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Disease Management and Bovine Tuberculosis in North America: 1890 - 1950

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Disease Management and Bovine Tuberculosis in North America: 1890 - 1950 “Reasonable Tact and Diplomacy”: Disease Management and Bovine Tuberculosis in North America: 1890 - 1950 by Lisa M. Cox A Thesis presented to The University of Guelph In partial fulfilment of requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History Guelph, Ontario, Canada © Lisa M. Cox, December, 2013 ABSTRACT “REASONABLE TACT AND DIPLOMACY”: DISEASE MANAGEMENT AND BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS IN NORTH AMERICA, 1890-1950 Lisa M. Cox Advisor: University of Guelph, 2013 Professor Stuart McCook This dissertation is an investigation of bovine tuberculosis eradication in Canada and the United States from the beginning of formal intervention in the early 1890s to 1950. A zoonotic disease, capable of passing from animals to humans, Bovine tuberculosis emerged as a significant public health and livestock health issue in the late nineteenth century. Eradicating bovine tuberculosis, therefore, came on two fronts; suppressing and managing the disease in livestock, and preventing diseased livestock products from human consumption. Using the jurisdictions of Ontario and New York State, this study details bovine tuberculosis legislation over the roughly sixty years it took to successfully suppress and manage the disease. Particular attention is directed towards the formation, practice, and transformation of policy on both sides of the border, the public and livestock health implications of the disease, and the role of the state and veterinary medicine in disease intervention and management. This work complements and builds upon studies produced by scholars such as Olmstead and Rhode, Jones, and Jenkins, who have adopted various approaches to the history of bovine tuberculosis. In particular, by placing bovine tuberculosis intervention in New York State and Ontario alongside one another, key contrasts are observed in the structure of authority for disease control, competing ideas about the nature and implications of the disease, and the policies that resulted. Over time, distinct programs practiced on either side of the border grew into similar, widespread national testing programs with compensation for livestock owners. This study will explore the tremendous collaboration between Canada and the United States in terms of bovine tuberculosis thinking and practice that saw management efforts unfold, and shed light on an underexplored body of individuals who were critical to the suppression and management of not only bovine tuberculosis, but a host of other infectious diseases: veterinarians. Veterinarians such as John G. Rutherford of Canada and Veranus Moore of the United States were central to the formation, practice and transformation of bovine tuberculosis policy in the early twentieth century. It would be through these individuals that the power of the state would meet the disease on the ground. Bovine tuberculosis, despite the fanfare that surrounded the scientific understanding of it discovered in the nineteenth century, was not a disease suppressed and managed through a dramatic intervention of science, but a steady and dedicated intervention of the state. It was bureaucratic innovation, not necessarily scientific innovation that saw this disease successfully brought under control. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank a host of individuals and organizations, for without their contributions this dissertation would not have been possible. My family and loved ones for their acceptance of my quirky academic interests, encouragement and unfailing support over the years. My advisor Professor Stuart McCook for his wisdom, guidance and patience throughout the many years of this project. In addition, I would like to thank my committee members Dr. Susan Nance and Dr. Catherine Wilson of the University of Guelph and Dr. Adam Crerar of Wilfrid Laurier University for their insights and examination of my work. Additional thanks to Dr. Susan Jones of the University of Minnesota for her rigorous and constructive critique of my work as my external examiner. Special thanks to the University of Guelph History Department, the University of Guelph College of Arts, and the Ontario Veterinary College for their various financial support and opportunities throughout my doctoral programme. Lastly, the many individuals through their friendship and advice have had a positive and encouraging influence on me, both as a scholar and as a person. v TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables vi List of Figures vii Introduction 1 Chapter I: Facilitating the Bacillus: M. tuberculosis, Structural Factors, and the 21 Spread of Sickness, 1830 - 1890 Chapter II: The Biomedical Response to Bovine Tuberculosis and Emergence of the 56 Veterinary Profession in Canada and the United States, 1791 - 1890 Chapter III: Animal Health Infrastructure and the Initial Response to Bovine 91 Tuberculosis, 1862 - 1902 Chapter IV: A Disease on Two Fronts: Addressing Bovine Tuberculosis in Livestock 128 and Human Populations, 1902 - 1908 Chapter V: Practicing Disease Control: Transnational Thought, and new Directions in 175 Bovine Tuberculosis Eradication, 1909 - 1917 Chapter VI: Eradication through Legislation: The Final Eradication of Bovine 212 Tuberculosis in Canada and the United States, 1917 - 1960 Conclusion 262 Bibliography 271 vi LIST OF TABLES Table 1.0: Operation of the State-Federal 219 Cooperative Program in New York State, 1917-1921 Table 2.0: Progress of Accredited Herds in 220 New York State, 1918-1928 Table 3.0: Decline of Bovine Tuberculosis as 220-221 Evidenced Through Approximate Percent of the Disease in New York Herds, 1918-1928 Table 4.0: Progress of Accredited Herd Plan 227 in New York State, 1918-1937 Table 5.0: Compensation and Slaughter 260 Figures for Bovine Tuberculosis and Other Diseases, 1904-1949 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.0: Tuberculosis Eradication Area 221 Testing & Accredited Herd Work, 1921 Figure 2.0: Tuberculosis Eradication Area 222 Testing & Accredited Herd Work, 1928 Figure 3.0: Tuberculosis Eradication Area 228 Testing & Accredited Herd Work, 1931 Figure 4.0: Tuberculosis Eradication Area 229 Testing & Accredited Herd Work, 1934 Figure 5.0: Tuberculosis Eradication Area 229 Testing & Accredited Herd Work, 1936 Figure 6.0: Bovine Tuberculosis Exhibit at the 231 New York State Fair, 1930 Figure 7.0 : Example of an “ideal” barn with 232 concrete floors and walls for efficient cleaning and optimal sanitation Figure 8. 0: Sanitizing Equipment Operating 233 in Niagara County, New York, 1937 Figure 9.0 Growth of the Accredited Herd 244 Plan (Ontario) and Supervised Herd Plan (Canada), 1920 – 1929 Figure 10.0: Growth of the Restricted Areas 245 Plan, 1922-1930 Figure 11.0: Growth of the Accredited Herd 249 Plan (Ontario) and Supervised Herd Plan (Canada), 1930-1939 Figure 12.0: Growth of the Restricted Areas 251 Plan, 1931-1940 Figure 13.0: Growth of the Accredited Herd 255 Plan (Ontario) and Supervised Herd Plan (Canada), 1940-1949 viii Figure 14.0: Growth of the Restricted Areas 256 Plan, 1941-1951 Introduction – Page 1 Introduction: It is recognized that tuberculosis is widely prevalent among cattle and other animals and that the frequency with which this great evil occurs is increasing rather than declining. As tuberculosis is one of the strictly preventable infections, there is good ground for the belief that through the formulation and enforcement of proper regulations the disease may eventually be entirely suppressed.1 This quotation was taken from the final report of the International Commission on the Control of Bovine Tuberculosis, published in 1910. The commission was appointed in 1909 by the American Veterinary Medical Association and was made up of top Canadian and American veterinary scientists, members of the meatpacking and dairy industry, and public health authorities from both sides of the border. Their task was to study the problem of bovine tuberculosis and the shape of intervention in both Canada and the United States to date, and to recommend a new program of legislation for each nation to follow. The International Commission was a pivotal event in the long history of bovine tuberculosis, a serious and sometimes deadly infectious disease of livestock. Bovine tuberculosis was the result of a bacterium known as Mycobacterium bovis, a variant of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. A rod-shaped bacteria, it was first identified by Robert Koch in 1882. The most frequent cause of the disease in animals is airborne exposure to the bacteria that then infects 1 International Commission on the Control of Bovine Tuberculosis, Report of the International Commission on the Control of Bovine Tuberculosis, American Veterinary Medical Association, 47th Annual Report (September, 1910), 4. Introduction – Page 2 the lungs and thoracic lymph nodes as it requires few organisms to infect individual animals.2 Cattle may also contract bovine tuberculosis by ingesting, food, water, or milk infected with mucous, urine, or feces contaminated with M. bovis. In these cases the pathogen concentrates primarily in lymph tissues in the intestinal tract.3 In addition to causing bovine tuberculosis in animals, M. bovis is also one of the three strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis) that affects humans.4 Bovine tuberculosis emerged in the late nineteenth century as a significant animal and public health issue and possesses a controversial past. The scientific understanding of the disease was not always clear, but its potential implications for livestock and human health were very serious. Bovine tuberculosis had the potential to spread to every corner
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