper(egentilgafolkskola). An elementary schoolmaybeoneof fourtypes.Thetwo main typesoffer full-timeinstruction insixor seven 1-year classes throughoutthe schoolyear.Atone, typeA, each classis in charge-ofa separate teacher.At ,the otheritype B,oneteacher. hascharge of two ormoreclasses. In special instanceswheresparsepopulationand long.distanceto school makeamainNeout of the question,exceptionaltype CmAy be established.This isahalf-dineelementaryschool withsixor seven1-year classes fotming1-or2-teacherdivisions(läraravdel- ningar) witha separateteacher incharge ofeach division:Each teacher divisioncomprisesat leasttwo instruction divisionsreceiving instructionat different times,eithereverysecond dayduringthe entire schoolyear;or everyday duringpart of theyear. Theminorelementary school(mindre folkskola),orexceptional type D, isa1-teacher schoolfound onlyinremoteareaswith few children.Here instructiononboth elementaryand primaryschool . levels is offeredusually byateacher whohas passedonly theexamination for primaryschool teachers(p. 65). Itmayhaveoneinstruction gdivision with full-timeteaching,or twohalf-timeinstructiondivisions with the pupils ofeach divisionattendingeverysecond daythrough- out the schoolyear, ordaily forone-half ofthe schoolyear. Duration ofinstruction.Th OtainState subsidythe school.year must be atleast 34% weeks.Many districts,however, haveaschool yearfrom August25 to about December 26,and fromJanuary12-13 to June 54,or39 weeks in all. . Instruction is usuallyoffered6 dayslaweek.In thepriwary division the schooldaycannot exceed 5 hours; inthe elementary,6. e 'totalnumber ofholm; ek, a v.,,..., includingmorningprayers, cann exceed36. . Between eachs'I urof instruaion,,which IsgeherAlly45 minutes,a recessof 10to 15 minutesmust intervene.The third honk isfollowed byalonger freeperiod. 4 Otirrietiluni.'The subjectsoffered in boththeprimary andele- mentary schoolare:Religion,Swedish,arithmetic,study ofenviron- .. O 61 o 62 EDUCATION,APPOINTMENT,AND REMUNERATIONOF TEACHERS

ment with practicalwork, singing,gyrnhas*s, ald-p-whereconditions allowsloyd. sari' theelementary school próperarithmetic issupplemented,with geortietry; and gymnastics,with play-and athletics.theadditional subjects ofthis divisionaregeography,, 'naturalscience, history,drawing,and-:--wb.ereprovision .ismade bythe schoolauthoritieshome :- -4. 4 : P economics. %, . 1.: : 4. ° i' . , . , .j ..V.s 0 Education $ jp

tea0ersarelocatedat Haparanda, Lycksele,Hirnäsand,Strängnits, Skara, and Landskrona.All offera2-year line(tvkirig linje):.In addition, theseminariesat Haparanda and LYckseleoffera3-year line (trettriglinje) for theeducation ofassistant teacheriat elementary schools and forteachersat minor schools. The seminariesare open towomenonly.Foracfmissionlo class I of the2-year line theapplicantmust be at least17 but less than28 yearsofage.Thecorrespondingagesfor class Iof the3-year line are16 and 27years.Admissionto either line requiresalsoat least the certificateofgraduation fromthe elementaryschool (literally "leaving certificatefrom theelementaryschool"avgAngsbetygfrn folkskolan) andsuccessin -Anentrance examinationwhichisN(;ritte.n and oral,covers most of the subjectsof theelementaryschool c-ur- riculum, andmust be completedwithin8 days. Plan of studies.Asummaryof thework offeredeachyearin the 2- and3-year linesasexpressed in subjects'and numberof hoursa week is given intable14.

Table1 4.Plan of studiesfor theseminaries for theeducation ofprimary school teachers

. _ Hoursa week

_ 4 . . Subject of instruction 2-year line 1 3-year line

at . I II I H III

1 2- s 4 s I

Christianity 3 Swedish 3 3 3 2 6 4 6 5 5 Mathematics._ ..... _____ ...... 2 1.¡ 3 2 1 History and civics 2 - 2 2 2 2 Geography 2 1 Biology and hygiene 2 2 1 3 1 2 2 2 Physics and chemistry _ 1 1 1e 1 Psychology and pedagogics . 2 4 4 1 3 4 Drawing _ 2 3 2 2 2 Penmanship . % Music_ 2 Gardening 2 2 2 2 1% 1 % Sloyd 3 354 3 3 Home economics 2 2 2 2 Gymnastics with playand sports a 4 3 3 4 4 Professional education: Methods._. .. _ % 2 __ 1 3 Practice teaching . 34 3 2 4 . Total . 39 3$% 3334 3634 34

Chorussinging1 houraweek andindividualinstructionin instrumental music2 hoursaweek foreach classdivisionare notincluded in thestudy plan.Optionaladditionalworkmaybe selectedfrom- amonglaboratoryin biologyand hygiene, physics,orchemistry, 1 houraweek; English,6 hours;ordrawing,1 hour. SWEDEN 65

Psychologyandpedagogy.In the2-year linethesesubjectsinclude: CLASS1. General psychologywithparticularstresson sections ofpeda- gogical , significance.Introductionto childpsychology. *His- tory ofeducationin relationto thedevelopmentof socjetyind generalculture, w particularlyto theextent thatthisdevelop- ment hasbeen ofsignificanceineducation. CLASSH. Childand y'outhpsychology.Nervousdiseases andtheir effect on the workof thechild.Careof mentalhealth.Incon- nection therewith,themore importantethicalproblems. Mainelementsof thepsychopathologyof childhoodand youth. Problems of schoolhygienefrom theviewpointofpsychology,. Present-daypsychologicalmovementsparticularlywithrefer- ence to importantquestionsin education. The system ofeducationin Sweden,including theorganization and adniinistrationof theelementary echòol.Socialpeda- gogicalarrangements.% IISpecial theory ofinstruction,withparticularregardto theprimary school, inconnectionwith thestudy planfor theelementary schooland withregardto thevarioustypes ofthe erementaryschool. Practice teacking(praktisklararbildning).Thepracticaleducation compriseswhole-dayobservation(literally"whole-dayvisits" heldagsbesöCk)at the practiceschool byindividualstudents,group practice teaching(gruppövningar),teachingofaseries oflessonsin thesame subject(serieövningar),considerationofquestions ofmethod (metodiskafrftgor), conferenctis,and vjsitsat other schools(besöki andra hiroanstalter).Atihebeginningof eachschoolyeartherector, after consultationwiththefaculty,makes *outatime sched r instruction in methodsin ()itchof thevarioussubjectsand forwhole-, dayobservations,group practice, andseriesteaching. The followingisabriefsummaryof theprescribedwork inpractice teachingin the2-year line. CLAss I. Whole-dayobservationat thepracticeschool: Atleast 2days during thefallterm; 4days duringthe springterm. Grouppractice:1 houraweek duringthe springterm foreach group of 4-5 students. Methods:4 houraweek duringthe schoolyear. CLASSH. Whole-dayobservationat thepracticeschool: 8days.At least one visit shouldcomprise 3sucCessivedays. Grouppractice:3 hoursaweek foreachgroupof 3-4students. Methods:2 hoursaweek. Seriesteaching:For eachstudent 3hours ofinstructionon successivedays ineach of 2subjects. Visitsat other ichools. Examinationfor primary-schoolteacher8 . Each <87nliskolliirarexamen). of thetwo lines ofinstructionofferedby theprimaryschool seminaries closeswiththeexaminationforprimaryschoolteachers. It isoffered the latterpart of Aprilatatime fixedby theStateBoard of . Education(Skolöverstyrelsen)ontherecommendationof the 66 EDUCATION, APPOINTMENT, ANDREMUNERATION OFTEACHERS rectorof the seminary concerned andbegins with thewriting ofa thern.eon oneof several given subjects ofapedagogicalnature and should be completed within6 hours.The themesarereadand graded byatleast 2 seminary instructors. The oral examiñation and the examinationin teachingare supervised and directed byamember of the StateBoard of Educationor his, representative.Two trustworthypersonsappointed bythe elementary school inspector attendaswitnesses.They attendalso the meeting of the faculty held after thecompletionoithe examination.It comprisesatest in at least four of the subjectsgiven in the study plan of the highest class of the lineconcerned.The subjects areselected by the chairman whoinforms therector of the selection atleast 5 days before the beginning of theexamination.Aftercon- sultation with the examiningteachers the chairmanalso decideson the topics for discussionat the oral examination. The examinaticon in gymnastics andin each of theother practical subjects is offeredat the close of the springterm at the time and in themannerprescribed by therector.The examination inteachingis heldatthe practice school and includesalesson inatleastonesubjèct. The assignment is madeout by the rector in consultationwith the teacherorteachers concerned andgiven the examinee24 hours before the examination. Success in all threeparts of the examination is markedbyacertificate of having passed the examination forprimary schoolteachers (betygöver avlagd smAskolliirarexamen).In 1938 itwaspassed by 47women.A student who hasnot passed the final examinationof a' seminarymay,if she wishes, receiveaterm report (terminsbetyg)or a leaving certificate (utskrivningsbetyg). Seminaries for the Mucationof tlementary schoolteachers(folk- skoleseminarierna).Accordingtoaparliamentary decisionof1936, Sweden has10 seminaries for the educationof teachers for theupper vision of the elementaryschool. Of these,4aresingle and6 double. T single 'seminaries offera4-year line; the doubleseminaries,a 4-yealine.anda2-Year line.At Falun the2-year line is arranged for those whohave pasged theexamination for primaryschool teachers (smAskollärarinnelinje).At the remainingschools it isa2-year student line(studentlinje)opentoonewho has passedthe student examination (p. 74). Of the single semiñariesthat of Karlstadis formen;those of Kalmar and Stockholin, forwomen;and that of Lulett,coeducational.. Of the double seminariesthose of Linköpingand Uppsalaareformen;that of Falun, forwomen;and those ofGothenburg, Lund,and UmetL, coeducational. r

SWEDEN 67 Entrancerequirements.Therequirementsforadmissionto the 4-year linearepractioThlythesameasthose foradmissionto the 2-year line at theseminaries forprimaryschoolteochersexcept that the limitationsas toage are 16 and 26years.Theagelimitationsfor admissionto the studentlineare18 and28 yeats.Further,unlessthe applicant haspassedauniversityexamination thestudentexamination must have beenpassednot earlier than4yearspriorto the calendar yearin whichadmissionto the seminaryis desired. Plan ofstudies.Theprescribedplan ofstudies forthe4-year line and the2-year studentlineexpressedin subjectsand numberof }tours aweekfor eachyearis givenin table15.

Table 1 5,Planof studies of theseminaries for theeducation ofelementaryschool teachers (Numbersin parenthesesareforwomenonly)

Ilours8 week

Subject ofinstruction 4-yearline 2-year Fludvnt fine

I I . Ill IV I 11

2 3 4 5 t$ 7

Christianity_ _ 2 3 Swedish 2 e- I 2 11¡ 5 3 i 3 3: 3 1 Mathematics 212 History andcivics.. '2 2 i 2 ' 3 3 2 I 3 , Socialscience . , 1 4 . Geography. . 2 Biology andhygiene 2 2 ..... 212 ! Physics 2 3 2 2 21.2 2 Chemistry. 212 2 English _ 4 3 2 Psychology andpedagogics _. _ Library 4 4 4 care 1., 1 Drawing i '2 'Penmanship 2 2 2 1 2 2 . 2 12 Music ...... _ ...... Gardening 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 Sloyd 2 2 , 11.4 4(2) 4 2 5(2) 4 Home economics. . . (4) (4) Gymnastics withplay andsports_. 6(4) 5 1 5 5 '5(4) 5 Professional education: Methods _ ...... 1, I 1 3 Practioe teaching /. 4I - fl¡i 2

Total _ _ ...... 393.12 ; 37A 2934 34,¡ 31 I 38 1

Not includedin thestudy planarefor both lines:Chorussinging, 1 houraweek; instrumentalmusic(piano,organ,violin),4 hoursa weekfor eachclassdivision.Optionial additionalhdursaweekfor bothdivisionsmaybe selectpdfromAmongdrawing, 2hours;orches- tra,1 hour;swimming,1 hour;gymnastics,1 hour.Opljonalalso forstudents inthe4-year lineis FrenchorGermanup to 5 hoursa week inclasses Iand II. 68 EDUCATION, APPOINTMENT,ANDREMUNERATIONOF TEACHERS

Psychology andpedagogy.Followingisa summary of the prescribed work inpsychologyand pedagogyfor-the4-year line: CLAss III.General psychology,including phasesof childpsychology important from the viewpointofinstruction.Mainelements of logic.History ofeducation inconnection withthe development of societyand generalculture.Conside.ration of themore important didacticquestions inconnection with the instruction inpsychology andin practiceteaching. CLAss IV.Child and youthpsychologywith particularattentionto sections thatare significant from the viewpointof education. Main elements ofehild and Youthpsycho-pathology.Psychic healthcare.Continuation andcompletion ofthe historyof education.Modernpedagogiccurrents,withparticular attention to theactual problemsof educationand instruction. Aims andmeansof moraleducation.Personalityof the t9acher, schoolhygiene. The schoolsystem of Swedenwithparticularattention tothe organization and administratiOnof theelementaryand continuation school.Socialpedagogicalarrangementsin- cluding vocationalguidance.Sociallegislationconcerning children andyotith.Voluntary workin publiceducationin Sweden.Specialtheory ofinstructionwith regardto the prescribed planof instructionfor theelementaryschool of Swedenand to the vttioustypes of elementaryandcontinuation schools. In the studentline thework inpsychologyand pedagogyin classes I and 11 isidentical withthat ofclasses IIIand IV,respectively,in

the.4-year line. o Practice teaching(praktislckirarbildning).Theprocedureinprac- tice teachingis similarto thatat the seniinaries fortheeducationof primary schoolteachers (p.63).At the ElemeritarySchoolSeminary in Sttckholm(FolkskoleseminarietiStockholm)iwhichmaybe regardedastypical,grouppractice isarranged for 6-teekperiods.The members ofa groupteach inrotation andattend allresultingcon- fërenceswith the supervising'teacher. Oncompletionof the6-week period inonesubject eachgroupproceedsto another subjectand class. The followingisabrief outlineof the prescribedwork inpractice teaching in the4-year line: 1 CLASS H.Whole-dayobservationat the practice scliool,particularlyin the primary classes:6 days foreach student.During thefall term this shouldinclude 2-4lessons inteaching. Methodsanddidactics:1 houraweek duringthe fallterm. Grouppractice: 1houraweek duringthe springterm foreach groupof 4-5students. CLASS III.Whole-dayobservationin thepractice school,preferably inthe lower classes: 4days foreach student,includingat least2 days insuccession.%.The visitsshould includesome practice teaching. SWEDEN 69 Group practice:»4hoursaweek foreachgroup of 3-4pupils. Methods:1 houra week inconnectionwith thegroup practice teaching. CLASSIV.-- Whole-dayobservation,preferablyin theelementaryschool and, if proper, there isopportunity, inthe advancedandcontinuation *schooldivisions!'6 daysfor eachstudent.,includingat least 3 days in succession inthesame division.Practiceteachingin connectionwith whole-dayvisits. Group practice: 34hoursaweek foreachgroup of 3-4students. Methods: 1houra week in connectionwithgroup practice. Series practice: Aseries oflessons ineach of2 subjects,16 hours per student. 1'igii3at otherschools. In class I of thestudent. line10 daysaredevotedto whole-day observation in thelowerclasses ofthepracticeschool,2 houNaweek togroup practice, and4S hoursaweek . to questionsofmethod,including 2hours to generalmethods,and,24 houNto mèthods ofteaching various subjects.In class11 'thework inpracticeteachingis similar to that of class IV in the4-year line,except that3 hoursaweekinstead of1aredevotedto mahods. Examination_for elementaryschoolteachers(folkskolldfiarexamen). Eachof the three linesof studyoffered bytheelementaryschool seminariescloses withtheexaminationforelementaryschool The teachers. regulationsgoverning thisare practicallyidenticalwith for the those examinationforprimary schoolteachers(p. 65).Successin they examinationismarked byacertificateofhavingpassedthe examinationforelementaryschoolteachers(betygöver avlag0 folkskollärarexamen).In.1938 thisexaminationwaspassedby336 students,including126women. Statistics.In1937 work.at the Rtimaryschoolseminarieswasin chargeof 73 instructors,including32women; at the elementaryschool seminaries,266 instructors,including92women. The numberof studentsin eachclassat the varioustypes ofsemi- naries in1938aregivenin thefollowingtable:

Table16.Number ofstudentsat seminaries far the evciucaHonof primary andelementaryt. school teachersin 1938 .

, z Studentsin class Seminaries ,, \ I Ii III IV Student ,"'" line Total _ v

. . 1 . . , 3 3 . i 1 $ 7

. . . Primaryschoolseminaries 122 Elementary 72 24 219 schoolseminaries__.__.___ 264 229 233 18 . 287 . 1,031 . _ , . . !I'

70 EDUCATION, 'APPOINTMENT, AND REMUNERATIONOF TEACIIE1(

Appointment Appointment of flemtnlary schoolkachers.In additionto regular tPachers withpermanent appointment the teachersatanelementary schoolmayinclude teachers withappointment foraperiodnotbeyond 1yearand teachers withtemporary appointment subjectto 4 months' notice.Thetwolattergroupscomprise extraordinaryteachers who filla temporaryneed,,assistant tetkciliers..with qualificationssimilarto those pfaprimary scYwol teacher and A: homaybe appointed onlyon recommendation of the schoolitspector,and specialteachers for instruction in practical subjects. Beforeannouncementis made ofa vacancyinaposition for regular teacher, assistant teacher,orteacherat aminor elementalyschool, the district school board(sko)rNd) in consultationwith theState school inspectormusttake thematterunder considerationand decide if the position should be filled,changed in character,ordiscontinued. Announcement ofa vacancy tobe filled bysomeone notalready inthe schoolsystemof the district is made inthe hurnalfor official announcementsam1 in educational publications. The application foraposititinasregular teachermust be presented to the district school board within30 days after the firstannounce- nwntof thevacancyand be accompaniedby evidence showingthat the applicant isatleast21yearsofage, anwmber of the Swedish Church, of good reputation, hasthe stability of characterandeven- nessoftempernecessaryfor the guidance of youth,ispfpr)'.odhealth and free ofanyphysical defectthat would"interh4ewith effective worka$tacher.For appointmentasteacheratandemeritary school properthe applicant,mustshow that, he passed theexamination for elementary school teachers(p. 69);and for appointmentasregular 0teacherat á primq.ry school, thé examination for primaryschool

r teachers (p. 65). The application shouldbe accompanied also byacertified list of merits (meritfórteckning) and bycertificates from the ailthorities concerned for workasteacher.After presenting his applicationthe candidatemay notapply forapolsition in another districtunless he withdraws the application alreadypresented,orunless the boardhas made its recommendation and didnot include himamongthoserecom- mended for consideration. In the sélection of teachersqualificationsareconsidered in the following order: 1. Skill in instruction, zeal,mannerofhanIngthe pupils, and abilitytomaintain orderamongthem. a 2.. Information and 'kill in the subjects ofinstruction of the ele- mpntary school and in other §ubjects of sigiiificance in thework ofa teacherasevidénced by marks madein examinations and by other credentials presented. SWEDEN 71

3. Duration of successfulexperience in theelementaryschool system.Consideration shouldhe givenalsoto experience in other institutions of educationunder thecontrol andsupervision of State. Board of Education. If the sdiool boaidand inspectorthink it advisable,a vacancymay be filled byassignmentto it ofa,regularortemporarilyappointed teaCher from anotherschool in thedistrict.When suchtransfer is made, the teacher'ssalary is inno, way tobe loweredfrom whatit wasin the formerposition.Further, if thedistrict isin thecountry and the transferinvolvesadlange ofresidence, theschool boardmust defray thec.ostof moving. Whenaregular teacherhasalea.ve of absenceorthere is`hisacancsinaposition, thesubstitute isappointed by tiledistrictscrociltoard.

Remuneration Salarifs.--ElementaryF441

Salary grade - Annualsalaryin kronor for 1ocfliygroup Salary class 411, Num-I ncludftsnumber ber classes A o 0 .70 4 .! 8 1. le 17 17-21 17 3, 960 4, 122 4, 284 4, 446 4, 608 4, no 44 932 18-22 18 4, 260 4. 434 4. flOK 4, M2 4, 956 5, 130 5, 304 'L 19 19-23 19 4, 560 4, 746 4, 932 5, Ils 5. 304 5, 490 5, 676 20 2G-23 20 4, MO 5. MR 5. 256 5. 4,4 5, 652 5,KA0 6. (i4li 21 21-24 21 5, 1f10 5, 370 5, MO 5, 790 6, 000 6, 210 6, 420 22 5, 520 5, 736 S.952 6, 1GS 6. 3s4 6.f'oxi 6, h 1 fl 23 5, SW 6, 102 6, 324 54t) 6. 765 fi. W.40 7, 212 24 6, 300 el, 52/4 6, 756 46,AAA 7. 212 i 7, 440 7, filoi

I One krona at mintpar was worth 45.37 vents in United Statesmoney on April 1, 1940.

The salary includes.,in additionasupplement basedonthe indexof prices madeout quarterly byht Departmentof SocialAffairs. The salary ofaprimary schoolteacher begins in thlowest class of grade 9 andrangesfrom2,460 kronor in localitygroupAto 3,144 kronor in localitygroupG. 72 EDUCATION, APPOINTMENT,AND REMUNERATIONOF TEACHERS

At presenfwomen areplacedonesalary class lowerathanmen,but beginningwith1942menandwomenelementaryschoolteacherswill have thesamesalary schedule. Pension.After30yearsof serviceand theattainment of63years ofage anelementiryschoolteachermayre.tire with fullpensionas indiated foreach salarygrade in table18. For lessthan30yearsof serviceareduceilpensiOn is receivedequivalenttofullpension ininus htofor each fullquarteryearless than30years. A teacher who- isincapacitatedfor dut.ythroughaccidentmay retireondisability penRion:onthesamebasisasfor reducedpension. One wholacksnotmorethan5yearsof attailingtheageforretire- ment and who because of illnessis unabletoc'ontinuework me);be tà retiredonpension for itinetls (siukpension rThis shouldamount to ;4.)percent, of the full pension butcannot exceed the totalpension the teacher wouldhave received forcpntinuedserviceto the regularage for retirement. If it d6esnot interfere with theinterests ofthe State,'ohe who has completedat least 30yearsof servicemay,retirenot earlier than 5yearsbefore attaiimeni ofpensionage on premature pension (förtidspension).This is equivalentto full pentzion *b minus,ige for each fullquarteryear up toOw timeofattainment ofpension agi whe'nfull pensionbegins. Family pension.The widow ofanelementaryschoolteadlerwho completed30yearsof servicereceives fullfamilypensionasindicated in table18, %plusasiipplementbasedontheprice levelitidex.For less than30yearsof servicethe pedsionis reducedXto for eachfull quarteryearless thah30years.Thepension foronechild under.19 ye-arsofageis 50percent of that of thewidow; foreachadditional, *child, 20percent.If thereisnowidow hersharegoes tothe oldest child. under19yearsofage;the%pensionfor thesecond childis50per.; cent of thatof the first;and for eakil,additionalchild20percent.

Table 1S.Amountandcost of retirement and familypensions for elementaryschool tepcfmrs(1.4 . 4krone).

Retirement pension Family pension t i wary Totafatter30 I years of Annual grade 1, - service Total ante Annual ' deduction 20years of deduction 4 from from salary service Men Woman -tillarY s. . 1 s s I 6 6 . Ç. . 18 I, 884 1;444 174 1 MO 21)4 19 It, 04 . dal eg4 ..192 1, 770 .: 20 219 1, 11. 934 , a. au 192 . 1, riXt 219 21 4, 200 4,4924 h 213 ' 1. MO 234

_ ..\

..4 . r . i. I, e

SWEbEN

SecondarySchools (»ganization ofsf.cndary (duration.Transfer fromthe elementary tothe secondary schoolmay occur after completion of the fourthpr sixthyearof the former.After4yearsof elementaryschooling boys ai1 girlsmay enter a 4-or54year real school; and.girls, in addition,a5-or7-year school for girlswhichmay . be State, eommuhild, orprivate.After 6yeaNOf elementary ... schtloling boysand girlsmay

enter a 4-yearreal school,a 4-yearlibmmiundmiddle school,or :1 lyceum; and girls,a6-maIt.-chool for. girls.The5-.year real school, the 4-year real school Meton6yearsof elementaryschooling, and the communal middle 'schoolarefollowed bya3-:eargymnasium; 4. the 4-year real schoolbasedon4voaNof elementaryschoolingnd the 5-year school for girls, bya 4-year gymnasium li The varioustypesof secondary schoolsand theirrelationshipto each other andt{)the elementaryschoolareshownin the following graph:

_ -

. Graph No. 5.- 017:_an'"4tinn cf Ele-nrntary anti SecmNdarl Education-Nmodon % ...I imIN School year 1 e. 51 4 5 6 7 8 lo111I1l3 9 11 pp 14 '±2./.11"/ o o 10 iJ -14 16 17 113I19

4-70arRealSchool t. 4 1. ,... S-Tear Id t Gymnasium a Communal kiddls é 1 School e 1 s S-Tear i i. Real School I STear 4 E i Gymnasium hi %. p. 1 n . x A I i .3 I t 4-yoarRealSchool 4-0year a a All m Cbranssium r I ., I I y n I Lyeus a , . () .. 1 i_0 S 1, t c atymt5lua orGirls 14 i h E , o - I Jn go State, Communalor 1 o Private Schools Normal 1 I School i for Girls t__TC4mpe- 1 Laws 1 1

*qt .;

Real schoOl(reaLskola).Inadditiontoother subjectsthe real school offers tiiièemodern lan,guages:German,English,and French. The firsttwoarecompulsory for allpupils; the thirdis optional except forihoseplanningtoentei-the gymnaium..Real schools, exceptihe4-year real school basedon4-yearsof elementaryschooling which has i2oexamiliation, closewith the realormodern examination (realexamen). Asummaryof theqpreparationfor thisexamination 14-

280742*-41---41 a. /ft.EDUCATIO.9 APPOINTMENT,ANDREMUNERATIONOFTEACHERS asexpressédin subjectsandhoursa yearis givenin.table19 forthe 4-year real school basedon6yearsofelementaryschoolingandthe 5lear real s.choolbasedon4yearsofelementaryschooling. Table19.Curriculafor the 4. and5-year realschool. gr. flours inparentheses onlyare for girls; hours inparentheses L_ and inbold-facetypeare optional], . . . . . \..---...--- . . Hours for eachschoolyear ...... Subject of .. . instruction -4-year realschool 5-ycar real school . , . _ ___.....___ .,_ . . . I Il III IV I II III IV V ______. . 3 3 I .. . I t 7 8 le . .. . 41, f ---.-- Religion 2 2 '2 2 2 2 2 2 Swedish 6 5 2 3 3 6 6 5 3 German _ 3 ______.. 7 . -5 4 4 6 8 4 3 English.__. ...:.-_...... _ _ . 4 4 a I 4 5 . _ ...... s; French 4 ' 4 5 - (4) (3) I 'History andcivics_ .... 4 3 3 (4) (3) 2 3 3 3 2 Geography. .. 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 Mathematics . 5 4 3 Biology and 4 4 5 4 3 4 hygiene . .. 2 2 2 2. 5 2 Physics 2 2 . 2 2. 5 . 2 2 . C hem 2 2 2 ....2 istry______- 3 1. 5 3 1. 5 Penmanship______1 _ _ . Drawing_ . . 2 2 2 (1) 2 2 2 2 (1) M usic. - - 2 2 i 2 (1) 1 2 . 2 Gymnasticswanplay 2 (1) 1 . 'and athletics.r .. 4 4 4 (3) 3 4 . 4 4 4 (3) 3 Sloyd forboys__ 2 2 -, Sloyd I :2 1 2 . 3 ____ _ . for girls__ _ . _,__ (2)' (2) (2) ,(2) (2) . Hornii _ economics_ _ a . (4) . . (4) . r

... Tótal . , 36 39 37-41 1 . . 34-3716 36 38 38 36-4034-37 1 . - f Gymnasium"..--7Thegymnasiumoffersa Latiñ andareal line.of Audy. , In,thetwo upperglasses therequiredsubjectsfor bothlirsarereligion, Swedish,andhistory, includingciyics,combinedin.. the..Látin line - with Latin andFrench, ajidin therealline/vithenglishandmathe- *ma:tics.In tidditi.o.n,the pupilisgenerallyallowedthreeeleCtives '.from amonginürnbercif fixedcombinations,otsubjects,and insome instances.alfourth suarementarysubject. . . . Success inthe Sttite;controlled.*examinationwith whichthegym- nasium tlosesis rwirkedbytitcartificate.ofhavingp4ssed tlie.s.tudent examination `(betyg*över. avjagdstudentexamen),'*hi6h.is theregular .requirementfor.admissiontoauni.ersity'hiSw.edeii.Thestudies leadingto itareorgaAizedasshown inthe next two tables. . Othersecondaryschools.---The fyceummime into'existencethrotight regulitionsissued in1927 but has beenestabliebed.in wilyafew .places.Its'6-year curriculum closeáwith the ..stuctentexamipoitiori.* The 6-*anct7-year schóolsfor girlsholdamiddlqposition.between the real schota .and ipitna.siumbutdo:not &milewithasypérvi.f4ed examinaiion...The certificateof. pormarschool .compeieiiCe.(norniall skolkOmpetens)whichmarkstheir-completioneiceeds,somewhatthie value of the certificatefor therealexarhinatio4.The'oonimunal . middlé schoolIoes withthe- real . éximination.

Pst" 44 I.

t 40, SWEDEN 75

Table 20.Curriculafor the3-r!argymnasium in the Latinand real lines

. _

. -- , rz' Hours foreach schoolyear er Subject ofinstruction ,Latin gymnasium Realgymnasium . . .4 I ..,II III I H Ill . 1 _ I , , I 3 3 4 5 e 7 . - ,Ì*.- Religion . 2 2 1 Swedish 2 2 1- . 4 5 4 4 5 .4 Vatin 6 8 7 7 __ ._ _ , _ _ Greek . . - 7 German 7 -.. 3 2 2 3 '. :2 2 English , I ,_ .3 2 2 3 3 4 I 3 French___ 4 5 History and oivics J 3 3 3 4 3 4 3 4 4 Geography 4 1. 5 2 Phirosophy _ 2 1. 6 2 2 . 2 2 _ _ __ _ . 2 2 Mathematics r 4 3 6 .6 6 Biology and liygiene 3 2 .. __ 3 2 Physics . A 3 3 2 5 4 Chemistry --% 2 3 2 3 3 Drawing 1 es, 1 2 1 1 Music . 2 2 2 t 2 2 . 2 Gymnastics with playand'athletics._ _ _ 4 4 3 4 , 4 3 f______- _Total -$1, 36 5 a 37. 5 1.__ _ ._ __ ._ s . I ,

Table 21.Curricaofor the4-yeargymnasium in-the Latinand real lines

.Hours for each schoolyear As Subjectof instruction Latin gymnasium Realgymnasium

1 II III IV II III IV C

3. 4 6 7 8

Religion_____ 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 Swedish 2 4 5 4 2 4 5 4 Latin 6 6 611 6 _. Greek 7 7 German 3 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 English 3 3 2 2 3 3 3 4 French -qm 3 4 4 5 3 3 3 3 History and civics 2 4 3 4 2 4 3 4 Geography_ _ ... _ ..... ______- 2 1. 5 2 2 2 '1 5 2 2 Philosophy 2 2 2 2 Mathèmatics - 3 ...... 4 3 5 4 5 6 Biology and hygiene 2 3 2 2 3 2 Physics ------.- 2 3 3 2 3 4 3 5 Chemistry 2 3 2 2 2 3 , Drawing 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 Music 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 Gymnastics with play and athletics. 4 4 4 3 4 4 4 3

.1 Total______f MI 4. at 1...... 35 37 5 35 37 5 11. .1

.61 . 'Hucation . Educcition of 8econdary 8choolteacher8.Preparation 'for s6Condary soh9o1 teachingm'aybe obtainecl inthe faculty ofphilosophyat the State Universities ofUppsalp, and Lundor atthe privateUniversities of Stockholm .afid Götheriburg.Womenmayattend also theHigher Seminary for WomenTeachersat StoçkhpIm.(p. 81).Preparationas

4 , A D. e 76 EDUCATION,APPOINTMENT, ANDREM-UNERATIONOFTEACHERS 'teacherofreligionis to be hadin thefacultyoftheologyat the I, sity ofUppsalaorLund. niver-. Studyata univfersityinswedenisnot pursued semester hours withreferenceto ofadvancedstanding.Thestudent subjectshe decidesonthe wishesto studyandtheexaminationfor toprepare.In each whichlewishes subjectoftheexaminationhemay work oneofthreemarks: for Approved(godkind)whichrequires semester ofstudy:. at least 1 approvedwithpraise(medberömgodkind), 3semesters; andlaudable 2or (berömlig),3to 4semesters.ThenuMber ofpointsfor eachof thesemarks is,respectively,1, 2, and3.For exceptionalwork"approved"maybe without qualifiedto"approvednot praise"(ickeutan berömgodkiind); praise," and"approvedwith to "approvedwithspecialpraise"(med godkiind). utmarktberörn Ineithercase however,thegradepoint unchanged. or pointsremain Theregular secondaiwyschoolteachersincludelectors, andsubjectteachers. adjuncts, Lector (lektor).Ata gymnasiumeachsubjectof represented instructionis regularlybyalector.Thepositionof oneofthe lectorcomprises followinglistedsubject.groups,asubject groups,or a subject of ofoneofthe oneof thegroups andphilosophy: 1-4.Religion combinedwithSwedish,Latin,Greek, civics. or history,including 5;-9.Swedishcombinedwith Latin,German,English,French, includingcivics. 4 or history, e. 10-12.Latin combinedwithGreek,French,or history, 13-1413'Germanwith including civids. eitherEnglishor French.* 15.EnglishandFrench. 16. History,includingcivics,andgeography. 17. Geography,withbiology'andhygiene. 18.MatiaematicsandOaks. . 19.Physics ariachemistilr. 20.Biologyandhygiene,withchemistry. I. For app9intmeritaslectorina positionnOtinduding must havepassedthe religionone professionalexaminationinphilosophy(p. in allthe-subjectsaf theposition 78) andmadein eachofthemat leastthe mark"approvedwithpraise"; inoneofthempassedthelicentiate 'examinationin philosophy(p.79) 4. withat leastthesame mark;and beyondthatattainedthedottoratein the (p. 80). facultyofphilosophy Appointmentaslectorin a positionincludingreligionrequiresin the fieldofreligionsuccess ina specialexaminationforcandidatesand licentilitesintheologyoffered bi thefaculty. of philo*sophy(p. andattainmentof thedoctorate 79) intheology.If thepositionincludes religionandanothersubject;thelittler the must havebeenincludedin special,,examinationforcandidatesand licentiatesin . theology lt SWEDEN 4 77 offered bythefaculty ofphilosophyorpassedin theprofessional examination in,philosophy(p. 78). Adjunct (adjunkt).Exceptforphilosophywhichanadjuncteannot offtr, thepositionof adjunctmay compriseany one of thesubject groupsforlectors; or one of thesegroups not includingreligionplus athirdsubjectofferedby thesame section ofa university of faculty philosophyasthetwo othersubjectsof theposition. Appointmentas adjunctioa two-subjectpoitionnot including religion, requiressuccessin theprofessionalexaminationin (p. 78)with philosophy at least themark"approvedwithpraise"in eachof the subjects ofthe position.However,apositionin Swedishrequires least. at "approvedwithpraiie"inNordiclanguagesorhistory of literaturéincludingpoetry, andat least"approved"in the positionin other;a biologyandhygiene,at least"approvedwithpraise" in botanyor zoology,and'approved"in theother. v Appointmentas adjunctto itthree-subjectpositionnot including religion iequires success iri theprofessional'examinationinphilosdphy (p. 78) ineach of thesubjectsof thepositionwithat least withpraise" in "approved two of themand"approved"in thethird.For appointmentas ad)unct toapositionincludingreligionandone ,-. ersubject one must havepassedthecandidateexaininationin I:, ology(p. 80)and in theprofessionalexaminationinphilosophyor 'i,thespecial examinationforcandidatesandlicentiatesintheology, offeredby the facultyofphilosophymadeat least themark"approved" in theothersubjectof theposition. Menand . women subject kachers(eimneskirareochleirarinnor). Subjectteachersare specialists intwoor three.subjects teach in whichthey the real,communalmiddle, aildgirls'schools.The cations .fOr quálifi- appointmentalsybjectteacherare identical withthose forappointmentas lectororadjunct.Qualifiedalsoisawoman who hascompleted the3-year"course gt the HigherSeminaryfor WomenTeachers at Stockholm4(p. 81)withtherequired.marksin thesubjects,.oftheposition. Preparationfor secondaryschoolteachingthroughuniversitystudy.. At theUniversity pfUppsalawhichmay4betakenastypical,the facultyof philosophyhasasectioninhumanities(humanistiska sektioAen)and oneinmathematics-naturalscience(matematisk- naturvetenskapligasektionen).At thetimeofregistrationthe studentreceivesa studyhandbook(studiehandbok)orplan ofstudies of thefaculty.Inadditionto excerpts fromthestatutesgoverning , universitystudyr\andexaminationsthiscontains.specific and information directionworkedout bythefacultyfor theguidanceof in eachof the students fieldsofstudF itoffers.Foreachexamination studyplap the gives&tailedinformationas to requirements-and the order ofstudy,includinglistsof references_ tiiliterature. . . . , I 78 EDUCATION,APPOINTMENT,ANDREMUNERATIONOF TEACHERS

0.11. c. . Tentamina.Inpreparation foraregularuniversityexaminationa tentamenorprivate -examinationmust be takenineachsubject included in theexamination. . Thetentamenmaybe writtenororal; and public,if either theexaminerorstudentsowish.Thestudent decides for himselfasto when he is readyfor thetentamen inasubject and unlessthe examinerhas announcedpreviouslythat hewilloffer tentamina onlyat certain statedperiods, thestudent isAtitledto -present himself fortentamen within14 days aftermakingapplication. An approvedtentamen is validfor thegeneral examinationfora period equivalentto that for the normalcompletionof theremainder of thepreparation fortheexamination.Except forthis theelement of time isnotanimportant factor. Tentamensbook(tentamensbok).-'Foranapprovedtentamen the 'examinerentersadated andsignedreport, includingthemark made, in thetentamensbo(14which thestudentreceivedat the timeof his admissicinto the faculty.In itarerecorded,in additionto the data alreadymentioned, thedate ofadmissionto the faculty,memoianda of completiona, requiredcourses,ofsubstitutionsallowed,and of anyother fact ofimportance 'concerningexaminationrequirements. Examinations.The.usualprocedureinauniversityexqminationis for thestudent, afterhe has passedtentaminain theprescribednumber of subjectsand madethe prescribednumber ofgradepoints,to present his assemble&credentialsThiefamongwhichareevidenceof beingregisteredas aregularstude0at the universitydtiring'the semester of theexamination,of hav6gpassed allexamUlationsprer- requisite foradmissionto preparation forthe ddgreefor whichhe isa candidate, andthetentamensbooktogether withanapplicationfor examinationto the examinationcommittee.Afterexaminationof theassembledcredentials,the committee infOrmsthe applicantofthe results ofthe examination,includingthe markmade, byissuing him an excerpt from theminutes ofthemeeting.Wheexaminations offered bythe facultyofphilosophyare: 1.Candidateexamiriationin, philosophy(filosofiekgndidatexasmen). Thisincludesatleasithree ofthe examihation subjects ofthe faculfy . andrequires from3 to 4 years'ofpreparation'beyondsuccessin the studentéxamination(p. 74).Inat leasttwo of the subjectsamark lower. than"approvedwith praise" isn9t acceptable., . One whohas passed theexaminationis entidedtoadegree ofcandidatein philo'sophy(filosofiekandidat),usuallywritten "fil.kand.",

O 2. Professional .examinationA, phiiosophi,(filosofisktimbetsexa- men).In.theirumanistieoectionof thefacultythisexaminationcom- prisesoneof thefollowinglisted subjeotgrotnis: 1-4. Nordic , languageshistory ofliterature 'withpoetry, andrespectively,

'Latin,German,English,orhistory. . . 5. Latin,Greek, classicalantiquity, andancient. history. et A SWEDEN 79 AP 6. Latin, history. 7-8. German andEnglishorRomancelanguages. , 9. Englishand Romancelanguages. 10. History,geography. The subjectgroupsin themathematics-naturalKienc9 sectionare: 11. Geography,botany,zoology. 12. Mathematics,physics.

13. Physics,chemistry. .- 14. Chemistry,botatiy,zoology. Fora groupwithtwo subjectsathird subjectmust be selectedfrom amongthose ofthesamefacultydivision, andallstudents whodonot includepedagogicsas asubject ofstudymust takea semestercoursein psychologyand thetheory andhistory ofpedagogyofferedeachyear for thosepreparing forthisexamination.Topasstheexaminationa mark ofat least "approvedwith praise"must be made inat leasttwo of the fieldsof study. Theexamination requiiesfrom4 to 5yearsof studybeyondsuccess in thestudentexaminationand carrieswith itthe title ofmaster of philosophy(filosofiemagister), usuallywritten "fil.mag." 3. hicentiateexamination inphiostyhy(filosofielicentiatexamen). Thisexaminationmay.betaken byonewho haspassedeither the candidateorthe professionalexaminationin philosophy.It includes at leastoneof theexaminationsubjects inwhich thestudentmust prepare an acceptabledi§sertation'and makeat least the mark "approvedwithpraise."It requiresfrom7 to8yearsof study sso . beyondsuccessin thestudentexamination.One whohas passedit may carry the title "licentiateinphilosophy" (filosofielicentiat), usuallywritten"fil. lic." 4. Specialexaminationforcandidatesand licAtiates"in theology (särskildprövningfor teologieIcandidateroch teologie,licentiater).One who haspassed thecandid:t0ortlicentiateexamination intheoliagy (p. 80) andwishesto qualify fortheyearof professionaleducation for secondaryschoolteachers(p. 80)miist takeaspecialexamination similarinrequirementsto the professionalexaminationin philosophy. Itincludesoneof thefollowinglistedsubjects:Latin, Greek,history, Nordiclanguages,and historyof literature,includingpoetry,; and if the studentwishes,one ormoreof thei,other subjectsof thefaculty. Foradmission Forto the examinationonewho doesnot include pedagogy as an examinationsubjectmust take thecoursein psychologyand historyand theoryof pedagogy, 5. Theologicalphilosophical*examination '(Teologiskflosoftskex- amen).Thisis theregulttrrequirementfor[Omissionto the faculty of theologyandmayPe fakenbyastudent whohasacertificate of havingpassed thestudenteximination,and in it,or asupplementary examination,madeat least themark "approved"in Latin.Itre- XeSt

fr 80 EDUCATION, APPOINTMENT,AND REMUNERATIONOF TEACHERS .

, 'quirestwo semesters of study beyond thestudentexaminationand includes Greek, Hebrew,and Latinortheoreticalphilosophy;and, if thesttidentwishes, the otlierof thetwo latter subjectsorhistory. Poctor of philosophy(filosofte doktor).Thisdegree usuallywritten "fil. dr."or"Dr. phil."maybe attained byalicentiate inphilosophy after the 'preparation,publication, and publicdefense ofathesis approved by the fAculty bothasto content anddefense. Èxaminations. in theology .for teachersof religion.Asalready indicated, teachers of religionreceive their educationin this subjectin the faculties of theologyat the Universities of Uppsalaand Lund. Admissiontqeither faculty isopentoonewhocan presentevidence of having passed successfullythe: .

1.Theological philosophicalexamination(p. 79);or< .2. Student examination(v. 74) withat least the mark"ap-

. proved" in Latin, plusevidence ofsuccessin thecandidate, licentiate,orprofessional examinationin philosophy(p. 78). The examinationsin theology leadingto qualificationasteacher of , , religionatasecondary schoolare: 3 , 1. Candidate examination in theology (teologifkandidatexamen). Ar This includes ; all of theexamination subjects of-the faculty,namely, theologicalencyclopedia andintroductory workin theology,Old Testamentexegetics, New Testamentexegetics, church history,dog- matics and symbolism,theological ethics,practical theology,and church law.Itmaybe taken byanystudent in thefaculty of theologyand requires normallysixsemesters of universitystudy. Success isaccompanied by thedegree of candidatein theology, (teologie kandidat) usuallywritten "teol.9tnd." e 2. Licentiate examinationin theologyteologielicentiat examen). This includesatle'ast twóof the eiarninationsubjects of thefaculty inoneof whichathesismust be prepared.Itmaybetakeinbytrine who haspassed thecanClidateexamination in theologyand requires normally3yearsof study beyondsuccessin thatexamination.The degree attainedis that of licentiatein theology (teologielicentiat) usually written"teol. lic." Doctor of theology(teologie doktor).Thisdegree usuallywritten "teol. dr."maybe attained byalicentiate intheology throughthe preparation, publication,and successful publicdefense ofanappro"ved thesis coveringsomephase ofoneof the examinatioksubjects of the faculty. Year of practicaleducation (proud?).Alter theuniversity study, completion ofa year'of practicaleducation (literally"probation year'iprovir)is prerequisite forperinanent appointmentaslector, 'adjunct,Qrsubject teacheratasecondary school.Thecourseis offeredatsevensecondary schoolsand attwo seminaries for the. . SWEDEN . 81

education of elementary schoolteachers.'Application foralimissiòn i4\madetothe State Boardof Education.Thisyearofpractical education is completedgenerally intwo semesters andmaybe devotedto training atoneinstitutionordividedone semester eachat asecondary schoolandaseminary.It comprisesobservation; practice teaching inclassesondifferentseeondary schoollevels in the candidate'stwo, three,orfour fieldsof work; andattendanceat lectures and discussionsiñ pedagogyand methods. At the Seminaryfor tlw Educationof ElementarySchool Teachers atStockholm whichisoneof thetwo sealinaries witha yearof practical education, the candidatemust teach from8 to 10 series of10 lessois each during theschoolyear.Eachseries is precededand followed by observation.:and discussionsof. method.At least half thelessonsare attendedbythe class' teacherandsomealso by thedirectorof ìe school who is chairmanof thecourse. Lectufes arrangedeachyearfor thecourseincludeprescribedseries

on methods in the varioussubjects,_. schoolhygiene, and oralpresenta- tion, includirig techniqueof speechandcareof the .voice. Royal Seminary.fortIì Edue.ationof SecondarySchoolTeachers (K. HögreLärarinnie-Seminarium).lnadditionto. acquiring qualificationto teach through universityattendance andcompletionof the 1yearof practicaleducation;women mayattend theRoyal Higher Seminary for theEducation of WoinenTeachersat Stockholm, arrd become eligible forappointmentto teachat,real,communalmiddle, and girls'schools, andin *the lower classesof Statesecondaryschools. The Seminarywasfounded in1861, and offersarequiredstudy curriculum(obligatoriskstudiekurs)andan.Noptionalcontinuation ,sourse(valfrifortsättningskurs).The requiredcurriculum coi'mprises. a1-year lowercourseanda2-year highercourse.The mainpurpose of the formertsto strengthen and broadenthe girl'sopportunityto acquire throughmöre comprehensiveand independentstudy, the specialinformationnecessaufor teachingcertain subjects,andto give her therequired practicalpreparation forthis work.Comple- tion of therequiredcurriculum ismarked byateacher'sdiploma (lärarinnediplom). t Requirements foradmission.For admissionto the sernitary,the -applicantinust beat least 18yearsofage,ofgoodhealth, andpass an entrance .examination.Admissionwithoutexamination, whollyor inpait,maybe grantedby the facultycounciltoanapplicantwho ,Lq has passedauniversityexamination,tilt leavingexaminationfrom the lowercourseofaprivate seminary fCirthe educationofw9men secondary schoolteachers with rightofconipetence, the leavihg examination ofaseminary forthe educationof elementaryschbol teachers,,orthe studentexamination (p.74).

t 82 EDUCATION, APPOINTMENT,AND REMUNERATIONOF TEACITERS

v The reqiired subjects ofinstruction in the1-year lowercoursewith the number of hours of instructionaweekare:Religion,2; Swedish language and literature,4; psychology and -logic,2; physiology,2; English, German,orFrench, 3;technique of speechand reading,2; singing,1 4-3!,4, gynmastics, 4; plusnotmorethan 4 electivesubjects. In additiontooneof the prescribedsubject combinationswhichare quite similartothose for universitystudy and forthose ofaposition asadjunct (pp. 77 and 78), includingreligion,astudentin theupper course must,take for 2years a2-hourcoursein pedagogics;and for 1year a1-hourcoursein 'health andhygiene. State Normal School .for Girls (StatensNormal$kola.for Flickor). Connected withthe Seminary and servingasits practiceschool isthe State Normal School forGirls.Thiswasfounded in1863 andcom- prisesa6-year elementary school,a4-year real school, anda7-class secondary schoolfor girls.The curriculümof the lastnamed closes without examination butwith normal schoolcompetence (p. 74) for

. e Q - has passed01its subjects.A girl who hasnot ,passed in all qr%V " " S acertificate withoutcompetence.Priorto 16927 this witgthe onlyIAA for gJn Swedenwith normal schoolcompetence. Practic a(isk tining).Thisbegins inthe loweit coursewhereoneof ifsha4 I ayof observationeverythirdweek atthe normal schoollIn the highercourseit is continuedthrough theoretical instructioninpedagogy andmethods andthrougha practicalcoursewhi omprises for eachstudent-- 1. Observation ofin ction iritheupperand lowerdivisionsof the normal school. 2. Practiceieachinginatleast threebutnotmorethanfour, subjects of instructionincluded in thestudy planof the normal school ofwhichet least twomust be included inthe student'sownfield ofstudy. 3. Assignnientai. correction, followedbyagoingoverof the work with theclass, ofwritten work inconnectionwith practice teaching. 4 Teachers'examination(lärarinneexamért).Eachsubject included in the student'scurriculum closeswitha tentamen(p.78).One who includesaforeign languagein the highercoui-se mustpassin addition awritten exaniinationcomprisingacomposition writtenin the foreign languageon oneof several listedsubjects,ortranslationinto the foreign languageofanassigneatext. Optionalcontinuationtaura(valfria fortstittning8lcursen).--Thisis generallya1-yearcourse opentooffewho has completedthe required courAeof theséminary.'It aimsto deepen and broaden thestudent's major fields in'oneorat most two subjects and giveoppdrtunity for

a e pt.. doh SWEDEN 83

additional practicaleducation.Thesubjects ofinstructionarethe same asthose in the highercourseand theirstudy iscontrolledby tentamina.

Appointment 41 Lectororadjunct .\\Ienapositionaslectororadjunct bec'omei avacanttherector must inform theState Boardof Educationimme- diately, namingalso thesubjects of thePosition.Assoon,as possibk, after consultationwith thefaculty council,therector maRtsga recom- mendationas tothe subjWtsof instructionfor thenewteacher.lf\ instruction willbe confinedmainlytoonesubjectthat alsoplust be indicated.The tecommemtationisaccomptniodbya statement of reasons onwhich itis based,includinga report showing for°allsubjects thenúmberof hoursof instructionapportionedto regular teachersor their substitutesandto extra teachers wheresuchareemployod. Forappointmentaslectororadjunct theapplicantmust: 1. Be at least 23yearsofage at the time when theposition isto be entered. 2. Havenoailmentordeformitythat will hindereffective workas teacher. 3. Be of goodcharacter, andif the positioninvolvesinstruction inreligion, an.adherent of thepure evangelical confession. 4. Possessthe seriousness,stability ofcharacter, andevenneof dispositibn requisite for theguidance ofyouth. 5. Possess , ability to impartinformation easilyand clearly. 4 6. Possessthorough knowledgeof the subjectsof the LI position. ; Theapplicant fr must in additidn havecompletedtheprescribed ,. practical ,, education (provAr,'p.80) andatleast.2yearsofsuccessful workas4acheratasecondary schoolunder thesupervisionof the State Boardof Educ.ationor asdoceutatauniversity inacapacity entitling himto consideration forappointmentaslectororadjunct. (Teachersat communal middleschools.Avacancyinaposition'as fegular . teacheratacommunalmiddle schoolis announcedby the communalsçhool boardin the journalfor officialannouncements. Thegnalificationsarethesame asforaspecialsubjectteacher.Also. eligible forappointmentisonewho aftercompletion ofaseminary for theeducaticin ofelementary schoolteachers attendeda.university, !;! passed examinatiónsin thesubjects of theposition, andafter2years of saccessfulteaching'atasecondaryschooLunder thesupervisionof the StateBoard ofEducationwasdeclaredbythe Kingin Council, oigtherecommendation , of 'the Board,qtialified forappointmentas E regularteacheratamiddle'school. , Withreferenceto subject combinationstheregulationsforit positionasadjunctareused insofarasapplicable.However,Nhen it is ofadvantageto the school,apracticalAubjectmarbesubstituted ina positionin place ofa.theoreticalsubject.

(-) Catalogues, BERGQVIBT, B. Avlöningsstat för are one-tenth of not beyond director.of receive for ment forthe another, in cold from considerable ditions part cannot attainthehighest 5,M) kronor kronor. of kronor grade teacher civil orsecondary Remuneration 84 Povion.-----The When Teachers Other Stockholm. of Lund 'The salary Cold och Förlag, Virterminen Esselte A.-B., kommunala similar Salarit set'olidary an of the GO kr(,i4vr administration. EDUCATION, to undervjaningSplaner adjunct in locality locality .oippli :300 kronor regardless of in locality (mob/ a receives except athis study plans, 1928. A subject s.- the hich the tO 'thosefor secondary and a at secondaryschools country, where J:80N; the annual cost total of drawbacks, Like the to course, 1,500kronor. Mellanskolor, school school of 1938. 1938. class VI. Usala Liirare 147 a yearincoldlocality pension arrangemws!,.4 6,420. of a a OCh WALLIN, APPOINTMENT, group 23and group Ato9,060 p. position salary lector and a yearinaddition moving. 500 kronor. teacher Stockholni, * 35 teacherN went (kallorWilhigg) teaehrs who school the elementary school och own request,isgranted On and the examination salaries of 4. salary is t4lacher Promotions m. receive 6. Source begins Praktiska cost ofliving according salary Librarifinor Bibliography because of appointment belonp. teacher begins in 0 (Swedish). HARALD, are private A.-B. Hasie offering Stockholm, Material who is given class of a in AND ranges based regulations Mellanskolor cold elementary assist in' group 27and to kronor in dies, vid are Oimatic REMUNERATION Universities Kommunala toward group the lowest class to their the on locality moved to teachers from Stockholms .----Teachem staying is triennial the secondary an amount P. A. a permanentposition the general W. pracjical from the the group concerned I 21, which and och 5,SSO kronor reasonable locality funeral to 600kronor Tullbergs school from supplement work of regular (p. 72). of Flickskolan. Norstedt but Fortsittningsakolor. salary ranges jillysiological Stads State accompanied Gothenburg school coume (provral in the one OF equivalent expenses, but as yet teachers group system ofthe Boktryckeri, ranges from salary; Universities class of TEACHERS the reimburse- Folkskolor, locality from & 86ners teachers northern to 7,212 varying Stadga . 13; that women course a year 7,620 and those con- the to the the by to - 7°= -`4. o

SWEDEN 85

GRArints, S.Redog4'Irvlseforverksamhetenvid K116grit och ded&rmed Litrarinne-S-,millAnwn forenadeStatensNormalskola forFlickorsmut Statens Skolkok&seminariumoch HushiillsskolaunderlitsAret1937193S.Stock- holm, SvenskaTryckeriak-tiebolaget,193S.,94p. GRIMIXND, HUGO,ochWALLIN,HARA Idp. 1933ÄrSFornyade medForklaringaroch Liiroverksstadga IlanvisningarjamteTimplanerochUndervIsifinc,.rhin in.m. rbrandeAllmanna Laroverken.Swckholm,P. A & Soncrs ForIag, 1933.VIII+400p. Nrti h ungl.Maj:tspropositionNr230. Aneiendelonereglering.tir Ia rpm vid kommunalaflickskolor,4iommtkna1amellAnskolor 1.411 den 3mars 1938. htign. folk;kolorav Bihangtil rAsdaigensprotokoll :193S 1 saml. Stockholm,Iduns Nr 230. tryckeriaktieholagEssAteall.. 193S 116p. K ungl. Maj:tspropositionNr 279..AngAendeandradeis90..ioliSiwstannnelser fOr litrarevidfolk- ochsmitskolorm. ti. av den S april193s litliang1111 riksdagensprotokoll193S. 1 saml.Nr279.Stockholm,IsaacMarcus Iloktryckeri-Aktiebolag,19SS.52p. K ungl. Maj:ts nitdigastadgaangAendeprovArvidriketsa11iniIitrvtirk den 19maj 1917.Svensk av tS Fofattningssamling1917, N:r312.Stockholm, P. A.Norstedt& 4,191S.p. 719-727. Kungl. Maj:ts!Milt& -stadgaangAendeprovArv ,,s.oiteseminarium 19maj1917.Svensk av den FOrfattningssamling1917,N:r313.Stockholm, P. A.Norstedt& SOner,191S.p.729 737. hung!.Maj:ts.kungorelse angAendetimplanerfor rikettiflinnnalaroverka\ den, 17mars 1933.Svensk Forfattningssamling1933, Nr110.Stockholm, P. A.Norstedt& Söner,1933.p.213217. N ingLMaj:ta stadgafOrkommunalamellanskolorayden 2juni 1933. FOrfattningssamling1933, Nr Svensk 345och 346.Stockholm,P. A..Norstedt Sön 1933.p. 585-4116. allajok Kungl. to' aj:tareglementeangtietuletjaiepeirionfor denivila tjanstem4n,tillhorafide statsfOrvaltningen(civila7ansteknsion's-reglementet) ju 1934.Svensk av den 30 Fbrfattningssamling1934, Nr442.Stockholm,P. A. orstedt& Söner,.1934.p. 877-896. Kungl. Maj:tsstadgaför a folkskoleseminariernaav den 18 juni1937.Svensk Författningssamling1937, Nr.535Stockholm,P. A. p. 10017-1047. Norstedt& Soner,1937. kungl. Mij:tskungörelseangAende undervisningsplanforfolkskoleseninarieyna avden 18juni 1037.Svensk Författningssamling1937, INTr659.Stogckbolin, P. A.Norstedt& Spikier,1937.p. 1257-1276. Kungl.M4tsavlöningsreglementefOr ordinarieliirare vidstatensundervisnings- visencleav den 30september1937. SvenskForfattnnigssamung1937, 873 och874.Stockholm,P. A. Nr Norstedt& Söner,1937.R.1 873-1892. Kungl.Maj:tskungörelsemed avlöningsbestAmmelserför i rdinarieWare m.ft.vidstatensundervisningsviise deav de& 3december1937.Svensk Författningsse4iing1937, Nr954.Skockho1m,P. A,Norstedt p. 2063-2077.: & Söner,1937. Kungl.Maj:tastadgafeç smikskoleseminariernaav den 21januari1938.Svensk Författningssamling1938, Nr42. Stockholin,P. A.Norstedt& Sönel-,1938. p. 69-114. . . .0 Kungl.MaPtskungOrelseangkende undervisningspinförsmAskoleseminarierna av den 21 januari1938.Svensk Förfittrningsslmling1938, Nr43.Stock- holm, P.A.NorstedtéBoner,1938.p. 115-127.

- dit jot/86 EDUCATION, APPOINTMENT, ANDREMUNERATION OF TEACHEIRS

4 kungl.SkolOverstyrelsen Del11(we Skolowndet Lits&ret191)-1936 jAInte OversiktfOrLasAren192g-1935 SverigesOfficiellaStatistik.Under- visning.Stockholm, P. A. Norstedt & SOner, 1939.XV+ 271p. hung). stadga den 22 juni 1923.(Med andringar den19 dec. 1924, 1$ juni J926, ojan. 1933 och 13 april 1934.)Folkundervisningeni Stockholm.Stock- hohn, Ehns Boktrvekeri Aktiebolag, 1934,44p. Stadga och Undervisilinoplad. for Folk skoleseminariernaavdenI S juni 1937 muteOversikt&vFolkskoletendhariernas Organisation oci;Forlaggning enligt heslutav1936ArsRiktkdag.Lund, Haan Ohlssons 'Boktryckeri, . . .1 1937 99i- V11P i. Statistiska CentralbytAn StatistiskArshok(OrSverige,1939.Tjugosjittte ArgAngen.Stock ho)in, P. A 'Norstedt & Soner,1939. XVIII+ 415 Statsutskottets utlAtande Nr 156.I anledningaKungl. Niajita proposition ang&ende lonvryglcring fir litrare vidkommunala tlickskolor,kommunals mellan-skolor twh hognb folk slolorjitinte i amnet vkckta motioner.Iiiha.ng till riks.dagenR protokoll 1938.6 slim].Nr 156.Slockholm,Idunstryckeri EKselte, 1938.p.30. . Stockholm Folkskolodirektions IteriittclaefOr Lastiret1938-1939. Stockholm, K. L. Reckmans Boktryckeri,1940.78p. Stockholms stads statistiska kontor.Reglemente(örStockholms folkskolor Sartryckur:"Kon\munalforfattningshandbok MrStockholm. 4. 0-932) Stockholm, P. A. Norstedt & SOner,1934.26p. ViAGNssoN, Runkl oph ANDRA.Folkskolestadgan ochandra filrfattningarròrande I. folk underviMngochfolkbildning.Stockholm,SvenskLitraretidnings Furlag, 1938.608p. Stcondary Works (Subildish) EHogvnvr,B. J:SON.SVERIGES UNODOUSRAOLOR. RedogórelsefOrinnebbrdenav . 1927 km hiroverksreform medbeaktandeavsival tidigaresomsedermera beslutade Moniertill allWanhetens kiinnedomjainhkt K. Majla heslutoch uppdragavchefen fOr K. ecklesiastikdepartementet.Stockholm, P. A.

Norstedt ti SOner, 1931. IGOp. .

BRUCE, N. O.pen Svenska Folkskolan ochdess Uppkifter.: Orienteringi. aktuella iutnen.Stockholm,AlbertBonniers Forlag,1935.282p. FAHRAEUS,PUDOLIP. SkolorochUtbildning.BonnierspriktiAta-Nicker. Stockholm, Albert BonniersFörlag, 1933.2321). FoRSELL, JOHAN,och WALLERIUS, LEANDER (redaidhrer).Fo1kskólans irshok 111 1938. UtgivenavSverges folkskolliirarförbund.Argang18.StoCkholm, Fôrlag Sverges folkskolliirarfOrhund,1938. 412p. AESBIAN,GUNNAR och LJUNGBERG,GREGORY. Svensk Studentkalendei1938-39. Pa uppdragavSveriges förenade studentkikrersstyrelse och under tZedverkan avtalrika fackmin.Sjunde k.TìgLngen.Lupd, C. W.K Gleerups Förlag, 1938.%X-4-436p. KÖLERITZ, GUSTAV H.Valetavlevnadsbana.Anvisningfir och r&dsamlade och bealibetade:Stockholm, Albert BonniersForlag, 1938.180p. ,

.16 I (English) SANDBERG, FR. and KNOB,Bettl.m.Education and Scientific Researchin Sweden. New Sweden TercentitaryPublications.Stockholm, Alb. Bonniers Bok7 tryckeri.1938.77p.

(1. SWEDEN es" 87 *1)

4. The Sweden Year-Book, 193S. Editedand publi4edwith 'theas:sir:lance ofpublic authorities.NewSweden TerceìltenaryPublications.Uppsala,Alm(oist WikaellsBoktryckeri-A.-B.,193S. X-4-3S20p

Periodicals 0. 4 Stryq16/1). Folksko1an6 anforF6reningenSenakaFolkskolans\Inner SIrAll- folks, , EolkskolIkrarna.s thining Organ farSvergercfolktikolltirarf(grbuied.Stockholm Larafinneforhomict Stockholm . Slit) och Samhane.Tidsk rift!Qr.uppfus-tifinntchundervilming St4n4,1;lili Svensk Lkrartidning.OrganforS\ngeolAllmanuiaro1,lo4011a.ritriurening. Stockholm.

. e. Gir

L. t r.

4il ,,

II ;:t. i. e:1111.7 . - 0. Zit, -714/4It'rk.. Yr' I. :.

9t ; 4 , fa, sp

.1 / Jr.

/9 ,

Ar*

cf;

Z; 1. L 111111 I 1.11 LP L rl

LI . r , Illrfl L I 't ill

g.1111 lJLI o LN It 11[1 ¡WI Igl .1111.1 ki Li; 111,p

r L 11.1I10. o r I, '

,,1040%Oft 11. Nia

,11.

. 141 .4:13

TheNetherlands a ,.". otisv

Le. m

gag,

C.. .

L11

lc gralb

AtaelWrVMZIn.,*?'Vi.Vs-,.tetfttgiMn- 4- vay,' 5rA.Virialkeef. A.1B,,, Prz'

, 1 1 T .,1r54{ 5r.. s , VI a

286742s-41 Educatiort,Appointment,andRemunerationof Teachers is ElementarySchools Organizationofelementaryeducation.Elementaryeducationcom- prises general elemeritaryeducation(gewoon lageronderwijs)offered regularly ata7-ye-argehooL;continuationeducation(vervolgtmderwijs) offered for'at least2yearsbeyondthe completedelementaryschoolto »ys andgirlsnolongeafcompulsoryschoolage;extendedelementary education (uitgebreidlageronderwijs);offered forat. least 3successive' yearsbeyond the first6yearsof thegeneralelementarywipe;and special elementaryeducation(literally"exceptionalelementaryeduca- tion"buiténgewoonlaieronderwijs),offered forchildrenphysically ormentally handicappedfromparticipatingto advantageingeneral elementaryschoolinstruction.\ Since the secondaryschool iii.theNetherlandsis basedoncomple- tion .of the firsi6yearsof theelementaryschoolin thatcountry, larger communitiesgenerallyhaveonecentral7-year elementarysthool' andanumberof 6-year schoolsofferingonlythefirst6 ,yearsof elementaryschoolinstruction. , Consult thegraphon page 105 for\herelativeplacebitheelementary schools.intheeducationalsystem Of VieNetherlands-. General elementaryeducation eiò lagerortderwij8).Someidea of. generalelementaryeducationpart cularly withreferenceto the subjects of instructionand therelativea ountof timedevotedtoeach subjectmay beobtainedfromthe follwing planofstudiesforthe elementary schoolsat The Haguewhichnayberegardedastypical: Table22.Plonof studies for the first6yearsofite regularekmentaryschoolat TheHague Hours instarredparenthesesare optional; those in parenthesesca4(are alternative lessernumber ofhours in the fifthand sixthyears of schools detailedor special work)

Hoursaweek schoolyear Subject ofinstruction .1 II IV VI

3 7

Reading a ...... a a 5 (3) 3 Writing 3 2}4 2 ni -Arithmetic ...... a 5 5% (4-4) Netherlandslanguage... 3 3 4}4 Nationalhistory 4 66 (4¡) ..phy ..... Natural science 1 1 111. 1 1 1 1 Singing 2 Drawing 1 (54) Gymnastics 1 I1 1 1 1 Plainneedlework(girls)- - -- 1 Manual ...... 2 2 2 training (boys)___. AD NO MID (1 Religion (2) (2) (2) Recesstime and play 1 4 4 04 0,4 1)4 \ t. Total 26 25 26 26 ,26 I 26

91 92 EDUCATION, APPOINTMENT,AND REMUNERATIONOF, TEACHERS

e Extended elementaryeducation(uitgebreid lagerondemijs).----Schools for extendedelementary education,generally calledU. L. O. schools Oriorto 1920, M. U. L. O.,orMulo schools fromthetermnicer uitgebreid lager onderwijs(more extended-elementaryeducation)' offer'a3-XT.-4-yearcourse to young people who wishto continv .education beyondthat of theelementaryschool .along linesmore practical thanthose offeredat regular secondary schools.Comple- tion of extendedelementary educationis markedby diplomaA for pupils who havepursuedaline oftudystressing modernlanguages; by diploma B,for those whohave beeninterested inmathematics a,nd science.Either diploma entitlesthe holder to:appointplentto lower civil-servicepositions andto middleposiiionsin industryand conimerce; and also, particularlydiploma B,to admissionto various typesof highersecondary navaland technicalschools. -Practice Withreferenceto issuing the diplomasdiffers.At The Hagtiethe graduate ofa3-year schoolreceives diplomaA ;the graduatp ofa4-year school, diploifia B.At the PublicExtendedElementary School (OpenbareU. L. O. School)at Hengelo which offersa 4-year coursj all pupilsfollow thesame program of studies duringtile first 3yearsand dividebychoiceinto A andB divisions forthe fourthyear. According totrgulation'sgoverningextimded elementaryeducatimi the subjects ofinstruction includethose of theregular ele'mentary school andat least three of thesubjects French, Gereman,English, mathematics, andcommercialscience.T9 thesemaybe addedone ormore.of thesubjects generalhistory, agriculture,horticulture,and fine handwork forgirls.,A typicalplan of studiesfor'th.e4-year extended elementaryschool follows: ,

Table23.Plonof studies for4-year extendedorhigher elementaryschools -

.fr Hoursa week per schoolyear Subject ofinstruction . I Ii III IV r

1 I 3 1 4 I Netherlands: 6 Language - ._ _ _ _ ,4 .34 3 4 Reading . _ . .. _ _ ... I 2 I 1 French ...... _ ...... 5 4 4 4 G _ _ ...... _ 4 4 3 4 English _ _ _ _ _ . -_ . '. . . History 4 4 4 -...... _ . _ _ ._ 2 2 2 2 . _ 2 2 2 2 MatGe°r131;yanticsan-d.____thmetic _ Natural . _ _ 5 4 7 5 science__ ..... - ...... - 2 2 2 2 Drawing _ _ Gymnastics_ - - 1 1 1 1 - .. - . - .-. - 2 2 1 1 Usefulhandwork for girls__ 2 2 2 2 Penmanship . 1 _ _ SingingSinging______1 .10 ...... Me e.a.

iome Mulo schoolshave continuedand offersMill°examination, but neitherthe schoolsnor the exam- insane existthrough Law. . and wish B offering qualification in special 3-year school may comprisetwo a August education. of education after 2 teacher's examination waamheid school) a entitled the aspirant kweekling) the periodof the closeof practical work. coeducational to bedevotedmainly preparation' of may of instruction adniission tions under regulations; the is dividedinthree Education 4-year school. Present teacher's The putting them Prescribed rigulations. The 1920, elementary be public regulations 23, 1933;the'Siate years for to attainthe education of to certificate a act of1920,have practice.Owing instances with A als certificate women a 2-year course:for to In as becomes teacher to classIV at 5-yearnormal State subsidy normal of study for those consideration. the schCols or separatefor elementary or at theseschools, practice, onderwijzeres). third With second, After into provide private. leading'to divisions: B (akte may certificate of school school (akte elementary parts of an operation to theoretical year, as the success who wish according mentionefi thke the present practice; THE also for aspirant teacher aspirant -According for the norinal school school of not beenenforced to theeconomic van consent ofthe study. teaches van those who the student consent ofthe a 500 gulden men Division I at theendof All schools NETHERLANDS teacher's in %Ouch bekwaambeid and theultimate bekwaamheid qualification the- The holder teacher school a 4-yeartrainingschool education agree astothe a and to to supplementary teacher Success in the written andoial instruction; to theelementary are toreceivetheir regulations prepare forthecertificate the (kweekscholen) women. already certificate is regularly teachers a year or (literally (p. 96), first Minister and the take the preceding in the depression (adspirant Ministry A forming of teitchers, may with als as hfth B als have head for the comprises The first onderwijzer). the of the and take in the examination respect to aim. "pupil year A (akte third, a requirements a 3-yearschool; examination 2 final this mas er(p.97). onderwijzeres). examination paragraph division normal regulations of which the admi&%;-ion -and education remainder is marked the onderwijzer) Education, elementary the The Netherlands professional (Opleidings new regula- 3 teach(r" prescribed van rtificate years j yeaN, to the regular teacher subjects Ow be school schools II which bek- cost and for or of are act by. of for of at 93

III ' Ai h o -.94 EDUCATION,APPOINTMqVT,ANDRrNiTTNTR4TIONOF TEÁCHERS

Stati4icR.Following isastatisticalsummaryof thenormalscbools for schoolyear 1939-40: s

Table24.Statisticsof normal ;chock's, to-ocher:1h,and studentsin 1939-40

Normal 'Stud(nts in division . I schools Type of school iTeachers,- k week ; Ì 4 scholen ) 1 . 1 I - -1____ ..... __ . ______! I i g 4 I 4 _ ..

State b 72 234 f:73 441 .1, Municipal . 3 46 I ZV 104 Privart ! Protestant n 1 ns 1. Ms W Roman Catholic 40 499 I,:17ì. 4 i VI.% Other privatenormal sichwAs 2 29 i .. 6h 1 1 1 44 I 1 Total 1 , I 1. 03$ i 4. 738 2.040 i

4 44gf_ Fse.ludtag tl u Oklaions, thumb, teacherswho workedat more than I school, was MK. theset mil number ofteachers

Organization.Throughthenspector and chiefinspectorof eits- mientary educationof therespeCtivedistricts inwhichtheyarelocated public andprivate normalschook:areunder thegeneralsupervision of the MinistryofEducation.At ,the headof eachStatenormal school (Rijkskweek-school)isadirector(directeur); ataschool exclusively forwomen, a directress(directrice).Thedirectorand otherteachers (leraar)areappointed bytho MinisterofEducation Vt andmust have at least, thequalificatiorisrequiredfor offeringsecondary schoolinstruction in.the subjectorsubjectsthey teach(p. 10). The schoolyearbeginsSeptember1 and comprisesat least40weeks with 3 mainvacations: (a) December24to January6,orif thatcomesonSaturday,

Sunday,orMonday,ti;efollowingMonday. - (b) TheWednesdaybeforeto the MondayafterEaster. -(e) Asummervacation of6 weeks anda.daypriorto thefirA WednesdayinSeptember. In the3-year schoolordivisionI studentspay afeeequivalentto two-thirds of that ataState higher'burgherschool(p. 106);in division II, 50 guildersayear.' Requirementg foradmizsion,Foradmissionto class I ofthe3-year school and classII of the 4-year normalschool theapplicantmust: 1. Be at least16yearsofage on August 1 of theyearinawhich- admission isdesired. 2. Present (ividencefrom2 licensed physiciansthat heis freefrom anyphysicalormentalailmentthat wouldhindereffective workasteacher. s One guilderor Sarin at mint pas was worth 46.37cents in 'UnitedStates mbneyonApril 1,1940. THE NETHERLANDS 95 3. ,(al Havecompletedsuccessfullyextended tion elementaryeduca- orthehigherburgherschoolwith (p. 106) 3-yearcourse ;ordass111o.f one of thefollowinglisted igherbbrgher schools: schoolwith5-yearcourse, higherburgher schoolforgirlswith 6-yearcourse;commercialschool ith5-year:course, middleschoolforgirls,gymnasmm, lyceum(p.107) .,L\ ; or Passedanentrance examinationto thenormalschool (toelatingsexamentot (Iekweekschool). - If the num)erofqualifiedapplicantsis whichthere greater thanthenumberfor are Accommodations,thedirectorfindone or teacher'sselect, mom of the foiadmissionthosebi%stqualified character. inaptitudeand Finaldecision withraeren.s,e'loadmissionismade Planofstudirs. bytheMinister. Thefollowingisa typicalstudyplan schooloftwo divisions. fora normal Womenstudentsmaybeexempt from tion inmathematics; . instruc- and.minandwomen, frominstrilction in naSticson presentationof gym- a %certificationfromeachoftwo licensed physiciansthattheyare unableto participate. Table 25.Planofstvdiesfor thenormalsckool

Hoursa Weekper (vial schoolyear

Sub)wietfinstruction DivisionA DivisionR

1 ll

1 4 .--- 1 . ii Nettritlinds: _1 Reading. . O 2 Language I 1 2 Penmanship 3 al 2 2 1 Arithmetk 11. Mathematics: j 2 14 011 Algebraandgeometry 3 History:Nationalandgeneral 3 3 st .2 2 2 . . . . 11¡ 1 Y1 GNa t 1 2 2 "Ur rt hsalience: Yia Biologyandhygiene Phyaiosandchemistry 1171 214 21¡i 211 114 ILj Singing Itj jL 2 2 Drawing A It+. 0ytnnastka 2 2 2 2 3 . Handworkfor girja .. 3 2 2 Sloyd 2 ...... French .. . . 2 2 2 2 2 German 2 . 2 . 2 nglish ...... 2 Theoryof 2 2 2 education . 2 ...... 2 2 2 2 Total . 111. 344 3.1 35. 9 9

oots Practicewhoa (leerschool).Duringthelast2years schoolattendance ofnormal thestudentsare givenopportunityto teach supervisionand guidanCeat under a practiceschoolattachedto thenormal schoolor at classesinoneor more generalelementary!wheelswith

s., 96 EDUCATION, AXPOINTMENT,ANDREMVNERATIONOFTI;ACITERS. whichafter consultationwith theelementaryschool inspect4;rarrange- ment;for practiceteachinghave been.ma'de.The workis incharge of theheadmaster of thepra.ctice schoolunderthegeneralsupervision of the dirociorof thenormalschool.About4 half daysa year ant devoted by -weekfor.1 eachstuOentto this, phaseofpreparation. Eraminations.for normal grhoolstudents:Studyata3-or 4-year normalschool orin divisionI ofa two-divisionschoolcloties final witha examination, succs.4.in whichis mmarkedbyacertificateofquali- Uatonas elementaryschoolteacher(aktevan bekwaamheidak onderw)jzer). Successin theStateexamifiationwithwhichthe work ofdiviion11 closesis marked'byacertificateofqualification headmaster as (aktevanbeVwaamheidals ofdonderwiizer).Each of thetwo certificates itaccompaniedbyalistof marks(lijstvaneij- fers) madein thesubjects oftheexamination. Final rxaminationqf ihtnormalc/ij.J_formtnandwomen amen- tary tcrboo/(-cadgers frinderamrn"(T.11yd-01444.nvow- ondtririjzersfn on(krtrijztrrmen).-This examinationmaybetaken byonewhois at least18yearsof age on August1 of theyearin whichhewishesto beexaminedand whohits attendedat least. thelast2yearsQfa3- 4-year normal or schoolorofdivision1 ofa two-divisionschool.It is Offered bythe director andteachersof thenormalschoolunderdose supervision OfaState committeeof threemembersappointedbythe Ministerof Education. Thequestions of thewrittenpart of theexaminationwhichincludes lb theNetherlands language,French,German,English,penmanship, arithmeticandmathematics,naturalscience,andtheoryof arewadeout by the education examinersandforwardedforapprovaltdthe Staticommitteeat least 3weeksbeforethe dateof the If the examination. questions inasubjectare not approved,theexaminer out,a makes secondset.If thisisnot approved,thequestionsfor the examinationin the subjectaremadeout by thecommittee.At least onememberof thecommitteeattendsthewritten After the examination. papers are graded bytheexaminerstheyare reviewed by thecommittee. If thelatterdoesnot agreèwiththemarksgiven, itmay,after oral consultationwith theexaminer,changethe-marks. Inadditionto an examination inskillinFiinging,drawing,and gymnastics,the oral examinationincludestheNetherlandslanguage, literature,and reading;arithmeticandTathematica,geography; naturalscience;andtheogofeducation. On completionof theentireexaminationwhichfor ea411 cannot last candidate morethan4 days ofnotmore than 6hoursaday, the committeealsoattendsthemeetingof theexaminbrsat which decisionis made final u to whetheror not tbecandidateisentitledtoa certificateofqualificationaselementaryschoolteacher.

46. THE VT,IIERLANDS 97 Forwomen studentswhohave beenexempt frominstructionand. t;xaminatiyninmathematics,andformen and similar womenttidentswith eiemptioniniquwastics,entriesof the thecerti(icate. exemptionare madeon The examinationin eachof A usefulhandworkforgirkand.in slovd comprisesan examinationinpractical skillandanoraleNaniii.ation. For eachcandidatiltheexammlition inhandworkforgirlsinu.".t be completedwithin.I day;thatinfloyd, within2 days.Success rs eitherorbotkisubjectsalsoisindicated onthecertificateofquahtica- tiona.s elementaryschoolteacher. Examination.forattainmentofthe eel ficate.uf qua/ffiraiion s twadmasierorheadmistr(str aian eh-men/art/ rijging school((fumen'*iercfrk- eerieraleranhefulaamheidals unj:trot).--- hooldondertfij:(rof wf(Ioliditr- ThisisaStateexamination not leat than offeredbyacommitt44 of I Imembersappointedeach,year by the Education.As Minister,of alretuly,indicated(p.93) regularlyin preparationforitOtTlIN division11ofa two-iiivisiounormid least2years ofat least t:-choolandrequiros at. 6 hoursofinstructionaweek. Applicationforadmissionto the the examinationismadeinwritingto chairmaAofthecommateeforthedistrict lielsandmust be in whichthecandidato accompaniedbyabirthcertificate, qualificationas elemeloary a certificateof schoolteacher,andevidenceof yearsofpracticalwork. ot least2 For eachapplicanttheexamination must becompletedwithin2 daks ofnotmore thati&hoursa day.Thefirst-dayisdevotedto writtenworkintheNetherlands languageandliterature,mathematics,andtheoryofeducation;the in the seconddayto'anoralexamination subjectaof thewrittenexamination andnatural plusgeograp4,history, science.Therequirementsofthe ofeducationare: examinationintheory I. Generalpsycholouin connectionwithpedagogics. knowledgeof Some theresultsofempiricaland psychology. experimental 2.Insightof the manner in whichschoolinstruction ofservice canbemade inthemoralandbinengtal pupils. developmentof the Organizationoftheelementaryschool. 4. Generaldidacticsandplan ofstudyforeachoftheregular elementaryschoolsubjects. 4.5.Historyof education.andinstruction,particularly theNetherlands. that óf 6.WritingsselectedbYthe examineefromthose'ofwell-known authorscfpedagogicalliterature. 4 Ito 98 EDUCATION, APPOINTMENT, ANDREMITNERATIOÑOF TEACHERS

Regtilidions- under consideratiOn.Accordingtoaplan présented for consideration in Fetruary 1938, the normal scbool istocom' prisean, A division offeringa4-year courséin preparation for the certificate of qualificationaselementary school teacher;anda2-year B divisionas at presentfor those who wish toprepareforacertificate of qualification'asheadmaster.In additionaC divisionmaybe arrangéd jor those who wish to.Preparefor certificates of qualificationtókoach special subjects. . As n.ow, the certifica.teof qualification fór elementaryschol teach- ingmaybe attainedthrough'successeither in the finAl examination ofanormal schoolorin 6, State examination.For admissiontothe latter it is suggested thatthe minimumagebb raisedto 19years. With reference to thee:,ertificat'es of qualificationto teach special stbjects it is recommended 'that theexaminationsfor the certificates o of qualification to teach French,German, English,mathematics, an4 commercial scienceall of whicharesubjecis-Ön-rextendedelementary educationlevels(p. 92)be offered by committees for thecorre- sikmding certificates of qualificationin se.condarii:educati (middelbaar onderwijs,p.111). Statiexaminations (Stdatsexamens).In actditionto attaininga certificate ofquilificationaselementary sdi'01 teacher throughthe final examination atanormal school (p. 96),the certificatemaybe attained throughsuccessin the following described State examination. Study in preparation for the State- examination offered bya committee of at least 15 members appointedb.yrthe Minister of Education maybepursued'accordingtothe wishes of the candidate,either privately-or through attendance atcoursesfor the education ofmenand womenelementary school teachers (cursussen,ter opleidingvanonder- wijzersenoiiderwijzeressen), called algo normal lessons(normaalles- sen) offered by various private organizations; Thesecourses arede- cregging. in. number. Fromatotal of14 offered in 1937-38,. only5 wereopened for schoolyear.1939-40.Of these, *ith thenumber of pupils in patentheses 1 (17)wasProtestant;.1(13), Roman Catholic; and 3 (47), other privatecourses. Eiamination forthe'attainment of the certificate of qualificationa8

I elementary 8chool teacher (examentertierkrijgingvande aktevan , bekwaamheid 028 onderwijzer).Application for admissionto theexamination ig made inwritingtothe chairman ofthe committeeof the distiid in'whichthe applicant lives, andmust be accompanied bya birth Certificate showing thatthe applicant wi11 beat least' 18years ofage onAugust 1 of theyearof theexamination...:.Mmissionto the

I oral examinatign requires evidei13of havingcimiatitedat least 4 I hoursaweek of teaching undergm. cealid suPervision foraperiod of not less than 1%yearsimmediately preceding theexamination. The examination must be completed within4 days of notmorethan , THENETHERLANDS t 99 6 hoursaday.The first2 daysaredevotedto writing;the remaining days, to the oralexaminationandto thete4s in drawingand gymnastics. The subjects.arethesame as those for thefinal examinationatá normal school.Thequestions forthewrittedpart,however,areMade out by the chief inspectorsofelementaryeducationana thechairmen of the examinationcommitteesandareoth,same throughout, the country.The requirementsfor eachsubjectare prescribed byRoyal regulation.Those fortheory ofeducationare: 1. Fundamentalsofpedagogicsand inconnectiontherewith of psychology. 2. Organizationandpurposeof theelementaryschool. 3. .General methodsofinstruction and theirapplicationto .instruction ineach of theregularelementaryschoolsubjects. Statistics.Detailedstatistical dataontheexaminationsforteacher qualification in1938aregiven in thefollowingtable: Table 26. Statisticson examinations for qualificationfor lementaryschool teaching for 1938

A o . , Candidateswho ! , A- Examination Were admitted Passed "1"-- Men andWomenMen and . women women Women 11111 14-

, 1 3 i i , Examination for teacher:i

Final examinationat normal schools_. 1, 704 934 1, 545 857 State examination___ _ . _. _. _, . 172 79 90 41 Examination for headmaster: s 1 Stateexaminitif 2, 511 550 1,083 277

_ .Examination for certificatesofquay stionto teach specialsubjects's Eachyear anumber ofcommitte:isappointedby the ' Minister,of Education for thepurposeof offeringexaminationsinvarious.subjects. Eachexamination, withthe placewhereit isto be held, theopening date, and thetime withinwhichapplicationfor admissionto it should he filed isannounced bytheMinister in theNetherlandsStateJournal (NederlandscheStaatscourant):Theapplicationis madeinwriting to the chairman ofthe committee°ofthe districtin whichtheapplicant lives andmust be accompaniedbyaceitificateof birthandanyother .documents indicatedin theannouncement. Thefollowing isabriefsummaryof themoreimportantexamina- tions ofthistype giving fóreach thenameof the °examination,the size oftheexaminationcommittee,thetype of examinationand the number of dayswithinwhich itmust becompleted,theminimum

t. WOEDUCATION, APPOINTMENT, AND REMUNERATION OF TEACHERS

4 ageof the applicantonAugust 1 of theyearin which the examination is taken, and the certificate granted forsuccess. 1. Examination for theattainmeni4;ofthe certificate of qualification togive home- and school instruction in free aild orderly exercises ingym- nastics (examen kr verkrijgingvande aktevanbekwaamheidtot het geven vanhuis-enschoolonderwijs in de vrijeenorde-oefeningen der gymnastiek). 3 (a) Examination committee: Men, 3;women,2.

(b) Type of examination: Practical skill and oral test,. I day. (c) Minimumage:18years. (d) Certificate of qualification to give home and school instruction in free and orderly exercises in gymnastics. 2. Examinations for the attainment of certificates of qualification in useful and fine handwork for girls (examenster verkrijgingvande akten vanbekwaamheid in de nuttige efraaie handwerkenvoormiisjes). (a) Examination committee; 4 members. (b) Type of examination: Practical skill and oral test. (1) Useful handwork for girls, 1 day. (2) Fine handwork for girls, 2 days. (c) Minimumage:18years. (d)(1) Certificate of qualification in useful handwork for girls. (2) Certificate of qualification in fine handwork for girls. 3. Examination for the attainment ofacertificate of qualification for home and school instruction in drawing (examenter verkrijgingvan een (Lickvan6ekivaamheUvoorhuis-etschoolonderwijs in het handieekenen). (a) Examination committee: 4 members. (b) Type of examination: Practical skill and oral test, 3 days. (c) Minimumage:17years. (d) Certificate of qualification for home and school instruction in drawing. 4. Examinations for the attainment of certificates of qualification to sgive elementary school instruction in the fundamentals of French, Ger- man,and English, and in mathematics and gymnastics (examenster verkrijgingvanaktenvanbekwaamheidtot hetgeven vanlager onderteijs in de beginselen der Fransche, DuitscheenEngelsche talen, die der wis- kundeende gymnastiek). (a) Examination committee: At leastonecommittee of five members isap-

pointed eachyearfor each subject. p. (b) Type of examination: In each of the foreign languages and in mathe- %sties, written and oral; in gymnaptics,atest in practical skill andan oral examination. (c) Certificate of qualification te give elementary school instruction in the fundamentals of French, certificate of qualification for home and school instruction in the English language, etc. 5. Examination for the attainment of the certificate of qUa1ficSiÛn to give home and school instruction in the 1undameiaa18 of cçymnerëwJ .11 THENETHERLANDS 101 science(examen ter verkrijgingvande aideran bekwaamheidtot hetgeren , . vanhuis-enschoolonderufijsin debeginselender handelskentiis). (a)Examinationcommittee:3m6mbers. (b) Typeofexamination:Writtenand oral.3 days. (c) Certificate ofqualificationfor homeand schoolinstruction inthe funda- méntalsofcommercialscience. 6. Examinatiomfor theattainmentof thecertificates ofqualification to offer elementaryschoolinstructionin the.fundamentalsof agriculture and in the fundamentalsofhorticulture(examenster verkrijgingvande aktenvan bekwaamheidtot hetgeven vanlageronderwijsin debeginselen der landbouwicundtenin debegimelendertuinbouwicunde).Forad- mission to tither oftheseexaminationstheapplicantmust. bean a. elementary schoolteacher,preferablywithqualificationforaposition as headmaster(p. 97).If hehas alreadypassedthe teacher'sexami- nation in agricultureand inhorticulturethe certificittereceivedshould bepresented withtheapplicationforadmissionto the other.If the first examinationwaspassedwithin5yparsfrom thetime ofthesec- ond, hemaybeexempt in thelatter in iohysicsand inchemistry. (a) Examinationcommittee:Eachexamination,19 members. (b) Type ofexamination:Oraltests in eachsubject.If thecommittee judge itnecessary, alsoa written examination.Thesubjectsof the examination fortheteacher'scertificateinagriculture are: Inorganic andorganicchemistry. Zoology andbotany. Animals usefulto agriculture,animalsharmfultoagricult*e, plantdiseases. Fundamentalsof the p. conditionandcultivation ofthe soilin the Netherlands,its natureandproperties. Fertilizers. The most importintmethods oftillage andsoilimprovementand a'"Taeulturaltools. Phytogeny. Cattlebreeding. Fundamentalsofdairying. Teachersof physicallyand mentallyhandicappedchildren.In additionto special trainingat thetype of schoolconcerned,appointment asteacherataschool forphysicallyormentallyhandicappedchildren requiresa , certificateofqualificationaselementaryschoolteacher, including,except formenteachersat schools forthe physicallyhandi- . capped,qualificationto teachgymnastics.Teachers ofusefulhand- work forgirls andteachers ofsloydmust have inaddition thepre- scribedcertificates forteachingthesesubjects(p. 100).At schoolsfor the deaf,classes ofdhildrenunder7yearsofage; atscho9lsfor the ,feeble-minded,classes ofchildrenunableto follow theregular,work; *Idat schools for idiotsand imbecenttppointmentasteacherrequires kossession ofacertificate ofhaving passedtheexamination forcppili- ficCióas kindergarten teacher(Nbelonderwijzer). 102EDUCATION, APPOINTMENT,ANDREMUNERATIONOF TEACHERS

411, At schools for thedeaf and theblindappointmentasteachermay also be issuedtoonewho has: 1. An academic degree. 2. The examination forthe degree ofdoctorandusin literature,mathematics and natural science,orin medicine (p.109). 3. Completed studiesin philosophy andtheology. 4.Certificate B ofsecondary educationin French, English,German,mathematics, physics,orchemistry (p. 112). ,5. Certificate ofsecondary educationin the Netherlandslanguage. Appointment For appointmentasteacher theapplicantmust havealeaving certificate fromanormal schoolor acertificate ofqualificationas elementary school teacherattained throughsuccessin theState exaniination; andacertificate ofconduct.madeout by the burgo: master of the municipalityormunicipalitiesin which hehas lived during the last2years. AppointmentashevImasterrequires that theapplicantbeat least 25yearsofageand withat. least 3 years' of conwletedserviceas teacher withpermanentor temporary appointment.Oneperson maybe in charge ofaregular elementary saloolandanextended elementary school if botharein thesamebuilding andif thetotal numb'erof pupils _doesn9t exceed 350.Unless excusedby the Minister theheadmaster ischarged with.the duty ofteachingat least 'one class. Number of pupilspertearher.--,At eachelementary schoolaccording toasupplementary regulationof December31, 1937, theheadmaster must be assisted byat least: 1 teacher when thenumber of pupilsis 35. 2 teachers whenthe number ofpupils is 76. 3 teachers when the number'bfpupils is 431. 4 teachers when thenumber of pupilsis 186. 5 teachers when thenumber of pupilsis 211. 6 teachers when thenumber of pupilsis 260. For each50 pupils above260anadditional teachermust be provided. Atanextended elementaryschool of27 pupils theheadmastermust be assisted byat least 1 teacher andbyanadditional teacherfor each 26 pupils above that. Remuneration Salaries.The beginningsalary ofanelementary schoolteacher without qualificationforapositionasheadmaster is1,21gliders,' withanannual increaseof 90 guildersfor the first4years; guild for the fifthyear;and afterthat from thesixthto the twen ond yearof service,inclusive,abiennial increaieof 9o. guilders. The beginningsalary ofanelenientary schoolteacher withqualifi- cationasheadmaster is1,395 guilders, withanincrease of90 guilders

r -.MEN

THE a NETHERLANDS 103 for eachof the first2 yeafs ofservice;45 guildersfor thethirdyear; 180 guildersfor eachofthefourth,sixth,eighth,andtenth and after years; that fromthetwelfthto thetwenty-secondyear, inclusive, abiennialincreaseof90 guilders. Forqualification to offerelementaryschoolinstructioninFrench, German;English, or mathematics,theannualsailityofaregular elementaryschoolteacheror heldmaster isincreased45 guilders subject.For a similarqualificationin thesame subjectsorincom- mercialsciencethe annualsalary ofateacheror headmasterinex- tendedelementary educationisincreased90 guildersasubject;if the subjectis includedin thecurriculumof theschoolin whichthe teacher isworking,180 guilders. Thbheadmaster ofaregularelementaryschoolwithtwoorfewer teachersreceivesinadditionforserviceasheadniaster year; 360 guildersa withthreeto sixteachers,450 guildem;withmore than six teachers,630 guilders. The headmasterofanextendedelementaryschool whois to offer elementary qualified' schoolinstructionintwo of thesubjectsFrench, German, English,mathematics,andcommercialscience,orhigher instructionin oneof themreceivesin additionforserviceashead- master ata sc1ìo1of fewertIan t ree teaclers 6O guilders;ata sc ioo of threeto six tchers,810 guilders;and`ataschoolof sixormore teAchers,990 guilers. For qualificationsheadmasferplusqualification tioofferelementary school instructionh at leasttwo of thesubjectsFrench,German, English, mathematics,andcommercialscienceateacher inextended elementaryeducationreceivesanadditionalsalaryof360 guilders a year. Teachers atapracticeschoolconnectedwithanormalschoolor a municipalor privateschoolsubsidizedby theStateto whichnormal school studentsare sent for practiceteachingreceive theregular salary of gementaryschoolteachersincorrespondingpositionsplus 225 guildersa year; headmasters,4,05 guilders. 6 AccordingtoaMinisterialcircuiarófMarch25, 1024rthesalaries of permaneritlyandtemporarilyAppointedteachersof physicallyand mentallyhandicappedchildrenaregovernedby thesameregulations as those forotherelementary sch6o1teachers,except thatpermanently appointedteachers,not includingkindergartenteacherp,receivein additionto theprescribedannualsalaryat least300 guilders;and headmastersat least500 guilders. Waitingmoney (wachtgeld).Whenapublicschool ispermanently closedor apdsitionpermanentlystoppedthepermanentlyappointed teachers ofthe schoolfor whamnoimmediateopeningscanbefound and whobecause ofnot yet havingattainedtheproperagearenot entitled,to pensionaregrantedwaitingmoneyby theState, itthey s 4

104EDUCATION,APPOINTMENT,ANDREMUNERATIONOETEACHERS

have beenin thelast positionforat leut 2years.One whohas taught 10years or morereceives fullsalary for1year;onewfiohastaughtfrom 5 to 10years, full salaryfor4year; onewho hastaughtforat least5 years,full Waryfor 3 m'onths.After thatthewaitingmoneyis equivalent eachyear to 65 percent of thelastsalary untiltheteacheris entitled to pensionorisappointedtoasuitableposition,that is,a position forwhich heisqualified.Thewaitingmoneyceasesif the teacher refusesto acceptasuitablepositionwhen itis offered.Ifa teacheracceptsa position with salaryless thantheamount of the waitingmoneyhe isreimbursedtothe'extent of thedifference.The waitingmoney continues foraperiodequivalentto that ofthe period of serviceforwhich heis entitledto pension(p. 116).At theend of that timeitmaybe renewed.In1938atotal of862appointmentsto permanent positions inpublic generalelementaryschoolsincluded29 from among those who wenireceiving waiti4money. Of these6 were women. Pemion.Thepensionregulations fotelement4ryschoolteachers are governedby thegeneralpension lawof1922,andare,in the main, similarto those forsecondary schoolteachers(p. 116).Accord. ing to paragraph48 of theelementaryschoollawof1920 (p. 93), however, theamount of pensionis increasedforeachyearof service byone-sixtieth of thepension basis(pensionsgrondslag)butcannot exceed two-thirds ofthat basis.Forateacherwhointheperformance of schoolduty becomes illorphysicallydisabledforfurtherservice, thelimitation oftwo-thirds doesnot apply. SecondarySchools Organizationof the8econdary8chool.Oncompletionof thesixth of year elementaryschoolingtheDutch boyorgirlmay entera secondary school(middelbaar school).'Priorto 1920whena certificatefroin theelementary schoolbecame theregularrequirement,admission wasbased on success inarathersevere entranceexamination.In 1928, theexaminationwasresumedinmodifiedformas supplementary tothéelementaryschoolcertificate. Except for secondaryschoolsfor girlsandsome RomanCatholic boarding schools for boys,coeducationis usual.Theschoolweek days with is6 WeduesdayandSaturdayafternoonsfree.Theschoolyear begins andends inSeptember.In additionto holidaysat Whitsun- tide, including the Saturdaybeforeand theTuesdayfollowingPente- cost, the mainvacationsare: 1. From the close ofschoolonDecember28,orif the23 fallson Monday Saturday, or onDecember20or22,respectively,to theevening ofJinuary 6,orif thatfalls on Friday, Saturday,orSunday,ontheevening of followingMonday. the 2. FromtheWednesdaybefore 14 Easter totheevening ofthe' firstMonday followingthe secondday ofEaster.

4 THE NETHERLANDS 105 3. Thethirdvacationendsthe eveningof theMondayprecedingth TuesdayofSeptemberand first beginstheseventhSaturdayprecedinglite Mondaybeforetheopening ofschool. Tuitionfees are progressiveaccordingto theincome 'of Forneedyand theparents. deservingchildrenschoolingis freeevenas to textbooks Andsupplies. . Organization.Thefour mairitype. s ofsecondaryschoolsare: Gymnasia,higherburgherschoolswitha5fyear commercial (illy curriculum,lyceums, schools,andsecondaryschoolsfor arerelatedto each girls.Howthey otherandto elementaryeducationis thefollowinggraph. shownin

41111.

4. immanna OraphNo. 4. - Organization ofElementaryandSecondaryEducation Schoolyear 2 3 i 4 5 6 7 8 9 Pupil'sage 7 8 9 10 10 11 12 11 12 13 14 15 16 Class IIIIII IV 17 18 V VI III III ni Yvi 11- 1 LineA Aura

LineB

HigherBurgherSchoolA E Fx i a v RicherBurgher School.B1 i r I I 1 n n 1H.B.S.A' a Higher 1 a t BurgherSchool 1 . i 1H.B.S.B : 1o I I n i ELEMENTARY !4-yearOymagliun I ,1 SCHOOL H. B.S. 1 with I Ifeaula 4-yearCourse» .41,

5-year SchoolforGirls

Commercial Schools with 5and4-year Courses

3 and4-year , /4 Ertended IMomentary school A I,

286742*-41-8 106EDUCATION, APPOINTMENT, AND REMUNERATION OFTEACHERS

1.GymnasiumtThe gymnasium isaclassical school offeringa 6-yearcoursewhich bifurcates in classes V and VI intoafiA division for pupils intending to enter thefaculty of theologyorphilosophyat auniversity, andaB division for those intending to enterafaculty of medicineormathematicg-natural science.The graduate of either linemaJenterauniversity faculty of law.Duetohistorical develop- mentinstructionatthe gymnasium is governed by the Statuteon Higher Education (Iloogeronderwijswet).The prescribedtypical plan of studies for the gymnasium follows:

Table 27.-1ypical plan of studies for the gymnasium !Numbers in ilarenthesesarroptional)

Hoursaweek pc/ school year sers--. *-- Line A Line B Su Wert of instruction 11 111 1V V VI V VI

reck . 6 6 5 6 ii 3 Latin 8 5 5 5 9 3 411 Netherlands language 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 French 4 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 ()ennui ...... 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 Enghsh 3 3 2 2 2 2 11 istory 3 3 3 3 3 4 21 3 i/eugrailhy . 2 2- 2 2 I

MR( heinat ics . .. 5 4 2 2 2 2 5 5

Chemistry' . 2 3 4 Physics...... 2 2 3 3 3 Natural history.. 3 2 3 2, Oyinnast ics . 2 2 2 2 2 2 2. 2 Drawing 2 .. _ Hebrew ...... (2) (2) (2) (2)

Total ...... 33 33 33 33 1 33 33 33 33

2.Higher burgher schools(hoogere bitrgei.schokn).These schools generally knownasthe H. B. S.arethe secondary schools most widely attended in the Netherlands.PriortoSeptember-1,1937, those offering publicihstruction comprised higher burgher schwls with 5-year course(hoogere burgerscholen met vijfjarigencursus) and the higher burgher schools with 3-yearcourse.Throughanamendment of Apfil 22, 1937,of the StatuteonSecondary Education (literally "middle education law"--.--MiddelbairOnderwijswet) the latterweredropped fromamonglegally recognized secondary schools.Those in existence, however,wereallowed throughatemporaryprovisiontocontinue. Before the amendment classesTVand V of the higherburgher school with 5-yearcoursedivided intoan"A" and "B" line.According to presentregulations the higher burgher schools comprise higher burgher school A withacurriculum stressing social science subjects and languages(de maatschappelijke vakkenendetaien)and higher burghei school B stressing .mathematics and natural sciencesubjects (de wis- THE NETHERLANDS 107

ennatmirkundige vakken).The first three classesof thetwo schools have thesameplan of studiesandmaybe combinedasheretofore. With the approval of theMinister the5-year curriculumofahigher burgher schoolmaybe extendediyear, except ata,-ichool exclusively for girlsor one notsubsidized by theState.Following isthepre- scribed study plan forpublic higherburgher schools.% and B:

Table 28.Study pionfor the higher burgherschools A andB

(Numbers inparentheses referto optional suhjeci.. inthepenr that the pupil4.1eN.ts either0111011g fi'ltd _ - S411.r(!e or the I wo%subjtetsin drauing)

Hoursaweekpet%ebt..11ctir V Subject tvfinstruction H k 11 ItS 14

1 ' 1 1 111

IV V 1 V

3 4 L S 7 P4

Netherlands language 4 3 3 4 4 ! 2 2 French ) 5 4 3 4 4 i 2 2 . English 4 3 4 I 4 1 2 2 i . German . .1 4 3 3 4 4 2 . r I Commqcial science 2 ! ,) R,¡; Economies . 2. 2 I I (3eography 3 A ) 2 2 2 . 1 .) History... 3 2 '2 :i i I 1 2

l'olit ical I -science.. 1 I 1 1

Mathematics 6 5 5 l 1 s : .s Mechanics . . . 2 ... , . Physics 2 3 3 Chemistry... 2 2 3 S

Botany and toology 2 2 '.?. Cosmography 2 . 1 Freehand drawing . 2 1 2 1 (1\ Linear drawing . 2 (1 ) Oymnastics . . 3 3 ...... 3 f 2 2 , 2 2

Total, 3r 32 33 34 34 34 34

- Mai.-

3.Lyre' lycCurn isacombination ofthe gymnasiumand the higher burgher schoolwith5-yearcourse; attimes also,of the gymnasium andaschool for girls.Aftera2-yearcourse common for. allpup&the boyorgirlenters eithera4-year gymnasiumor a 4-yibar higher burgher school division.Atalyceum withaschool forgirlsa girl alsomayenter the latter.The advantage,attributedto this typeof school is thatachild of12or13yearsofageneednot, makea final decisionasto whether topursue aclassicalor areal(modern) line of secondary schoolstudies. 4. Commercial day8c1U018 (hand48dagscholen).---Includedalso amongsec9ndary schoolsarecommercial dayschools with4-year course(handelscholenmet 4-jarigen cursus)an icommercialschools6 with3-year''course.'Theprescribed fiubjecz 1' instructionfor the latterareNetherlands language, French,English, German,commercial science,geography, history,mathematics, physics,chemistry, penmanship, freehand drawing, and' :astics.The curriculum of the 4-year school includesin addition economics;ofganization 108 EDUCATION,APPO&TMENT,AND REMUNERATION OF TEACHERS

of the governmentin the Netherlands. Netherlands Indies, Surinam, and Curaao;and instruftion in literature in each of the languages. 5.Secondarysritools _for girt! (middelbare xchotenroormeittjes). The schools offera5-yearcourserequiring for admission infQrmation ( inthe Netherlands language,Narithmetic, history, and keography equivalentatleasttothat required forcompletionof class VI ofan elementary school.Some idea of the character of the workmaybe obtained from the following prescribed curriculum.The numbers

representweek hours of instruction. each representing 1 hour of50 minutesthroughout the schoolyear:Netherlands languageand literature, 16; French language and literature, 16; German language

and literature. 14; English language and literature.%12; geography. 10; history, II,freehand drawing. 10; handwork, S; gymnastics,10; mathematics.12; physics and chemistry, S; botany and rA.-Wogy (biology), 7; bookkeeping. 2. Final examination* (rindexamenA).Instruftion at the gymnasium andateach of the varioustypesof secondary schooh with5-year coursecloses with a,final examination offered by the instructors 'of the school under thesiipervisionofaState committee.Success is marked byacertifiCate(getuigschrift)ordiploma. which is generally accompiffed byalistof the marks (hjstvancijfers) mule by tbe examinive.The diploma ofagymnasiumordiploma B ofahigher burghet school is the regular requirement for admiipntoaunivmity. This includes also the diplomas issued by the Kvmnasium and higher burgher school divisions of the lyceum and thehIgher burgherschool division ofaseciandary schoolfor girls.Cekificatesordiplomas issued by, other divisions of the varioustypesof secondary schools leadtofur- ther studyin co'rnmerce orother practical' hnes, but donotcarrythe right of admissiontoauniversity. Education Gentrui data .Except for teachers of Greek and IAtin whdmust haveacertificate ofhavingpassed the examination for the degree of doctorandus (p. 109) in their respective subjects, qualification for appointmentassecondary school teacher 'in the Netherlandsmaybe obtained either through university study andsuccessin the examination for the degree of doctorandus (p. 110)orby attainment ofa certificate of qualificationfor appointmeritas,secondaryschool teacher (Middelbare Acte) throughsuccessinaState examination. Appointmentasrectororheadmaster ofagymnasium requires the degree of doctor fromafaculty of philosophy;asassistantrector, the degree of doctor fromafacultyofphilosophyor afaculty of mathematiaf-natural science.The Statute,onSeCondary Education makesnomention of speçiarq ['cations for appointmenj ai director TRE NETHE R LANDS 109

(directeur)orheadmaster ofothertypes of secondaryschools,but in practice,atleast inthe higherburgher school,the direCtorhas the degree of doctor. . The number ofyoung menandwomenadmittedto preparation for secondary schoolteachingor toexaminationsforcertificatesof quali- ficationtoteachatsecondaryschoolsisnotlimited. No specialeducation is offeredfor secondaryschoolteachers for ruralareas. Preparation .forsecondaiij schoolWelting throughunitvrttitygtudy. University study inpreparati9n forsecondary schoolteachingmaybe pursued in thefaculties ofPhilosophy,mathematics-natural,wience, orthe combinedfaculties ofmathematics-naturalscienceand pluloso- phyat oneof the followinglisteduniversities: 1. State University ofLeiden (RijksuniveNiteitte,Leiden). 2. State UniveNity ofUtrecht(Rijk;universiteitte Utrecht). 3. State Universityof Groningen(Rijksuniveriteitte Groningen). 4. Municipal Universityof .Amsterdarn(GemeentelijkeUniver-

. siteitte Amsterdam). 5. Free Universityof Amsterdam(Vrije Universiteitte Amster- dam). 6. Roman Citth-dhcUniversity ofNijmegen (RoomschKatbolieke Universiteitte Nijmegen). t'niversity degrees.-:Thedegrees conferredby ,theuniveNit accordingtothe AcademicStatute (AcadernischStatuut) of1921, are: 1. Degree of candidate(candidaat), attainedthroughsuccessin the candidateeximination-(candidaatexamen)byonewho hasacertificite of having pissedthe finalexamination ofagymnasiumor ahigher' burgher schoolwith5-yearcourse. 2. Degree of doctorantius,attainedthroughsuccessinanexamina- tion calledthe "doctoraalexkamen" byonewho bas thedegree of candidate.To'distinguish it fromthe examinationfor thedegree of doctor in theUni* Statesthe "doctoraalexamen" will bedesig- nated in thisbulletinu"theexamination forthe degreeof doctor- 62Aus."

3. Degree of doctor(ck graadrandoctor), attainedbyadoctoiandus f through thewriting anddefense ofadissertation ,basedonindependent resparch insomefoliage of hismajor fieldacpompanied byat least six eses orpropositions. , Theduration of studyin preparationfor the examinaticinsfor the degrees ofcandidate anddoctoiandus isnot prescribed.It depends largelyonthe abilityof the studentandonthe subjects'of study selected.In general,however, theexamiaation fordoctorandue-r-h

a en then matheintiticawinaturai combinations are examination. 'may subject majors natuurkunde).--Depending_on matics-natural science, both another subjects. scribed or andus ture, LatinIaniuure,and jects, hisknowledge doctorandus which In thefacility of his must showthathehas more are from combined faculty ofletters success ir)ot hefaculty school teacher Eramination wijsbegeerk).Among Er'xlmination lo Examination _for Botany and Cnirt rt6ty Chemsstry perrilissiWe PA yiict--One history. in de athzmaia--- Mathematics include 6 EDUCATION, must beprecededbythe With chosen combinations to 7 restrictions, tf4- in whichisthe faculty; with vereenirk faculteikn y devoted One olocbmaal faculties of . reference zoologyBotany years. as a Chemistry Chemistry EveuLfo.r the try withmathematics, Chemistry named: Phybice outside the fir theflegree field ofstudy. With the-é'ofisent of mathematics-natural of philosophy but thegeneral sciente (doctoraai _for thedegree of thethree Physics and via the Mathe.matics and minor 771 major and philosophy ination.s.--- Inthe to preparationforthe APPOLNTMENT, science andof the and chemistry generally CM men must In each aril regular with physics, to preparationfor egret ofV4ctorandu8 and botanywith with physics, may route history n one a prescribed student isfree literature, French, faculty, to combinations named general basic mathematics with be and zoology and physics of dodoranduz heniatica-naturai of thesubjects be selected in d(faculteit be selected of university the of thesefaculties approval of requirement for more of dociorandms comprises regulations the der wits-en astronomy Withphysics. For the as a examination for candidate or astronomyandphysicsOsith letters and with mathematics, examen from may of the AND botany, and major inthis mathematics, and examinations forthis profot.md candidate major, with with physics, physics. science:from be selected REMUNERATION 5 ertunination for knowledge in theselection candidate to 7 and passed from faculty, other a der letterrn chemistry. astronomy. are in' de ruaus preperutionrequires .secondary in thecombined the faculty major and examination in Greek language German, philosophy (kietoraal above, in years mineralogy. appointment and specialized. economics and in the that the science and examination among the the first , faruheit der examination, rill& chemistry and the degree or faculty qf as examination. of university . mineralogy. o( themain physics and 5 to6 faculty of en in the English, minors. school following the subjects two minorsub- and wij4tgeerie) en OF 'FRAMERS 2 combinations the degree or his degree to 3 fatuities der letteren years; as soctIn philsophy, one the student and litera- candidate some chemistry. of doct biter* ti%acbing Hebrew, politic* geology. wia- years certain chemib- moat- of the phases minor listed study are: in the iu the era- pre- Gary 9,sid of or- en of of or ; rIVIIIIIIINli Ewe s n 41' P

4 THE NETHERLANDS 111

L.. Failmiritaioningeography.eoniprisinl!geography twominors as major and selectedwith theapprovalof theoomi)(ned the subjecutof facultiesfrom the fiveregularfacultiesof theunivers6.. 41 Examinationin1i4ory mendingancient,medieval,ormodernas major andeconoinics asa minor.The.secondminoris.'selectedby _the candidatewiththe .appiòval of thefaculties». .. Emminatiovr.for the degreeofdocioriiruIu4in 01 .favaltyofOudwy, Noctoroalexamenin de faciihtif dergo419d4trdilei41).-inatiti attaining toalificatioii to to teach Hebrewata_secondary;:fcli(01through thedoctorandustakenin the facultyofphilosophy(I)Ii0). maybe Hebrew taught byonewhohasattainedthetIwtor7n41u. ulty of wthe fae- theology.For this.themajoris.seitwctedfrom the three thestibjectsof groupsofsciencesof thefaculty:Literaryor Biblical, philosophic or historical-- notinciluding:generalhistoryof religitin: The Minerg&FPselected withtheapproval ofthyfeleulty'fnmioutside thegroupof Olemajor. At leastone minormust he chosenfromgen- eralhistory of religiori,et hies, eillticesi%of thewritingsof theOld ment, tiurvey, of Testa- Istiteliticliteraturt7Israditicreligion;the!lecopri maybeasubjectofanptherfaculty. Alsoytialifiodto give secondary'schoolinstructionÙi HebrewisApe who hasadiplomashowing sUcceS8inan eccieiiasticaiexaminationin p. the Hebrewlanguageprovidedthediplomaentitlesthe conduct pogsossorto religiousservicesor to offer religiousinstruction. Success in examinationearns a certificateof havingpassedtheex- aminationfor thedegree ofdoctorandus(getuigschriftvan met goed govoigi afgelegddoctoreaalexamen.)On *theback ofthe the certificate 'subjectsof theexaminationarelistedtogetherwitha statonent ,indicating those inwhichqualificationforteachinghasbeen (voor granted welke.vakkenon( 1.a1T-Ajsbevoegdheidword!toegekend). Professionaled . _ton--TheNetherlandshasnolawrequiring practiceteachink to be includedas a part of ,theeiduc4tionofa soc.- ondary school ttiacher,thoughoneispending.Meanwhileshineprac- ticeteachingis usualandwithout it appointmentas.teacherisditt- culttosecure. Courses intheory andeducationare offeredmat,theunivefsities but are not part of theregularrequirementfor theexaminationfor the degree of doctorandus.Fortheory andmethodstheuniversityedu- cated teicherattedslesions.atsomeschoolfor6 weeksorlonger. Thisattendanceis called"hospitieren"andincludesduringthelast weekthe giving of2or3 lessons ..in4imendntly4Completionof the work is markedbyacertificitte.froittherectorordirector ofthe sot . Preparationfor seconda.rxschoolteachingthroug4Stateexamina- tions.--StudyinpreparatiònforaStateexaminationmaybe pursued 112 EDUCATION,APPOINTMENT, AND REMUNERATIONOF TEACHERS

privatelyoratsome course orschool offeringinstruction inprepara- , tion forsomespecifictypeof examination,suchasthe School

:1 subjects in which he wishestobe examined.If he wishes to-attaina certificate of qualificationto teach atahigher burgher schoolwith es 5-yearcourse orcertificate Win French, German,orEnglish language and literature he must present alsooneof the followinglisted credentials: 4' 1,.'Certificateof having passed the finalexaminationatoneof theváleoustypesof accredited secondafyschools (p. 108). 2:Certificate of qualificationto offer instructionatahigher burgher school with5-yearcourse. 3. Certificate of qualificationasheadmasterattinelementary 1;1 school (p. 97). V4. Certificate of qualificationaselementany schoolteacher plus N. qualiacation intwo modernlanguagés,orin 6ne modern language and mathematicsorcommercial seienee(p. 100). 5. Any other certificateorqualification placedvon anequality s with these by the Minister of Education. Examination for the attainmentof certificate8 of qualificationto teach at8econdary 8chool8.Theexamination for the . attainnient ofacerti- fic'ateof qualification for secondaryschool teachingcomprittes tin oral part including all the subjects of the examinationandawrittenpart includingone or, moresubjects.In modeling anddrawing it includes alsoapracticalpart.The examination inpenmanship is practical and oral. Attainment of the certificate is dependentAlpoonsucce"ssinan ex4mination in theory .of education andinstruction, chieflywith referenceto secondiry education.Inanexamination for qualiffca- tion to teach 'another subject,one'who already hasa'certificate of qualificationto teach is exempt from the examinationin theory of 'education and instruction.

Dr, THENETHERLANDS 113

e Following isa summaryof theprescribedStateexaminationsoffered for the attainmentof certificatesofqualificationto teachat secondary khools, generallycalled the "middelbare.acte"(secondarycertificate): 1. Certificates of qualificationto teachmathemiticsandmechanicalsciences 'vo (actenvan bekwaamheidvoor het schoolonderwijsin dewis-en werk- tuigkundigewetenschappen): (a) CertificateA (acte A).May beattainedthroughsuccess inan examination including: (1)Arithmetic,algebra,geometry,planeand 'spherical . trigonometry,fundamentalsofdescriptiveand applied _geometry. (2)Fundamentalsoftheoreticandappliedmechanics, knowledge oftools andtechnology. (3)Fundamentals ofphysics,chemistry, andcosmography. (4) Fundainentaliofmineralogy,geology,botany,and zoology. (b) .CertificateB(acte B).May beattained byone who, has certificate A aftersuccessinan examinationin: (1) Descriptiveandanalytical,geometry,differentialand integralcalculus. (2) Theoreticand appliedmechanics. 2.Certificates of qualificationto teach physics(acten -vanbekwaamheidvoorhet shoolon-derwijein denatuurkunde): (a) CertificateA is thesame as certificate Aforqualificationto teach mathematicsand mechanicalsciencesmentionedunder 1(a). b. (b) CertificateBmaybe attainedbyonewho hascertificateA after .successinan examination in: (1) Analyticalgeometry. (2)Differentialand integralcalculus. (3)Theoreticalmechanics. (4) Physicsand itsmainapplications. t (5)Meteorology. (6) Chemistry. 3. Certificates ofqualificationto teach chemistry(actenvan bckwaamheidvoor het schoolonderwijsin descheidkUnde): (a) CertificateA.Sameas certificate A ofqualificationto teach mathematics andmechanicalsciencesmentionedunder 1(a). (b) CertificateBmaybe attainedbyonewho hascertificateA after 811CCe88inan examination in: (1) General,applied, andanalyticalchemistry. (2) Chemicaltechnology. (3) Physics. 4. Certificatesof qualificationto teach French,German, 'aruiEnglish: (0) Certificate Ain French,German,orEnglishmaybe attainedin the languagedesiredthroughsuccessinan examinationcom- prising basicknowled&of thelanguage, itspronunciation,and grammar.' Althoughit is notrequiredby law,candidates for filecertificategenerallygoto thecountry of thelanguage for acquisitionofaccent. (b) CertificateBmaybe attainedthroughsuccess inanexamination in thelanguage andliteratureof thelanguage &siredbyone who hascertificate A. 114EDUCATION,APPOINTSNT,AND REMUNERATIONOF TEACHERS

5. Certificate of qualificationto teach the Netherlands langy,a0and literature, and history (actevanbekwaamheidvoorhetgeven van schoolonderwija in de Nederlandsche taalenletterkundeendegeschiedkundigewetenschappeq: May be attained throughanexamination in: (a) Netherlandslanguage andliterature. (b) History. (c) Mathematics, physics,and politicalgeography. 6. Certificate of qualificationto teach economics (actevanbekwaamheidvoorhet geven vanschoolondertaijs in destaatshuishoudkunde):May beattained throughsuccessinanexamination in: (0 Economics andstatistics particularlyof the Netherlandsand its colonies and possessionsin other parts of theworld. (b) The fundamentalsof municipal,provincial, and Stateorganiza- . tion in the Netherlands. -7. Certificate of qualificationto teach commercial science(actevanbekwaamheid voorhetgeven van schoolonderwija in de handelswftenschappen):May be attained throughsuccessinanexamination in:. (a) Bookkeeping. (b) The fundamentalof commercialscience, includingcommercial law, commercialgeography, statistics ofindustry andcom- merce,knowleClgeof the financialsystem of governmentsand the elements of knowledgeof commodities. Special certificates'gf qualification(afzonderlijkeactenvanbekwa- amheid).A special certificateof qualificationto teach itmay beissuledtoanapplicant forsuccessin the prescribed examind- tion inoneof the following listeldsubjects: Frenchlanguage and literature, Germanlanguage andliterature,nglish 'language and literature,drawing,penmanship, modeling, gy.mnastics. Certificates of qualificationto teach nd peamanship

arenot. required. _

4 Appoirment Appointment of teachers.Ineach municipalitywithapublicgym- nasium themunicipaicouncil(gemeenteraad). appointsacommittee ofcurators (collegevancuratoren) whichis charged withthe duty of seeing thatthe regulationswith regardto gymnasiumsarecarried out.The teachers ofthe gymnasiumareappointed, subjectto the approval of theMinister, by themunicipal councilfrom candidates recommended bythe committeeofcuratorsafierconsultation with the seçondaryschool inspector.At State higherburgher schools Oachersanti`directorsareappointed bythe Ministry;at municipal higher burgherschools, by themunicipal councilfromalist of candidates recommendedby the burgomasterand aldermen(burgemeester enwethouders),afterconsultation withthe inspector. Teaching vacanciesareannounced in tbepapers,By law,men. andwomenteachersareequal, butat schools where bus predominate the generalunderstanding is thatthetéachekwill bea man.In 1935-36 about 78percent of the secondaryache teacherswere meni 22 percentwomen. 4111

THE NETHERLANDS! , 115 A teacher is hiredfirstfor1yearand ifsuccessful, -At the forasecond. close ofthesecondyear the decisionismadeas to whether he is qualifiedforpermanentappointment. Theinspectoralwaysvisitsclassesofa new teacher. he talksthe Afterclass lessonoverwiththeteacher.Thevisitsare made accordingto need.Someteachersrequireonlyafew many. visits;.others,

Remuneration O ft Sdarie8.Foreachtype ofsecondaryschoolthe salaiy is basedon schedule thenumberof hoursofinstructionaweekand is throughoutthe uniform countryexcept forsomeof thelarger 'communes.In certain smalllocalitiesthe salaryscalemaybereducedfrom4to 8 percent.Eachhour of instruction450 minutes.Themaximum number ofhoursfora teacherofgymnasticsis36; forotherteachers, Theannualsalary 30. öfmenandwomen teachersat higherburgher schooswith5-year course exceptforteachersofgymnasticsand h r work is: to. 1. For eachof the first10 hoursofinstructionaweek,135 florins (p. 94)plusabiennialincreaseof13.50 florinsup to and includingthetwentiethyearofservice. 2. Foreach of thefollowingorsecond10 hoursofinstruction week, a 90 florinsplusabiennialincreaseof9 florinsup to andincludingthetwentiethyearofservice. 3. Fiv eachof the followiftor third,10 hoursofinstruction week, a 45 florinsplusabiennialincreaseof9 florinsup to andincludingthetwentiethyearofservice. Forteacluirsof gymnasticstheannual,salarywithcorresponding biennialincreases indicatedinparenthesesis117(9.90)florinsfor eachof thefirst10 hours ofinstructionaweek;81 (6.30)florinsfor 4each ofthe second10 hours;and45 (4.50)florinsfor each third10 hours. of the Forteachersof handworktheannualsalaryforeachof thefirst 20 hoursofinstruction aweekis101.25florinsplusanincreaseof 4.50 florinsaftereachof 2, 4,6, 8,10yearsofserviceand of6.75 florinsaftereachof12, 14, 16, and18yearsofservice.For eachof ,theremaininghoursof instructionaweektheannualsalaryis45 florinsplus 'abiennial increaseof4.50 florinsup to and includingthe eighteenthyearofservice. After22 yearsofserviceteach',S. whohavea doctorate from universityin the a Netherlandsreceiveanadditionalincrease of13.50 florinsfor eachof thefirst10 hoursofinstructionaweek, foreachof the 9 florins second10 hours,and4.50 florinsfor eachof thethird 10 hours. f

a 77' 116EDUCATION, APPOINTMENT, ANDREMUNERATION OF TEACHERS

The annual salary of the director ofahigher burgher schoolwith5- year courseis 4,950 florins plusanincrease of?180floriRs for eachof the first 5yearsof service.Fora&lector in chargeofaschool óf 10or moreclasses the annual increasefor each of thefirst5years of service is 270 florins. Since January1, 1936, the salaries of all State employeesin the Netherlands, including teachers,have been reduced by5 percent. Retirement pension.A teacher whohas completedat least 10years of servicemayretire withapensionat theageof 65years.One who is disabledmayretire with pension after7yearsof serviceand before 65yearsofage.The pensionmaybe basedontheaveragesalaryor pension basis for the last3yearsof service, the last10yearsof service, orthe entire period of service.For eachyearof services itamounts to 1.75 percent of the highest of the threeaverages up to amaximum of 70 percent for 40yearsof service.The totalamount of pension, howevei,cannot exceed 4,000 florinsa year.A pension for disability mustbeatleast 30percentof the highest of the three "averages.For these pension privileges the teachercontributes4.5 iitnt of his salary. 4. Pension for widows and orphans.---,---Toassure apension for hiswidow _ and children the teacher contributes annually5.5 percent of thepension basis butnot ofanamountexceeding3,000 florins.For this the widow receives 50percent of the first 2,000 florins ofthesalary plus 40percent of the following 1,000 florinsor atotal cif1,400 florins. The pension forachild under 21yearsofageis 10percent of the salary butnotmorethan 300 florins.The pension of the widowand children cannot exceedatotal of 2,400 florinsayea'''. Sick benefits.Regulations relativeto ,compensation for illnessare thesamefor teachers at State schoolsasfor other State employees. Accordingto these, teachersareentitled incaseof illnessofull 'salary for 1 month.Further, teachers withpermanent appointment and10 or more yearsof service continueto receive full salary for thenext 18 months; during the second period of18 months, two-thirds the salary; and duringathird period of thesameduration, one-half thesalary. For teachers withpermanent appointment but less than 10yearsof service and for teachers withoutpermanent appointment withat least 10yearsof service each of the corresponding periodsis of9 months'

duration. . For teachers withoutpermanent appointment and less than 10yearsof service the three periodsare6 months each. . ORT, M. KROONt F. vir Centraal Bureau Catalogues BARTELS, Druk. weduwen Nederlandsche nader is Schuurman Wilink N.V.11937. van uitvoering Druk. met bealuiten Nederlandsche regeling register. Zesde'Druk. vormend lager 1920, S.778, Rijksuitgeverij, hage, Rijksuitgeverif, 1934/35-1936/37. Mededeeling Mededeeling Mededeeling Mededeeling Mededeeling tion of bij het Tjeenk Willink Leraren Hoogeronderwijswet. Middlebaar Middelbaar Onderwijs 1939/40. Middelbaar Statistiek 1938/39. Pensioenwet Statistiek het Hooger Statistiek-Nan Zwolle, (redadeur).. gewijzigd, Zwolle, W. A. van hetMiddelbaal. and study en weezen. elementary Middelbaar aan Nederndsche en alphabetische & ,Jotdens EN ANDERE zooals die 2 2 van betHooger in 1938. Z4o1le, No. voor deStatistiek. Staatswetten, Staatswetten, Ned. No. Onderwijswet. Onderwijs No. W. E. No. van hetVoorbereislend p. No. onderwijs Onderwijs ter p. 1938. 1922. N. V. Landbouwonderwijs hpudende E. J.1 135. plans from 's-Gravenhage, 117. het 112. 110. uityoering, pyrnnasien Lager school 133. 632 Met J. Tjeenk W. E.J. No. 9. Onderwijs. 1939. wet naderis 9 Buitengeiaoon 159.p. 9 Wet Tjeenk Willink p. 261 1936. Wetten Staatswetten, in het (redactie): 8 April (Dukh aanteekeningen, 31 Januari met 15 December THE in hetJakr p. 8 Januari Onderwijswet teachers. . registers. toensioenrgeling ;% Februari Source Editie Editie Onderwijs, , °95 van Bibliowaphy -4 various Twaalfde aanteekeningen, Wet Onderwijs jaar Willink 1N. en vandeAlgentene Tjeenk aanteekeningen 338 NETHERLANDS p. tot regeling de 5den 1939. Netherlandish) Afdeeling Rijksuitgeverij, Schuurman 1936. van Schuurman gewijzigd, Material p. 1939. Jaarhoekje Lager 1939. 1940. 1938. universities Nederlandsche met 1940. Editie Willink N. den 2den N. V., zooals deze 1938. Hooger Druk. 1920, Het bijlagen Mei 1934/35 V., 1937. 19e Jaargang. 6 aanteekeningen, Onderwijs voor Cultureele Het van 6 p. Het ,De Schuurman tot regeling Gewoon & Jordens 1912, S. 1935. p. De bijvoegsels & Jordens Wet Zwolle, W. en alphabetisch en Middelhaar van Mei bet Hooger de Voorbereidend Voorbereidend and en alphabetischregister. y., 1934. Onderwijzersopleiding 1936;37. 1938. Onderwijittrsopleiding Wet ambtenaren van Vereniging 452 1863, S. 557 Staatswetten, het schools 1935 38. en UitgebreidLager 240, Statistiek. nader is den p. No. & van hetalgemeen p. 230 Zwolle, W. Genootschap No. 17. en alphabetisch .'s-Gravenhage, zooals die Jordens No. E. J. 882 besluiten Odderwijs 9den October 50, 8. Zestiende for the p. . van en Hooger p. '8-Graven- Ilooger h.oudende Onderwijs gewijzigd register. Tjeenk hunne Zesde Editie Leraren educa- wet E.. J. t ter en 117 van 7.7 en en in in

-VIP ff1111111t,t11101,Mhiit ,, 118EDUCATION, APPOINTMENT,AND REMUNERATIONOF TEACHERS

Rijksuitgeverij Dienstvande NederlandscheStaatscourant.HetOnderwijs in het Jaar NegentienHonderd AchtenDertig.'s-Gravenhage,Algemeene Laildsdrukkerij,1939.513p.

SMIDT, H. X. HetAcademisch Statuut.(Koninklijk beslui4van15 Juni1921e Staatsblad No. 800).Metaanteekenigen.Uitgegevenmet machtigingvan Z. Exc.Den MinistervanOnderwijs,KunstenenWetenschappen.Tweede, Herziene Uitgave.Alphenaanden Rijn, N. Samson N.V., 1932.220p. VAN 'DAM, C. J.(redacieur).Bezoldigingsbesluit BurgeilijkeRijksambtenaren = 1934--Bes1uitvanden w 30stet;December 1933, S.783, tot vaststellingvan regelen 1 ten aanzienvande bezoldigingvanburgerlijkeRijksambtenaren, ff Wachtgeldbesi,t---Besluitvanden 3den Augustus1922, S. 749,tot regeling vande toekeningvanwachtgeldaanburgerlijkeRijksambtenaren,zooals dft Besluit sedertis gewijzigdenRijkskleedingbesluitBesluitvanden 12den December1928,nr.29, (Ned. Stet.1928,nr.246) totvaststelling 'van bepalingenten aanzienvande dienstkleedingvoorzieningvooralle burgerlijke Rijksdienstenmet aanteekeningen, bijlagenen alphabetische registers. NeederlandscheStaatswetten, Editie Schuurnian& Jordens No.93, Zesde Druk.Zwolle, W. E. J. TjeenkWillink N. V., 1934.552p. Wijzigingvande Lager-Onderwijswet1920en van daarmede verbandhoudende bepalingen der Pensioenwet1921; (Staatsblad No.240).Aan deTweede Kamer der Staten-General.Zitting 1937-1938. No. 409.1. Koninklijke Boodschap. 1p. No. 409.2. OntwerpvanWet. 19p. No. 409.3. MemorievanToelichtfng. 18p. Secondary Works (DutchNetherlandish) WENT, F. A.F. C. HetUniversitaire Levenin Nederland.'s-Gravenhage, Martinus Nijhoff,1924. 71p.

(French)

IDENBURG, PHILIP J. Lesécoles desPays-Bas.Avecune pr6face desonExcellence le Ministrede l'Instruction,des Beaux Artset des Sciences.La Haye, Edition W. P.vanStockum &Zoon S. A., 1937.82p. pier/ (English) WIMMERT, J. H. Asurveyof theorganization and theextent of theeducational establishments inthe town of TheHague (Netherlands).The Hague, [mimeographed)1937.23p. Periodicals (DuichNetheriandish) De Bode. Ormuivande bondvan Nederl.Onderwijzers.Amsterdam.

^ % -Ity4-4,;dif-

41.

O P, 11, 1111111110 N _ HAI I awl . 111311=11 AEIMPT_, I Ill CIE It EPE' E_E qim .JJ Nb."4141111111 "11411 II II II ul C. %. e1.411ft VI .%. dab ...di°. ge. %, og's / N dlI dub ill gib ... sift% 4. P%. .., V 4,40 inu e' - 4. Er. cac sas.4 41 , de. l" .11 4 v Er/ 4

E P If A ,!111101011 011111111 !!!! '4 fri !IF! - ça Ettir ?let Swedish. life of stitute the local ing, lanthushialning economics tongue, history, tary school addition oranother these 50; thatin education of I Throughout with remaining school which and school, children of school primary provide oharing time services locations two districts. devote all school tp locationand sakaulu, sakoulu, Subjects (kansakoulu, The Education, providing A district handwork, Organization 286742---41 shortened the fewer thim Tbe first limits, for number 12, divided year, must provide either may school the an upperelementary commtmity. this school agricultural in högre of snaskola) within (literally 28 her word in are higher another the section ofthe services of inatruction.The are the be fixed with for to thoseofthe fixed course!' of och huslig of pupils folkskolan) time gymnastics, board Appointment, folkskola).' religion geography, nattiral If it primary of elf age 9 devoted 26 parentheses offers district them within 6 weeks a the at least30 Primary elementary teacher. teacher district. to children or "farm is is a menta and economics bulletin thedanslation same or with the one district, 1-teacher ambulatory, the at least ambulatory. 36 weeks This or in the is Finnish; ambulatory. school ekonomi), is to chilliren a 4-yearhigher each comprises ry educatioh.The teacher histo7 of 'offers and housekeeping district. and divided reduced The of school; children subjects school upper elemeltary upper elementary the between approval compulsory (school the seoond. elementary a 15, Elementary Schoóls to 40. singing. of and higher I subject 36 weeks with or district, arithmetic she instruction must have science, or a 2-yearprimary school and if of divide A primary A district of significaot age religion of of Remuneration If it the the divides Swedish. another primary elementary When of the elementary instruction and mgre and elementary In beginning the has school %;ith contribute school is fixed, her of schooling agricultural regular nonagricultural and no and terms isgivenin home number of a year. her the an a year closely inspector location, time with school school school school. regular morality, age geometry, draw- attached enlarged time number elementary school the school in equally and close economics" school fewer a school allied may, instead toward fixed with is limited the age oF The between teacher 40 weeks a and höme 18 weeks. elementary may sub- children 121 A district Finnish is Teachers year; age must elemen- mother and the exceeds than location primary by the to the between (ylkkan- primary (alakan- fixed areas of the their school and the. may full- ono two to 30 of of as

1111111111{11111iilee 122EDUCATION,APPOINTMENT,ANDREMUNERATIONOF TEACHERS

On cqmpletiouof the0-year elementaryschoolachild whodoesnot continueatanothertype of schoolmust attendacontihuationschool for the following2years.The requiredsubjects ofinstructionin the continuation schoolAreliterature,sociology,agriculturaleconomics, and homeeconomicsorhandwork.To theseareaddedwriting,arithmetic, andat most two othersubjects. School year.TheregularelementaryschoolopensaboutSeptember 1; the reducedelementaryschool,August1; and both closethe middle of June.The higherelementaryschool andthe36-weekprimary school haiveaChristmasvacation of18 days; theothertypes of primary school,3 weeks.\Thennecessary, aschoolboardin the countrymayextend thevacation foralonger periodduring thedarkest and coldestpartof theyear.Easter holidaysbegin theThursday before EasterSunday andlastatleast throughthe followingMonday. In additionthe higherelementaryschool andthe 36-weekprimary schoolhavet&port,vacation(urheiluloma,sportlov) ofat least 4 days during theperiod fromFebruary25 to March5,orin specialinstances with theconsent of the inspector,evenlater. Vacationsare notcountedas a partof the workperiod ofthe school, but one-halfthesport vacation,not exceeding 3 days,maybe counted when theteachers of theschool inaccordance withinstructionsfrom the StateBoard ofEducationarein charge ofthe pupils'sports. Number of hoursof instructionaweek .Thehigher elementary schoolhas from30 to 32 classhours of instructionaweek; theprimary school,24;and each levelof the reducedelementaryschool thesame asthe corresponding level ofthe regular. 1- Teachersat higher and reducedelementary schoolsare*uiredto offernotmorethan32 hours ofinstructionaweek, includinghours of instructionin continuationclasses.Primary schoolteachersmaybe requiredto offer in additionto the work of theprimary scboolup to .4 hoursaweek ofinstructionin the higherelementaryschoolor tn continuationclasses insofarutheyarequalified. Language/ ofinstruction.Instructionin theelementaryschool is given in themothertongue (FinnishorSwedish) of themajority of the pupilsof, the school. Education Education ofelementaryschool teadieret.Education inpreparation forapositionasregularteacheratastelementaryschool is offered at 12 seminariesfor theeducation ofelementary schoolteachers (kansakoulunopettajueminaarit,folkskollirar- ochliirarinneseminai- ier), thePedagogicalHighSchoolat Jyviskyli, andanacademiccon- tinuationcourse at the -University ofHelsinki.AllareState insti- ;to Finnish entrance may at the Some musical, graduation possess information only, vaccinated, I Some Nam inboth Table They offer language of Suistamo, now Requiremenis folkskola). tary schools seminarier) of tutions. Seminaries is given be *ors in Obserration Gymnastics, primary Practice Singing and idea who Penmanship Drawing Handwork Arithmetic Home Mo P Rel three 29.Man study. in obtained examinations have Total on andhistory '4 first; that environment, languages. operation of the are atleast . Finland teaching tongue from os, methods, The seminaries and a 2-year . Iláineenlinna and . music instruction Sub)«i and play, and school of sound for (ylikansakouluseminaarit, _for the . geome have . and in E,¡ studies stminaries have broad from a . . eight Swedish, of admiAtion.These of reltinon geography, higher preparation two psychnlogy, hygiene Instruction opened curriculum . and . teachers for . health, for nameeane Finnish. 17 the completed education with basis at Vasa, for !flours -.- is school in the years skill ..... elementary followifig and Finnish; parentheses. (TavastAus), the and are seminary Finnish with in of nature . and (alakansakouluseminaarit, ethics parent hetsrs Khoo/ corresponding education of year 1936-37: which selection of of F1NLAN the age, school a two kinds: faultless for the primary at thatof year 1937-38 the other Place 36 summary ofthe as 5 5 3 3 3 3 6 3 4 seminaries is art higher (3) school: of the Hours D given names not 4;tionall for education seminarier year 1921-22. of good t I and Swedish. language Fall 36 [nester a weirk teachers xchool 6 physical admission, 5 2 2 2 2 4 4 3 3 elementary (3) in the to that 015 Vaasa ile Four character, ' Tornio They followed are for each In this of spring I l taidwrs.--The mester primary following för open to for (Vasa), at higher of 36 12 results bulletin must also constitutions. 6 A by 6 ki-hti, 6 se- required (Tornert), particularly instruction, lärare -^ i the parentheses 72 smilskollärar- - have At school school ) Pat the Total 1011 !Oki, 6 6 4 4 4 Ali' 4 411 Swedish.' V education women of iv those name in table: J. elemen- i teachers been the hogre for are be or four the 123 of *

Ifiritr4 mir! t I . AI)

t' 6'1 - 0 124EDUCATION,APPOIN7IER'4)1k!.1)REMUNERATI0NOF TEACHERS 4 so Tobie W.Admissionto maisiimiosfor time edreatiam ofwillowy same, teocioen dories irrimmired/1936-17 _ :

=het &twit Led to"Dental* e ULM 1- Pupils admitteduo ciaoItram- canonwhowere - Evemlaar ff kr- Prepara- tory Fieir- % 4jfT t144 Re- mess- mum 001Ml 4 )1 Ng( T bual 14, MU1y 14,4 1 an' , arbool at41 12- itocki ortuloil

Oft rts sbli

S.tilf1 &M., It I rto V s 16 X 1 Hlitnereilir. ns AV 111 AO On T Zd-cski X* i 77 g 1 vt 3 lk 7 . %.4 IA VIota 14 2 1 2 7 i 4 T tp4 - 114 St" 20 1.4 In gymnastics and music, studentsattheseseminariesrrceive instruction qualifying themtoteach these subjectseven at ahigher elementary school.Further,astudent whopo&kiesses greaterskillin handwork than isrequiredfor graduation fromahigher elementary schoolis given opportunitytoqualify for teachingit alsoatahigher elementary school. In additiontoregular students eachseminarymayadmitnotmotif' than six bospitants.Theymusthavecompletedaschool for girlsor amiddle school.A hospitantmustfollow theinstructionof the seminary for Iyearin the subjects of eitherorboth classes selected for herby.thefaculty councilonthe basis of herprevious schooling, and participate in the regularmanlierir;the workatthe practice ,.90% school.During the schocilyear1936-37acertificate of qualification toteachatprimary schools(kelpoisuustodistuksen aiakansakouluo- pettajanvirkaan, kompetensintygfOrarrulskolliirartiinster)was grantedtoonehospitantatthe seminary of Tornio(Tonic* andto four at that of Hämeenlinna (Tavastehus).

Table 31.Statistics ofprimaryscoomabiatwies for adbooiyore,'1936-31

Teachers PA:silentsj Seminary . woo 111.41 11.

Mee Women Women 1 i 4

1 a 4

"'auk 's Saistamo 1 4 el - 1 tans 3 7 121 Tornio . 2 3 411 Small Vraa 2 3

Total 16 1 FINLAND 125 Simillarit;for the (durationfftfaciarsatAighfr (lemffibirby The eightseminariet-6for theeducationofteacheNat higher schoolsaresix with elementary Finnis.rillendiwo withSwedishasthelangjiage instruction.Ofthe of Finnish,thoseof,1vvAsky13,8Hamlin, Kayaaniarefor and men; those ofRaabe(Brahestad)and women; lane, that of Ileinola,for Sortavnlaformenandwomen.Of the that ofTammisaari Swedish, tElzeipts)As forwometi and thatof 1'ti4aar1epvy (Nvkarlehy)formen, Stati.stica)data fortheseseminariesare: Table31.Toodowsand'twit*rti at th, seta inentizs M,thoedvcationofteachers highreitmeotoryschools at A onfob.1, 1937 11"

#. .- - eik i 'bets 11i,nt% 4) NGn orrip-ri \Irn \% mbe n

3 4

4 RaI De fl ¿PA N A ar, Wax 1. 4 . Jrciigarli I 4 ' 4 4 Kkleart 11111i ' Katmai 1 Pt Sortsvia& 1 Noia 1 3 V 1 iN 1 4 '4 ftill Ficento S Nykatif tvy Ot) 2 f-bk

Tots.) . V 34 Apo 471 ..(i

1P. Curricula.Inthr iattit.r part of theRussianiwriodwhenRussian was introducedas a requiredsubject ofinstruction,theseninariesin 1916 addeda year to their4-year curriculum.AfterFinlandbecame independentRussianwwi abolished.butthroughadesireto raisethe standardofteachereducation thatfifthyearwas retained.Some 4eminarieswith Finnisiiasthelanguageofinstruction 3-yearcourse. Offeralsoa Priorto 1934 when the HighSchoolofPedagwywas opened Jyviskyla(p. 130) at secondary_schoolgraduatesandapplicants equivalentschooling with were admittedto theextent, thattheaccom- modationsallowed..AfterI year'. of studythesehospitants,as they. were callod,were granted qualificationto teachinelementaryschools (kansakoulunopettjanpitevyys,folkskolliitarkompetens). Exceptforminordetails duemaiplyto thedifferencein thelanguage ofinstructionthecurricula at theFinnish-andSwedishseminaries-are sTheseeninaryat Jyviiskyillwas founded in ducation iliaIn additionto beingthe oldestseminary of elemeotaryschoolteachers inFinland ithas the for the the"fatherof the distinctionof havinghadUnto Finnifbelementaryschool"as its firstdirector. ennuis', gagicalHighSchool Withtheestablishmentof thePeda- at Jyrliskyliiin lO4.provonwas made for the theabsorptionatits gradualclosingof theseminaryand property byti*PsdagoikalHighSchool (p.(130). eThsasaguary at Tammineri(Euni.)was (maltedin UM. withilwedisitas the Itwas the firstseminaryin Finland . lawn.altostroction. , 126EDUCATION,APPOINTMENTIs AND REMUNERATION OFTEACHERS

similar.Thetwo types of curricula offeredat seminaries with Finnish asthe language median' follow:

Table 33.Plan of studies for the5-yearelementóryschoolseminariesformenwith Finnishasthe language medium

Hoursa weektor esch schoolyear Subject of instruction I - ' 11 III ! IV V Total

1 4 5 6 7 2

Religion and church history 2 2 2 2 1 9 Pedagogics, didactics, and psychology 4I 4 3 11 Practice teaching 1 1 Mother tongue 5 4 4 1 19 History and civics 2 3 2 i 2 1 10 Geography and economic geography 3 2 2 2 f Natural history and theory of evolution 3 2 2 2 1 .94 Rural housekeeping, gardening, homeeconomic . 2 2 2 el Chemistry and physics. , ...... _ 4 3 2 2 f 114 1 Mathematics , 4 3 3 3 1 134 Bookkeeping 1 1 2 Hygiene and temperance . . . . 2 2 1 4. Gymnastics and sports 3 3 3 3 2 144 Singing and music 2 2 2 2 1 9 Chorus singing ..... I1 Penmanship 1 1 2 Drawing _ 3 2 2 f 104 1 Handwork (sloyd) 6 6. 3 3)1 1 184 Gui eein ljbrary work 1 1 =i Total 37 36 17

IAt all seminaries forwomen 4heursaweekaredevoted, res¡ectively,to home economics in classes IV and V and to handwofk in classes 1 and H. I At all seminaries with Swedishasthe language of instruction,atotal of 7 hours of Finnish is offered in classes I to IV (2,.2, 2, 1 hours, respectively).For this rural housekeeping in class III is reducedto I hour; chemistry and physics, class I, to 1 hour; gymnastics, classes I to III, 2, 2, 2, hours, respectivelr, drawing, elms IV, to 2 hours; and handwork, class II, to 3 hoursat seminaries for women and to 5 hours at seminaries formen. 3 For the 5 years. Table 34.Plan of studies for the- 3-year curriculum of the elementary school'seminary Hoursaweek for each schoolyear Subject of instruction 111mr. H Ill Total

1 3 4

Religion 2 3 1 6 Pedagogics, didactics, and psychology..._ _ 3 3 4 10 Practice teaching 1 1 44 Mother tongue. _ , _ i...... 4 4 1 9 History and civics 3 2 1 6 Geography and economic geography_ Alt. 2 2 277i Natural history h vot.,2 2 2 43 A Ruralhousekeeping and iirIen1nj - .' y 2 2 J. 4h

Home economics_ _ 1 Chemistry and physics_ _ iS _ 2) 43,4 Mathematics 3 3 ev% Hygiene i ..- . - _ - --#._ 1 1 2

Gymnastics andsport p 3 3 3 9 Singing and music el 3 2 1 6 Chorus singing I1 Drawing 2 2 SIoyd formen.._ ,.,.....,_ 4 -- 6 6 13 Handwork forwomen._ 4 3 . _ _ _ - - -q- 8

'Total jotmen 38 38 17 .--

4 Total forwomen .. 36 35 17

, . IFor the 3years- - - -

FINLAND 127 Requirement joradmission..Foradmissionto the5-year curriculum the applicant must haveschooling.equivalentat leastto thatrequired for graduationfromanelementaryschool.Admissionto the3-year curriculumòfferedatsomeof theseminarieswithFinnishasthe languitge ofinstructionrequiresgraduationfromaschoolfor girlsor a frommiddleschool.Theremainingrequiremefits,includingth4t of 17years as theminimumage, are similartoth-oseforadmissionto tire seminaries forprimary schoolteachers(p.123). The large numberof applicantsfrom whomthoseadmittedto study, particularlyattheseminarieswithFinnishasthe languageof instruc- tionareselected,maybeseenfromthefollowingsummary of the results of theentranceexaminationsofferedin1936-37.Thesunt maryshows alsothat of the199 applicantsadmittAto the first-tveai class at the variousschoolsonbrthree-eighthswereadmittedonthe minimumrequirementofcompletedelementaryschooling.Of the remainingfive-eighthsall butone camefromsecondaryschools.

4 Table35.Statistics of admissionto semin'ariesfor theeducation 6fteachersat higher elementaryschools duringschoolyear 1936-37

Number ad- ' Pupils admitted mittedtoen- _ trance esamina- tion whowere To classI from Seminary Prepar- To Admit- Ele- classes Re- men- atory Second- Total tedto course II to V studyjected tary ary school and school school

3 6 7 8 - 1111 -"- Finnish

Raabe. . . . . 30 96 10 20 .Heinola 34 57 30 JyyttskylA ...... 30 4 34 Kft:laani- - - - ...... 31 82 18 12 31 Rauma . 30 28 ..... _ .. 30 Bortavala 67 183 30 30 30 7 67

Swedish ; Ekenlis 17 7 1 8 17 Nykarleby 17 10 7 17 Total 226 446 75 123 27 226. Practice teathing.Eachseminaryhasan attached practiceschool (semina''arien harjoituskoulu,seminarie,tivningsskola).Atthesemi- naries forhigherelementaryschoolteachersthiscomprises: 1. A complete elementaryschool, i.e., a 6-class elementaryschool witha separate teacher foreachclass'. 2. A 1-teacherhigherelementaryschool,i.e., a4-classhigher elementaryschoolof thetype genererallyfoundinrural areas(p. 121). .128EDUCATION,APPOINTMENT,AND REIUNLI;ATIONOF TEACHERg

3. At the semiwaries forwomen, a continuation class forgirls "withcareof the homeand homeeconomicsasthe main subjects./ Practicete4ching is dividedinto fourorfive shiftsfor the schoolyear. Du'ringeach shiftthe candidateoffers instructioninone or two subject§ inoneof the classesof the6-year elementaryschool.The subjects changewith the eliftand whenit is deemedadvisable classes alsoarechanged.fnthe first shiftactual teachingis confinedto the 6-classelementary schoQl,but.the candidateaudits instructionof the regular teacherin the 1-teacherhigher elementaryschool.Beginning wahthe second shift, pricticeteaching inthe 1-tèacher divisionis conductedside by sidewith thatof the 6-classelementaryschool. Eachcandidate participatesforatotal oftwo shifts in the1-teaçher division, eachshift comprising2 weeks.During eachof thesetwo shiftshe offers oralinstructiontooneclass andat thesametime is responsiblefor the silotoccupation inthe subjects itssignedfor the other classesof the division. ,In tilecontinuation classthe candidatesarerequired mainlyto attend andobserve instructiongiven by theregularteachkr.Women, however, shouldinclude intheir practiceteaching, lessonsin thecare 1ofthe home and inhome economics. At the seminariesfor primaryschool teachersthe practiceschool is aprimary school.During thefallterm when the seminarystudents of thesmondyeaimerely observeclasses inthe practiceschoolcon- ducted byaregular teacher thepilpilsof thepractice schoolare diVided intdtwo divisions; duringthe springsemester when the studentsengagein practiceteaching, intofour divisions.In both terms each divisionhicludespupils ofeach of thetwo classes of the Primary , Here also practiceteaching is dividedinto shiftswith differentsbb- jecisof instructionsothat by theend of thesemester the practice teacher will have'hadopportunitytorwork underguidance in all primary schoolsubjects.While offeringinstructioninoneclass the practice teacher alsodirects andsupervisesthe busyworkorsilent occupation of theother class ofthe division. At bothtypes of seminaries the fracticeteaching isdirectedand supervised by theseminaryinstructor ofthe subjectconcerned.He decidesontheparts and phases of thesubjectto ke taught during each shift, looksoverthe hoursof instructionat the disposal ofthe students, andattends their practiceteaching foraprescribednumber of hoursaweek.At theseminaries forhigher elemeniaryschool teachers this numberis for themothertongut, 6 hours; religionand gymnastics,4 hours each; history,geography,mathematics,drawing, *handwork, andsinging,3 hours each; naturalhistory, 2 hours.At the seminaries for primaryschoolteachers theaverageestimatednumber 1 FINLAND 129 of hoursa weekofattendanceat prácticeteaching Further, the per instructoris3. directorandtheinstructorinpedagogyat each must attendinstruction seminary in allsubjectsofthepr;cticeschool. Practiceteachingis criticizedeitherindividuallyor ata general conference bytheinstructorsattendingthelesson. cismmaybe Individualcriti- givenimmediatelyafterthelessonor teacherpresents his thepractice planforthenext hourofinstruction. subjectteacherof the Ifthe seminaryhasnot attendedthelesson criticism isgivenby the individual . teacherof thepractice ervation of school.Forthepres- uniformity,however,generalconferences held.They forcriticismare are attendeaby allpracticeteachers son, aswell presentat the les- asbSrtheteachersofthesemin'aiyand The thepracticeschool. subject-matterteacherswhoalsoare charged with of special theinstruction methodsandtheteaçherofpedagogy of theirregular frequently,as a part instruction,advisestudentson points in*which have notedintheir they observationworkat thepracticeschool of generalcomment. theneed In additionto practiceininstructionstudent opportunityfor teachersare given practiceintheadministrativedutiesof Theyaremade a classroom. familiaralsowithmethodsoflearningthe characteristicsoftheir individual pupilsandobtainingany neededgeneral mationconcerningthem. infor- Finalexaminations.Atthe seminariesfor theeducationofprimary schoolteachersnorealfinalexaminations the higher are offered.Atthosefor elementaryschoolteacherspart I .ofthefinal is offeredat thecloseof examination thefourthyearofstudy;part II,at the close of thefifthyear, according to planspreviouslyapprovedby the BoardofEducation State (skolstyrelsen).Theexaminationsare written andoral.PartIIof the examinationgenerallyincludessubjectsand projects completedduringthefinalyearofstudy. Faculty. .Eachseminaryisundertheimmediate directorwhoat the supervisionofa seminariesforwomenisassistedbya cipal,Thefacultyof woman prin- a seminaryforprimary-schoolteachers prisesinadditionmen and com- women teachers;thatofa seminary for higherelementaryschoolteachersfor in all men, lectors(lehtorit,lektorei) subjectsexceptelementaryinstructionin playing) music(instrumental whichmay6etaughtby onewiththerank thehigher ofteacher.At elementaryschoolseminariesforwomen, singing, gymnastics,and drawing, homeeconomicsneednot betaughtby Qualificationfor lectors. direct0ofaseminaiyforprimaryschool requiressuàcessinthe teachers examinationforthedegreeofcandidatein philosophy(p. 141),,oifor onewho isan elementaryschoolteacher,in an individualexamination withequivalentrequirementsin fivesub- jectsincludingpedagogics. Qualificationasteacherrequires-gradua- tionfromaseminaryfor higherelementaryschoolteachers,successin 130EDUCATIONAPPOINTMENT,ANDREMUNERATIONOF TEACHERS

the examination inpedagogics(p. 131),and in thecontinuationexami- nation for elementaryschoolteachers (p.131). Ateacher ofgymnas- tics must have passedthe examinationfor teachersofgymnastigsat the universtiy(p. 145) andthe examinationin pedagogics. Qualificationasdirectororlectorataseminaryfor higherelementary school teachersrequires in additiontosuccessin ttexaminaitonfor ,4 the degree ofcandidate inphilosophy(p. 141)and examinationin pedagogics (p.144),two terms of practicaleducationatanormal lyceum,successin the practicalexamination inteaching(kiitbnnölliset kokset, praktiskt liirarprovp.144)at the seminary,andat leasta2- month period ofacquiring knowledgeof theorganizationand instruction in the ruralelementaryschool underthesupervisioqof the elementary school inspector.Qualification forappointmentasteacher,* requires evidenccitof basicinsight in thesubjectorsubjectsof the position in questioh: . Pedagogical High Schoolat Jyydskyld(KasvatusopillinenKorkea- koulu, Pedagogiskaflevskokin).ThePedagogicalHigh Schoolat Jyviiskylii,aState institutionwith Finnishasthe languageof instruction,wasopenedat thebeginningof scluiolyear1934-35.5 Itspurpose istoprepare youngmenandwomenwho havepassed thestudent examination (p.139) for elementaryschoolteaching, provideinstrue, tion in pedagogy forteachersat other types of schools,arrangeeon- tinuationcoursesforfurtheranceof theprofessionaleducationof teachersat the various institutionsof learning,and conductand promote scientific investigationin the fieldsof educationand instruction.The immediateadministration of .theschool is inchargeofa rector assisted byafaculty councilcomprised of theprofessorsof the school andthree of its lectorsselected fora3-year period.Instruction is free. Faculty.The facultycomprisesprofessors,lectors,teachers, docents, andtemporary assistants. Forappointmentasprofessorthe applicantmust have passed thelicentiateexamination inphilosophy (p. 143)atoneof the universitiesof Finland,and shownthrough publications exceptionalscientific abilityin his fieldof work. Appointmentaslector requiressuccessin thelicentiateexamination in philosophyand evidenceof goodtheoreticaland practicalinforma- tion in educationalmatters in general andparticularlrconcerning instruction intbe subjectfield ofthe position inquestion: Onewho hasnot passed, the licentiateexaminationmaybe appointedlector if in additiontoanacademic degre4qhe has shownthroughpublished wörks ability inscientificresearch.Appointmentaslectorintsubject in whichnoacademic degreeis offeredorqualificationasteacjier requires thoroughtheoretical and praciicaleducation in thesubject concerned andof itsmethods ofiustruction. 4

fte footnote3, page 125. FINLAND 4. 131 Academicyear.Theyearhasafall term fromSeptember1 t4.? December20, winterterm fromJanuary18to May31, and term from June summer 15 to July31. Thefall andspringterms to the education aredevoted ofehuentaryschoolteachers;thesummer term and accordingto need the òtherterms,to continuatiohinstructionfor teachersfromvarioustypes ofschools. Requirementsforaclmisgion.---Eachyearthe C. Ministryafter tion withthe State (consulta- BoardofEducationdeterminesthenumberof studentsiobeadmittedto the highschool..The selectión the faculty is madeby councilonthe basisofdatafromtheapplications, .whichmust be each of accompaniedby thefollowinglisteddocuments: 1.Certificateof goodconduct. 2. Certified copyof thecertificate ofhavingpained the , tipn studentor matricula- examination(ylioppilastutkintodistus,intyg examen (p. 139). Over avlagdstudent- 3. Certifiedcopy of thecertificate , ofgraduationfromthesecondaryschool (piiiitötodistus,dimissionsbetyg). 4.Certificate ofgoodhealth madeoutaccordingtoprescribedform byan -% accreditedphysician. 5.Certificateofmusicalability from theteacher ofmusicat thesecondary schoolfrom,whichthestudent waa graduated i1essa mark inmOicis given inthecertificateofgraduation. Studyplans.Bytheend ofëachAprilthe'faculty outonthe basis councilworks ofreçommendationsfromthefacultystudy plails thefollowingspring for andfallterms; andbeforethe endof studyplan forthe March,a followingsummer term.Theplansare subjectto theapprovaloftheMinistry. Examinations.Theexaminatiottsofferedbythe HighSchoolarethe: Pedagogical Highschoolexamination forelementaryschooltéachers(korkeakoulun) kansakoultnopettajiiutkinto, hógskolansfolkskolleirarexamen)which marksthecompletionof the 2-yearctirriculumforyoung peoplewho ,havepassedthestudentexamination. Continuation examinationforelementaryschoolleachers(kansakoulun- opettajien.jaikotuticinio, fortsetttningsexamenforfolkskollarare)which arks thecompletionofa course forpersons who already ficatibnfor havequali- elementaryschoolteaching.Theexaminationmay includepracticalworkinteaching. Examinationinpedagogy(pedagogiikkatuticinto, Themarksmade pedagogieexamen.) inthisexaminationare equivalentto thoseof the corresppndingexamiriationat theUniversityof Other Helsinki(p.140). examinationsmaybeofferedinaccordancewith reiulaiions approvedbythe Ministry.Inadditionaprofessormáyofferan individualexaminationin hisownfieldofwork the that willcount toward candidateexaminationinphikisophy(p.141). 132EDUCATION,APPOINTMENT,AND REMUNERATIONOF TEACHERS

Academiccontinuationcoursefor elementaryschool teaaers(kan- 1.1 sakoulunopettajienalcateeiniajaikokurssi,akademiskfortsdUningskurs forfolkskolidrare).Eachyear anacademiccontinuationcoursefor elementary schoolteachers is offeredat the University ofHelsinki. It isa1-yearcourse opento all elementary schoolteachers.For the encouragement of theyoungandmoregifted thereareState scholar- ships.Thecourseis arrangedfromyeartoyearbyacommittee of university professorsand compriseslectures inpedagogy andother subjects of valueto thegroupofstu'dentsfor whichit is designated. Beyond thatof beingtin elementary schoolteacher thereisno admissionrequirements andnoexaminationsortentamina (p.141). , Completion ofthecourse,however, is markedbyacertificate.The annualattendance varie4from 50to 80 andover. One who hastaken thepourse maylater takeanexamination in pedagogy, literature,history, andsociology, andthereby obtain qualification forappointmentasinspector. Appointment Elementary schoolMarkers.Avacancyinateaching positionexcept when theposition is offeredtoateacher whosepreviousposition has been abolished(p. 134) is announcedregularly bythe local school board in thegeneralnewspaperand in anotherpaperof the language of the instructionat the school.Application forthe positionto- gether withthe certificates ofcharacter and professionalqualification must be filed with the boardwithin the prescribedtime which is generally from20 to 30 days.An applicant:inactive servicemus present alsoacertificate of conductand qualityof workasteache from,theagchool board bywhich he is employed.Selection ofteache is subjectto the approval of theinspector.If theinspector finds that hecannot confirm the appointmentthecaseis referredto the State Board ofEducation. After 2yeah; of satisfactoryserviceonprobationthe local school board inconsultation with theinspeptor Wilesanotice ofpermanent appointment for theposition (nimitys,utnämningsbrevorfullmakt). Ifateacher hasanotice ofpermanent appointmentforaformer position theperiod of probationis1yearonly.Again, if thein-: spector ahd school board disagreeonthe questionofpermanent appointment thecaseis referredto the State Board ofEducation. An applicantmaynot apply formorethanonepositionatatime, nor may ateacher who hasreceivedappointment refuseto accept the positionorfailto report for dutyat the legally prescribedtime.The legal time forentering and leavingaposition isAugust1.A position for probationaryservicecannot be filled later thanthe preceding

July20.A positionnot filled by then becomes forthe folio !.;a rear asubstitute position. FINLAND 133

The principalofanelementaryschoolisappointed bythelocal school board for 3yeamfrom theregularor probationaryteachemof the schoolonthe basisof thesentiment ofthe faculty.The selection is confirmedby theinspector. Leave ofabsencefromservicemaybegranted bythe localschool board foraperiod4t, most of1 month; forlongerthan that,bythe inspectorontherecommendationof theschoolboard. Remuneration 7:P e Salaries inruralareas.In ruralareasthe salariesofelementary sChoolteachersarepaid partlyin kind(literally"naturaladvantages" naturförmAner)by thelocality;and-partly inmoney,inclucfinga StAte subsidy.Thepayment in kindcomprises forteachersat elementaryandreducedelementaryschools:Lodging,includingfor men three andforwomen tworoomswithkitchen, fuel,light,barn, fodder- andwoodshed,bathhouse,cellar,storehouse andwell,pasture for one cow, and at leastone-halfhectarc4 cultivatedgrowlnea the school. Forprimary-schoolteachersit, is:Lodgingwithatçeast one room and kitchen. fuel; li htwoodshed;.share incellar, bth- . house, andwell; andat leastone-tenthhectar ofcultivatedground. The payment inmoney annually forteachers ofelenientaryand reducedelementaryschoolsis:

6 (a) A basic salaryof17,400 marksif theteacher isorhasbeen married, isthemain support oftilefamily,and haschildren; otherwise,15,000 marks. , (b)Educationalassistance of1,200 marksfor eachchildnot counting thefirst, if theteacherhasto supportmorethan ,, onechildunder16yearsofage. A (e) Fourincreasesotitpercent each ofthe basicmoney salaryat 4-year inter ; . Teachersat reducedelementaryschools receive inadditionfor thelongerperiod ofinstruction, . 2,400 marks. For primaryschoolteachersthere isabisicsalary of10,200 marks with tbe same educationalassistance andincreasesasToranelemen,- tary schoolteacber. , r-- In additionto his salaryasteachertheprincipalofan elementary schoolreceives600 marksa year. Thehonorariumforovertimeinstructionpnelementaryor tion continua- schoollevelsorforpart-timeinstructionin sloydis450 marks per week-hour a year.Teachersofdrawingand sloydat schooLs where thenumber ofchildrenis largeenoughto warrantappointment forfull-time serviceingthesesubjectsreceivethesamesalary andhave thesame pension privilegesasother regularteachers. , One markka(mark)at mintpar wu worth4.26 cents in United Statesmoney on April1, 1940. 1) 134EDUCATION, APPOINTMENT,ANDREMUNERATIONOF TEACHERS

A teacher withpermanent appointmentwhose positionis abolished and for whomnoinunediáteopeningcanbe foundreceives duringthe firstyearof unemploymentasalary equalto that received whilein service and thereafteran amountequalto the pension for thetype of position abolished.Paynfentceases,howeever,ifthe teacheris appointedto another position,enters the service ofthestateorother permanent position,orif he refusesto acceptaposition similartohis former positionin thesame communeor a temporary position forwhich het is qualified. During theperiod oftemporary appointmentthe teacherisonaboli:- tion salarystatus insofarasit is higherthan thesalary of theinterim position. Salaries in citirs.Forthe establishmentof thebasic salaryfor elementary schoolteachers inurbanareasthe citiesof Finlandare divided into3 classes withreferenceto thecost of living.The classification is revisedeveryfifthyear.The basicsalary is for: 1. An elementary schoolteacher who isor has been married, isthe main support ofafamily, andhas children:In cities ofthe firstclass, thatis, with the highestcost of living, 26,400marks; secondclass, 25,200marks; third class, 24,000marks. 2. Other elementaryschool teachers: Incities of thefirst class,22,400 marks; second clam,21,200 marks;third class,20,000 marks. 3. Primary schoolteachers: Incities of the firstclass, 17,400marks; second claw, 16,200 marks;third class,15,000 marks. The educationalassistance is thesame asfor teachersin thecountry. Therearefour salaryincreases of4percent each of the basicsalaryat 4-year intervals. Citiesmay arrange their salaries differentlybut theminimum amountas awholecannot be less thanthat indicated. Penzions.After30yearsof serviceateacher whoisat least 60 yearsofage mayretire andreceive for theremainder oflifea state pension amountingto 12,000 marksa yearfor teachersat elementary and reducedelementaryschools andto 7,200 marks forprimary school teachers.Incaseofpermanent disabilityateachermayretire earlier and receiveanincome equivalentto one-fourth ofthe fullpensionfor the first5yearsof serviceplusone-twentiethof the fullpension for each additionalyear, sothat incaseof disabilityafter20yearsof service tbe fullamount is received. Communitiesmayincrease theamount of pension,and incities pensionsare, as arule, higher,often60percent of the finalsalary. In individualinstancescountry communitiesalso have increasedthe pensions oftheirteachers,evenif theamountsarenoiat all pretentious. FINLAND 135

Elementaryschoolfradters'.fund forwidowsand orphans(kanmkoul- unopettajien leskija orpokassai,folkskoildrarnas-Ankeochpupiatissa) Allcompetentmenteachersat elementaryschoolsreceivingstate aid arepartowners f' of thisfund.The duespermemberare492 marks annually.For thewidow ofamember thefundprovidesfor lifeor until sheremarries,8,000 marksthe firstyearand5,000 marksfor eachyearthereafter.In additionit providesforchildrenunderIS yearsofage2,000 marks for1 child,anincrease of 1,600marks forthe second child,and of500 marks foreach additionalchild. Incasethere isnowidow,apension of8,000 marks isprovidedfor I child for the firstyearand5,000 marksa year thereafter.Fora second childtheamount is increased2,000 marksa year; forathird child, 1,000marks; and foreach additiorialchild,500 marks. A child whois ill, mentally incapac:itated,orotherwiseunableto support himself continuesto receiveapension beyondtheageof18 yeársuntil heis cured' ofhis maladyorreadyto takecareof himself.

SecondarySchools.

Organization of thesecondaryschool.--The233 secondaryAchools maintained in1937-38were,whenclassified by source%c;fincome,89 stateschools,2 communal,and142 Private.Classifiedas tonumber ofyearsof elementaryschoolingrequired foradmission,theywereof two types: An oldertype basedon4yearsof elementaryschooling anda newer type provided for bylaw ofFebruary24, 1928,basedon _the complete6-year elementaryschool.hi theolder'typearethe 8-year lyceums,5-year middleschools,9-year lyceums,for girls,and' 6-year schools for girls.In, thenew lox,arethe6-year lyceums,3-year middle schools,and 7- and4-year oolsforgirls. Lyceums (ly8e6t,lyceer).---The liceumisan 8-year school madeup ofa5-year middle schoolanda 3-year gymnasium.In the latter instruction iseither alongaclassicalor amodern (real)line.Of dui37 schools of thistype with Finnishasthe languageof instructioli,19are coeducationaland18, including3 classicallyceumswithcurricula stressing Gteek andLatin andanormallyCeum(p. 144),areschools for boys.Of the10 schools withSwedishasthe languageof instruction4 arecoeducationaland6, includingaclassicallyceum,arefor boys. The subjetsthe childrenstudy andthe timethey devoteto the different branches'aregiven in thefollowingtable. 136EDUCATION,APPOINTMENT,ANDREMUNERATIONOF TEACHERS 4 Table 36.Planof studiesof lyceumwith middleschool andparallelfrymnaSial classes [Hours inparenthesesare optional)

lotusa week for each schoolyear 01Millo - oyryin %slum Suh}ect ofinstruction Middle school f. Classic line Real hne V 11 I. v VI VI1VIII VI IIIII!

INIMM

1 'I 6 I I 7 A 19 11 I I! 14*. 410 ... - _ - . . IN;

. Religion 2 2 I 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Introductionto philosophy 2 .) 2 2 I 2 IAnguser Oinsiruction . 5 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Second officiallanguage 4 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 German . . 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 4 Frenchor Rtissian.. 3 1 3 4 I 4 4 4 1 4 4 IL. 1.ntin . . 6 6 6 I History and civic, . I 2 3 3 4 3 4 4 3 4 , 4 Geography 3 2 3 2 1 Natural history 3 2 2 1 2 I 2 3 1) 1 1 Phrks andchemistry i 3 I I (11 I I (2) (2) 2 I 2 2 M at hematics . .. s 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 ' I 1 5 S 5 Penmanship . Drawing andmodeling 3 3 {2 2 1 2 (2';( 2) I (2) . 2 i 2 2 O S y rn mottos . . 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 11 ygiene 1 1 Singing ...... 2 2 I I (1) f (1) (I) (I)i41) (1). (1) , (1) Rook kreping 1 1 1 English._ (2) (2) (2), (2) Sloyd ...... (2) I (2) 1 (2) !----,- .! Total ; ... 30 30 30 -31 31 1 31 32 i 32 31 32 i32

3 Pupils in the classicline may substitute physics andchemistry, anddrawing forFrenchorRussian. Middle schools(keskikoulut,melianskolor).Theseare 5-year schools that, like thefirst fiveclasses ofthe lyceum,have thedoublefunction of preparingstudents foradmissionto the gymnasiumclasses ofthe lyceumaridof providingageneraleducationthat willenablethose who donot continue formalschooling*to enter the lifeof thecom- munityat large. Schools forgirls(tyttökodui,flickskolor).Stateschools for girls are9-year lyceumsand6,-year schools forgirls.Therelationshipof the latterto the former issimilarto that of the5-year middleschool to the 8-year lyceum.

44) al. -0 Is FINLAND 37 Table,37.Pianofstudiesof the girls' schooland thelyceumforgirls IllouninparentrtAsetsare optional)

PI Hoursaweekfar eachschoolyear ...0.1.11.1. Sub)ect ofinittruction aif Is; school OrninSAIUm

1 Oa I I 1 I I V V ' VI VIIVIII IX Tutmi

os. ___. 6 6 7 6 10 II, ' _ Reltioti.. 2 2 2 2 2 ; Introductionto rhtlosoithy 2 2 I 2 114 443 Language ofinstruction 2 2 4 3 3' 2 4 Second official 2 3. , 3 language 4 2 2 j 3 .16 . 2 2 German . 3 2 2 .....,4 4 3 21 Frenchor English .. 3 4 3 3 e. ; 4 3 Htory 3 3 3 3, 10 2 2. 2 2 2 3 Oeoiu . 2 3 3 4 23 2 2 2 1 Nat hrstory 1 2 2 1 Physics andchemistry 2 ,2 2 21' 1 2.s 3 2 Mathematics . 4 2 2 2 II 3 4 .3 3 3 Penmanship . 4 4 4 32 3 3 4 Drawing andmodelling 2 oymnastias 2 2 18 3 3 2 1 . 2 3 Hygiene. 3 3 ( 25 2 Singing 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 Handwork . 2 2 2. 2 12 Homeeconomics 8 3 3 Bookkeeping . 6 1 (1) (1) (2)) Total Ow I 30 3() 30 31 31 32 31 31 31 , I In addition inclaws IV to VI atthegirls' schooland. VIIto IXat the lyceutn occasion demandsup tototal of1 weekhour torthe fprgirlschorussingingas 3 classesin eachof the2 levelsofinstruction. Newertype secondary schools.Theyareonly10 Innumber d- ing1 Swedishlyceum, 6 Finnishlyceums,and3 Finnishschools girls.The first3 fot yearscif,thelyceumis themiddleschool,the last thegymnwium. 3, In thegymnasiumthestudentmayelectany 1 of 3 lines c:work;mathematics-natural _ science,moderh economics,andLatin. languaie- Theplansof studyforthemiddleschooland thegymnasiumaregiven in the2 tablesfollbwing.Mepl4nsfôr. the 4- and7-year schoolsforgirls aresimilarto thecorrtspondingclasses- in theoldertype schools. -

Il qr

t' pa

s v qas

4 2 p

288742'1-41 10

0 (.$ chools sportsarearrangedpeparstdykwboysand referring to,the other andtotheelementary 138 11 s * For A speciallintandtostniationin No pal*maycarrymoretbanIS bouts Organization ofinatruction.---The Geography andnatural &Actin German. Second oalcial Introduction tophilosophy O ytnnsstios History and0140 Mother lawn. *MAW? French Lain Mathematics Physics andchemistry.. tow:maim Religion a damn jI iDUCATION, girls andboys Total 111 I I. or In addii ...... SuNrct Second °Waillanguage Singing 0 ymnaartica Oernian Re*ion Handwortt Mathematics H Wary Morf Drawing Physics and H niece . English . , . Table 311.----Plon . 2 suocasiveboars Total Table 39.Mors . kanguite kelp . .1 e . . gub)ocit of of . . 111 htstor7 . ilrut:rbas ...... 1' . instruction . following graph. omminilimo ng 2 . ammo- In ciblitro wiry . tibCOMBI rtlo APPOINTMENT, AND ...... LAZ.INICJIIP history. . oast _ . . . . . I Instruction =1. era. of inclement .. ¡noun . os. optional subjectsmaybe a . (Hours inparetntbeesisateoptional) .... " .. . week ef hours a ..mi Arches fortio...... statdies to cavort areamusedwith2clamsopalbilled...... al , 1 31 parentheses (1) (3) (2) Instruction IV week e , ______._ ._...... __....._.___.. 2 4. 3 3 4 Natural 2 2 3 2 I M at?*tnatkis- schools is eatbei 1hourofgrunatuceissubstituted N :E.. smo (or tist girls. of sports,inreeiducisboralschoolswparste 32 line (3) (2) (1) 1 4 ...... 4 2 b 4 2 3 2 2 2 V um I poem, relation oftheseschools toeach how _ (1) I 1 a I are 8 2) 2 5 2 2 3 1 uto REMUNERATION OFTEACHERS 12 sow (2) for (1) (3) week, lioludipiibs2bows " 2 2 6 2 6 3 3 3 2 2 2 of arranged sew optional) 4 beer fact . 1 1 1 !lours 1 . . , , 1 ..aW more type wan. re- .(2) of 31 guar.- (I) -4 I 3. 4 3 3 3 2 4 2 2 2 school II 31 bouts (11 (21 0) s 42 Modern Ian- 3 4 4 2 1 3 3 2 3 2 pe a on 17-2 1 of meddleschool week Eoo (2) (I) tine the application 4 4 3 2 4 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 of v O easily understoodby . o 14 fla Dios ai rysitsmrsivin for I a: III 31 ( II (1) (2) (I) (2) 5 3 4 4 2 3 3 2 2 1 VI 3 3 2 4 3 6 2 2 2 2 2 midi sallx11 3 4 .... .1 1 " I i I I , 11 1 .....www 11 ...-,../M 31 (2) (1 (I) , IV 6 4 4 3 3, 2 $ 2 2 2 4 for sports. Total of atleast4pupils. (61 ( 2) 43) 11 IS 11 6 *4 6 6 9 6 ti Latin 7 3 In coeducational year 22 (1) (2) (3) 2 6 2 4 4 3 2 2 2 3 2 V for lime 32 (1) (2) (3) V I 6 5 2 1 3 2 2 2 3 2 2 ..1' 11. 1 't t r vmmrrnIrier rarmigkrn tri mittee of Board the school, tions for requirement marked by (ylioppilastutkintotodistus, the Studeni student et Crept% Class 1\171.1, of tool lira cau the ea about Education. : examination No. S. tyre trpe year the ice a for written examination certificate papers areforwarded/ - matriculation 11 university I I 7 1 i' i T1 II part ofthe 9 itstilp 2 j 'i ', 1 (:ylioppilastulkin1o, After 1 111 1 9 S of having i i l' i with of studentexamensbetyg). Tv IV 10 4 provisional 1 .4 J ;id a professors . at emir rt. - r. G-cla.s 1.1 examination which r I S a FINLAND _ kiddle MI university VI I! 12 cl.JJ., for I 6 passed 9-class khool S-c 1.1.341 ' 1 1 School for Arki Sec 111,41118 to the II 1 4c 1As secondary 13 6-ic lass 7- laseSchool School Soy, I 7 :laud for z..Lb(Nol and , i S.-c lase grading by studenlexamen). 1V 14 : 1 :_7-14 Schoo 8 the Girls 1, c are ichool arty 4 members examinatiOn C in Finland. :.v. LoviLas 1.S Lr 1,1 V I 1" 4. 9 for Carla f I student i : i 'i i made ifrod Lane+ Z liath-.Nst.Sci. &ode ClAs schooling c ri nit 16 Econ. IA V for Latin I st 4 ',1 i arts 1 7 I It isthe rn 1.1-be VI 1 the Girls 17' U 1ti c y out by line ....._. 1 line M examination, of the 7. 1 f --Success '6 teachers 113 1? 1 n214:1k! committee 1 I î 1 4 The r 1 j 1 I i 1 . r, ii j ) : t n d t u d u tS t closes 5 ni 1 LI 1:.'` 0- 15 t o t n 1 I a n a a regular a E a com- s E J 4 n d e u t E State ques- e a d u s t a a E of in is 139 I. q.

7'"'1141110111P4 140EDT:CATION. APPOINTMENT.ANDREMUNERATIONOF TEACHERS

for final marhing.Theexaminationsbegin the firstpart of April and allpapeN mustbe graded byMayIS.Thewrittnigpartincludés: 1. Mothertongue. , 2. Second native laknguage.- 3.Ithird language: Germin,English. French,orLAtin. , 4. The modernorreal'examinationcomprisinz, religion,history. pkysics and chibmistry,biology,economics. 5. Mathematics. Education On completionof the secondaryschool theyoung manor woman who wishestobecomeasecondary schpolteacher.entersregularly oiie . of the threeclassicaluniversities QfFinland forstudy in preparatit;n for the degreeof .candidatein philosophywhich isthe minimum "requirement oftheoreticalpreparation forsecondaryschóol teaching. Deffree ofcandidate in philosophyCtilt.144.1fiankandidaatti._Nosy* kandidan,At the Universityof Helsinkiwhichmaybe taken4.; typical. thedegree ofcandidate inphibxsoghy,usuallywritten "fil. cand." (candidattisphilosophiae),maybe ;Rainedafterdto 5yeaN of studydependingonthe abilityof the studentandonthe fields of . study selectedirithe historyptilosophysection(historiallisl. kielitieteellinenosasto, historisk-ftiologiskasektionen)orthe mathematics naturalscience section(matemaattis-luonnontieteellinenosasto, matematisk-naturvetenskapligasAtionen)of the facultyof philoiophy (filrofinentiedekuntan,filosofiskafakulteten)throughsuccessin thethree,examinations: Examinationproexercitio,examinationpro Erradu, and candidateexamination in philosolihy.whic ollow each other in theorder namedand marksuccessive4teps e student's progress. Examinationproexerco.vSinceFinnish is Abelanguageofa comparativelysmallgroupof people,much of theliteraturenetessary foradegreecourse at auniversity inFinland is obtainableonly ina foreigntongue.Therefore,oneof the firstduties of theyoungstudent -The oldest andWren is the Universityof HelsinbinginYtiopisto.Helsingfors Universitec founded in 1640at TurkuIAbe).the capitalof Finland during tbe Swedhperiod. TheyearfoLlowingthe great are01 18-.T: at Turku theuniversitywas moved to Hebinki, thenew capital of Finlandaftin its tran4.w4 . to Russia in ISM MtnFinland becameSD independent nation the title ottheImperial AlexanderUni- sw/ity of Finland.ssit was called during tbe Russianperiod,was changed to tbe UnivertsityofHelsinki_ It is a State institution offering instructionin thevr faculties of theology, law,medicine. philosophy.and spicuiture-forestry. T hifacultyof philosophy comprisestwc sections: History-philologyand amble- matics-naturalscience. The two otheruniversitiesarein Turku abo).Bothare privately endowed andof recent date. The Academy of.Lbo (AboAkadeinip)was opened in 1919 for Swedish-speakingstudents.It hasaWalt/ in each ci humanities,mathematics-naturalscience, politicalscience, techno-ebemicalsciences. and theology. The Turku tnirersity (TorunYliopkno)was founded February 211.'1920. withFinnishas the longtimeof ingruction, andopened June 77. 1922.It hastwo faculties: Humanitiesand mathematics-naturalscience. A faculty el theology isbeing planned. Tileplan of Studies 4, at the two private universitiesis thesame, in the main,as intheecorresponding faculties a: die University of Helsinki: and thedegrees and diplomas theywooer are recognizedas equivalent to those granted at that institution. filosofiekandidakzamen). philosophy to those he reexamination mother thesis and .mother The is confined research thesis and preparation acquire_skill studnt knowledge are are of the /nation of tilefield and maturity of after the field and attendance pro' exercitio fields of he intends tory fields of school 4mester, ifLatin written translation German the translation history-philolou examination is Candidate A student When may notbeginthefinal The Eramination Tbe studies .written. compositions. presented bythe to shorter and university prepare topics for tongue butalsoscientific pro studies. at universities tongue the an and the, study begins: student study but may a the to elementary until he of the opportunity exercitio the of study who fails shorter examination for the to composition is at lectures,participation in its into the necessary a have been use pro composition until after IA addition examination in his subject begin only study for himself. in at pro gradu.Afterthe composition instructors inthe of available has-acquired tbe literature exercitio use. preparation least has section, also The composition. 6xamination is advised was notincluded purpose major. from, concerned student in the mother closely related courses in Swedenfor p; number of student absolved the through to develophis 2 compo6itiein work in philosophy In addition The the his tentaminaindividual with the semestem must show in German, to, thepeactice written without examination pro in hisfield of the main expiration of one atatimeinthe tongue (Finnish are printed candidate the designed to for the exercitio and may mastery to F LNLAND pro practica in Latin. acsigned by confine neceary foundationof examination The compositions consent of.the mother univeNity the composition are gradu to prescribed register to thatofthe more and not onlyskill in among While mother thesis (filosofan the examination French. powers examination pro c9irected to orienthim of study, comprises ot examination this practicums. in writings ,tongue. unprinted At leasti begins. candidate direct it affords the subject. gradu is confined the aid In in ;he is based preparing examination. registration the or tongue. of pro couNes, or examinations English, have Swedish); university work examiner of kandidaattitutkinto, work in may not critique, order in student's by him and dissertation. English; readilig gradu. a of The This in the require semester. source material. 'for written or examinations in handling examination on and the been in refetences in the enable is for his for the to compositions independent comprises the philosophy French. to givethe information to introduc- the and by which appear extend use this the in Latin. instructor approved and in secondary at least the field language and oral similar subjects- selected selected him writing of the exami- means major Also The they and for one the his in and 141 to the a a 1

MIN - Iti ,IIIIN illrellIIIIP111 t !lei III 142EDUCATION, APPOINTMENT,AND REMUNERATIONOF TEACHERS A includesat least four of thesubfectfields offeredby the facultygrouped ina mannerapproved by thesection in whichthe student.is regis- tered.In additionto the four prescribedfields hikmayask forex- amination in other subjectsoffered bythe faculty. , In each subject fieldthe examinee'sdegree of informationis indicated by themarks approbatur(1 point),cumlaude approbatur(2 points),orlaudatur (3points).Tòpassthe examinationthecan- didatemust make the mark laudaturin his majorfield.Further, hemust make thesamemark inasecond field,orthe markcumlaude intwo fields. When he selects hisfieldsof study, thestudentmust indicatenot only hismajor but also themark he wishesto attain in each field.In this he is assisted bythe instructorsof hismajor and bythe study plans of the facultywhich give foreach subjectoffered thespecific minimum requirements foreach of thethree marksthatmaybeat- tained.A higher mark iiiAsubjectpresupposes mastery of the requirements for thepreceding lowermarkormarks in thesame subject plus the additionalrequirementsfor the markconcerned. Insomesubjectsahigher markpresupposesalsoamark in another subjectorsubjects.Thus "cum laudeapprobatur" in pgysicsand

"laudatur" in expeiimentalphysicspresuppose"approbatur" in I;11 mathematics; and "laudatur"in mathematicalphysicspresupposes "cum laude approbatur" inmathematics. The final tentamina forthe marks"laudatur" and"approbaturcum laude" compriseawritten andanoral examination.AdmissiQnto the N, latter isdependeaton successin the former.If the examinerdeems r it advisable,awrittenexaminationmaybe required alsofor the mark "approbatur." . .After tentamina havebegun theymust becompletelwithin 1year, including vacations.Examinations passedwith the mark"approbatur" before the beginning ofthetentamen period, however, remain I. valid.An examinee who hasnot completed the examinationwithin r 1year¡titer passinga tentamenand who hasnot been granted exten- 4 sion by the facultysection becauseof illnessorother validreason, must takea new tentamen, written;Indoral,to the extent considered necessaryby the examiner;thenew tentamenis valid for1year. The tentamina andexaminations passedareentered with the mark Madein the examinee'stentamenorstudy book.The marks i`cum laudè approbatur"and "approbatur"aresupplemented furtherby the termsexcellent, good,orsatisfactory insight.

Whenf , all the prescribedtentamina havebeen pas§ed the examinee r presents his tentamens booktothe dean whosummonsthe examiners to consider u4der protocolwhether the examinee hasthe information , required for1tJedegree ofcandidate.If the examinationis passed, fr

Is FINLAND 143 public announcement ismade ofthe factand theexaminee ispresented withadiploma forthe degreeofcandidateinphilosophy. ,The fipal mark fortheexaminationisdeterminedby thetotal number of points madein theexaminationsubjects,includingthe examinationprograduasfollows:

At least 9 pointsincludinglaudatur in1subjectclarissimus. At least 11 pointsincludinglaudatur in 2subjectsadmondumdignus. At least 13 pointsincludinglaudaturin 3 subjectsmaxime dignus. At least 14 pointsincludinglaudatur in4 subjectsdignissimus. Degree of licentiateinphilosophy (filosofaniisedsiaattiarro, filosofiekandidatgrad) .:Thisdegree,generallywritten fil.lic.,maybe attained after3yearsof studybeyondsuccessin theexaminationfor the candidate inphilosophy.Althoughit isnotaprescribedrequire- ment, secondary schoolteacherswho desireto become olderlectors (p. 144) find that thedegree oflicentiatein philosophyis ofadvantage. It requires thoroughand distinctivehowling inthreesubjectfieldsof the faculty inacombinationapprovedby thesectionconcerned,the preparation andpublic defenseofathesiscoveringsome phase ofone of these fields, andsuccessin thelicentiateexamination. With referenceto the standardofattainmentnecessaryfor the degree, the iegulationsof thehistory-philologysectionmaybeaccepted 6,'s typical.Accordingto these therequirements inthelicentiate examination for"-approbatur"areequivalentfullyto those for "laudatur" in thecandidateexamination.Moreover,whenathesis for the licentiateexaminationis approvedwithoutquestionthe examinee receives themark"cum laudeapprobatur"in thesubject fields of thedissertation; whenthe thesisis regardedasofconsiderable scientific worth,the mark"laudatur." - Degree of doctor ofphilosophy(filosofiantohtori, flosofedoktor)and the degree ofmaster of philosophy (filosoftanmaisteri,filosofiemagister). At stated intervalsthe variousfacultiesarrangeceremonialoccasions at which the degreeof.doctor isconferredonlicentiates.Thefaculty ofphilosophy/confers als90the degreeofmaster of philosophyon holders of the/degreeof candidatein philosophy.Eitherdegreemay be conferredwithout formalpromotion.Theycarry no rights and privilegesexcept thatadoctormay wearthe doctoralhat andsword, anda master,the master'sring.The degreeof doctorof philosophy . is usuallywritten "dr. phil.";that ofmaster of philosophy," fil.mag." Candidateexaminationfor :teacher(opettajakandidaattitutkinto, lararkandida,texamen).----Accordingtoaregulationof July10, 1873, andadecree ofJanuary14, 1891, thisexaminationcomprisesan individualexamination intheblogy,awritten exaniinationin the mothertongue, andanexamination-in eachof fivesubjects ofthe facultyof philosophyselected bytheexaminee withthe approvalof the sectionof thefacultyto whichmost of the subjectsbelong. 144EDUCATION,APPOINTMENT, AND REMUNERATION OF TEACHERS

Examination in pedagogy (pedagogiikkatutkinto, pedagogieexamen). According toaregulation of July 10, 1873,acandidate in teaching orphilosophyor amasterof philosophy in orderto attain qualification forapositionasteacheratasecondary schoolmustpass an examination in pedagogy before the professor of pedagogy and didac- Na. tics at the university;and aftertwo semestersof observation andprac- tice teaching atanormal lyceum,apractical examination inteaching. When pedagogy and didacticsare apartof the candidate examination to. atthe university the examination in pedagogy need not be repeated. Practical examination in teaching.Preparation for the practical examination in teaching is obtained through two semesters of attend- anct at oneof the three normal lyceums in Helsinki.Theyarethe Normal Lyceum for Girls (Tyttönormaalilyseo, Normallyceum för flickor); Finnish Normal Lyceum (Suomalainen Normaalilyseo, Finska normallyceum) and the Swedish Normal Lyceum (Ruotsa- lainen Normaalilyseo, Svenskanormallyceum).The tAv6 latterare for boys.During each semester the work includesatleast100 hours t Il of observation, 6 hours of practice teaching followed by criticism pf the supervising teachers, and pedagogical conferences partly under

IL I the direction and guidance of the supervising teachers and partly under that of the universe professor of pedagogy.At thesecon- , ferences each studentmusgiveatalk followed by discussionon some pedagogical subject. The practical examin tion in teaching 'comprises threeto four lessons dependingonthe number of subjects the &tndidate is offering. Theyareconducted in thepresenceofacommittee &imposed ofthe. supervising teacher of the subject; the rector of the school, and about four other supervising teachers.Priortothe practièal examination in teaching the candidate hasalesser examinationonthe regulations governing secondary schools.This is offered byalawyer appointed for thepurposeby the Ministry.

Appointment

For appointmentasteacher atasecondary school the applicant ; mustbe at least 21yearsofage, possessthe prescribed theoretical education for the position, must have completed the 1yearof pedagogical éducation atanormal lyceum, passed the practical examiria- tion in teaching with which thisyearof practical professional education closes, and passed the examination in pedagogics (p. 144).The regular teachersatsecondary schools with the minimum requirement of theoretical education for each type of positionare: 1. Older lector8 (vanhemmat lektoril, tildre lektorer).--Qualified for appointmentasolder lector isonewho has passed the candidate examination in philosophy (p. 141) and in itorinasupplementary FINLAND 145

examination madethe highestmark"laudatur"in themain, subjects of the position. For appointmentasolderlector inapositionincludingreligion the applicantmust have passedthe candidateexamination intheologyat the universityorbe ableto meet otherprescribedrequirementsinsur- ingathoroughknowledgeof theimportantphases of thesubject, such aschurch history,dogrhatics,ethics,and Oldand NewTestament exegetics., Inthe subjectcombined withreligion hemust have !mule at least the mark "cumlaudeapprobatur"in the facultyof philosophy atauniversity. At thenormatlyceums(p. 144)teachersin charge ofthe education , of the candidatesforsecondarysbhoolteachingarecalledover or supervising teachers(yliopettajat,överliiráre).Theirtheoretical and professionaleducation isthesame asthat forolder lectors. 2. Younger lectors(nuoremmatlehtorit,yngrelektorer).Ayounger lectormust have passedthe Candidateexaminationin Philosophydr the candidateexaminationforteacher(p. 141) andin thekaminat ion concernedorinalatersupplemenitryexamination, madeat least the mark "cum laudeapprobatur"in earlof thesubjects of theposition. f. Unless theapplicant forapositionincludingreligion haspassed the candidateexaminationintheology hemust meet otherprescribedre- quirements insuringathoroughmastery of the subject.In the subjecto combineciwith religiona'younglectormust have passed alsoauniver- sity exttrnination.Appointmenttoapositionas younger lectorin gymnagtics andhygienerequirescompletionof thecoursefor teachers ofgymnasticsoffered inthe divisionofgymnasticsat the University of Helsinki. 3. Teachers oftheoreticalsubjects(lukuainsidenopettaja, leirarei kisedinnen).Forapositionof thistype the applicantmust have passed thestudentexamination(p. 139)and in individualexaminatioris withuniversityprofessorsof thesubjectsconcernedshown himselfto possessknowledgeequivalentat leastto, that requiredfor the mark "cum laudeapprobatur" inthe candidateexamination inphilosophy. 4. Teachersof practicalsubjects(harjoitusainsidenopetiajat,leirare '/ örningseimntn).Theseinclude: (a) Gymnasticsandhygiene.Therequirementsarethe saineas foryoungerlectors inthese subjects. (b)Drawing,penmanthip,and modeli.Ateacher of thesesub- jectsmust have 11. completedacoursein tbedivision for . teachers ofdrawingat the Central Scho61for theStudy of Art (CentralskolanförKonstflit) ofthe Associationfor the Study ofArt inFinland (Konstflitfareningéni Finland) at Helsinki,or presentacertificateof equivalentinforma- tion fromthesable divisionandevidence.fromthe teacker 146EDUCATION, APPOINTMENT, ANDREMUNERATION OFTEACHERS 41k,

of drawingaCthe Universityof Helsinkiofsuccessinan examination in theoreticalskill. (c) SingN.--Ateacher of singingmustpossess acertificate from eitherthe Uni'versity ofHelsinki oi Turku.

Applica2ion8.AllopeningsatStatesecondaryschools..are announced in the official journal.In applying foraposition with permanent appointment the applicant obligateshimselftofulfill all duties connected with the position,includAgacceptance of appointment toserve asrectororprorector,orof assignmentfor thecareof the boys and girls of the school.Application ismade in writingtothe StateBoard.ofEducation andmustbe accompanied byevidence'of the applicant's qualificationsasto education,successin prescribedexam- inations, apd record of service includinganyexperience of valuein the position desired. All appointments,exceptthose forsupervising teachersat normal lyceums whichIaremade by the Ministry,aremade byth.eState Board of Education.In thecaseof older lectorsstress is placedon the applicant'sknowfedgesothat advanceddegrees(licentiate, doctorate) andepublish'ed works giveprecedence.Foryoungerlectors skill in teaching is the importantfactor, particularlyasshownat the time of the practical examination inteaching. Anappointee who has notserved previouslyas asecondary school teachermust completea 2-year period of probation before receivingperwanent appointment. The regular number of'hoursof teachingaweek foranolder lector is 24; fora youngerlector, 26. Each school hasarectorandprorector appointed foraperiod of 5yearsfrom its regular teachers by the StateBoard óf tducationafter consultation with the faculty counciland theparents council of the

school. [1 Remuneratión Salaries.Byaregulation of February14, 1930, the basic salary of the following listed secondary schoolpositionsare:. Position Marks Supervising tEacher atanormal lyceum______57, 000 Older lector atanormal lyceum 48, 000 Younger lector atanormal lyceum 43, 500 Older lector at other lyceums 43, 500 Younger lector at other lyceums 39, 000 Woman teacher ofahigher salary class ataschool for girls__36, 000 The saliry ofateacher of drawingrangesfrom 39,0010 marksata normal lyceumto 15,600marksataclassical lyceum; teacher of gymnastics,28,500 marks atalyceumorlyceum forgirlsto 25,500 ata school' for girls; teacher of singing,27,000 and 18,000 at the girls' lyceums in Helsinkito 12,600 marks ataschool for girls.The salary 1/.

FINLAND ° 147. .1

ofateacher of handworkandpenmanship.atadouble schoolfor girls is 25,500 marks. Increments for lengthof serrier(lderstilleigg).Ateacherwith abasic salary of30,000 marksor-more a,yearreceive'sthree salary increases of 4percent of the basic salary,oneeach after5, 10, and15 yearsof service. Ateacher witha-basic salaryof lessthan30,000 marksa year receives foursalary increasesof4 percent of thebasic if salary,oneeach after4, 8, 12, anei416yearsof service.Theyearsof serviceonprobationcount toward the increasein salaryopthe basis of duration of service. Family supplement(jamiljetillägg).Thisisidenticalwith the educatiànassistance forelementaryschoolteachers(p.133)tihdis grantedto teachers withabasicsalary of43,500 maiksorless who havemorethanonechild under16yearsofage. In additiontothe regularsalaryasteacher therector atanormal lyceum receivesfor serviceas rector11',000marksa year; atalyceum 8,000; school forgirls,8,000; double lyceum,10,000; andatamiddle school,6,000 marks. Pension.Asecondary schoolteacher whohasattainedtheageof 63yearsand completedat ,least 10yearsof serviceis entitledto pension for life.Full pensioncomprises60percent of the basicsalary. Tenyears'ofservice entitlesthe recipientto '9 of the fullamount. Eachyearafter that adds)40 until theamount of the fullpension has beenreached.Years ofservice afterthat donot count.With referenceto pension only theyearsbetween30 .and 67yearsofage count.In thecaseofateacher whobecause ofpbysicalormental disability hasto retire,yearsof servicepriorto theageof 30count. .Accidentinsurance.Accordingtoaregulation ofDecember18, 1936, teachersareincludedamongStateemployees whoincaseof accident inserviceareentitledto compensationfor physicalinjury. If theaccident resultsin death,assistance isgiven towardfuneral expensesandanannuity paidto the widow andto the childrenuncle! 17yearsofage. Discontinuedposition.Accordingtoaregulation ofMay22, 1931, asecondary schoolteacher withbasic salarywhose positionis dis- continuedis transferredimmediatelyto another suitablepositionor placedonwithdrawalstatus (indragningsstat).A teacheronwithdrawalstatus is still in theservice of theState althoughwithoutajob. He isobliged,however,to accept theposition offeredorgivea reason for refusalacceptableto statsrMet.If hecannot do this he isretired on a pension based foronewho enteredservice priorto May 22,1931, onthe totalnumber ofyearsof service;foronewho enteredservice afterthat,ontheyearsof serviceafter theageof 30.If heaccepts thenewposition hisfinancialadvantagescannot be less thatthose in hispreviousposition. A teacheronwithdrawalstatus who isnot placed 148EDUCATION, APPOINTMENT,AND REMUNERATIONOF TEACHERS A A infinotherposition receivesduring the firstyear asalary equivalent tothat of the last ye.ar ofservice.Beginning with thesecondyear he receiVes full pension. ANr retirement fromserviceateachermaycobtinuetousehis professional title. Pension privilegesofthe heirs .ofasecondary schoolteacher.Since January1,1927, regular and extraordinaryteachers and teachers serving their2-year i)riod of probationat State secondary schools are,throughadeduction ofapercentagè of their salaries,part-owners of the State schoolpension fund.This entitles thewidowto receive for lifeoruntil she remarriesanannual pensionof 9,600 marks ifher husbandwas anöverlärar;8,100 marks ifheewas anolder lectorata lyceum,youngerlector in thehigher salaryclass,or anolder lector in the lower salary classatanormal lyceum;6,700 marks if hewas anolderoryouAgerlector inanothertype of school position,etc. If the deceased is survivedby1or morechildren under18yearsof age a40 percent increase is addedto the pension for the first child, 20 percent for the second,and 10percent for each additional child. If all the survivorsarechildren, two-thirdsof the full pensionis paid for1;full pension for2; for the third child thetotal.pension isincreased by40 percent; .for the fourth by20 percent; and for each additionaj childby10Percent. A child of18yearsofagewho is mentallyorphysically incapable of supporting himselfmayreceiveapension for the peribdoft duration of the disability.A widower survivinga womanteacher receives pensiononthesamebasisasthe widow ofa manteacher. Extraordinary State pension.Forcircumstances suchasthe applicant's oldage,illnessorthe illness of herchildren, thepoverty of the estate, the long and valuable'serviceslofthe dóceasedto the State, the Ministryof Education afterinvestigationmay grant an extraordinary pensionfrom States fundsonapplicationtòawidow and children of.ateacher who alreadyarereceiving pension fromthe State schoolpension fund.

I. BIBLIOGRAPHY Source Material

1 (Finnish) CASTRiN, L. A.Kansakoululainslidinta.Helsinki, Raittiuskansan Rirjapaino Oy.,1935. 191p. Catalogues, study plans,and examination regulationsfrom the StateUniversity of Helsinki (Helsingfors)and the private FinnishUniversity of Turku. TilastollinenPälitoimisto.Kansanopetustilasiokansikoululaitoslukuvuonna 1934-35.Suomen VirailltienTilasto.X. 66.Helsinki, Yaltioneuvoston ,kirjapaino, 1937.VI + 196p.

e FINLAND sir i 49

kansanopetustilastokan,sakbululaitoslukuvuonna1936-37.Suomen Viral linenTilasto.X. 68.Helsinki,Valtioneuvostonkirjapaino,1939. VI + 196p. Oppikouluttilastollinenkatsaus oppikoulujentilaanjatoimintaan lukuvuonna 1937-1938.Suomen VirallinenTilasto.IX. 64.Helsinki, Valtioneuvoston kirjapaino, 1939. 111p. Suomen TilastollinenN'uosikirja.Uusi sarjaX X X V-- Vuonna1937. Helsinki, Valtioneuvoston kirjapaino.1937. XXX + 410.

(Swedish) Catalogues, study plans. and examinationregulations from the Universityof Helsingfors and the AcademyatAbo(Turku). Förordning angiende ligre folkskoleseminarieravden 24 september1926. N:o 245.Helsingfors, Statsridetstryckeri, 1926.p.639-641. Förordning innefattande statuter for pedagogiskahögskolan i 11yvskyliiavden 12 maj 1934.Helsingfors.9p. F6rordniiigomindringavförordningen den 31 januari1924 apgiendegrunderna fOr avlÖning i statens tjänster ochbefattningaravden 14 februari1930. N:o 73.Helsingfors, Statsridetstryckeri. 1930.,p.259-264. HASTESKO, ALB.(r4clakthr).Finlands Statskalender fOrAret193g. rtgivenav Helsingfors Universitet.HelsingfoN, OsakeyhtiöWeilin&GOtis Aktiebolag, 1937.VIII -4- 720p. "Lagorn enpedagogisk hògsknla i Jyviskyl$avden 26 januari1934.:N:o 41. Helsingfors, Statsridets tryckeri.,1934.p.139. LagomLiroplikt. í11 Lagsamlingen.t);plagaavArA931.N:o11. HO- singfors, Statsrldets tryckeri,1931. p.133. . @1ST, J.och LURILA, J.Handbok för Folkskoloroch Folkhibliotek.Korn- munalf6rhundets Handbok 11.Helsingfors, Siiderstróni& C:o'Förlagsak-

. tiebolag, 1936.454p. SecondaryWorics (Finnish) PUUPPONEN, LAURI.Oppikoulut. Niidenjärjostysmuoto. hallinto jittoiminta. Helsinki, Kustannusosakeyhtiö OtAvanKirjapaino, 1934. 110p.

(Swedish) JENSEN, AXEL OCh ANDRA tretlaktérer).SkolvAsendet i tio lindenEn Oversikt utgarenavCentralstyrelsen fOr SverigesAllminna Folkskollirarfórening. Styret for Norges Laererlagoch Hovedstryrelsen forDanmardk3Laererforening. Stockholm, Svensk LiraretidningsFörlagsaktiebolag.4931.471p. PUUPOWEN, LAURI.Handbok fOrCArdornsakolornasLikrare.Med sArskild hAnsyn till stataskollikrarnasrittsliga stillning.Oversattniiagfrin Finskan. Helsingfors, S6derstrónaI C:o För1agsaktiel4olag, 1932.103p. (English) MANTERE, O.Education and Culture.In The Finland Year Book1939/40. Edited with the assistanceof thepressdepartment of the Ministryfor Foreign Affairs and specialistsin different branches by I. LeiviskA.Helsinki, Oy. Suomen Kirja, Ltd.,1939.464p. o