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1995 Archaeology and the Maroon Heritage in Jamaica

E. Kofi Agorsah Portland State University, [email protected]

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Citation Details Agorsah, Kofi. (1995). Archaeology and the Maroon heritage in Jamaica. Jamaica Journal 24:2: 2-9.

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Maroon (?) grindstone from Nanny Town

Kofi Agorsah

f""Alt all the fascinating aspects of Jamaican history, the Maroon Melement appears to be the only one that weaves through the whole period, includiJJg the present day. Referring to themselves as 'True blu chankofi piti bo" ,lsome Maroons of Moore Town in the parish of Portland claim that, with the exception of the freedom fighters of South Africa, they are the only living ge.nuine and most honourable freedom fighters worthy of the name.

Another interesting feature of the Maroon element in themselves. Maroon guerrilla warfare had its origins in Jamaica is that it provided a testing ground for British the struggle for freedom that has characterized the colonial tactics and also for their economic and greater part of their history. In the eighteenth century political policies. In addition it demonstrated the the Maroons amazed the whole world by their un­ colonial government's perception of freedom and imaginable feat of resisting the supposedly invincible human dignity, for freedom to the British at the time British army to the point of military stalemate, thus was a phenomenon that was applicable only to forcing the govemrilent to negotiate a peace treaty.

2 JAMAICA JOURNAL 24/2 Fig2 Students at work on floor of a Maroon living area.

At the time of the British conquest of this connecting function of the Maroon The First Nanny Town Expedition the island in 1655, it became clear that heritage in Jamaica that makes their In 1973 an exploration society in the escapees, as the Maroons were history outstanding, forming as it does a · considered to be, were a force to be cooperation with the Institute of continuous and permanent feature of Jamaica organized an archaeological reckoned with. Apart from the burden the history of the island itself. This of the increase in the number of black expedition to Nanny Town. It la§!ed element also makes the overseas history only a few days. Led by Tony BOnner slaves after the conquest and the of the colonial and related European attendant complex organization neces­ as the site director and Allan Teulon as nations more interesting and the historical adviser, the expedition sary to maintain control, the colonial meaningful. power quickly recognized that the conducted a test excavation of a limited It would be unfair to state that 'runaway' COfi,!-munities were a legacy section of the military fortifications at historical references to the Maroons are that was to determine or significantly the Nanny Town site.2 Working mainly few. However, these references fail to influence the course of events. From the on the surface around the rectangular time of the return of King Charles II to examine the Maroon past as a cultural military wall, members of the exped­ the throne in 1660 to King George III in history. In the main, emphasis is limited ition recovered fragments of tobacco 1795, and beyond, the British had to to the role of the Maroons as 'rebels' pipes, musket balls, gun barrels, but­ grapple ceaselessly with the desperate implying that they did not have the tons, green glass bottles, and several efforts of the plantation slaves to free right to fight for freedom and human pieces of metal objects such as nails, themselves and the simultaneous dignity. Only a few years ago it would knife blades, staples and spear-heads. struggle of the free Maroons to have been inconceivable to mention The most spectacular find was a large maintain their hard-won liberty. Maroon heritage as a study falling stone with an engraving recording that It is now clearly recognized that the within what is known today as 'Histori­ the British forces had captured the site from the Maroons at the end of Maroons of Jamaica provide a cultural cal Archaeology'. It is now considered December 1734 and briefly occupied it link between the so-called prehistoric to be not only part of this sub-discipline up to July 1735. However, after this but also the most important element as 'Arawaks' and the Spanish on the one expedition, there was not much archae­ far as Jamaica is concerned. hand and the British on the other. It is ological activity at any Maroon site for

JAMAICA JOURNAL 24(2 3 •N

Maroon area 0 km 50 • -. Maroon settlement

Fig. 5 Map ofJamaica showing Maroon areas some years. In fact, it is only very The main objectives of the UMARP maps exist that indicate the approxi­ recently that the homelands of the study of Maroon settlements are (a) to mate territories occupied by the Maroon heritage have seen a systematic obtain archaeological data that can be Maroons at different times. It is with archaeological investigation. used for the interpretation of the the aid of these maps that archaeologi­ It was gradually realized that any sociocultural patterns of the behaviour cal reconnaissance and surveys can study of the culture and settlement of the Maroons; (b) to determine the identify Maroon dwelling sites, guer­ patterns of the Maroons requires more factors that contribute to the location rilla war camps, hideouts, burial and than mere determination of the location, and character of Maroon settlements; battle grounds and military tracks. 3 number, size and spatial distribution of (c) to obtain material for dating and Several of these maps indicate the the sites which they occupied. Such a providing a chronological framework limits as well as the changing nature of study must also go beyond the percep­ for the origins and development of the settlements which were occupied. tion that limits Maroon history to 'a Maroon heritage in Jamaica. The From other maps can be gleaned in­ history of rebels'. For example, it is overall objective is to identify the formation as to the distribution of the important to identify the functional role character and mechanism of the func­ Maroons within the settlements. A 17 57 of a site, such as seasonal occupation. tional adaptation of Maroon societies in map of Accompong in western Jamaica Political, economic and social ties Jamaica over time. and an 1842 sketch map of what was existing among and between sites are A reconstruction of the Maroon past formerly known as Trelawny Town important factors that should be must also be done in the context of the (Maroon Town) are useful for a study considered. Also necessary is an territories they occupied and the special of the patterns of family distribution understanding or reconstruction of the and changing features of these areas within those settlements. A study of the Maroons' movements and interaction over time. For example, the Cockpit social relationships and the develop­ and of the information flow among country in western Jamaica with its ment of families would reveal factors themselves and with outsiders. remarkable but harsh geomorphology of that are crucial to an explanation of the tropical karst and vegetation was the nature of the mechanisms by which the scene of some of the Maroon wars. It continuity of Maroon cultural practices UMARP and Recent Investigations was these wars which established the has been maintained until the present With the establishment of the Maroons' reputation for extraordinary day. It would, therefore, be possible to Uni v.ersity of the West Indies, Mona, military and organizational abilities. trace the evolution of modern social Archaeology Research Project (uMARP) How did they cope with the environ­ networks and behaviour patterns of the Maroon settlements were brought ment? What mechanisms enabled them Maroon societies. Information on these into entirely new focus. to overcome the harsh conditions from is minimal in colonial documentation, The first phase of UMARP ( 1987- the social, economic, technological, and the only main source of Maroon 89), was a general study aimed at military points of view? It is important history. identification and location of historical to identify the character and mechan­ Place names in areas inhabited by sites in Jamaica. The second phase, isms of their functional adaptation Maroons at one time or another, like which started in 1990, narrowed down through time. those of other groups of people else­ to the coverage of Maroon settlements. Seventeenth to nineteenth century where, are very useful for archaeo-

JAMAICA JOURNAL 24{2 5 logical research and reconstruction. flows into the Black River in the River near Alligator Church Bridge, Such names as Parade, Gun Hill, Look­ direction of Aberdeen. The famous cave Portland, sits high on a hill that out Point, Kinda, Bathing Place, Pette where the peace treaty of 1739 was overlooks the road skirting modern River Bottom, Watch Hill, Gun Barrel, signed between the English and the Brownsfield. The main features are Nanny Town and Killdead are a few Maroons is located at an intersection on remains of houses, with a few frag­ examples of such useful names. In the track linking Accompong to ments of ceramics and green glass some of the modern Maroon towns Aberdeen. The Peace Cave overlooks bottles on the surface. The Brownsfield there are sections or divisions that the Pette River Bottom where the last and Marshall's Hall sites are significant appear to have associations with family battle between the two parties may have because they appear to support the groupings over time. In Accompong, taken place. Near Maroon Town, speculation that they were established for example, family names can be formerly Trelawny Town, north of by the Maroons for defence. associated with specific areas in the Accompong, are graves apparently of The site that has attracted much town, although it is claimed that there is British soldiers. On top of Gun Hill attention is Nanny Town. Since January no formal agreement to such a pattern immediately to the north again are some 1991, it has seen a series of reconnais­ of distribution or association. archaeological features supposedly built sances and surveys and as well as a full Another area of study that is current­ by the British forces during their wars scale excavation. ly being pursued is the technological against the Maroons. contributions of Maroons in Jamaica. A In eastern Jamaica, in the Blue The Nanny Town Site study being undertaken by Dr Candice Mountain region, many sites have been Goucher of Portland State University is identified, some still with building Accessible only by hunters' trails or providing evidence on an eighteenth foundations. Brownsfield, Gun Barrel, by air, the site of Nanny Town is century iron and brass foundry estab­ Watch Hill, Marshall's Hall, Killdead strategically located within the loop of lished by a John Reeder at Morant Bay and Nanny Town are but a few of these. the Stony River which marks its south­ in StThomas which used the techno­ Together with other sim_ilar sites they ern and eastern boundaries. Blocking logical skills of Maroons and slaves of are located in almost inaccessible areas off the Stony River and rising steeply African descent. Technological con­ around Windsor, Seaman's Valley, from its northern bank is the Abraham tinuities from the background of their Moore Town and Comfort Castle, all in Hill. Northwest of the site is Nanny Hill places of origin in Africa would provide the parish of Portland. The environment from which Nanny Falls splashes down additional insight into how the Maroons of the sites is usually fragmented by the to the level open grounds to flow into would have coped with the conditions surrounding mountains and the deep the southwestern bend of the Stony in which they found them-selves in the valleys of the Rio Grande, the Negro River marking the boundary on that New World. River, Dry River, Stony River and their side of the site. tributaries which cut through the It is not exactly known when Nanny Distribution of Sites territory. The thick vegetation in the Town was founded, but historical area has caused considerable disturb­ references indicate that by the mid­ Maroon sites have been identified in ance at many of the sites although these eighteenth century, the town was not the Juan de Bolas area of the Guanabo conditions have also sheltered some of only fully-fledged, but also a stronghold Vale and in the hills above [see maps]. them. Landslides and other natural land of the freedom-fighting Maroons in the These sites are referred to in historical shifts together with battle damage eastern part of the island. Though documents as the earliest of the run­ during the period of Maroon resistance certainly a principal settlement, Nanny away hideouts and areas of resistance. appear to have changed the face of Town's extent of control over other More than any others, these settlements many of the sites. towns is not known. are likely to provide evidence that they Marshall's Hall, also noted else­ do link the prehistoric period with the where as Marches Ha11,5 is located near Oral Traditions historical since within this same area is Comfort Castle in Portland close to the the Mountain River Cave with its Dry River. The site is interesting Nanny Town was named after the important Amerindian rock art.4 because of its structural features and legendary Grandey Nanny who is also The Accompong area in the Cockpit also for the fact that Maroon oral documented as having been a small, country of S t Elizabeth [see maps] tradition links the site to the modern wiry woman with piercing eyes. She is abounds in sites. Some of them are the Maroon capital town, Moore Town, said to have had exceptional military Peace Cave, Gun Hill, Pette River historically considered to be 'New ability and social as well as political Bottom, Big Ground, Grass Parade and Nanny Town'. Surface finds consist of leadership qualities. It is sometimes Kinda. North of Accompong, a path eighteenth and nineteenthth century tempting to suggest that Nanny Town leads through a modern cattle pen to the European ceramics, house foundations may have been an amalgamation of a north of Kinda and descends a very and steps. The site partly overlooks the number of smaller settlements. The rugged hill down to the burial ground of valley of the J ackmadoree, a stream British forces which seized and briefly Kodjo, the popular Maroon leader who which flows into the Dry River. controlled the area seem to have had organized the Maroons in a series of Settlement on the site of Marshall's little interest in the settlement and, guerrilla battles in the early eighteenth Hall is said to have been in family therefore, did not provide much infor­ century. East of this burial site is an units, each family occupying specific mation on it. Molly's Town, Dina's area referred to as Big Ground Grass. sections of the site. More studies are Town, Marshall's Hall, Kill dead and To the south of Big Ground Grass, the envisaged in the near future. Watch Hill are some of the names of area is bounded by a stream which The Brownsfield site, near the Snake ancient Maroon sites mentioned in the

6 JAMAICA JOURNAL 24/2 JAMAICA

Road ~ 1 Km

Track ••·•• ••· ••• •• •••.

River~

Fig. 6 Map showing Windsor route to Base Camp and Nanny Town oral traditions of the Maroons and in in three stages. First was a preliminary River which can be crossed by a ford­ some documents as lying in close trip to determine the most manageable ing or by raft. The trail continues west­ proximity to or within the general area route; this was followed by a pre­ ward through Parks Hill along an of the Blue Mountains where Nanny excavation trip to study the site in order abandoned water pipe-line to Rose Hill, Town is located. Some, if not all, of to prepare a pre-excavation differenti­ a very muddy and slippery three-to-four these settlements may have had direct ation of Nanny Town and other sites in kilometre hike. Another kilometie takes connection with Nanny Town. What the vicinity; the third phase was the the journey to Garland Grove, Pumpkin were the actual relationships between excavation itself. Hill and Mammee Hill to the north. these settlements? What was the mech­ Preliminary trip: Since the Nanny Much of the way from Windsor up to anism of their functional adaptation at Town site is so difficult to reach, a Garland Grove runs through the rugged those times? What was the nature of the preliminary trip was undertaken in Johns Hall district. Two kilometres social network that enabled them to January 1991 in order to identify a further on is the Corn Husk River establish the strong resistance charac­ possible route to the site from the which is crossed at a point called teristic of the history of the Maroons? nearest town. Mr Leopold Shelton, 'White'. Here the easier part of the These were some of the questions that assisted by Garcia and Clinton West, journey ends and the first major turn is lay behind the decision for UMARP to was the guide. Two possible routes made southwards towards the site of undertake a full-scale archaeological were identified, one leading from Gun Barrel, three kilometres away. This expedition to the ancient site of Nanny Windsor and the other from Coopers' part of the journey can be accomplished Town and adjoining aieas. Hill, both in Portland. Either route in two to three hours but it is a very would require a hike of at least twelve rugged, slippery, steep and winding The 1991 Nanny Town Archaeolo­ hours to reach Nanny Town. The trail. Gun Barrel is approximately gical Expedition Windsor route was selected as being halfway to Nanny Town from either slightly less difficult. Windsor or Cooper's Hill. For the first time, as a result of the The Windsor Route: From Windsor Travelling southeast past Sweat Hill, UMARP initiative, the University of the Primary School the route runs south­ Pipe Hill, Hog Grass Bump and Hand West Indies was undertaking a full­ wards for about two hundred metres Dog Bump, crossing numerous streams, scale archaeological survey and and then turns eastwards to the banana struggling through many gaps and excavation of the ancient site of Nanny boxing shed known as Black Gate, climbing steep slopes, one gets the true Town. The difficulty of the terrain about a kilometre away. It is very close feeling of the rain forest in which the made it necessary to plan the enterprise to the west bank of the Rio Grande Maroons lived. Nanny Town is at

JAMAICA JOURNAL 24{2 7 ------

approximately the same altitude as inscribed with a message that the site Hand Dog Bump, but one has to was taken and controlled for a brief descend Gun Barrel to a spot close to period by a Captain Brook. This Hand Dog Bump then move on engraved stone appears to have been northwards to a base camp used by tampered with by more recent military hunters of the area, located south of personnel as an additional name has Abraham Hill. By skirting the hill to been found engraved on it since the the west and crossing back and forth a August 1991 expedition. A third feature couple of times over the.Stony River, is a more recent stone slab, measuring one finally gains access to Nanny Town 27cm by 35cm, with the engraving just north of Abraham Hill. 'Bermuda Regiment 1971 '. Pre-Excavation Expedition: This The excavation was based on a part of the second phase of the UMAR three-metre grid which was imposed Project took place in Februrary 1991. It upon the 10 feet grid used by the was sponsored by the Department of expedition of 1973. The J4 line which History of the UWI at Mona and the was the J3 of the 1973 expedition was Archaeological Society of Jamaica used as the datum point. The excavation (ASJ). It was fully supported by the was conducted according to natural Jamaica Defence Force, with contri­ levels and reached only Level2 in more butions from members of the than 80% of the area excavated and expedition. Thirty-three persons, some Lex.el 3 in a few areas, particularly in from the United States of America, the eastern sections of the site from made up the expedition. which much of the material that appears The main purpose was to identify to predate the Maroon period of excavation areas. Pre-excavation site settlement of the site was derived. differentiation was based on surface Finds: The provisional field distribution of artefacts and other inventory of the finds at Nanny Town surface features. Four areas were indicates that approximately three selected and the results of soil chemical thousand artefacts were recovered. analysis are expected to throw a clearer More than 33% of this total consisted of light 9n the validity of the differenti­ fragments of green glass bottle, 15% of ation, which for the moment is used local ceramics and 10% of metal ob­ only tentatively. jects. An interesting feature of the finds Excavation: In the following August, is their variety. the full scale archaeological survey and Historic Phases: Nanny Town is excavation of the ancient site of Nanny recognized as having seen three phases Town took place. UWI student volun­ of occupation. The first appears to teers, lecturers, members of the predate the Maroon presence in the Archaeological Society and Jamaican area, and includes a mixture of local high school .teachers, Maroon guides ceramics, stone artefacts and shell and hunters, as well as undergraduate material. In areas 4 and 5 particularly, and graduate volunteers from various this phase is represented by artefacts universities in the United States of that have been provisionally referred to America, camped near Nanny Town for as pre-Maroon and which some of the four weeks from August 5, 1991, for participants in the expedition think the historic excavation. might be 'Arawak'. No date can yet be The Site: As already indicated, the assigned to this phase although it is Sto.ny River and Pitter's River and their strongly suspected to pre-date 1655. tributaries oominate the drainage pat­ The second phase, provisionally tern of- the site, while Abraham Hill to referred to as the Maroon phase of the south and Sugar Loaf to the north­ occupation, contains ceramic material, northwest dominate the topography. much of which is local grinding stones Rocky and rugged, the Nanny Town · and a considerable amount of charcoal site and adjoining areas are engulfed in which, if dated, could probably facili­ thick, lush green vegetation. The site tate our understahding of the relation­ enjoys the warming sunshine coming ship of this phase to the others. Much of through the gap between Abraham Hill the charcoal comes from levels that and the Sugar Loaf Hill. contain plenty of ashy layers on sur­ A conspicuous feature at the site is a faces that appear to have been trampled rectangular stone structure believed to upon or beaten down. Fragments of gun be a military fortification built during flints, gun barrels,· musket balls, iron the British-Maroon wars. A large block nails, green and clear glass bottles of stone near the stone structure is together with one fragment of red clay

8 JAMAICA JOURNAL 24/2 · pipe bowl, are finds from the Maroon eventually. welcomed and sheltered make such a reassessment possible. phase. The composition of the material fugitives during both the Spanish and Much, however, remains to be done. from this phase makes it difficult to the English periods. If we assume that distinguish it from the later phase which the prehistoric group consisted of appears to represent the period when 'Arawaks', it would suggest that the the British forces attacked and occupied very first escapees were 'Arawaks'. NOTES AND REFERENCES the site. In addition to the finds already Would that mean that the first Maroons mentioned, the Maroon phase, like that were' Arawaks'? Possibly. This paper is a preliminary summary of of the phase that followed it, contained Another conclusion that follows archaeological investigation into Maroon kaolin pipe-stems and bowls, imp­ from this is that the association between settlements in Jamaica and includes lements such as surgical scissors, the material of the first two phases aspects of excavations conducted in the buttons, a coin (Dutch or Spanish suggests that a few of the 'Arawaks' summer of 1991 at the ancient site of Nanny Town in the Parish of Portland, origin), a glass bead, fragments of · who might have escaped into the least Jamaica. I wish to express my sincere imported ceramics and fragments of accessible regions of the Blue Moun­ thanks to the Department of History, gun barrels. tains and similar areas were still there at Research and Publications Fund Com­ The third phase is represented by the the time when the English drove the mittee, and the Faculty of Arts and stone fortification and the engraved Spanish from the island. Books on the General Studies, all of the University of stones. The main finds of this phase history of Jamaica would then have to the West Indies at Mona, the Jamaica include many pipe fragments, buttons, correct the erroneous impression that National Heritage Trust, the Wenner­ fragments of gun barrels, medicine the 'Arawaks' had all been exter­ Gren Foundation for Anthropological bottles, nails, imported ceramic bowls, minated by the Spanish. It appears from Research, and the Jamaica Defence Force for their support. Limited space plates and cups, buckles, and a large the evidence fro~ Nanny Town, makes it impossible to mention individ­ quantity of green glass bottle fragments. pending the dating results that pre­ ual names of members of the February A few post holes at the site are associ­ historic groups in hideouts in remote 1991 Nanny Town Expedition which ated with this phase. One of them areas of the island might have been was organized with the support of the appears to represent the location of a gradually absorbed into the groups that Archaeological Society of Jamaica and flag post, possibly erected by the later joined them. the Department of History, Mona, nor British forces. This hole, approximately Material associated with the stone the foreign and local undergraduate and 1.5 metres deep and lined with stones, structure at the site of Nanny Town graduate volunteers and Maroon guides is located against the back wall of the clearly supports the opinion that it was involved in the Summer 1991 excava­ stone structure. not built by the·- Maroons, as is usually tions which went so very smoothly. I wish also to place on record the co­ claimed in their oral traditions. The operation and assist_ance of Colonel Discussion structure may have been used later C.L.G. Harris, Chief of the Moore Town when the Maroons took over the site Maroons, and his elders, and Colonel Although no dates are yet available again but only after the British had left Martin-Luther Wright, Chief of the for the phases identified, the results are Nanny Town. Accompong Maroons, and his elders. very interesting because they raise Not much can be said about other The study has so far been a family affair many issues that suggest that there is a questions such as the relationships and I am hopeful that we will continue to need to begin to rethink the standard between Nanny Town and other known keep the family alive and growing. interpretation of the history of Jamaica. Maroon settlements in the vicinity of 1. This is a Maroon expression roughly The new evidence clearly confirms that the site or in other parts of the island, meaning 'I am a full-blooded descendant Nanny Town was a stronghold that saw nor about the social network that might (son/daughter) of a Maroon.' It is an considerable military action. A striking expression of identity and reaffirmation have bound them in any relationships. It of solidarity and loyalty, usually called discovery is that this evidence seems to is also premature to speculate on the into play when two or more Maroons suggests that Nanny Town was structural pattern of the settlement meet and exchange greetings. It clears occupied for a fairly long period, because not much of the site has yet the way for the discussion of matters that possibly dating back to a time before been examined. Whenever inuch more should remain within Maroon circles. colonial contact was made. This information about the physical nature of 2. Bonner, T. (1974) 'Excavation at Nanny possibility becomes even more attrac­ Nanny Town and other Maroon sites Town', JAMAICA JOURNAL 8:2 & 3. tive if the speculation that the artefacts becomes available it should be possible 3. Agorsah, E.K. (1990) 'Archaeology of thought to be perhaps prehistoric or to attempt serious generalizations on Maroon Heritage in Jamaica' in Archae­ ology Jamaica (New Series), No. 2 'Arawak' is confirmed. In this case, one the character and mechanisms of the 4. Watson, K. (1990) 'Amerindian Cave Art could further suggest that Nanny Town functional adaptation of the Maroons in Jamaica', JAMAICA JOURNAL 21:1. might have been a stronghold or a over time. 5. Agorsah, E.K. (1990), op. cit. refuge for escapees during the Spanish The results of the 1991 excavation period and that these escapees could appear to present a new opportunity to Photographs taken by the author. have been members of some of the achieve a better assessment of the indigenous groups that the Spanish Maroon heritage within the general his­ encountered on their arrival in the tory of Jamaica. The University of the island. It could also be the case that West Indies archaeological research some of the indigenous inhabitants who programme is continuing with further might have already settled at Nanny excavations and it is hoped that more Town before the Spaniards arrived, evidence will be obtained which will

JAMAICA JOURNAL 24/2 9