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Glanders: Medicine and Veterinary Medicine in Common Pursuit of a Contagious Disease

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Glanders: Medicine and Veterinary Medicine in Common Pursuit of a Contagious Disease Medical History, 1981, 25: 363-384. GLANDERS: MEDICINE AND VETERINARY MEDICINE IN COMMON PURSUIT OF A CONTAGIOUS DISEASE by LISE WILKINSON* TODAY, GLANDERS is a disease rarely heard of in Western Europe, Britain, and North America; but a hundred years ago the annual total of cases of glanders in the horse, published by the Board of Agriculture, exceeded 2,000,1 and British veterinarians were all too familiar with the disease. Moreover, transmission to man took place with distressing regularity, and the outcome was nearly always fatal.2 In 1908, William Hunting, Chief Veterinary Inspector to the London County Council, wrote: "Glanders in man is such a loathsome and fatal disease as to deserve more attention than it receives. ... If the medical profession called for the suppression of glanders as loudly as they did for the extermination of rabies, prevention in all animals would be accelerated. Hydrophobia in man ceased when we had stamped out rabies in dogs, and glanders in man will only cease when the disease no longer exists among horses".3 Historically, the juxtaposition with rabies is apt. Over the centuries the number of animals of the equine species, and of men, whether infected naturally or in the laboratory, killed by glanders have probably equalled or even outweighed those who have succumbed to rabies. In times of war, from the Middle Ages onwards and as late as World War I,4 losses of horses through glanders in the armed forces of all nations must have been always an important and influential factor.' Yet in historical terms the literature on rabies is copious, while glanders has remained very much a neglected subject. Whereas the drama and unpredictability surrounding the clinical manifesta- tions of rabies have frequently attracted the attention of medical and lay historians alike, glanders has remained ignored by most historians even in the context of the * Lise Wilkinson, Cand.Pharm., Mag.Scient., Department of Virology, Royal Postgraduate Medical School, Du Cane Road, London W. 12. 1 John M'Fadyean, 'Glanders: The Harben Lectures for 1904, I, II and III', J. State Med., 1905, 13: 1-18; 65-78; 125-135; see p. 125. 2 The Registrar-General reported 78 deaths during the twenty years between 1883 and 1902. Ibid., p. 134. 3 William Hunting, Glanders: a clinical treatise, London, H. & W. Brown, 1908. 4Serious outbreaks among army remounts during World War I were reported from South Africa, Canada, Persia, Russia, etc.; see L. J. Blenkinsop and J. W. Rainey (editors), History of the Great War based on official documents: veterinary services, London, HMSO, 1925. 1 In his 'preface', E. G. Lafosse wrote in Traite sur le veritable siege de la morve des chevaux, et les moyens d'y remedier, Paris, David & Gonichon, 1749: "It is a well established fact that the great and terrible ravages of glanders are found in the armies; it is certain that during all the wars under which Europe has laboured for 200 years, a very considerable number of horses has been lost through this disease." 363 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 170.106.35.229, on 25 Sep 2021 at 21:37:14, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025727300034876 Lise Wilkinson major wars of the past.6 Nevertheless, there can be little doubt that losses through glanders in all the major wars in Europe and elsewhere, from the Crusades and throughout the troubled Middle Ages,7 must have been considerable, and a factor to be reckoned with by the warring nations; but the practical difficulties preventing retro- spective exploration of its effects are self-evident. However, the history of glanders and its bibliography is worth a second glance for other reasons. During the eighteenth century it reflected not only the ideas, old and new, which the century of the Enlightenment brought to bear on infectious disease problems in general; but it can also serve to illustrate important facets of many events which in one way or another influenced the early development of veterinary education on the European continent and in the British Isles. This development continued uninterrupted throughout the nineteenth century; but from 1820 onwards, the glanders literature reflects a major new departure and the rise of an entirely new discipline, made possible by the growing interest in veterinary science and its interrelationship with medicine. The nineteenth century saw the tremendous advance of a comparative medicine of infectious disease, which by the end of the century had not only yielded factual knowledge of a number of disease agents, but also spawned such secondary but no less important related concepts as natural and acquired immunity, vaccines, and toxins and anti-toxins. A major stumbling-block in any historical treatment of glanders is the difficulty of diagnosis. In man, its clinical presentation has been easily confused with a number of other diseases, prominent among them tuberculosis and pyaemia.' Even in horses diagnosis, before the advent of the mallein test,9 was difficult in all but the most acute cases. It is perhaps not surprising that in previous centuries reputable authors fre- quently described a number of varieties of glanders of which only one (if that) was true glanders, thus lending an air of authority to the general confusion.10 Confusion there was. Caused by Pseudomonas mallei,1' the disease exists in a subcutaneous form ' William H. McNeill, in Plagues and peoples, Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1977, while primarily interested in the epidemics of humankind, finds room to discuss in passing some zoonotics, among them rabies and rinderpest, but remains silent on glanders. 7Smithcors has pointed out that the routes of the Crusades may have been responsible for the early emergence of veterinary literature in Italy. J. F. Smithcors, Evolution of the veterinary art, Kansas City, Missouri, Veterinary Medicine Publishing Company, 1957, p. 130. ' This may also account for the fact that the transmissibility of glanders to man was discovered only belatedly, and not generally accepted until well into the nineteenth century. 9The mallein test was developed in the 1890s after Kalning in Riga and Helmann in Dorpat, and Leonard Pearson in the United States prepared mallein in 1890, after the pattern of Koch's tuberculin. See [-J Schneidemuhl, 'Ueber die fri0hzeitige Erkennung der Tuberculose und des Rotzes bei Thieren durch Tuberkulin-bezw. Mallein-Injectionen', Dt. med. Wschr., 1891, 17:1260-1262, see p. 1261; and W. E. Jen- nings, 'Glanders' in Diseases transmitted from animals to man, compiled and edited by Thomas G. Hull, Springfield, Ill., C. C Thomas, 1963, p. 265. According to Saunders (op. cit., note 126 below), Kalning worked in Dorpat and Helmann in St. Petersburg at the time. 10 In addition to tuberculosis and pyaemia, glanders has also over the centuries been frequently confused with ozaena and strangles, see F. Smith, The early history of veterinary literature and its British development, vol. I, 1919; reprinted London, J. A. Allen, 1976. 11 After the bacillus was first described in 1882, it has suffered a number of changes of nomenclature and classification, from Bacillus mallei via the genera of Actinobacillus, Pfeifferella, Malleomyces, Loefflerella, and Acinetobacter to its present position as Pseudomonas mallei. See T. J. Mackie and J. E. M'Cartney (editors), Medical microbiology, 13th ed., Edinburgh, Churchill Livingstone, 1978, p. 343; and G. S. Wilson 364 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 170.106.35.229, on 25 Sep 2021 at 21:37:14, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025727300034876 Glanders: medicine and veterinary medicine in pursuit ofa contagious disease (farcy) and a pulmonary form (glanders). Their common aetiology was first demon- strated at the end of the eighteenth century by E. Viborg,"2 who was able to show that inoculation with matter from farcy buds could induce glanders in horses and asses. But if we take the comparison with rabies back to the earliest surviving descriptions of animal disease, we find that Aristotle, that mainstay of early and incomplete descrip- tions, probably described, equally incompletely, both rabies and glanders. His remarks on rabies have been quoted, if not ad nauseam, at least at tediously regular intervals."3 In the same book'4 Aristotle wrote of a disease of the equine species: "The ass suffers chiefly from one particular disease which they call 'melis'. It arrives first in the head, and a clammy humour runs down the nostrils, thick and red; if it stays in the head the animal may recover, but if it descends into the lungs the animal will die...." This has been generally regarded as the first surviving description of glanders.'5 In the Latin versions of subsequent authors "melis" became "malleus" and as such eventually a generic term for epizootics. Vegetius"6 in the fifth century used it of epi- zootic diseases of both cattle and horses; among the seven varieties of malleus in the equine species mentioned by Vegetius, veterinary historians have identified morbus humidus with glanders and morbusfarciminosus with farcy.17 Apsyrtus, whose letters to friends, veterinarians, and military officers were written in the third century and later included in the Hippiatrika manuscripts compiled in Byzantium during the tenth century,"8 described four kinds of "malis" of equines. What he called the "dry" variety may well have been farcy; as for glanders, opinions have differed as to whether it should be identified with the "moist" or the "articular" "malis" described by Apsyrtus."9 If such probings of the fragments remaining of the works of classical authors serve to illustrate the uncertainty of terminology and retrospective diagnosis rather than to provide unequivocal information, the evidence would seem to favour the view that and A.
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