WHAT IS A FARM? AGRICULTURE, DISCOURSE, AND PRODUCING LANDSCAPES IN ST ELIZABETH, JAMAICA By Gary R. Schnakenberg A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Geography – Doctor of Philosophy 2013 ABSTRACT WHAT IS A FARM? AGRICULTURE, DISCOURSE, AND PRODUCING LANDSCAPES IN ST. ELIZABETH, JAMAICA By Gary R. Schnakenberg This dissertation research examined the operation of discourses associated with contemporary globalization in producing the agricultural landscape of an area of rural Jamaica. Subject to European colonial domination from the time of Columbus until the 1960s and then as a small island state in an unevenly globalizing world, Jamaica has long been subject to operations of unequal power relationships. Its history as a sugar colony based upon chattel slavery shaped aspects of the society that emerged, and left imprints on the ethnic makeup of the population, orientation of its economy, and beliefs, values, and attitudes of Jamaican people. Many of these are smallholder agriculturalists, a livelihood strategy common in former colonial places. Often ideas, notions, and practices about how farms and farming ‘ought-to-be’ in such places results from the operations and workings of discourse. As advanced by Foucault, ‘discourse’ refers to meanings and knowledge circulated among people and results in practices that in turn produce and re-produce those meanings and knowledge. Discourses define what is right, correct, can be known, and produce ‘the world as it is.’ They also have material effects, in that what it means ‘to farm’ results in a landscape that emerges from those meanings. In Jamaica, meanings of ‘farms’ and ‘farming’ have been shaped by discursive elements of contemporary globalization such as modernity, competition, and individualism. These have produced the agricultural landscape in St Elizabeth parish, an area known for the production of vegetables. This research employed a political ecology approach, in that it sought to identify and analyze how workings of power at different scales influenced decisions made by farmers in how they interacted with their environment. As the operation and circulation of discourses as well as their articulation by farmers themselves was the topic, this political ecology utilized discourse analysis. Using mixed methods, my research included qualitative interviews, document/archival research, collecting data on both current and historical Jamaican agricultural production, and origins of produce for sale in grocery stores. It revealed that smallholder farmers are often characterized as ‘backward’ in development and government circles, despite evidence to the contrary. Also, ideas of modernity associated with technology influence farmer decision-making in agricultural practices, even as the financial burdens that result are identified as challenges. Both findings relate to Jamaica’s history as a former ‘plantation society’ long under colonial domination. The practices promoted by modernist discourses further marginalize and disadvantage many smallholder farmers, not only economically, but also through environmental and health impacts resulting from widespread use of agrochemicals. At the same time, alternative paths and ‘sites of resistance’ to these dominant discourses exist in Jamaica that present more sustainable possibilities for smallholders. Although south St Elizabeth is the site of the case study featured in this research, the findings have implications for the wider post-colonial world. Farmers in such places suffer from a dualism: export commodities produced on large holdings receive attention and support at the expense of small producers of local staples. Development agencies and other experts often apply agricultural techniques not suited to local ecosystems or socioeconomic conditions and otherwise try to ‘fix’ places discursively placed as underdeveloped. This research serves to provide both a critique and potential alternatives more sensitive to local conditions and circumstances. Copyright by Gary R. Schnakenberg 2013 This dissertation is dedicated to a particular three people whom I am proud to include among the many teachers I have been fortunate to have in my life. Their guidance and inspiration enabled me to undertake this work and bring the part represented by this dissertation to fruition. To Rebecca, who guided me to this path, and helped keep my feet on it through the example of her own dedication to her work and her unwavering belief in me; and also to mi bredren Frankie and Doul, who always made me welcome in their hearts as well as their yards. v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I cannot think of a circumstance in which someone who enters graduate study and completes the writing of a dissertation does not owe a great deal to many who have helped along the way. As my path to this project is not the typical one, coming as it has well into my fifties and after another career, I feel I am especially indebted. The Department of Geography at Michigan State University took a chance on admitting me to a Ph.D. program, applying as I did without having come right out of a Master’s program and at my stage of life. The department also provided me with significant financial support through Graduate Assistantships and annual Fellowships to do the fieldwork necessary in Jamaica, in addition to a Lawrence and Marjorie Sommers Geography Graduate Fellowship for International Research and Travel in 2012. A department is made up of people, and even apart from my committee, the levels of support and encouragement I received from everyone with whom I had contact was remarkable; I need to express my appreciation in particular to Alan Arbogast, Dick Groop, Randy Schaetzel, Ashton Shortridge, Judy Reginek, Claudia Brown, and Sharon Ruggles. I have also been blessed to be associated with a wonderful group of grad school colleagues in my time at MSU, whose varied interests and keen intelligence provided such stimulation and camaraderie, despite our different life stages. I received financial support in 2012 from the Michigan State College of Social Sciences, as well as the Graduate School in the form of a Research Enhancement Award; for these I am extremely grateful as they allowed me to stay in Jamaica long enough to complete the data collection necessary to begin the writing of this dissertation. Thanks for financial support also to the Latin America Specialty Group of the Association of American Geographers for a research vi grant awarded in 2011. The work of LASG members and the Conference of Latin Americanist Geographers continue to inspire interest and new research in this diverse and fascinating part of the world. There are many people whom I cannot adequately thank. My dissertation committee chair and program advisor, Antoinette WinklerPrins, is foremost among these. I could not have found a better advisor and mentor. The examples of her scholarship, approach to geographic research, guidance and mentoring, encouragement and support, constructive criticism, and sense of humor present me with an obligation to ‘pay forward’ that will be a challenge tofulfill. I even forgive her for being younger than me. Other members of my committee also leave me with debts of gratitude. Kyle Evered was my initial advisor, and remains someone from whom I continue to learn a great deal. His extensive knowledge of an incredibly wide range of geographic and historical literature provided me with many sources and writers upon which I was later able to lean in this project. Laurie Medina pushed my thinking in the ‘Culture, Resources, and Power’ class I took with her; she also provided guidance and encouragement early on when I went to talk with her as Acting Director of MSU’s Center for Latin American and Caribbean Studies. Sarah Nicholls’ expertise in issues relating to tourism, so essential in any discussion of Jamaica, contributed greatly to my successful completion of this dissertation, as did her encouragement along the way. Harm deBlij not only made me familiar with aspects of human geography as an author and tireless promoter of the discipline for many years, but also responded immediately to my request for advice on the possibly crazy idea of entering a Ph.D. program at that particular juncture of my life. First through email, then meeting in person over a glass of wine at the National Council for Geographic Education Annual Meeting in Oklahoma City, he suggested vii that not only might this be a good idea, but Michigan State’s Nature and Society program area could be a good fit given my interests. The rest, as he would say, is geography. I have appreciated his checking up on my progress each time he comes to East Lansing. Paul Robbins’ work both in political ecology and about political ecology has been an intellectual inspiration. I have sought to learn from his clarity of expression when writing about complicated and sometimes troubling things. He also has been a model of a good mentor on an interpersonal level, whether responding to contacts from my high school students about his work, encouraging the work of new geographers when he meets them, or providing suggestions or directions for information and resources to those who reach out to him to ask. Klaus Bayr and Al Rydant at Keene State College first turned my head towards geography as a field and made me say, “THAT’S what I want to learn about!” They, along with Chris Cusack and Ted Miller, became valued friends and colleagues. I am forever in the debt of the many outstanding people at Souhegan High School with whom I was privileged to work. Ken Boisselle, Melissa Chapman, Colleen Meaney, Richard ‘Wally’ Wallace, Peggy Silva, among many others, are worth singling out for special recognition, but any attempt to list people invariably leaves off those deserving mention. I thank deeply all of my former colleagues and continued friends there. The commitment of this institution and the people within it to authentic and lifelong learning serves as a model, not only for me on my own path but for American public education in general.