Photography: an Introduction Module Three: Tools and Techniques

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VART2960 Photography: An Introduction Module Three: Tools And Techniques

VIS15 / VART2960 photography: an introduction

Module Three: Tools And Techniques

Contents

Tools and Techniques ...... 5 3.1 Identify the basic components of a camera ...... 6 3.2 Distinguishing between different ways of creating a light tight box ...... 6 The Camera Obscura ...... 8 3.3 Distinguishing between different types of lenses ...... 11 Lens speed ...... 11 Focal length ...... 11 Long and short lenses ...... 12 Zoom lens ...... 13 Macro lens ...... 13 Fish Eye lens...... 13 PC Correction lens ...... 14 3.4 Distinguishing between different types of film carriers ...... 15 Film formats ...... 15 Film Advance ...... 15 3.5 Distinguishing between different types of viewfinders ...... 17 The basic principle of operation of the rangefinder ...... 17 Parallax error...... 17 Correcting for eye problems ...... 17 3.6 Distinguishing between different types of shutters ...... 18 3.7 Distinguishing between different focusing systems ...... 20 Distance scale focusing using either visual symbols or actual imperial/metric settings ...... 20 Diagram of a split image rangefinder screen ...... 21 3.8 Distinguishing between different types of exposure control...... 22 3.9 Distinguishing between different types of built-in exposure meters ...... 23 3.10 Distinguish between different types of hand-held exposure meters ...... 24 Typical hand-held cadmium sulphide cell light meter ...... 24 Taking a reading with a reflected light meter ...... 25 Taking a reading with an incident light meter ...... 25 3.11 Distinguishing between different camera systems ...... 26 Processed film cameras ...... 26 The Kodak No.1 camera 1888...... 26 George Eastman holding a Kodak No.1 camera ...... 26 Instant film Cameras ...... 27 SX-70 Polaroid Land Camera ...... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Schematic diagram of the viewing and exposure ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. light path ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. Digital Cameras ...... 28 3.12 Distinguishing between different film–base camera types...... 29 Different Types of Cameras ...... 29 Disposable ...... 30 Viewfinder ...... 30 Rangefinder ...... 30 Schematic diagram showing the independent eye and film paths from a scene ...... 30 Compact Point-and-Shoot ...... 30 Single-lens reflex 35 mm format ...... 31 Single-Lens Reflex Medium Format ...... 31 Schematic diagram of a Medium format camera ...... 32 Hasselblad camera ...... 32 Twin-lens reflex ...... 32 Schematic diagram of a Twin-lens camera ...... 33 Rolleiflex camera ...... 33 View ...... 33 3.13 Distinguishing between different types of special purpose cameras ...... 35 Widelux camera ...... 35 The Linhof Technorama camera ...... 35 Image format of the Linhof Technorama camera ...... 35 Panascope – peripheral oscillating camera...... 36 This image was made using the Panascope camera...... 36 Underwater ...... 37 Nikonos V camera ...... 37 Aerial ...... 38 3.14 Comparing the advantages and disadvantages of different camera types ...... 39 3.15 Choosing the right camera ...... 40 What camera do I need? ...... 40 What camera do I buy?...... 40 3.16 Choosing the right film for Film-Base Cameras ...... 42 Selecting the film for speed...... 42 Selecting a film for colour temperature ...... 44 Colour...... 45 Instant film ...... 45 High Contrast Film ...... 45

Infrared Film ...... 46 Chromogenic B&W Film (Ilford XP-2) ...... 46 3.17 Distinguishing between different types of lens filters ...... 47 Filters...... 47 UV filter ...... 47 Skylight filter ...... 47 Polarising filter ...... 47 3.18 Distinguishing between different types of external flash units...... 48 Built-in flash ...... 48 Hot-shoe flash...... 49 Handle-mount flash...... 49 Studio flash...... 50 3.19 The Digital Revolution ...... 51 3.20 Comparing the advantages and disadvantages of digital cameras ...... 53 3.21 Capturing a Digital Image ...... 55 3.22 Categories of the Digital Camera ...... 58 3.23 Understanding the features of your Digital Camera ...... 63 3.24 Useful information in caring for your digital camera ...... 67 Activity 6. Me and my camera ...... 69

Tools and Techniques

The photographer’s basic item of hardware is the camera. No one camera is ideally suited to all types of image making. The choice of the type of camera to be used in any situation will therefore depend on the subject or subjects to be photographed.

In this module, you will be presented with a wide range of camera formats, and we will describe some of the extensive range of other equipment that is available to you.

Objectives

By the time you complete this module, you should be able to:

• identify the five basic components of a camera;

• compare the relative advantages and disadvantages of single-lens, twin-lens, rangefinder and view cameras;

• distinguish between different camera types;

• recognize parallax error;

• distinguish between the three common types of lenses;

• distinguish between the two common types of shutters;

• distinguish between different types of hand-held meters;

• determine the appropriate film type to achieve a particular visual effect.

3.1 Identify the basic components of a camera

Objective

By the time you complete this section, you should be able to identify the basic components of a camera.

All cameras are basically alike. Regardless of what other features a camera has, it always comprises:

• a light tight box;

• a lens;

• a film-holding device on the other end;

• a viewfinder allowing the image to be composed before it is taken; and

• a shutter mechanism that admits light to make images.

Most, but not all, cameras also provide:

• some means of enabling the film to be focused sharply;

• an iris diaphragm enabling the intensity of the light reaching the film surface to be varied; and

• a meter to measure the amount of light needed to make the exposure.

In addition to these basic components, modern cameras also incorporate a bewildering array of features that make them easier to operate and enhance their capabilities, though unfortunately, make them also more expensive.

The box camera

3.2 Distinguishing between different ways of creating a light tight box

Objectives

By the time you complete this section, you should be able to distinguish between the different ways in which cameras incorporate a light tight box into their designs.

All cameras are basically a light tight box in which a light-sensitive material (film) can be housed in a light proof container. To record an image, a trap door (shutter) allows a short duration of light to enter and expose the film. These leaves an invisible trace–known as a ‘latent image’ which when chemically treated (processed) will transform it to a visible image.

The principle of ‘camera pictures’ has been around ever since the Renaissance, even though a Frenchman, Nicephore Niepce, did not invent the first photosensitive image known as a ‘Heliograph’ till 1826.

Camera Obscura used by Niepce

The first known successful photograph recorded in history made by Nicephore Niepce. It was a view from his rear window at Gras, near Chalon-sur-Saone, France 1826

The Camera Obscura

Portable camera obscura, 1646

The ‘camera obscura’ (literally ‘the darken room’) was invented to help artists solve the problem of perspective. Leonardo da Vinci described the principle as: light entering from a small hole in the wall into a darken room forming an inverted image on the opposite wall of whatever appears outside. By the 17th Century, a lens replaced the small hole, resulting in a sharper image.

The reflex type portable camera, 1685

The simplest form of the light tight box is the pinhole camera. A small lightproof box with a ‘pin hole’ (the smaller, the better, as it will result in a sharper image) at one end which acts as a lens to allow light to enter the box and record an image onto light sensitive film or paper on the opposite end. A flap or black tape over the pinhole will act as a shutter, exposing the pinhole only to allow a measurable duration of light to enter the box.

Rangefinder/Viewfinder Camera Single-Lens reflex camera (SLR)

Medium format single-lens reflex camera (SLR) Large format monorail view camera

We could categories all cameras as derivatives of this principle. The Viewfinder-'disposable' and 'point and shoot' cameras are basically a light tight box with a fixed focus lens and spring shutter on one end and a hinged back at the other end to load a film cassette. The more advance models such as the Auto focus Compact 35 are similar, though they have several electronic devices. These include infrared focusing system, fixed of variable focal length zoom lens, and a built-in flash at one end. The other end has a hinged back similar to the previous version except it has a motorised film transport system to load, advance the film, as well as rewind when the film cassette reaches the end of the cassette.

These cameras are basically a light tight box, which incorporates a viewfinder at the top rear of the box, which allows the eye path to enter the box, redirected (reflexed) via a prism and are directed through the lens to the object. The advantage of this type of camera system allows various viewing angles by using an array of interchangeable lenses.

Medium format (SLR) cameras (roll film format) have the added advantage of interchangeable backs to allow for various film types, motorised film advancement or adapting the Polaroid instant materials.

This format replaces the box with a light tight flexible bellow box with removable front and back panels. The front panel has a fixed focal length lens incorporating it's own internal shutter mechanism (leaf shutter) while the back panel has a removable back to allow for various film formats to be attached. The back panel is transparent (frosted glass) to allow the image which appears inverted (upside down) to be viewed and focused by moving the back panel closer or further from the front panel via a monorail connected the base of the two panels. The advantage of the bellows is that it allows perspective correction of a viewed scene by incorporating ‘tilt’ or ‘swing’ movements of the front and back panels.

3.3 Distinguishing between different types of lenses

Objective

By the time you complete this section, you should be able to distinguish between the different types of lenses commonly used in photography today.

The lens is the all-important ‘eye’ of the camera.

Range of different types of lenses

The lens collects light rays from every part of the subject and focuses them onto the film plane to form the image inside the camera. A human face, a tall building, and a remote mountain range - anything at which you point your lens will reproduce an image in fine detail.

Lenses vary according to focal length and speed.

Lens speed

Lenses vary in their ability to transmit light to the film. This light transmitting ability is what we mean when we talk about the speed of a lens, and whether it's a ‘fast’ lens or a ‘slow’ lens. With the same subject and lighting conditions a fast lens at its widest aperture can deliver a brighter image to the film then a slow lens at its widest aperture. Remember, in photography terminology, lens speed refers to the lens' ability to transmit light, not to its ability to catch action.

Focal length

Focal length is important because it determines the lens' field of view for a particular frame size — how much or how little of the scene it will include in the picture area. The focal length of a lens is the distance from a particular point of the lens to the sharp image it produces at the film plane when focused on the object at ‘infinity’. In photography, infinity is any relatively great distance from the camera. When one sets the camera's focusing control at the ‘infinity’ mark, the lens-to- film distance inside ones camera equals the focal length of that lens. A long focal length lens will give you a ‘telephoto’ view of the subject. A short focal length lens will give a ‘wide angle’ view of the subject.

The effect of increasing focal length while keeping the same lens-to-subject distance

Each lens has a particular focal length that is set at the time it is designed and manufactured. The focal length never changes. ‘Zoom’ lenses are an important exception. They have a variable focal length.

Most cameras come equipped with a lens of ‘normal’ focal length. What is regarded as the normal focal length for a camera depends on the size and proportion of the image area. With a 35 mm. camera, about 44 to 58 mm. usually is considered normal focal length. With 120 roll film twin-lens reflex camera, 75 or 80 mm. is normal. With a camera using 4”x 5” sheet film, it's about 150 mm. With a camera 8”x 10” film, it's about 300 mm.

All these focal length give a horizontal angle of view from approximately 35 to 45 degrees.

A normal lens is the most versatile workhorse of lenses – the type used by most photographers to do most jobs. You will be able to complete all of your assignments with a normal focal length lens

Long and short lenses

If you have a camera with interchangeable lenses, you'll find this feature offers some important advantages. By allowing you to use a lens with a longer than normal focal length, it gives you the choice of telephoto or wide-angle effects. For example, a lens with shorter then normal focal length (usually called a wide-angle lens) includes more of the scene than a normal lens would from the same camera position. It has a wider angle of view-up to 100 degrees in some cases. Naturally, the objects within the picture area are recorded smaller than they would be with a normal lens. Wide-angle lenses often are used to give broader, panoramic effects or to include more of a subject when one cannot back away.

On the other hand, a lens with a longer than normal focal length takes in less but gives one a larger image of any object it includes. An extremely long lens may have an angle of view as narrow as 5 degrees or even less. Long lenses often are used when a photographer can not get close to ones subject, as when photographing wild life or shooting sports pictures from the sidelines

Zoom lens

The zoom lens is perhaps the most versatile lens in any photo kit. It has the capability to cover a range of focal lengths within the one lens. The most common range of zoom lenses are the 24 - 80mm., 50 -135mm. and 80 - 200mm. Zoom lenses are a convenient way to variably frame an image by changing the focal length rather than changing camera position or changing lenses. Unfortunately, there is one disadvantage, mainly the cost. The zoom lens is more expensive than a fixed focal length. Zoom lenses are also slightly heavier, however being a multi purpose lens; one zoom can replace several fixed lenses.

Macro lens

Macro lenses are lenses that permit an object to be brought into focus even when they are extremely close-up. These lenses are used when extreme close-ups of objects are required. The lens elements are designed so that the lens elements can be extended within the lens barrel.

Fish Eye lens

Lenses that can capture a 180 degree angle of view are termed ‘fish eye’ lenses. Because of the extremely wide angle of view, the image produced by a fish eye lens appears circular. The explanation for the name given to this type of lens is that it resembles a fish eye.

Fish eye lens with special viewfinder adapter

PC Correction lens

A Perspective Correction (PC) lens is used in architectural photography to correct converging lines. The lens incorporates a slide shift mechanism, which adjust the lens axis so that it aligns parallel to the building, eliminating apparent distortion.

Features of the PC Correction lens

3.4 Distinguishing between different types of film carriers

Objective

By the time you complete this section, you should be able to distinguish between the different types of film carriers incorporated into cameras manufactured today.

Film formats

Cameras also differ according to the film format they use.

By far the most commonly used film format is 35 mm. This gives an image size of 24 x 36 mm. This size is large enough to give high quality projection of transparencies and enlargement of negatives. 35 mm is the film format in which has the largest range of film types is available.

The other reasonably commonly used film format is 120/220 roll films. The difference between 120 and 220 roll film is simply that the latter is twice the length. Professional photographers and serious amateurs use this format. It is chosen for the higher resolution that can be achieved with the larger image size. The shape of the image produced on this film format and therefore the size varies according to the camera. The Hasselblad and Rolleiflex, for example, produce images that are 6 cm (2 1/4”) square. The Mamiya 645 and the Pentax 6 x 7 both give rectangle pictures, one being 6 x 4.5 cm. and 6 x 7cm. respectively. These sizes are approximate. The actual image may be slightly smaller.

Most photographers use one or other of the two film formats described above. However, specialised photographic work may require an even larger film size. This means moving to sheet film. Sheet film comes in the sizes: 6 x 9 cm, 12.7 x 10.2 cm (5 x 4 in.) and 25.4 x 20.3 cm (10 x 8 in).

A range of different film formats

Film Advance

The mechanism used to move film through a camera is called the ‘film advance’. In the case of cameras, which use roll films, the film advance moves the film between two spools. The film winds off a supply spool, is pulled across the back of the camera and finally is wound up on a second ‘take up’ spool. In the simplest roll film cameras, advancing the film is accomplished by turning a knob on the side of the camera.

Cameras that use 35mm. film stock employs a different type of film advance. Film is supplied in a light tight cassette. When the film is advanced, it is pulled across the film plane of the camera onto a take up spool, similar to roll film cameras.

However, after the film has been completely exposed, the film has to be wound back into the cassette. This is accomplished by turning a rewind lever located on the outside of the camera body. The rewind lever is connected to a cog sprocket mechanism alongside the camera's film plane, which grips the perforated sides of the film and pulls the film back into the cassette.

Auto-rewind 35 mm. cameras rewind the film electronically once the last frame has been exposed.

Cameras that use an individual sheet of film for each picture have no film advance mechanism. Instead, film is loaded into a film holder and the film holder is inserted into the camera's back for each exposure.

3.5 Distinguishing between different types of viewfinders

Objectives

By the time you complete this section, you should be able to:

• distinguish between different types of viewfinders found in cameras today;

• recognise parallax error.

The basic principle of operation of the rangefinder

A rangefinder consists of a pair of mirrors or prisms, placed an inch or two apart and arranged so the eye, in looking through one of them, sees a double image of the subject. The other mirror can be pivoted to make the images converge and is connected to the focusing control of the camera so, as the lens is moved in focusing, the two images are always superimposed on the subject point of focus.

Parallax error

Parallax error is the type of error that occurs with non-SLR cameras in the framing of a subject as a result of the separation between the lens and the viewfinder window. Although parallax is usually insignificant for subjects more than a metre from the camera, it can in some cases lead to miscalculation of the exact boundaries of the image. Parallax error may result in you photographing someone with a tree growing out of his ear, despite the fact that the viewfinder image may have shown tree and ear to be safely separated. An extreme example of parallax error is the possibility that you might forget to remove the lens cap and take a lot of pictures of nothing, assuming, because the viewfinder image was visible, that the lens was functioning normally.

Correcting for eye problems

Dioptic correction lenses can be added to most viewfinders for those who wear glasses but prefer to photograph without them. It corrects near or far sightedness. Special correction lenses, ground to your own personal prescription, are available from some manufacturers. You can of course, wear your glasses while photographing, but they keep you from placing your eye close enough to the finder piece to see the whole image area. Camera finders differ in this eye relief characteristic so try several varieties. You may find one that allows comfortable full-field vision even with your glasses on.

The viewing image appearing in a number of single-lens reflex finder systems hang in space quite close to the eye. Other camera designs provide an apparent image distance of up to several metres. If you are farsighted, you will discover that even though you cannot use some camera finders easily, you will have no trouble with others. Investigate several brands; they are not all alike.

3.6 Distinguishing between different types of shutters

Objective

By the time you complete this section, you should be able to distinguish between focal plane and between-the-lens shutters, which are incorporated into cameras today.

Shutters fall into two general types:

• between-the-lens (BTL);

• focal plane (FP).

Between the lens shutters form part of the lens assembly and are located in a space between the lens elements. The thin metal leaves of the shutter are arranged coaxially with the lens. They are pivoted so they can swing out to admit light, or swing in to cut off light.

Arrow pointing to the BTL shutter

Focal plane shutters are part of the camera body and are usually located just in front of the film surface. There are two types:

• curtain focal plane shutters; and

• leaf or blade focal plane shutters.

Arrow pointing to the FP shutter

Curtain shutters are made of either thin metal foil or cloth. The shutter comprises two curtains. In the closed position, their edges meet or overlap slightly to cover the film completely. When the shutter is actuated, the curtains separate and travel across the film surface in tandem. The space between the trailing edge of the leading curtain and the leading edge of the trailing curtain produces a moving slit. This allows light to reach the film.

Features of the curtain mechanism

Leaf or blade shutters typically consist of several thin metal leaves in each of two groups. One group is located at the top of the film gate and the other is located at the bottom of the film gate. In the closed position, one group of leaves is fanned out to cover the film where the other group remaining folded. During the exposure cycle the first group of leaves retracts to its folded position, exposing the film. The second group then fans out to cover the film and terminate the exposure.

Leaf mechanism: various positions from closed to open

3.7 Distinguishing between different focusing systems

Objectives

By the time you complete this section, you should be able to:

• distinguish between viewfinder, rangefinder and ground glass focusing systems;

• distinguish between manual ground glass focusing and auto focusing systems.

The simplest method of focusing which is incorporated into less expensive cameras is scale focusing. A scale is provided on the barrel of the lens and the lens is adjusted manually according to the estimated distance to the subject. The scale is generally shown in feet or metres. However, on some very inexpensive cameras the scale is calibrated in visual symbols. For example, a stylised silhouette of a mountain may indicate the proper focus setting for mid-range subjects, and stylised head or head and shoulder silhouette may indicate the proper setting for close-up focusing. Although this may seem rather imprecise, these small cameras provide a great depth of field and absolute accuracy of focus is not essential.

Distance scale focusing using either visual symbols or actual imperial/metric settings

In a rangefinder system, the prism consists of two shallow wedges of glass or plastic lay side by side, both pointing in opposite directions. Like micro prisms, the wedges refract light and react only to image light from the margins of the lens. These marginal rays are bent most sharply in focusing, so the image they form appears to go in and out of focus abruptly. The out-of-focus image appears divided, with each half displaced along the intersection of the prism wedges. Focusing the image brings the image halves into alignment, and the image form appears whole. Neither device is as accurate as a real rangefinder but both a usually better than a plain ground glass.

Diagram of a split image rangefinder screen

The ground glass texture tends to obscure very fine image details and the concentric rings of the fresnel lens, although minute, contribute to this problem. In poor light the image becomes too dim to see clearly and things become even worse if the lens in use is slow (does not admit much light) or if filers or other lens attachments that absorb light are being use. To make focusing simpler under these conditions, most SLR ground glass screens incorporate some type of focusing aid, usually a micro-prism grid or a rangefinder prism assembly, or some combination of these.

The micro prism grid usually occupies a small circular area in the centre of the ground glass and consists of dozens of minute pyramids of plastic. When the image is not in-focus the pyramid faces disperse the image light, so the image seems to shimmer, especially when the camera is moved slightly. A well-focused image appears rather coarse-grained, but intact, and no shimmer is visible.

In a viewfinder system there is a lateral reversal of the image. This is a common characteristic of simple reflex cameras. This can be corrected by the addition of a pentaprism to the viewing prisms. This addition has many advantages. It orientates the image correctly and provides eye-level viewing of a magnified, brilliant image. Due to the viewed image being formed by the same lens that takes the picture, it will show the effects of focus changes, depth of field, and any other factor that will influence the final picture. Wide-angle or telephoto lenses can be used without major difficulty. Very long telephoto lenses may crop off the top of the viewfinder image in some cameras, but the film image is not affected and will be complete.

Auto focusing systems adjust the camera's focusing of a scene automatically. This factor is clearly an advantage, especially in low-level lighting situations, where manual focus is less desirable. The focusing mechanism is activated by partially pressing down the shutter-release button. The camera adjusts the lens to focus sharply on an object that appears in the centre of the viewing frame. Unfortunately, if the attraction appears on the frame's edge of the viewfinder this could result in out-of-focus image.

More sophisticated models have a range of tracking sensors which will focus on an object not necessarily in the centre of the frame. Currently, a new hybrid of auto focusing systems has evolved tracking the photographer's eye path whilst viewing through the viewfinder. These sensors will focus on the designated section of the viewing frame.

3.8 Distinguishing between different types of exposure control

Objective

By the time you complete this section, you should be able to distinguish between manual, semi-automatic and programmed exposure control.

Current Single-lens reflex systems offer one or more of the three basic modes of exposure controls: manual, semi- automatic and programmed. In manually operated cameras, the meter scale or pointer (visible in the viewfinder near the margin of the image area will indicate correct exposure when you have set the aperture and shutter controls appropriately for the film in use. In match-pointer or match-needle designs, the camera settings are correct when a pair of movable pointers-one sensitive to adjustments of the diaphragm, the other moved by changes in the shutter speed setting-are superimposed. Either one or both of these controls can be adjusted to align the pointers properly, but these adjustments must be done manually.

The camera meter merely tells you when you’ve made the right adjustments. It doesn't help you make them. Some cameras feature patterns of light-emitting diodes (LEDs), instead of moving pointers, to indicate correct adjustments. Others display the actual lens and shutter settings in illuminated windows in the dark margins of the image area. There is no significant difference in meter function or in the operation of the camera controls. Modern micro circuitry techniques are very sophisticated and the trend is towards more electric and electronic emphasis in camera design. In some of the more advanced cameras, built-in miniature computers calculate exposure, command and functioning of aperture/shutter and time the exposure interval with tiny quartz ‘clock’.

A semi-automatic camera allows you to select one scale setting; the camera will then choose and adjust the other. In the aperture-priority mode, you set the aperture f-stop number and the camera will immediately provide and appropriate shutter speed setting for the subject conditions according to the film speed used. Shutter-priority mode lets you set the shutter speed before the camera indicates the appropriate aperture to be used.

In programmed operation type camera, it does it all for you. You merely focus the scene by rotating the lens barrel (most cameras now have auto-focusing lens system avoiding the need to manually rotate the lens’s focusing barrel), frame the subject in the viewfinder and press the shutter release. The camera will select both lens and shutter settings. The major drawback is their dependence on battery power.

3.9 Distinguishing between different types of built-in exposure meters

Objective

By the completion of this section, you should be able to distinguish between silicon, cadmium sulphide and gallium arsinide exposure meters.

Practically all 35mm single lens reflex and the compact 35mm auto systems are now equipped with built-in exposure meters. These employ one of three popular types of photocells, coupled to the lens and shutter controls. The cadmium sulphide cell (CdS), which made built-in meters and automated exposure systems practical, is commendably sensitive but suffered from slow response time, memory effects, poor colour response, and temperature sensitivity. It is now being replaced by the silicon photo-diode (SPD) or the gallium-arsenide-phosphide (GaAsP or GAP) cell, commonly known as the gallium photo-diodes (GPD). Both silicon and gallium photo-diodes have extremely fast response time, excellent sensitivity, good stability, and freedom from memory. Silicon photo-diodes when blue-filtered (silicon-blue cells or SPCs) have a good colour sensitivity. Gallium cells do not normally require filtering.

CdS cells function satisfactorily on simply battery power. SPDs and GPDs require complex electronic circuitry to amplify and stabilise their responses. Although this sounds risky and expensive, both systems have proven to be reliable.

3.10 Distinguish between different types of hand-held exposure meters

Objectives

By the time you complete this section, you should be able distinguish between selenium and cadmium sulphide exposure meters and between incident and reflected exposure meters.

Photographic exposure meters used today make use of one or other of two light-sensing principles.

Simpler light meters use selenium cells. These convert light energy into electrical energy, which is used to move a needle across a scale. The stronger the light, the greater the current, and the further the needle moves across the scale. Because the selenium cell generates its own electrical energy, selenium light meters do not require batteries. However, they are comparatively insensitive in low-light conditions.

The other type of light meter uses a cadmium sulphide cell. This type of cell acts as a resistor. It therefore requires a battery. Current, flowing through the cell is varied according to the amount of light striking the cell.

Typical hand-held cadmium sulphide cell light meter

Exposure meters also differ according to which light they measure.

Most hand-held meters measure the light reflected from the subject. They are known as ‘reflected light’ meters. To obtain a reading the meter is pointed at the subject or at that part of the subject that the photographer wants correctly exposed, and a reading is taken.

The other type of meter measures incident light. Incident light meters use a much wider angle of view — usually about 180 degrees. Meters of this type gain their wider viewing angle by having a translucent hemisphere of white plastic or glass placed over the light sensitive cell to diffuse the light.

Most hand-held meters are able to operate as both reflected light and incident light meters

Taking a reading with a reflected light meter

Taking a reading with an incident light meter

3.11 Distinguishing between different camera systems

Objective

By the time you complete this section, you should be able to distinguish between the three camera imaging systems.

Cameras can be basically categorised into three distinct imaging systems.

Processed film cameras

Processed film is the oldest imaging technology. Nicephore Niepce, using a camera obscura became the first person to photographically record an image (1826). Though, it was not until 1888 that George Eastman (Kodak) popularised photography by inventing roll film technology.

Initially, photography was restricted to B&W imaging. A flexible transparent film coated with a gelatin emulsion containing a silver compound. When exposed to light, the film produced a latent image, which became visible by chemical development. This rendered a negative image of the original scene on film.

The Kodak No.1 camera 1888.

George Eastman holding a Kodak No.1 camera

Colour Photography too became a reality by 1907, when the Lumiere Brothers commercially manufactured an additive process (Auto chrome) combining a light sensitive emulsion with a transparent dyed substance. This produced positive image as a final result. By the 1930’s Agfa, Ansco and Kodak produced negative type emulsions (print film) that are the foundation of our current film technology. (see film types)

Camera film types range from 35mm. cassette, 120mm. roll film, through to sheet film formats 4”x 5” and 8”x 10”. The most versatile film format is the 35mm. Its versatility makes it adaptable from the simplest disposable ‘point and shoot’ type camera right through to the most sophisticated professional single-lens reflex (SLR) camera. One of the most popular SLR types was the Nikon series - Nikkormat & Nikon F

Nikon F series

The 35mm. format also suits most specialised cameras used for underwater, high speed and aircraft aerial surveillance through to the motion pictures industry. The processed film technology is still comparable to its nearest rivalry - the digital domain.

Instant film Cameras

The Polaroid instant image system offers an alternative dimension to picture taking. Once an exposure is made the film is impregnated with an alkaline chemistry that processes the image within minutes.

Most professional photographers before shooting an assignment on conventional film attach a special Polaroid back to their medium or large format cameras. This allows for any compositional aspects and exposure calculations to be determined prior to the final shoot. Polaroid has a wide range of camera formats and film stock, which allows for many creative possibilities to a final image.

SX-70 Polaroid Land Camera Schematic diagram of the viewing and exposure light path

The Polaroid SX70 is a single-lens reflex instant film camera. In this camera the film pack is located in the base of the camera. Its design allows the viewing light path to be directed to the base of the camera during film exposure. When not in use, the camera can be neatly folded flat.

Digital Cameras

Digital technology has taken such a huge step forward in imaging making that it needs to be discussed in greater details as a separate topic see (Section 3.19). What we can at least say under this heading is that digital cameras come in four types - Compact Point-and-Shoot, Fixed &Interchangeable digital Single lens reflex (DSLR), Medium format DSLR and Digital Scanning backs for Large format.

3.12 Distinguishing between different film–base camera types

Objective

By the time you complete this section, you should be able to distinguish between Viewfinder, Single-lens reflex, Twin-lens reflex, and View cameras.

Different Types of Cameras

The main camera types are:

• Disposable cameras; • Rangefinder; • Compact point-and-shoot; • Single-lens reflex 35mm; • Single-lens reflex medium format; • Twin-lens reflex; • View.

Not all imaging technologies are available in every format. The table below shows the types of cameras that are producing using each type of technology.

Camera type Processed-film Instant-film Digital

Disposable √ √

Rangefinder √ √ own brand √

Compact point-and-shoot √ √ own brand √

Single-lens reflex, 35 mm format √ √

Single-lens reflex, medium format √ √ via back √ via scanning back

Twin-lens reflex √

View √ via back √ via back √ via scanning back

Available imaging-technology format combinations

Disposable

The disposable camera is the most basic camera in this range. It contains a simple lens to focus the scene and has an elementary shutter to record the image. The camera comes preloaded from the manufacturer and once all the frames are exposed the camera is taken to a photo lab for processing and printing. The camera is ‘thrown away’.

Over the last ten years, there have been many enhancements to the basic disposable ‘in bright conditions’ camera. From a built-in flash model for indoor or night use, to the more outdoor sporting versions such as the waterproof casing for underwater photography, the telephoto camera and for traveling the panoramic version to take in those splendid land and seascapes.

Viewfinder

Viewfinder cameras are the simplest cameras. They may have either open-frame viewfinders or small optical finders which works like miniature reversed telescopes. You see the subject through a small window built into the upper part of the camera. However, by itself the viewfinder is only a framing device — regardless of how the camera’s lens is set, the viewfinder image is always in focus. Better cameras of this type have a rangefinder built into the viewfinder as a focusing aid.

Rangefinder

Typically, the rangefinder has a viewfinder, plus a coupled focusing system consisting of a pair of small mirrors placed about 75mm apart within the camera. One mirror is fixed and semitransparent, while the other pivots as the camera’s lens is focused. When the two images coincide to form one, the lens is focused. The rangefinder camera mainly came in 35mm format though there were some professional medium format versions. Its main advantages over Single-lens reflex camera are - more compact, lighter construction and less camera vibration during operation due to less internal mechanical movement. Compact 35 cameras using infrared auto focus mechanisms have replaced the traditional rangefinder camera. The professional rangefinder Leica 35mm is one of a very few still available.

Schematic diagram showing the independent eye and film paths from a scene

Rangefinder Leica M6 camera

Compact Point-and-Shoot

Sometimes referred to as the ‘point-and-shoot’ camera. They dominate the low price range of the market but extend to the price range of the SLR (Single-lens reflex) cameras. It’s an ideal automatic camera for those beginning photography, or for those who want to record their travels and want to have an all-in-one versatile camera. These cameras come with auto film speed-reading, a metering system for calculating aperture/shutter combination, motorised frame advance and rewind mechanism and a triggering device to alert the built-in flash if needed. On the more advanced models they also have a variable focal length zoom lens and macro focus, metering options to compensate for backlighting or flash filled situations, and have time/date modes.

Auto focus compact digital cameras look, feel and respond like traditional automatic cameras, which use film. They are point-and-shoot cameras with limited features, fixed focal length lens or zoom lens with limited zoom ranges and no lens interchangeability. The cameras are generally used for recording daily events, for Web page design, sending images via the Internet or for other documentation of company newsletters — in fact for any use where the final image does not need to be very large.

Minolta Auto focus 35mm camera

Single-lens reflex 35 mm format

The Single-lens reflex (SLR) design combines the viewing and taking functions in one lens, so there is no parallax error at all and the image seen in the viewfinder is, in most respects, identical with the image that the film will record. The mirror that reflects the image upward to the viewing screen is hinged in the SLR and flips up out of the way when the shutter release is pressed, allowing the image light to reach the film plane. During the actual intervals of film exposure, the visual image in the finder is lost, but in almost all SLRs, the instant return mirror drops back into position as soon as the shutter closes and the viewfinder image is restored. In practice the brief loss of the visual image at the critical instant of exposure is virtually only a minor annoyance. In some cases, however, the image blackout is troublesome, and in situations such as following erratically moving object, a rangefinder camera is generally more convenient.

Schematic diagram of single-lens reflex Nikon F601 M

Single-Lens Reflex Medium Format

The features are similar to that of the 35mm. format. The added advantages are larger film size 120 roll film, producing formats — 6 x 4.5cm, 6 x 6cm, and 6 x 7cm., and they have removable camera film backs. This allows for greater versatility, being able to shoot part rolls of various film types by interchanging the backs during a photo session. There are even specially designed backs that will accept either Polaroid Instant film pack - or digital imaging.

Schematic diagram of a Medium format camera

Hasselblad camera

Twin-lens reflex

In the Twin-lens reflex (TLR) design, the image formed by the viewfinder image is optically similar to the camera lens itself and the two lenses are mounted as close together as possible to reduce parallax. The TLR is really, therefore two cameras operating as one; the upper unit serves merely to form the viewing image, while the lower unit contains the film and records the image. An inclined mirror, angled down behind the viewing lens, reflects its image up to the ground glass screen set into the top of the camera and, because the viewing and taking lenses focus together, the film image is in focus when the image on appears sharp. The TLR is usually held at waist level and looking down into the finder, the image is seen upright but laterally reversed, a characteristic that takes some getting used to. The ground glass image is partially shielded from outside light by a folding metal hood. A simple lens, built into the hood, can be flipped up to magnify the image, and when the eye is placed close to this magnifying lens, the image can be seen larger and more clearly for focusing and composing at eye level.

Rolleiflex camera Schematic diagram of a Twin-lens camera

View

View cameras are also known as sheet film cameras because they use sheet film — 4”x 5” and 8”x10”. There are basically two types — the monorail type mainly used in studio situations and the technical type-folding version used on location, which is portable and can be hand-held. The latter was mainly used for Press work in the early part of the century. Now the more compact format is used. The View camera provides a great deal of control and flexibility. It is used in advertising photography for its attention to detail, perspective correction and sharpness. It has interchangeable lenses, and the bellows unit makes accurate close-up photography possible. Incorporating swing and tilt capability, it is used quite extensively in architectural photography for correcting converging lines of buildings if the assignment requires parallel view. Another advantage is to extend the depth of field without varying the f-stop number.

Plaubel large format camera Schematic diagram of a View camera

Digital camera backs - are now available to fit 4”x 5” View cameras. Camera backs using area or matrix CCD chips are used for high-end digital capture in applications such as advertising brochures, catalogues and commercial assignments. Scanning back systems differ from instant capture cameras in that they use a matrix capture data while linear array cameras scan one line at a time. These cameras are mainly used for large file sizes intended for large prints, displays and posters.

3.13 Distinguishing between different types of special purpose cameras

Objective

By the time you complete this section, you should be able to distinguish between the various types of panoramic, underwater and aerial cameras.

In addition to the common types of cameras, which have been described in section 3.12, there are quite a number of special purpose cameras on the market.

The Widelux is a camera, which produces wide-angle pictures. It does this by means of a unique moving lens mechanism rather than relying on wide-angle optics. This produces images, which are perspective distortion free.

Widelux camera

A medium format wide-angle camera with a fixed lens is the Linhof Technorama.

The Linhof Technorama camera

Image format of the Linhof Technorama camera

A further type of wide-angle photography can be achieved using a peripheral oscillating camera.

Panascope – peripheral oscillating camera

This image was made using the Panascope camera.

Underwater

The Nikonos camera is mainly used for underwater photography. Its compatibility makes it also an ideal camera in wet or dusty environments, which would damage a normal camera. The latest in the series is the Nikonos V.

Nikonos V camera

Most other makes of underwater cameras rely on watertight housing construction, restricting its use.

Camera in an underwater housing

WP-CP4 Waterproof Case for Coolpix Digital Cameras

Aerial

The most popular camera used in aerial photography is the Linhof Aero Technika 45 EL camera. It’s a robust large format 4”x 5” camera.

Linhof Aero Technika 45 EL camera

Photographers have always been intrigued in the birds-eye perspective of the land from above. Some aerial photographers go beyond their main role of land surveillance to create artistic interpretations of the landscape.

Aerial view in Rochester, New York. USA by Marilyn Bridges

3.14 Comparing the advantages and disadvantages of different camera types

Objective

By the completion of this section, you should be able to identify the advantages and disadvantages of each of the four major types of camera.

Before you purchase a camera, you should try to determine which features are important to you and which ones you can do without. You can then select from the range of cameras that have the features you want, the one that feels best in your hands, is most convenient for you to operate and gives you the best viewfinder image for focusing and composing.

Very simple viewfinder cameras may not have any focusing adjustment. If not, they will have been set at the factory to focus most sharply somewhere in the middle distance and will usually take acceptably sharp pictures of any subject more than a meter from the camera. They may not have adjustable lens openings or shutter speeds either. In this case, they will be restricted to use in normal daylight conditions with general-purpose films, although some of them will accept flashcubes or electronic flash units to permit their use in poor light conditions. Finders of this type cannot be used to focus the camera, nor do they provide any indication of depth of field— the region of the subject from front to rear that will be acceptable sharp in the picture.

Rangefinder cameras, when well designed and constructed, provide an excellent finder image, partially corrected for parallax error, and very brilliant. Focusing is fast and very accurate, and cameras of this type are particularly suitable for use in poor light conditions or in situations that require accurate framing of rapidly moving objects. The better rangefinder cameras will accept interchangeable lenses, automatically presenting the appropriate viewfinder field for (usually) one wide-angle and one telephoto lens, in addition to the normal field of view. In general, extreme wide-angle or telephoto lenses require accessory finders, and the inherent advantages of the rangefinder camera-operating speed; accuracy of focus and finder brilliance may be compromised or lost. The most expensive version of this type of system is the Leica, preferred by many photojournalists.

Even though most SLR ground-glass images are well shielded from outside light and are brightened, especially in the corners, by a built-in Fresnel lens, they are not always easy to focus. This problem is further compounded when used with any lens of inappropriate focal length or when used with a lens of inappropriate aperture, one half or other of the rangefinder prism will appear black. Under the same conditions, the micro-prism grid simply darkens into a mealy-looking area of texture and refuses to fracture the image or shimmer. For this reason, most manufacturers offer separate prism- equipped screen for use with wide-angle and telephoto lenses. If you plan to specialize in working with one of these lenses, the special ground-glass screen will be a good investment. Single-lens reflex cameras have become much more popular than TLRs.

3.15 Choosing the right camera

Objective

By the time you complete this section, you should be able to select the most appropriate camera for your particular purpose.

What camera do I need?

The question that most photographers are probably asked frequently is “what is the best camera I can buy?” Unfortunately there is no simple answer.

Undoubtedly the camera that has proved most popular up until the ‘Digital Revolution’ is the 35mm SLR (Single-Lens Reflex). The equivalent to that now is the Digital SLR camera (DSLR). The important aspects to consider when choosing a camera are application, variety of accessories and cost. The range of cameras available is wide, yet each type is very distinct in its uses.

Potential camera buyers should examine the different models and decide which might be the most suitable for their requirements. Ultimately, however whichever camera is used, the elements that go to make up the final image will be those that the photographer bring to the camera, rather than the number of dials, knobs or how sophisticated its metering is.

Even a disposable camera can produce a good picture in the hands of an attentive and enthusiastic amateur who takes care with composition, gives thought to foreground and background and notes the prevailing lighting conditions. Great shots can be achieved with even the most modest budget and a little technical knowledge. The more money one is prepared to spend the greater the sophistication the camera will be.

What camera do I buy?

When buying a camera, most likely now a ‘Digital Camera’, there are some points to consider:

• Do you want the compactness and convenience of a ‘Point-and-Shoot’ model or the more extensive flexibility of a SLR? They are in most cases, use the same memory card and can give virtually identical results in normal situations. If you are primarily interested in everyday situations - photographing friends, vacations and family gatherings an inexpensive non-SLR possibility compact auto-focus may suit your needs. If you want a broader range of creative options, including interchangeable lenses to achieve a closer or wider acceptance viewing range, then a SLR type should be considered.

• Research what models are available. Talk to other amateurs, read photo magazines pick up any brochures on the various models from a camera shop or check the Internet. Additional features cost more and probably you won’t use them. Decide how fast you need to record; some cameras will go as fast as 1/4000 or 1/2000 instead of 1/1000 or 1/500, as to also the maximum the aperture the greater the cost.

• If you are getting a SLR you'll probably want to add lenses and other equipment eventually. Be sure that the model you are buying will be compatible with the kinds of accessories you will want. Some SLR makes can be limited to the range.

• When you have narrowed the field to a few models take ample time to check out the cameras themselves. Are the controls easy for you to operate? Is the viewfinder or Screen sufficiently ‘user-friendly’ for easier focusing?

The following table – ‘Categories of Photography’ sets out range of situations and what features should be considered.

Categories of Photography Format Special Speed Portability Recommendation for Cost Range Requirements options camera types

Amateur Snapshots/People shots/ 35mm or Built in flash None Light-weight 35mm/digital or Disposable digital range $20- 500 Snapshots/People shots/ 35mm or Built in flash, zoom or digital wide-angle lenses None Light-weight 35mm film /Digital -Compact or $200-800 SLR

Advance Amateur General Portraiture 35mm or None None Medium 35mm film /Digital -Compact or $200-2000 digital SLR Sport/Action/Events 35mm Flash, long lenses High Medium 35mm film /Digital -Compact or $500-4000 SLR Architecture/Landscape 35mm or Wide-angle, PC lens None Medium 35mm film /Digital -Compact or $500-2000 120 roll SLR Documentary/Interiors 35mm or Wide-angle lenses None Medium 35mm film /Digital -Compact or $500-3000 120 roll SLR Natural History 35mm or Telephoto/zoom High Light-weight 35mm film /Digital -Compact or $500-2500 120 roll lenses SLR Still Life 35mm or Macro lens None Medium 35mm film /Digital -Compact or $500-2500 digital SLR

Professional in field Non Photographer Real Estate 35mm or Wide–angle lenses None Light-weight Digital SLR $200-1500 digital Insurance Co. Polaroid or Flash None Light-weight 35mm or Digital Compact $200-1000 digital Corporate in-house Digital Files for Internet None Light-weight Digital Compact $200-2000 Academic Researchers 35mm or Download facility None Light-weight Digital Compact $200-1500 digital Primary/Secondary Schools 35mm or Digital Labs Moderate Light-weight /Digital -Compact or SLR $200-1500 digital

Specialized Photographer Aerial Survey 35mm or Tilt shift lens High Medium 35mm, 120 roll, 4”x5” or $500-4000 120 roll Digital SLR Underwater 35mm U/water housing, None Medium 35mm or Digital in U/water $500-4000 flash housing Archaeology 35mm Data back None Light-weight Digital SLR $200-2000 Museum Conservator 35mm or Macro lenses None Medium Digital SLR $200-3000 digital

Magazine/Illustrator Product/Portraiture 35mm or Macro lenses Moderate Medium Digital SLR $700-9000 120 roll Architecture/Fashion 35mm or PC, wide-angle lenses Moderate Medium Digital SLR $700-9000 120 roll

Scientific Forensic 35mm or Flash, macro lens None Light-weight Digital SLR $200-4000 Polaroid Defense 35mm or Flash, telephoto None Light-weight Digital SLR $200-5000 Polaroid lenses Medical 35mm Flash, macro lenses None Light-weight 35mm. Or Digital SLR $200-4000

3.16 Choosing the right film for Film-Base Cameras

Objective

By the time you complete this section, you should be able to choose film appropriately for its speed and colour temperature.

Selecting the film for speed

All film has a specific sensitivity to light or speed. Its ISO number designates the speed of a film. ISO is an abbreviation for the International Standards Organization.

The ISO speed will be clearly indicated on the film box and in the instruction sheet as well as on the film magazine. Some film magazines also have a patterned code printed on the film magazine that programs the ISO number into the camera automatically when the film is loaded.

Film box information

ISO numbers range from 25 to 3200. The higher the number, the more ‘sensitive’ the film to light. Films are classified into three groups according to speed:

Low speed below 50 Medium speed 64 - 200 High speed 400 - 3200.

As one goes higher up the speed range the tonal range of the film decreases and graininess increases and the sharpness decreases.

Low speed film is exceptionally sharp, fine grained and offers a rich tonal range. However, it requires bright conditions or use of a tripod.

Medium speed film allows flexibility in the choice of aperture/shutter speed combinations. It offers a sharp, fine-grained image.

High-speed film allows flexibility in low lighting conditions with small aperture and faster shutters speeds resulting in greater depth of field and better action stopping abilities.

For general picture taking, medium speed film represents the right choice. Medium speed film can be enlarged to a high degree without sacrificing sharpness and tonal range. Although low speed film gives slightly finer grain result, the flexibility of choice of aperture/speed combination is generally of greater importance.

For portraits, landscapes, still life or any shot in which you want to show fine detail or textual nuances, low-speed film provides the best result. When utmost definition is required in a picture, a fine-grain low-speed film is highly recommended.

For low-light situations, outdoors as well as indoor, and shots where high-speed film gives the best results. High-speed film also gives greater depth of field and good action stopping ability. Notwithstanding the increased graininess of high- speed films, with modern advances in film technology, today’s high-speed films still provide very satisfactory results in most situations.

Fast films,

Chromogenic B&W films

B&W panchromatic films

A range of colour negative films

A range of colour slide films

Selecting a film for colour temperature

As a general rule, you should match your film to the prevalent light conditions of any scene you a photographing. However, the high speed of many recently developed films, which are balanced for daylight, invites their use in low-level artificial light.

Although 3200 °K tungsten light is slightly brighter in intensity and cooler in hue than normal room lighting, for a scene that is illuminated with incandescent light you can use Type B film with excellent results.

Colour

Light from different sources emits different colours of light. Our eyes adjust quickly to the difference between the yellowish hues of incandescent light bulbs indoor and the more bluish colour of sunlight outdoors. Unfortunately, film is not quite so adaptable. Even with black-and-white film, artificial and natural light renders colours with different intensity, but because black-and-white film records all colours as tones of grey, the differences are acceptable to our eyes.

With colour film, however, even subtle gradation of colour must be reproduced accurately if the image is to look correct to the eye. To achieve this, colour film is adjusted, or balanced’, for a particular light source.

Because the colour can be altered somewhat in the printing process, colour negative film is usually balanced for only one source — daylight. This includes direct and reflected sunlight, as well as the light provided by electronic flash and blue flashbulbs, although the flashbulbs are somewhat absolute nowadays.

Colour transparency film, which becomes the final image when processed, cannot be corrected after the fact. Thus, while some slide films are balanced for daylight, others are balanced for one of two different kinds of artificial light source.

To compensate for the shortage of blue hues in yellow-red incandescent light, tungsten film is especially sensitive to the blue end of the spectrum. As a result, if you use tungsten film outdoors in the more even mix of colours provided by sunlight, your slides would have a pronounced bluish cast. Conversely, if you shoot daylight-balanced film indoors under household incandescent bulbs, it will record the scene as more golden in hue than you perceive it.

A common terminology used in photography describing the colour of light is described by its ‘temperature’ on the Kelvin degree (°) thermometric scale, and thus identified by a (°K). Some special colour slide films, called type A, are used with photo lamps with a colour temperature of 3400 °K. Colour slide film balanced for tungsten light of 3200 °K colour temperature, known as type B, is more commonly used. You can use type B film with excellent results in a scene that is incandescent bulbs.

Instant film

Polaroid has a wide range of film format for various applications, as the word implies the material produces a visible image within seconds from its exposure. Polaroid instant material is available in many formats to suit a wide range of applications. In addition to the pack film its also available in individual sheet film for 4”x 5” and 8”x 10” or in 35mm transparency film available in colour or B&W film stock.

High Contrast Film

High contrast film produces only two tones, the clear film base and black, without intermediate tones of grey. This film is mainly used in the graphic arts industry.

Infrared Film

Infrared film responds to the infrared wavelengths. The human eye is unable to detect light of this wavelength. Infrared film is used in black-and-white photography to create a very emotional and abstract view of a landscape or portrait.

Chromogenic B&W Film (Ilford XP-2)

Chromogenic film produces a dye image rather than a silver one. The film is processed with the C-41 colour chemistry, yet the characteristics of a B&W fine grain film. Prints are produced on colour paper at a photo lab and the resulting prints resemble sepia toned prints.

3.17 Distinguishing between different types of lens filters

Objective

By the time you complete this section, you should be able to identify situations in which it would be appropriate to use an UV, Skylight or Polarising filter.

Filters

The two most commonly used basic filters are the colourless ultraviolet (UV) or Haze filter and the faintly pinkish Skylight filter.

UV filter

Ultraviolet light is light, which has a wavelength shorter than the light at the blue-green end of the visible spectrum. Although we can’t see UV light, film records it as a haze in the background of a distant shot. When colour film is being used, this haze will have a bluish tinge. An UV filter absorbs UV light with result that the image recorded on film looks more like what we see. A Contrary to what is often believed, a UV filter does not eliminate visible haze.

Using a UV filter does not necessitate any adjustment being made to the exposure.

Photographers often leave an UV filter or a Skylight filter on their camera lens permanently to protect the vulnerable front element from airborne matter and scratches. A filter is inexpensive and is more resistant to scratching from repeated cleaning.

Skylight filter

The Skylight filter produces an effect that is similar to that of an UV filter. However, its slight tint also reduces the bluish cast in open shade and on overcast days, which certain films exaggerate.

Polarising filter

The Polarising filter is perhaps most effective in dealing with highly reflective surfaces like water or glass. At the correct camera angle, with the filter properly set, you can eliminate or tone down reflections that would otherwise prevent you from seeing through those surfaces. The filter can suddenly reveal a log on the bottom of the lake or a mannequin in the store window. However, the Polarising filter should be used with discretion. Reflections provide a great deal of information about the physical world. Without reflections, surfaces can appear dull or even ambiguous. They can also be used as an interesting pictorial devise. Thus, in some instances, its better to filter out reflections partially, toning them down rather than eliminating them.

Surprisingly, the degree of polarisation has no effect on exposure. In fact, a Polarising filter in a less-than-full effectiveness setting often fools a through-the-lens meter.

The standard procedure is to meter the scene without the Polarising filter and then increase exposure by one and a third stops. The Polarising filter always has a factor of 2.5 no matter what extent the polarisation - degree of rotation.

3.18 Distinguishing between different types of external flash units

Objectives

By the time you complete this section, you should be able to distinguish between the four different types of external flash units.

There are basically four types of flash units:

• Built-in flash;

• Hot-shoe flash;

• Handle-mount flash;

• Studio flash.

Built-in flash

Most SLR cameras nowadays come complete with a built-in flash concealed near the top of the camera's viewfinder. When the flash is required it pops up ready to fire. Built-in flash systems are practical in terms of extra light source. However, they have their drawbacks. The flash tends to be weak and any subject in darkness beyond 3 metres, relying totally on its power, tends to produce underexposed results. Another common problem is the 'red eye' phenomenon. This is due to the flash path being almost in line with the lens axis, when photographing a person’s face. The read eye phenomenon is produced by light reflecting off the retina in the back of the eye. The remedy for this problem is to move the flash away from the axis of the lens to the subject. However, if the flash unit is built into the camera body then this is not possible. This is why some flash units come as accessories rather than built in.

Hot-shoe flash

A hot shoe flash has a mounting foot, which hallows it to be attached to a hot-shoe bracket on top of the camera. The hot-shoe provides the electrical connection that fires the flash when the camera shutter is released. Some models have a movable head that swings and tilts so that the flash can be fixed to the camera and still provide flexible direction to indirectly bounce the light to create softer, shadow less even results by bouncing it off reflective surfaces.

In advanced units, a secondary fixed flash is located below the main flash. This allows for a combination of lighting results. A metering cell located near the base of the flash unit controls the duration of the flash. This allows for accurate exposure whether the light is directed towards or bounced away from the subject.

Handle-mount flash

A handle-mounted flash has many of the features of a hot-shoe flash, including swing and tilting head, metering cell, and secondary flash head. The flashgun is usually mounted to the side of the camera, thus eliminating the 'red eye' effect. The unit connects to the camera via a single connector known as the PC socket. The unit’s handle serves as a grip and can hold batteries to power the unit. Most professional photographers because of its versatility and light output favour this type of flash, which is greater than that of typical hot-shoe units.

Studio flash

A studio flash is a professional unit. Its portability is restricted by virtue of the need to access mains power. The power pack is able to generate enough power to fire off one or more freestanding flash heads simultaneously. The intensity of the flash of some heads can be adjusted independently. Other smaller, less powerful flash heads have their own built-in power pack. A PC sync terminal connects the power pack to the camera's shutter triggering mechanism.

A key feature of the flash head of both types of studio flash units is the built-in modeling light. This is a small tungsten light source, which is located centrally within the circular flash tube. The modeling light helps to position the direction of the flash. The intensity of the modeling light is also related directly to the intensity of the flash source. This means that when several flash heads are used for a specific shoot, the light ratio between them is clearly visible. If several flash packs are used simultaneously, synchronization between the packs is achieved via their built-in flash slave units. A flash slave unit works by detecting the pulse of light from a primary flash and firing its own flash head.

3.19 The Digital Revolution

Objective

By the time you complete this section, you should be able to have a greater understanding of the direction Photography has taken as a result of the Digital Imaging Revolution

The Digital Revolution

It is hard to believe that digital cameras have only been available to consumers since the mid 90’s. The rapid advance of digital mage technology has caused at least as much, and probably more, of a revolution in photography as did the progression from wet glass plates of flexible film.

Now, digital cameras outsell film cameras and in the very near future will replace them. There are obviously many reasons why this is so. Perhaps the most obvious one is that they do not use film, no processing and no waiting to get the images back from the lab. Pictures can be viewed immediately, either on the camera’s own LCD screen or after downloading to a computer, on a colour monitor. They can be printed very quickly either at home via inkjet printers or taken to photo laboratory and printed on colour emulsion paper.

Typical digital camera using the CMOS sensor chip

Instead of film emulsion, digital cameras use a light-sensitive CCD or CMOS Sensor chip made up of millions of miniature picture elements known as ‘pixels’ This sensor has many advantages over film emulsion. Its sensitivity to light measured in (ISO) can be changed from one image to another by a flick of a switch. In the past to do this we had to change film speed stock.

Digital imaging has had great impact in both the professional arena and the casual user market. Though it is the latter where the greatest camera activity is to be found, as can be seen by the huge number of easy-to-use digital compact cameras format appearing almost every month. Combine this with reasonably priced photo quality - inkjet printers, it is easy to see why more and more people are having fun trying their hand at digital imaging.

In this course it may seem that we may be putting a lot of emphasis on analogue photography. This may be so, though what we have to keep in mind is that there are many similarities between digital imaging and traditional analogue (film- base) photography. Everything that happens prior to the moment of exposure of a scene in a camera depends more on the skill of the photographer and less on how the image is to be captured. Lighting skill, model posing, having a ‘good eye’ are the traditional image creation skills of the photographer, and are as important now as in the past. This is what the course is attempting to do.

3.20 Comparing the advantages and disadvantages of digital cameras

Objective

By the completion of this section, you should be able to identify the advantages and disadvantages of digital camera.

The Digital Camera

Advantages of digital cameras:

• You can take as many pictures in one go depending on the size of the memory card, • You can review instantly what you have shot, • Images can be transmitted immediately after it’s captured on camera via Bluetooth to a Laptop, • Stored images can be sent instantly via email around the world, • It can be used both as a still or moving AVI video mode, • Has built in microphone to record QuickTime movies with sound • In-camera editing of the images captured, • Convenience of not having to carry rolls of film in air cool conditions as per conventional photography, • Picture-taking is relatively cheaper to produce than conventional film-base analogue cameras, • Some makes can blue-tooth the images directly to the computer as its taken, • Can now be Bluetooth to a mobile phone for immediate image transmission.

Disadvantages of digital cameras:

• Camera battery life is reduced due to the abundance of computerised components, • LCD screens can be hard to view in bright sunlight conditions even though they are now much larger in size - up to 2.5cm screens. The option of a viewfinder is a real advantage in these conditions • Shutter-lag delay can sometime cause miss opportunities in image capturing, • Sometime hard to distinguish between sharply defined light and dark patterns in a scene.

Considering the appropriate digital camera to purchase?

In deciding which camera one should buy, there are several points to consider:

• What will you do with the images? Will your prints be large or small, • Do you need an expensive high-quality camera? Will you be only using it for email attachments and postcard size prints, or will you be enlarging the images to A4 or larger, • Do you want to just ‘Point-and-Shoot’ your scene or do you want to have greater control over depth-of-field, image motion and exposure variations of the scene i.e. total manual controls, • Weight and size of camera, • Battery life - does the camera use up a lot of power to drive the mechanism, • Are the user controls easy to identify, • How comfortable does the camera feel in your hands

For further information on digital photography go to the following website: http://www.dpreview.com Extensive reviews on digital photography, imaging news and camera accessories. There is also an active discussion forums, camera buyers guide, side-by-side comparisons and the most comprehensive database of digital camera features and specifications. http://www.digitalcamerawarehouse.com.au Extensive digital camera product information and online buying. http://www.ht.com.au Harris Technology - Fast site for excellent information on all things related to computers and cameras. Includes price and links to accessories and manufacturer’s website. http://www.teds.com.au This is a comprehensive website with easy to follow sections on digital cameras and prices.

3.21 Capturing a Digital Image

Objective

By the time you complete this section, you should be able to understand how a digital Image is captured.

Capturing a Digital Image

A digital image sensor is like a chequerboard or grid of tiny squares. Each square is a silicon photo diode (known as pixel), which records the brightness of the light falling on it when a picture is taken. But it can only ‘see’ in tones of grey. In order to record colour images, the diodes are alternately filtered so that some record red light, others green, and others blue. When the image is displayed, the combination of red, green and blue in varying intensities recreates the colours of the original scene.

Colour Separation.

The light-sensitive ‘sensor’ is the heart of every digital camera. There are two main types - the most common CCD (charged-coupled device) or a CMOS (complementary metal-oxide semiconductor) a cheaper alternative sensor, which has lead to reducing the price of digital cameras. Up to now, the CMOS sensor was the less efficient sensor as it used less of the surface of the chip.

Charged-coupled device CCD

CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor) Sensor

Recently, Foveon Inc. a world innovator in the design and development of image sensors, has developed its Foveon X3 ‘direct image sensor’. It’s an image sensor that directly captures red, green, and blue light at each point in an image during a single exposure. This has now become the most advanced colour image sensor ever developed. The diagram below shows how it compares to film and the typical CCD image sensors.

(A) First came colour film, which contains three layers of emulsion recording red, green and blue light.

(B) Then came digital, which contains digital sensors having just one layer of pixels to capture only part of the colour.

(C) Now there is Foveon X3, a direct image sensor having three layers of pixels, which can capture directly all of the colour.

Image Resolution

The resolution of the image is governed by how many pixels there are within the chip and it’s measured in the millions. Hence, an 8 Megapixels digital camera means that its chip is made up of 8 million pixels. The smallest unit of visual information in a digital picture is one pixel and in general the more original pixels an image contains the higher the quality. The original pixel data is that the picture is taken. Normally, the more effective pixels the camera produces the better the image quality, since the camera can record finer detail. However, pixel quantity is only one aspect of image quality.

There are different ways to specify the image quality of a camera using pixels. The two commonest are to state the file size in megapixels (millions of pixels) or to specify the image dimensions in pixels, e.g. 2560 x 1920 pixels. The megapixel size gives a quick way of comparing two cameras, e.g. 5 megapixels camera produces smaller images than a 12.0 megapixel type. Specifying the actual image size in pixels is more useful because it allows you to determine how big your final prints can be printed without sacrificing quality.

Power consumption and type of batteries

Power consumptions seems to be one of the less looked features in digital cameras. The more features a camera has, the more it will use up power to drive those features. This is usually associated with the more expensive models. Some cameras use AA type battery while others use the compact type such as the Li-ion battery.

For more flexibility, consider the camera that uses the AA batteries. If suddenly one runs out of battery power, replacement batteries are easily purchased anywhere. The most common and less expensive version is the Alkaline cell but can be consumed extremely rapidly. A more economical alternative is the rechargeable AA batteries. These come in either a memory prone ‘NiCd’ or a better performing version ‘NiMH’.

Various NiMH, MnLi and Li-ion format batteries

Li-ion or the newer ‘MnLi’ batteries are more compact, lighter and hold a greater charge than any AA batteries. The only disadvantages with these batteries are that they are very expensive and each camera requires a specific model. Nevertheless, if you own a camera that runs on either Li-ion or MnLi batteries, it is advisable to always carry a spare battery ready to go.

3.22 Categories of the Digital Camera

Objective

By the completion of this section, you should be able to identify the various categories of the digital camera

Categories of Digital Camera

Similarly to the analogue cameras mentioned earlier in this Module, digital cameras also have various categories. The more expensive cameras offer better quality and more features. So how do we decide which camera to consider?

(A) Compact Cameras The most common type is the compact camera. The mass-market appeal of digital compact cameras is reflected in the vast number of different models available from the various manufacturers. At the time of writing, one major manufacturer has at least 17 different models in the compact camera category at a wide range of prices. The other manufacturers have similar range on offer. It’s little wonder that people find it hard to decide which camera to buy. Even the least expensive digital compact camera now boasts an impressive feature list at price that is affordable by nearly everyone.

Nikon Coolpix P5100 (12.1 Megapixels)

Most compact cameras offer zoom lenses, but some picture quality can be seen to been sacrificed when compared to the normal fixed lens of a DSLR. Also another point to keep in mind is the zoom factor. Be careful when a camera offers i.e., - Optical zoom 3.5X and a larger Digital zoom 5X. Don’t be fooled with the Digital zoom configuration. All this means is once the optical zoom has reached its largest focal length, the digital zoom will then crop in part of the middle part of the frame. This will result in poor quality and pixelation of the image.

The most common way to view your images is via a LCD screen. There are only a few cameras that still have the option of the eyepiece at the top of the camera. LCD screens are becoming larger up to 2.5 cm. in order to better view the image. Some have hinged LCD viewfinders - great when you are shooting from an overhead viewpoint.

(B) Presumer or Bridge (Fixed Lens) Cameras This type of camera almost look like a SLR which offer a better quality fixed lens but lack the capability to change camera view format.

Fujifilm Finepix S8000fd (8 Megapixels)

(C) DSLR (Digital Single Lens Reflex) Cameras This is the most expensive and professional camera type of all three categories. It has endless features, very high resolution - starting from 12 Megapixel (MP) and beyond and has interchangeable lenses.

Canon EOS-1Ds Mark III

The Canon EOS-1Ds Mark III is currently the top of the line DSLR system with a 21 Megapixels image resolution. It’s a CMOS image sensor full frame and is the most sophisticated professional camera yet to emerge from the company's stable. The new model is targeted at professional photographers who require high quality images and first-rate performance for the studio or on location. It has a magnesium alloy body with more than 70 dust and moisture resistant seals and a shutter mechanism that's rated for 300,000 cycles.

(D) Medium and Large Format Digital Cameras

These two formats are the high end of Professional Photography. Hasselblad and Sinar are the leaders in this range.

Hasselblad H3D series

The H3D has been developed around a brand new digital camera engine producing increased lens performance and a new level of image sharpness. Focusing solely on digital imaging for architecture and Fashion photography, Hasselblad has been able to offer photographers the full benefits of professional medium-format digital cameras using the CF digital backs.

Hasselblad CF series

The Hasselblad CF line of digital backs offer 22 and 39 Megapixels digital files with the ability to add true-color, multi-shot capture. The CF digital backs bring a new level of flexibility to the professional digital photographer

In the Sinar medium format range the Sinar Hy6, marks the advent of a new era for digital medium format photography. The Sinar Hy6 is currently the only medium format AF camera that not only covers the usual 6x4.5 format, but also the classic 6x6 format and thereby has still room for even larger CCDs. With its central shutter and a shutter speed of only 1/1000 second, it is also the fastest camera in its class.

Sinar Hy6 medium format series

Sinarbacks for large format photography

Sinar digital back

Sinar the leaders in large format photography, has designed a series of scanning backs to mate with their version of digital cameras. They adapt to virtually most medium format cameras and view cameras. Despite its small size (87 x 87 x 45 mm) and its lightweight (approx. 400 g), the new Sinarbacks are thoroughbreds in the high-end market.

54MC digital back eVolution 75H digital back

Currently there are two backs - the 54 MC digital back is the most compact professional digital camera back with 22 Megapixels resolution and the eVolution 75H with its tethered, actively cooled multi-shot solution, which boasts a 33 Megapixels resolution. The eVolution 75H has been designed without components such as display, controls and memory, allowing for maximum transfer rates, higher speeds and outstanding image quality.

File Formats. Over time various ways have been devised of organizing graphics information with a digital data file. There are different types of computer graphics, such as photos, drawn illustrations and 3D models, and each benefits from a different method of organization with a file. These different methods are referred to a file formats.

Photographic images, which usually contain smooth gradation of tone and colour, as well as fine details, mostly use either the TIFF or JPEG file formats. These file formats have been optimised to compress the size of photographic images so they require less storage space when saved.

Besides the standard TIFF and JPEG formats, digital cameras utilize several variation of these formats that take advantage of the unique features of digital capture. For example, cameras that allow continuous movie recording save the individual frames of the sequence in a special format known as AVI or Motion JPEG. These can be played on your computer as movies using special playback software such as Apple’s Quick Time viewer.

Digital cameras that allow voice memos and sound to be recorded store this in a special WAVE file format.

TIFF – Tagged-Image File Format

Even when compressed, TIFF files retain full photographic image quality. This format uses a loss less compression method. This is the format preferred in the printing industry where high quality must be maintained.

JPEG – Joint Photographic Experts Group This format was devised specifically to provide a compression system that would retain acceptable quality but result in small file sizes. JPEG uses a lossy compression system, so the more a file is compressed the lower the quality of the final image. JPEG is very useful for photo images destined for the Internet, where small sizes allow faster downloads times. One major problem with JPEGs is that each time you save the file it is re-compressed, resulting in a gradual loss of quality after each save.

AVI – Audio Video Interleave This is the standard Windows video format for storing movies with sound. A sequence of individual still images and sound are stored together in one file and played back as a movie.

RAW –Raw data Most DSLR cameras allow the image to be stored in RAW format, which saves it as a string of bytes. Although this is the most basic state the image can be saved in, it is quite a useful format because the captured data is not changed at all by he camera software. This allows the purest start for manipulation of the image on a computer.

3.23 Understanding the features of your Digital Camera

Objective

By the completion of this section, you should be able to understand the features of your digital camera.

Understanding the features of your Digital Camera.

It is vital to understand the features of your digital camera before you start recording images. There are many different makes and model on the market today, but they all share some very common features.

These features are: • On/Off power button, • Shutter release button - adjusting between static and sports type scenes, • Mode Dial usually a rotating button which sets the different camera settings from manual to automatic settings, • Viewfinder - this has become now an option relying on the LCD screen to view the subject matter • External flash attachment, • LCD screen not only for viewing the scene but also to display the camera’s menu for - Playback mode and Set- up options, • Instant preview button, • Menu button -Set up function for White Balance, ISO sensitivity, Memory card formatting etc. • Delete button - remove images directly from memory card, • Control/Multi Selector button - self-timer, flash options, macro/landscape view angle • Ports outlets Jacks- Memory card, USB, DC and AV/OUT

Typical Mode Dial Symbols

M- Manual A- Aperture priority S- Shutter priority P- Program Auto Display Images Short film Capacity SCN- Scene Selection - Portrait, Landscape, Action & Macro

Manual The settings are your call, depending on your requirements for the final look of the image. MANUAL allows manual adjustment of the aperture and the shutter speed.

Aperture priority You set the aperture yourself depending on your preference and the camera automatically sets the shutter speed to give the correct exposure.

Shutter Priority You set the shutter speed yourself depending on your preference and the camera will automatically set the aperture to give the correct exposure.

Program This is the same as AUTO but the camera will allow you to override the settings.

Auto Everything is set for you by the camera, from the shutter speed and the aperture, to the use of the flash. The camera makes these calculations by evaluating what is being focused on and the light availability.

Display Images Allows you to view your image and short movies.

Short film Capacity Allows you to shoot short movies.

SCN Scene Selection Portraiture - wider apertures, faster shutter speed to create a shorter depth-of-filed to isolate the subject. Landscape -small apertures, slower shutter speed, to increase depth-of-field. Action - faster shutter speeds, shorter depth-of-field, depending on light availability. Macro - wider apertures for close-up image.

Histograms.

Many cameras have a histogram feature that is very useful once you understand how it works. A histogram is simply a graph showing the balance of brightness in a scene. The higher the graph, the more pixels of a particular value exist in the scene. Once an image has been captured the histogram can indicate whether the exposure was adequate or whether it would be better to redo the scene with a different exposure. On cameras with an electronic viewfinder it may be possible to view the histogram as you view the scene; on others the histogram is viewed using the preview monitor. The histogram will provide more accurate exposure information than the preview monitor.

Diagram layout of a Histogram

The Memory Card,

The memory card is the means of storing your pictures within the camera. It is essentially an electronic chip encased in plastic. These are available in various capacities from 128MB, 256MB, 512MB and recently as the cameras increased its Megapixel resolution to 1GB, 2GB. 4GB, 8GB and 16GB.

The number of pictures that can be stored on a particular card size will depend on the pixel dimensions of each image and the quality level used when taking the shot. The quality of an image is affected by the amount of compression used when saving the file. The higher the quality used to take the picture the fewer images can be stored on the memory card hence the steadily increase in card capacities.

There are two types of memory cards. The ‘Normal’ speed memory cards and ‘Ultra’ speed memory cards. If a memory card does not state what speed it is, then consider it to be normal speed, which is approx. 12x (transfer rate of 2MB per second). Ultra speed memory cards are approx 66x or 10MB per second transfer rate. Why buy Ultra speed cards? Ultra speed cards enable you to save and review photos faster.

Furthermore, if you use video mode on your digital camera, using an Ultra speed card it will enable you to record longer e.g., if your digital camera does movie with sound at 30 fps @ 640x480 resolution, a Normal speed memory card will enable you to do 15 seconds of video before it will have to stop as the save speed isn't quick enough, even though the camera is unlimited movie with sound mode.

(1) (2) (3) (4)

The memory card comes in all different shapes and sizes. They range in size from (1) CF Compact Flash, (2) SD Secure Digital, (3) xD Picture Card and (4) Memory Stick. The most common one favoured by most digital Compact Cameras is the SD card. Some makes use the xD card whilst the exclusive card for the Sony camera is the Memory Stick card.

The most universally memory card used by DSLR is the CF Compact Flash card. The brand most favoured by professional photographers is the SanDisk. The latest in its series is the Extreme III CompactFlash CF card, which has a storage capacity of 16GB.

Most cameras have menu commands that allow you to delete unwanted images while out shooting, and it makes sense to save only those images you really want to keep. This will make the most efficient use of the available memory. Of course, you could buy spare memory cards or one that has a portable hard drives that allow you to transfer the contents of the memory card - such as an iPod, thus clearing space for new pictures.

3.24 Useful information in caring for your digital camera

Objective

By the completion of this section, you should have an understanding on how to care for your digital camera.

Useful information in caring for your Digital Camera

Battery Life. • Whether you are using Li-ion or rechargeable AA batteries, it is advisable to charge the battery overnight with first time usage. This is necessary because new batteries come completely empty. Overnight charge maximises the capacity of the charge and the voltage will last longer.

• It is advisable if you are not using the camera for a period of time to remove the batteries from the camera. Battery power will be slowly discharged resulting in a lesser battery life.

Condensation: • It is advisable when coming back from humid conditions - beach, rainforest etc, to place the camera into an air- tight plastic box with some silica crystals overnight. This will absorb any moister that may be around or in the camera preventing mould or corrosion.

Outdoor activities/Sport

• Perhaps the worst thing that one can do to a camera is to subject it to beach conditions. Salt air and sand are the worst cause to camera malfunction. Fine sand particles can get into the lens surface and into the zoom mechanism. A means to protecting the camera is to have an all weather housing. Especially if you are likely to explore underwater photography. This new generation housing is especially made for specific digital cameras.

All weather digital camera housing

Cleaning: • Always make sure to use a blower brush before wiping your lens or camera with a cleaning cloth. Small particles of grit may cause to scratch the surface. The most delicate part of the camera is the lens. NEVER wipe the lens with you T-Shirt or towel. Use only proper cleaning cloths that have been stored in plastic sealed bags.

• Also be careful if you are using pressurised air cans to blow the lens surface. If held in a certain low angle the cold fluid can spay on the lens, which in hot weather can shatter the lens.

Downloading files from your camera:

• Always make sure that you have enough battery power when downloading images directly from the camera. Low battery power can corrupt file transfer to your computer. Either make sure that your battery in fully charged or use a memory card reader connected directly to your computer.

• As a further precaution always back up your image files onto a CDs or DVDs. This way you always have a permanent copy of all you image files. Many download their photos onto their computer's hard disk and leave it there. This could be detrimental if suddenly your laptop/desktop computer picks up a virus and corrupts your Hard Drive.

Activity 6. Me and my camera

Suppose you have decided to replace your camera with one that is more up-to-date and suited to the type of photography you do.

Refer to the table entitled ‘Categories of Photography’ in section 3.15 - Choosing the right camera, for (Analogue Cameras, and section 3.22 - Categories of Digital Camera. for (Digital Cameras) in this Module. Which of the categories best describes the work you mostly do?

Drawing on whatever information resources to which you have access e.g. photographic magazines, catalogues, camera stores and the World Wide Web, identify the specific make and model of camera that you consider would best suit you needs. The web site addresses listed below may provide additional information on various camera types.

For this activity, • Provide documentation referring to the make and model of the camera you believe best suits your needs. Including a jpeg file of the camera you have selected. • Explain the reasoning why and how you came to your decision. Keep your notes brief, within 200 words. Use the Internet to seek out further information on camera type. List the website addresses you found to be most appropriate. Did you come across any other appropriate sites?

Some web sites you may wish to use regarding information on camera types www.teds.com.au This is a very comprehensive site where you will find links to your entire favourite camera, video, digital imaging and image software. You will also link to professional photographic manufacturers and distributors. You can also obtain an extensive data information on films, papers and photo chemicals. www.michaels.com.au This site has a very extensive range of camera, video and digital imaging as well as camera accessories and darkroom equipment. It even boasts a museum of photography showing a range of camera from its early beginnings. http://www.cameraexchange.com.au/php/index.php Camera Exchange is a great site if you are in the market to buy Digital and collectable cameras. What makes them different though is that they will still trade-in most film cameras for the new digital technology. They have Australia's largest range of used professional and vintage cameras. www.nikon.com This is a fascinating site which links to all the Nikon sites worldwide. It is a comprehensive overview of all the Nikon imaging and instrumentation equipment as well as informing you about their products photo articles and has its own virtual photographic gallery. http://www.dpreview.com Extensive reviews on digital photography, imaging news and camera accessories. There is also an active discussion forums, camera buyers guide, side-by-side comparisons and the most comprehensive database of digital camera features and specifications. http://www.digitalcamerawarehouse.com.au Extensive digital camera product information and online buying.

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