Volume 4, Issue 8(2), August 2015 International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research

Published by Sucharitha Publications 8-21-4,Saraswathi Nivas,Chinna Waltair Visakhapatnam – 530 017 Andhra Pradesh – Email: [email protected] Website: www.ijmer.in

Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief Dr.K. Victor Babu Faculty, Department of Philosophy Andhra University – Visakhapatnam - 530 003 Andhra Pradesh – India

EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS

Prof. S.Mahendra Dev Prof. Fidel Gutierrez Vivanco Vice Chancellor Founder and President Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Escuela Virtual de Asesoría Filosófica Research Lima Peru Prof. Igor Kondrashin Prof.Y.C. Simhadri The Member of The Russian Philosophical Vice Chancellor, Patna University Society Former Director The Russian Humanist Society and Expert of Institute of Constitutional and Parliamentary The UNESCO, Moscow, Russia Studies, & Formerly Vice Chancellor of Dr. Zoran Vujisiæ Benaras Hindu University, Andhra University Rector Nagarjuna University, Patna University St. Gregory Nazianzen Orthodox Institute

Universidad Rural de Guatemala, GT, U.S.A Prof. (Dr.) Sohan Raj Tater

Former Vice Chancellor Singhania University, Rajasthan Prof.U.Shameem Department of Zoology Andhra University Visakhapatnam Prof.K.Sreerama Murty Department of Economics Dr. N.V.S.Suryanarayana Andhra University - Visakhapatnam Dept. of Education, A.U. Campus Vizianagaram Prof. K.R.Rajani Department of Philosophy Dr. Kameswara Sharma YVR Andhra University – Visakhapatnam Asst. Professor Dept. of Zoology Prof. P.D.Satya Paul Sri. Venkateswara College, Delhi University, Department of Anthropology Delhi Andhra University – Visakhapatnam I Ketut Donder Prof. Josef HÖCHTL Depasar State Institute of Hindu Dharma Department of Political Economy Indonesia University of Vienna, Vienna & Ex. Member of the Austrian Parliament Prof. Roger Wiemers Austria Professor of Education Lipscomb University, Nashville, USA Prof. Alexander Chumakov Chair of Philosophy Dr.B.S.N.Murthy Russian Philosophical Society Department of Mechanical Engineering Moscow, Russia GITAM University –Visakhapatnam

N.Suryanarayana (Dhanam) Dr.Ton Quang Cuong Department of Philosophy Dean of Faculty of Teacher Education Andhra University University of Education, VNU, Hanoi Visakhapatnam Prof. Chanakya Kumar Dr.S.V Lakshmana Rao Department of Computer Science Coordinator University of Pune,Pune A.P State Resource Center Visakhapatnam Prof. Djordje Branko Vukelic Department for Production Engineering Dr.S.Kannan University of Novi Sad, Serbia Department of History Annamalai University Prof.Shobha V Huilgol Annamalai Nagar, Chidambaram Department of Pharmacology Off- Al- Ameen Medical College, Bijapur Dr. Barada Prasad Bhol Registrar, Purushottam Institute of Prof.Joseph R.Jayakar Engineering & Technology Department of English Sundargarh, Odisha GITAM University Hyderabad Dr.E. Ashok Kumar Department of Education Prof.Francesco Massoni North- Eastern Hill University, Shillong Department of Public Health Sciences University of Sapienza, Rome Dr.K.Chaitanya Department of Chemistry Prof.Mehsin Jabel Atteya Nanjing University of Science and Al-Mustansiriyah University Technology College of Education People’s Republic of China Department of Mathematics, Iraq

Dr.Merina Islam Prof. Ronato Sabalza Ballado Department of Philosophy Department of Mathematics Cachar College, Assam University of Eastern Philippines, Philippines

Dr. Bipasha Sinha Dr.Senthur Velmurugan .V S. S. Jalan Girls’ College Librarian University of Calcutta, Calcutta Kalasalingam University Krishnankovil Tamilnadu Dr. K. John Babu Department of Journalism & Mass Comm Dr.J.B.Chakravarthi Central University of Kashmir, Kashmir Assistant Professor Department of Sahitya Rasthritya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha, Tirupati

® © Editor-in-Chief, IJMER Typeset and Printed in India www.ijmer.in

IJMER, Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research, concentrates on critical and creative research in multidisciplinary traditions. This journal seeks to promote original research and cultivate a fruitful dialogue between old and new thought. C O N T E N T S Volume 4 Issue 8(2) August 2015 S. Page

No No 1. Indian Caste System; A Sinuous Journey of Work 1 Classification to a Rigid Social Order Seema Parihar

2. Biodiversity Values of Kolleru Lake Ecosystem, Andhra 15 Pradesh, India Satyanarayana P.Y.V

3. An Analytical Appraisal on Group Cohesiveness 24 K.Chandrasekhara Rao

4. A Chronology of Main Events in Ambedkar’s Life 30 Surya Raju Mattimalla

5. The Place and Role of Mathematics Curriculum in 35 Secondary School Sunil Kumar Sain & Sudhir Sudam Kaware

6. Types of Women Labour in Unorganised Sector 45 Shabnam Parveen

7. Effects of Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) 55 Instruction on ESL Students’ Essay Writing and their Cohesion and Coherence Seyed Mohammadali Motaharinik & L. Ramamoorthy

8. Study of Personality Traits and Perceived Stigma 72 among Drug Abusers and Non-Abusers Satneet Singh, Lakhminder Singh & Narinder Singh

9. Study Habits of High School Pupils in Relation to 85 Certain Psycho Sociological Factors in X Class Students in Medchal Mandal, Rangareddy District S.Srilatha

10. OSLO Summit, India’s Rural Illiteracy and Road Ahead 98 S.N. Misra & Sanjaya Ku. Ghadai 11. The Art of Dealership in Today’s Economy 109 Reetika Madaan

12. Green Manufacturing and Use of Analytical Network 115 Process (ANP) Decision Tool in Green Manufacturing Ravinder Kumar & Yogesh Sharma

13. Juvenile Justice After the Delhi Gang Rape 128 Nutakki Sateesh

14. Need to Rethink on Bihar Status of Bimaru 140 Manoj Kumar

15. A Review of Ethiopian Banking Industry 146 Ubah Adem Meder & M. Sarada Devi

16. Infrastructural Facilities for Educational Development 160 in Assam: A Study of Elementary Education Upen Konch

17. Political Philosophy of Dr. B. R. Ambedkar: Views on 179 Democracy Yugendar Nathi

18. A Comparative Study of Major Problems Faced by 190 Stakeholders Regarding Solid Waste Management Practices Adopted by Municipalities with Special Reference to Satara and Barshi Municipality V.P.Deshmukh, B.S.Sawant & S.V.Deshmukh

19. : The Ethical Theory of Indian Philosophy 201 Vijayalaxmi Munagala

20. Proper Capacity Utilization of Thermal Power Plant 210 (P.T.P.S) Vikas Maan and Yogesh Sharma

Dr. K. VICTOR BABU ISSN : 2277 – 7881 M.A.,M.A.,M.Phil.,Ph.D.,PDF, (D.Lit) Impact Factor :2.972(2015) Faculty of Philosophy and Religious Index Copernicus Value: 5.16 Studies & Editor-in-Chief International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research (IJMER) & Sucharitha: A Journal of Philosophy and Religion Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Pin - 530 003 , Andhra Pradesh – India

Editorial……

You will be happy to know that we have entered the fourth year of publication of IJMER, since its inception in April 2012. Focusing on many interdisciplinary subjects, the published papers are spreading the knowledge with fervent hope of upholding the holistic approach. With all my heart, I reiterate to echo my sincere feelings and express my profound thanks to each and every valued contributor. This journal continues to nurture and enhance the capabilities of one and all associated with it.

We as a team with relentless efforts are committed to inspire the readers and achieve further progress. Aim is to sustain the tempo and improve. We acknowledge with pleasure that our readers are enjoying the publications of Sucharita Publishers. We solicit to receive ideas and comments for future improvements in its content and quality. Editor – in-Chief explicitly conveys his gratitude to all the Editorial Board members. Your support is our motivation. Best wishes to everyone.

Dr.K.Victor Babu Editor-in-Chief

SOCIAL SCIENCES, HUMANITIES, COMMERCE & MANAGEMENT, ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, MEDICINE, SCIENCES, ART & DEVELOPMENT STUDIES, LAW www.ijmer.in

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INDIAN CASTE SYSTEM; A SINUOUS JOURNEY OF WORK CLASSICIFICATION TO A RIGID SOCIAL ORDER

Seema Parihar Archaeological Survey of India Shimla Circle, Shimla

“In order to protect this universe He the most resplendent one, assigned separate (duties and) occupations to those who sprang from the mouth, arms, thighs and feet.i The social system has been created to assist everyone in society to behave based on their natural temperament, i.e. their constitution, which is composed of the three subtle components or (trigunas) and their spiritual evolution is the system of the four classes (varnas). In other words, this system of four classes incorporated in Righteousness (Dharma) meant to provide guidance on behavior and spiritual practice (sādhanā) according to one’s potential and requirement, to enable one to experience bliss and blessings from the God and this blessing of god is equal to all. Spiritual practice means, offering whatever one has unto God and the pre-Risis and sages had decided. It is said that a Sūdra (labourer) should offer his body, as he does not have anything else to offer by the way of service. A Vaisya (businessperson) should offer his body and wealth, a Kshatriya (warrior) his body, wealth and life and a Brāhman (priest) his body, wealth, life as well as intellect for the absolute truth and in this faith God alone considered the Absolute Truth. It all was governed through a systematic way and that was known as caste system. The ancient route for the caste was Varna. Varna is the term for the four broad ranks into which traditional Hindu society is divided. The four varnas are:

 The Brahmans: priests, teachers and preachers.  The Kastriyas: kings, governors, warriors and soldiers.

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 The Vaisyas: cattle herders, agriculturists, businesspersons, artisansii and merchantsiii.

 The Sudras: laborers and service providers. Rig-Vedic evidence of such a quadruple division of society has been compared to similar systems, especially with a view to reconstructing hypothetical Proto-Indo-European society. Such comparison is at the basis of the tri-functional hypothesis presented by Georges Dumézil postulates a basic division of society into a priesthood (Brahmans), warrior class or nobility (Ksatriyas) and commoners (Vaisyas), augmented by a class of un free serfs (Sudras). The two great divisions of the people in ancient times were Aryans and the aborigines afterward called Dravidians or Sudras and whole the society was governed through the life principles of these classes. Historically the caste system dates back to the Aryan invasion of India around 2,000 BC. During that age the society was divided into four main groups (with a fifth, "the untouchables," outside of the caste system).

The varna division is alluded to in the late Rigvedic Purusa Sukta. It has been theorized to reflect a much more ancient tripartite society, ultimately cognate with the western "estate" (viz. division into a priestly class, a warrior class, and a class of commoner or free farmers, apart from a population of unfree serfs excluded from society proper). The relationship between occupation, varna, and social ordering in the Rig Vedic period was complex. In the varna ordering of society, notions of purity and pollution were central.iv The phenomenon of the upper classes living on the labor of tribesmen was just emerging, and was not ritualized or ideologically ratified until the Purusha Sukta. v R.S. Sharma states that "the Rig Vedic society was neither organized on the basis of social division of labour nor on that of differences in wealth but it was primarily organized on the basis of kin, tribe and lineage."vi

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Varna is a Sanskrit term var a ( ) derived from the root v , meaning ṇ वण ṛ "to cover, to envelop" (compare vrtra). The meaning of the word as used in the Rigveda has the literal meaning "outward appearance, exterior, form, figure, shape, color" besides the figurative "colour, race, kind, sort, character, quality, property". In the Rigveda, the term can mean "class of men, tribe, order, and caste", especially expressing the contrast between the Arya and dasas.vii The system became rigid in the later Vedic period. viii It was detailed in post-Vedic Brahmans (in the Manusamriti, the oldest of the Dharmsastras, compiled during the time of the Kusana Empire). In the post-Vedic period, the division is described explicitly and in great detail in the Dharmsastras literature, later also in the Puranas and other texts. The Manusmriti is the oldest of the Dharmashastra texts, reflecting the laws and society of Gupta period India.

Hindu conception of the social order is that people are different, and different people will fit well into different aspects of society. Social order or social class according to Varna forms the framework of moral duties according to personal characteristics of individuals. Further the concept of dharma deals mainly with the duties of the different varṇas and asramas or the life cycles philosophy. The first three varnas are seen as "twice born" and they are allowed to study the Vedas. Varna divides the society into four groups ordered in a hierarchy, the fifth being chandala (untouchable) and therefore beyond the pale. Besides; the Tantric movement that developed as a tradition distinct from orthodox between the 8th and 11th centuries CE ix also relaxed many societal strictures regarding class and community distinction. However it would be an over generalization to say that the Tantrics did away with all social restrictions, as N. N. Bhattacharyya explains: “For example, Tantra according to its very nature has nothing to do with the class system but in the later Tantras class elements are pronounced. This is because although many of our known Tantric

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teachers were non-Brāhmaṇas, rather belonging to the lower ranks of society, almost all of the known authors of the Tantric treatises were

x Brāhmaṇas." Till today Generally, Indian society works through the caste system the other form of Varna. The caste system is far from a rigid system in which the position of each component caste is fixed for all time.

The Sudra: First of all we come to the Sudra. According to the doctrine of evolution, the protection of one’s body is the basic impression in any living being. All are Sudra at birth, because they are born with the impression that ‘I am the body ( : ).’ It is जमात ् जायते शू । said that ‘Sudras have no right to study the Vēdas,’ because Sudras (those who are concerned about their bodies) cannot think beyond their bodies and to understand the Vedas, one has to be able to focus on its subtle or spiritual aspects by going beyond the body otherwise an individual remained without practicing the rules of spiritual life. In other words the Sudras--(pronounced something like "shoo drahs") the unskilled laborers or laboring class. The followers or the maintenance people, so-called menial workers or hard laborers were and are the sudras.

In the Mahabharata a ‘Sudra’ has been defined as a person who eats everything without caring, whether it is clean or unclean, and has given up every mode of Vedic life, while a person born in a low class is considered as Brahman, if he is firm in his dharma and truth and follows the Vedic rites.

But in the later stage such people who didn’t had their interest in reading and writing had given some other works to do and thus the ‘sudra’ was a person who was given works of lower divisions, like iron, leather, cattle and chandalas. They also used to live separately outside of the towns and cities with no collection of wealth.xi One occupation

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only the Lord prescribed to sudra, to serve meekly even the other three castes.xii Manu Smriti has mentioned that in which state respect is given to the sudra and non spiritual on the place of Brahmans and spirituals and other scholars, is fallen down because of illness, calamities and famine.xiii In other words one occupation only the Lord prescribed to the Sudra , to serve meekly even other three castes.xiv Though in Manu Smriti, the destroyer of Dharma is considered as sudra,xv but gradually the society or some people misinterpreted the system and now in the Indian caste system it is hereditary and who takes birth in the low caste either he/she is educated, follower of Dharma and is spiritual known to the that class only. Castes also play very important role in the socio-religious life of the people.

The Vaishya: “The Vaisyas to tend cattle, to bestow gifts, to study the Vedas, to trade, to lend money and to cultivate.”xvi With further evolution, one begins to be concerned with nurturing his family and thus commences some occupation for livelihood, such as agriculture, business, etc. All the commercial works of society were completed through the vaisyas. Vaisyas generally (pronounced something like "vy sy us") the producers, the craftsmen, artisans, farmers etc. They are the skillful producers of material things.

In our society, the merchants were generally from this class but at present there are no such rules of profession for the caste. Manusmriti assigns cattle rearing as Vaisya occupation; however there are sources in available literature that Kshatriyas also owned and reared the cattle and cattle-wealth was mainstay of their households. The emperors of Kosala and the prince of Kasi are some of many examples. The Ksatriya: The Ksatrya he commanded to protect the people, to bestow gifts, to offer sacrifices, to study the Veda, and to abstain from attaching himself to sensual pleasures.xvii With yet further evolution, one begins to develop an affinity for a territory. This leads to the creation of the Ksatriya class. Ksatriyas--(pronounced something like

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"kshot ree yahs") are the born administrators (formerly nobles, rajahs, and warriors). They are protectors of society. In ancient society, the politicians, police, and the military people were from the ksatriya class. Now the affinity is for the country and not for one’s body; hence patriots sacrifice even their lives for their country. The ksatriya fulfill the responsibility to protect and defend all the three classes. He was the server of society. It is the duty of Ksatriya to give donation and to perform yajna through the Brahmans. xviii The Brahman: To Brahmans he assigned teaching and studying of the Veda, sacrifices for their own benefit for others giving and accepting (of alms)xix and Generally, the Brahmins were the priestly class of the Aryan peoples who were responsible for the chanting of mantra. It was then that preserved the holy writings -- initially the Vedas, but later also the Upanishads. For years, they were the only ones, who knew the mantras or sacred formulas that had to be chanted at every important occasion. Such was the influence of the more orthodox attitude of the elite nature of mantra knowledge that even the Buddhists, who repudiated the whole idea of caste, and of the efficacy of the old rituals, called themselves the sravakas, that is, "the hearers". In the final stage of evolution, one becomes curious about God and spiritual knowledge. This leads to the origin and supremacy of the Brahman class.

Movement has always been possible and especially so in the middle region of the hierarchy. In the Mahabharata a ‘sudra’ has been defined as a person who eats everything without caring whether it is clean or unclean, and has given up every mode of Vedic life, while a person born in a low condition is considered as Brahman, if he is firm in his Dharma and truth and follow the Vedic rites. Srī Krisna has said ‘ : xx’. This means, ‘I have created the चातुवय मया सृयं गुणकमवभागश । four classes according to components (guna) and actions (karma)’. A low caste was able, in a generation or two, or rise to a higher position

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in the hierarchy by adopting vegetarianism and teetotalism and by sanskritizing its rituals and pantheon. In short it took over as for as possible, the customs rites, rituals, and belief of the Brahmans and the adoption of the Brahmanic way of life by a low caste seem to have been frequent, though theoretically forbidden. This process has been called Sanskritization in Devi Mahatamya.xxi

The earliest application to the formal division into four social classes appears in the late Rigvedic Purusha Sukta which has the Brahman, Rajanya (instead of Kshatriya), Vaisya and Sudra classes emerging from the mouth, arms, thighs and feet of the primordial giant, Purusa, respectively. xxii According to a passage from the Rig Veda: (The world was formed from Purusa whose body is described as follows.) "The brahman was his mouth, his two arms became the rajanya (kshatriyas), his thighs are what the vaisya are, and from his feet the shudra was made." This quadruple division is the ancient division of society into "principal castes"; it is not to be confused with the much finer caste system in India based on occupation as it emerged in the medieval period.xxiii Historians and the different writers of the ancient Indian history and archaeology have stated their opinion about the system.

The creation of the classes, described by authors of the Smritīs like Narad Samriti, Manusamriti, Yajnavalkya Samriti, Vrihaspati Samriti, is based on division of labor. This was meant to strike a balance between various societal groups without leading to any rifts between them. In that system of classes rather than the rights and privileges of the different classes, emphasis was laid on the performance of duties. Manu again has mentioned that in a family, children generally resemble and imitated their parents with regard to the complexion, temperament, intelligence, etc., due to genetics. Based on this, authors of the Smritis, the Sage Manu laid down the rules for

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constituting the societal pattern. Sage Manu came across different people with qualities required for various tasks in a particular social setup and believed the qualities to be inherited. He then allotted the responsibility of various tasks beneficial to society to each group based on those qualities at all which was expected to follow by the next generation too. But the caste system was caught by wrong bearing and a person was started known to the name and profession of his forefathers. For example in early India Dwivedi (was a person having knowledge of two Vedas) Trivedi (having knowledge of three Vedas) and Chaturvedi (having knowledge of four Vedas) but in Indian society the person after taking birth in the families of Vedic scholars are known to their ancestors no matter they have the knowledge of the Vedas or not and no matter what type of profession they have adopted.

The Hindu lawgivers have recognized that religious conventions as well as social customs change with the times no doubt that in the previous journey some changes have been occurred in the social scenario too. As in the earlier stage the caste was the profession of the people and the members of the same family were the members of different castes and it all was upon their occupation. But in the later stage the rule of the casts became rigid and it became genetic. Shrī Eknaathi Bhāgwat (20.314, 21.209-210) emphasizes this point: ‘Each individual is born in a particular class, depending on his potential to practice spirituality or according to his need for that particular type of spiritual practice. The God’s motive behind establishing this system of four classes was for man to re-enter the Hansa class (the purest class from the purest times that is, the period preceding even the pure Era of Truth or (Satyayuga) after he had fulfilled the obligations of all the four classes. This means that the restrictions of the four classes imposed by God are in fact meant to overcome or transcend the four classes.’ It was due to establish a balanced structure of the society

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in all aspects of the life whether it was in working or in other practices of daily life.

At a spiritual level, the system is based on the idea of the three unseen subtle basic components. These are known as the three subtle basic components namely Sattva, Raja and Tama. In the word ‘triguna’ tri stand, three while ‘guna’ stands for subtle components and the inner qualities of human beings. The system of four classes observed not only in man, but also between flora and fauna in nature. There are different types of flora and fauna, the bushes and the plants with thorns are having rajo guna and belong to the sudra class and different types of flowers, plants with fruits and juice come under group sato guna, belong to the class of Brahmans. Among animals, the cow and the serpent, who are sāttvik (spiritual purity predominant), belong to the Brahman class while the tiger and lion, who are rājasik (action- passion predominant) in nature, belong to the Kshatriya class. This means that ‘class’ is a state, which is determined by the three components. Hence, everyone needs to undertake the spiritual practice of all the four classes for some time each day. The ancient Risis have stated that whatever we do, the goal of our life is to achieve salvation through the daily practice of and before the Gods, whether he or she belongs to any caste.

In the present times of Kaliyuga, every person, to whichever class he may belong, becomes a Brahman, Ksatriya, Vaisya and Sudra for some time of the day, every day according to the works and deed he does. We are born on earth with the sole purpose of undergoing the destiny created by our deeds from previous births and to realize God. Regardless of the destiny, we are born with; the class system helps us in accomplishing the goal of God’s realization. For some time of the day every individual is a Brahman when he studies, a Ksatriya when he fights according to the situation, a Vaisya when he earns a livelihood

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and a Sudra when he does some physical work like cleaning his body during a bath.

Though the people learn from history and however in the ancient period and till the early medieval period the chief occupations of the Aryans were fighting and cultivating the soil xxiv only and they had nothing to do with the other rituals of life. But in the later stage the changes had been occurred and with some special rites anyone might presides sacrifices with the help of a Brahman priest. In the history, there are the kings who created their own hymns to the Gods, Rajarisies, who united in their person the power both of king and priest. Visvamitra the author of the Gayitri was the Ksatriya xxv (or warrior) Rsi Ved Vyasa the creator of Mahabharata was from the ksatriya varna and the creator of Ramayana i.e. the sage Valmiki is said belong to the lower varna. The Brahmans was at first simply an assistant at sacrifice and till date in Indian Hindu society also in Himachal Pradesh the assistance of a Brahman has been considered important.

As in early times anyone might preside at sacrifices in which the Brahmans were only assistant and Brahman was the person who used to follow some principles of life especially in case of spirituality. There is the mention of King Janaka’s sacrifice without the intervention of the priests, which give an idea that any one who could perform the yajna after attaining the knowledge of rules and prescription made for it. No doubt in the present society the people are used to do spiritual practice at home and in the temples themselves. They individually chant mantras without the assistance of purohita. However, on occasion or special ritual performance they need to assist a person of Brahman class. Contemporary writers have explained the system as the practice of individuals without the knowledge of caste and varna dharma in which the people are engaged with. According to Max Muller, ‘The system of caste in the ordinary sense of the word did not

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exist during the Vedic age. What we may call caste in the Veda is very different even from what we find in the laws of Manu, still more, from what exists at the present day.xxvi By adopting the profession of that particular caste, an individual could change his /her caste. The people in ancient India could enter into the other castes according to their own will through performing some special rituals. Dharmshastra says that the Kadamba earlier were Brahmans and later they became ksatriyas.xxvii Anushasana Parva of Mahabharata has given description of ksatriya king Vithavya who later became Brahman.xxviii The same text has given description of Astisena, Sindhudwipa, Devapi and Vishvamitra who got the rank of Brahman xxix after attaining knowledge.

The caste interpretation is very much different in modern society as it was prevailed in ancient period. It has been found that in the Indian society even today people believe in the system of castes very rigidly and it is difficult to marry in the another caste. Caste system is not only a strong barrier to young generation who want to marry without the thinking about caste but their family principles are hindrance in their desires. There are the cases of honor killing, suicides and family leaving of newly married couples who marry in another caste. Many people have to leave their family and boycotted forever only because they got married with the person of caste considered lower to their own. They used to live far-off their family and relatives in the rest of their life. In this regard, there is no doubt that the people of ancient society were more liberal than that of the modern caste for them was their profession not their birth.

In this not only in the matrimonial relationship but while performing the ritualistic ceremonies, at home and in the temples and religious places people do not like the entry of the people considered as low caste. On 22nd of March 2012, there was an article on the same issue. In this reference, there was news that at Neuly village of Mandi district in

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Himachal Pradesh there is ban on entry of harijans. It is written on the signboard.xxx It is also seen that the person belong to a sweeper class is not supposed to work as a sweeper in the mandapa or Garbha-Griha, but Even if a person belong to the family of Brahman or Ksatriya, who works as a sweeper in the temple or on another place, is not supposed to clean in the temple, (in mandapa and garbha-graha), he or she does not deserve to touch any equipment in the temple, neither he/ she can play any part in performing the rituals. During the survey, it was explored that people strictly follow the rules related to the castes. The rules and principles of castes vary according to the time and places. At one place of the Sakti, during the survey some people gathered and were making a complaint against a sweeper that he often enters in the temple and clean the utensils, touches the sculptures. They were saying that if the action is not taken against him, they would not take part in the ritualistic ceremonies and would leave the place. The people from the caste are not allowed to wash and sweep the inner part of the temples. Even the people, who are ignorant of alphabet, would die rather than eat food, which had been prepared by men of lower castes unless it had been sanctified by being offered to an idol.xxxi

On the historical background caste was nothing but division of the society to maintain work discipline, as by nature human like to give better performance if he is given specific duties to perform and a type of social order to be obeyed by all accordingly. However, in the later stage people had adopted it as a genetic order and the rules of their family were followed strictly by them. The system was godsend to the people belonged to the higher class but it became curse to the people of the class known as lower. 15th 16th centuries in India, the people of lower class were came to be known as untouchable because at one place they had given only duties to perform and with less rights and used to live on the mercy of the people of higher class and on another place they had no rights to participate and perform religious or spirituals rituals.

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No doubt Indian politics has tried to uplift the status of the people belonged to lower class through reservation but it is improving only economic status and sometime it also become a reason of hatred between the two classes lower and higher. If India wants to get rid of the caste based society, the historical idea of this classification should be adopted or the scholars and the intellectuals should try to interpret the ancient definition of the caste where it was based on the deeds of a particular person or individual not by birth. If the person who used work on iron or loha was lohar in ancient India why an individual is lohar till today when he is working as agriculturist, a scientist, a politician or an artist. In the same manner there are the renowned personalities involved in the business of shoe making from the upper class, but no one used to say them shoe maker or the prevalent name of that caste, but an individual though he or she has nothing to take from the business of shoe making has been considered as chamar as sometime in the historical period his/her forefathers belonged to that business. It is surprising that where the society without facilities used is a liberal and open in some manners, but the society having all types of conveniences behave like orthodox society.

i Nitya Chaitanya Yati (Tr.), The Bhagavata Gita, A Sublime Hymn of composed by the ancient seer Vyasa, 2nd ed. D. K.. Print World Ltd., New Delhi, 1993, p. 436. ii Walter Hazen, Inside Hinduism, Milliken Publication Company, St. Louis Missouri, U.S.A, 2003, p.4 iii Arun Kumar, Encyclopedia of the Teaching of Agriculture, Anmol Publication Pvt. Ltd. 2002, p.p. 411. iv Romila, Thaper, Early India; from the origin to A.D.1300, University of California Press, 2004 p. 63. v Ram Sharan Sharma, Material Culture and Social Formation in Ancient India, Macmillan, 1983, p. 51. vi Ram Sharan Sharma, Studies in Ancient India; A Social History of the Lower Order Down to Circa A.D. 600, Motilal Banarasi Das Publishers Ltd. New Delhi,1990, p.10 vii Monier Williams, Monier, A Sanskrit English Dictionary, Motilal Banarasidas, (Reprinted), 2005, p. 924

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viii Naval, T.R., Law of Prevention of Atrocities on the Scheduled Tribes, Concept Publishing, 2001, p.6 ix Flood Gavin, The Saiva Tradition, Paper Back Edition of Flood, 2003, p. 208. x N. N. Bhattacharya, History of Tantric Religion, p. 44-45 xi Nitya Chaitanya Yati, opcit, p.436 xii Ibid p.436 xiii Ram Chandra Sharma, opcit, p. 274 xiv G. Bhuler, The Laws of Manu, S.B.E., Oxford, 1886, p.91. xv Shankar Narayana, Devi Mahatmya, (Tr.), p.274 xvi Ibid, p. 87-91 xvii Ibid, p., 88. xviii Kasinath Ji Agrawal, (ed.), Shri Visnu Purana, Naval Prakashan, Bombay, 1988, p. 95 xix G. Bhular, Opcit, p. 877. xx (Srīmad Bhagwadgitā 4:13). xxi Thomas B. Coburn, opcit, p. 10. xxii Basham, Arthur, Llewellyn, The Origin and Development of Classical Hinduism, (Reprinted), Oxford Universal Press, 1989. P.25 xxiii Mark Juergensmeyer, The Oxford Handbook of the Global Religions, 2006, p.54, xxiv Shankar Acharya, opcit, p. 27. xxv Ibid, p.27 xxvi Shankar Acharya, The Vedas and Brahamans, Caxton Publication, Delhi, Reprint 1988, p. 27. xxvii P. V. Kane, Dharshasron ka Itihas, Utter Pradesh Hindi Sansthaan, Lakhnau, 1963, p. 123 xxviii Ibid., p.123 xxix Ibid., p.123 xxx Pandoh ke Mandir me Dalit nahi kar sakte pravesh, Dainik Bhaskar, 22nd March 2012 xxxi Wilkins, Modern Hinduism, Curzon Press, Landon, 1974, p.32.

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BIODIVERSITY VALUES OF KOLLERU LAKE ECOSYSTEM, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA

Satyanarayana P.Y.V Research Scholar Dept. of Environmental Sciences Andhra University Visakhapatnam

INTRODUCTION:

Kolleru Lake is one of India’s largest fresh water lake ecosystems of International importance as per Ramsar International Treaty in February, 1971 included in Priority list for highest protection, conservation and for stream lining its biodiversity and sustainable livelihood of local people. It is geographically situated at 160 320 -160 51’ North Latitudes and 810 05’- 810 20’ East Longitudes . It was formed between the alluvial plains of river Godavari and river Krishna due to natural geological formation. The lake areas have spread in to West Godavari and Krishna Districts of Andhra Pradesh.

The lake waters spread to an extent of 675 sq. km., however it goes up to 954 sq.km during rainy season at the highest flood level of +10 MSL and goes down to 66.0 sq.km at lowest flood level at +3 MSL. There is a lesser quantity of saline intrusion due to tidal effects from Upputeru feeding channel. The depth of water in the lake is 1.0 to 1.6 meters in most parts of the season, but reaches up to 3 to 4 meters during high floods of monsoon season (Table :1).The faunal survey in lake Kolleru was initiated by Chacko et al,(1952) and later on a number of workers taken up the taxonomic studies on various groups(Dutt and Murthy,1971: ,Rao 1981 and Seshagiri Rao Rolla,et al.1987 ) .Other important contributions on lake flora and fauna are by Neelakantam(1961),Seshagiri Rao (1968),Seshavatharam(1982), Seshavatharam et al.(1982) and Anjaneyulu et al.(1989,1990 )

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Biodiversity Values :

1. The Flora of the Lake The entire vegetation of the lake areas is characterized by littoral vegetation, predominately by hydrophytes. It shows variation in different spots with emergent, submerged and free floating aquatic macrophytes. The entire area of the lake comprises vast plains interspersed with pools of water and a few tree species such as Borassus flabellifer, Acacia nilotica and Azadirachta indica followed by shrubs and herbs are of typical coastal vegetation. The lake is densely covered with aquaticweeds, represented by Typha, Scirpus, Aponogeton, Nymphea, Numphoides, Lpomoea, Neptunia. Other common plants that are frequently found are Otella, Najas, Hydrilla, Chara etc.

The habitat features and distribution of vegetation components were collected at each field station and additional information on physico-chemical parameters and other socio-economic aspects have been collected from various reports, office records and personal interviews the people of different age groups during the period of 2011- 2012.

The lake environments were classified into four major habitats considering their present ecological status and extensive of anthropogenic interference.

(1) Open waters, muddy shores and sand bars: Most of these lake areas are open shallow waters of exposed muddy flats and sand bars which are colonized with patchy vegetation of submerged hydrophytes and emergent weeds.

(2) Deep shallow lake bed areas: The habitats with in +3 contour areas consist of deep shallow lake bed of water depth ranges from 2 to 3 meters with submerged hydrophytes, mesophytes and macrophytic aquatic species.

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(3) Wet borders of river channels and discharging drains: These habitats are located nearer to river channels and drainage outlets with dense growth of climax plant communities of reed mace and emergent species in the water spread areas.

(4) Lake fringes and marginal areas: Beyond +5 contour areas where the lake habitats are populated due to industrial effluents, sewerage flows and domestic wastes leads to degradation of lake habitats dominated by shrubs and thorny tree species.

The aquatic flora of Kolleru lake environments were represented about 42 species, of floating leaved hydrophytes 10 species; submerged hydrophytes 9 species; free floating hydrophytes 8 species; and emergent reeds of 15 species. (Table:2)

The habitat wise distributions of aquatic floral communities were categorized into four types:

(i) Floating leaved hydrophytes: These occur on submerged soils in water depths of about 0.25 to 3.50 meters. These species are floating on surface of the waters as well as in the submerged state.

(ii) Submerged hydrophytes: These species found in submerged soils at all water depths about 3.0 to 4.0 meters. Leaves are ribbon shaped, penetrated or finely divided. They occur on standing and slow flowing waters are typically unattached and floating in nature.

(iii) Free floating hydrophytes: They occur on standing and slow flowing waters. All are typically unattached and floating in nature. The aquatic vegetation of the lake is mostly dominated by free floating hydrophytes. The lake habitats invaded with free floating hydrophytes through the drains and ploughing the water ways.

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(iv) Emergent Plants: These emergent plants occur at exposed or submerged soils. invaded through the feeding channels and drains as weeds and are ploughing the water estimated that 168 sq. km of lake habitats are under weed cover.

2. The Fauna of the Lake

Fauna consists of fishes, birds, reptiles and mammals distributed in and around the lake ecosystem. Actually the Kolleru Wildlife Sanctuary is a bird sanctuary and a number of birds migrate from other countries to Kolleru sanctuary such as Pelicans, Open bill storks, Flamingoes, Painted storks etc., in every year from October to March.

3. Fishes of Kolleru Lake

Although the lake is connected to the sea by river Upputeru the fresh water conditions are prevailed in the lake throughout the year and freshwater fish fauna dominate the catches. However some euryhaline species of fish have established themselves in the lake having intruded into the lake through Upputeru. Sixty three species belonging to twenty five families have been recorded from the lake and river Upputeru of commercial importance.

4. Birds of Kolleru Lake

The Kolleru Lake in the ancient records has been described as heaven for the Birds. The bird population utilizes the entire lake area according to the water spread and goes on clustering, as the spread shrinks with the on set of hot and drier months. According to the records about 188 species of migratory, local and non local birds have been found to be visiting the Kolleru Lake. The lake provides various ecological niches, which are conducive to attract a wide spectrum of birds.

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Table 1: Physical Features of Kolleru Lake Environments.

Water Spread Area Area covered Contour Area Acres Sq. Km (Per cent)

+10 MSL 2,25,250 954 46.50

+7 MSL 1,68,750 675 34.00

+5 MSL 77,138 308 15.00

+3 MSL 33,750 660 4.50

Total 5,04,888 2,072

Table 2: Systematic list of Aquatic vegetation in Kolleru Lake Ecosystem

A. Floating leaved Hydrophytes S. No. Botanical Name Common Name

1 Aponogeton crispum

2 Aponogeton natans

3 Nymphea nouchali Indian red water Lilly

4 Nymphea stellata Water Lilly

5 Nymphoides indicum East Indian lotus

6 Nymphoides hydrophylla

7 Nelumbo nucifera Water spinach

8 Ipomoea aquatic

9 Ipomoea carnea

10 Alternanthera sessilis

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B. Submerged Hydrophytes S. No. Botanical Name Common Name 11 Vallisnaria spiralis L. Eel grass /Tape grass 12 Blyxa octandra Roxb. Rhw 13 Ottelia alismodies L Dera 14 Limnophila indica (L) Druce 15 Limnophila heterophylla 16 Nechamandra alternifolia Roxb 17 Ceretophyllum sp. 18 Najas sp. 19 Hydrilla sp.

C. Free Floating Hydrophytes S. No. Botanical Name Common Name 20 Selvinia auriculata 21 Eichornia crassipes (Mact) Solms Water Hyacinth 22 Utricularia stellaris (L) 23 Utricularia flexuosa 24 Pistia stratiotes. 25 Lemma sp. 26 Spirodela sp. 27 Wolffia sp.

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D. Emergent Plants

S No. Botanical Name Common Name

28 Phragmites karka Common reed

29 Typha aungustata Lesser reed mace/ Bull rush

30 Typha australis

31 Scirpus articulates Linn. Indian reed mace

32 Paspalidium germinatum

33 Saccharum spontaneum

34 Marsilia quadrifolia Kikkisa / Crow Bamboo

35 Jussiaea repens

36 Colocasia sp.

37 Panicum repens Sana Garuka Gaddi

38 Scirpus maritamus Mudu Pallukala Chinna Thunga

39 Cyperus rotundus Pdda Nalla Thunga

40 Cyperus compressus Chinna Nalla Thunga

41 Cyperus alopecuroides Mudu Pallukala Peda Thunga

42 Cynodon dactylon Pedda Garuka Gaddi

Kolleru lake drew national attention due to the indulgence of man leading to cultural eutrophication of the lake. Around the lake varied activities prevail ranging from sewage entry through drains, sediment deposition through rivers and creeks. Industrial effluents are released from the near by industries of leather, dairy, parboiled and

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sugar factories and agricultural wastes including fertilizers and pesticides.

Most of the drains that empty into the lake bring various sorts of pollutants ranging from industrial effluents to fertilizer and pesticidal residues, from the agricultural lands causing (1) considerable damage to public health, (2) reducing Fishing potential and (3) increasing weed growth there by bringing a change in the hydrobiocoenosis of the lake. About thirty industries are discharging their effluents ultimately into the Lake, which include dairy, tannery, pulp and paper, sugar, distillery and agricultural chemicals etc.

Choudhury and Mudappa (1995) have surveyed the wetlands of Andhra Pradesh for the integrated Protected Area Management (IPAMS) Systems. Development under component wetland Conservation and management of World Bank aided Andhra Pradesh Forestry Project.For preserving and enriching the floristic environment and values of biodiversity of Kolleru lake area for better living of those people’s prosperity at least in the ensuing century.There is an urgent need for formation of an autonomous authority at the State level.

References:

1. Anjaneyulu. M and Ramana Rao. J.V. (1989) Check list of Birds of Kolleru (Unpublished),

2. Anjaneyulu. M., Nagulu. V, and Ramana Rao. J.V. 1990). Conservation of Endangered and Rare Species in Kolleru Wetland Habitat. Jour. Animal. Behavior pp164-171

3. Chacko,P.I. (1952) A survey of the flora,fauna,and fisheries of the Kolleru lake ,Indcom.Journal,8,274-280.

4. Choudhury and Mudappa(1995) : Project proposals for Integrated protected area systems Development—World Bank Forestry Project

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for Wetland Conservation and Management of Andhra Pradesh..1- 80p

5. Dutt,S.and V.S.R.Murthy,(1971):On the fishes of the Genus Cirrhinus Cuvier 1817,from Kolleru lake,A.P.

6. Neelakhantan. 1961. Report on the Pelicanry near the Kolleru in West Godavari district and recommendation for its protection as an officially constituted Bird Sanctuary.

7. Rao,L.H,(1981) Studies on the taxonomy of the fisheries and on the biology of Heteropneustes fossils(Bloch,1784)of lake Kolleru in Andhra Pradesh.Ph.D.Thesis,Andhra University.

8. Seshavatharam.V.and Venu. P. (1982): Ecological Studies of the Vegetations of Kolleru Lake. Bull. Botanical Survey of India 24(1-4): 70-75.

9. Seshavatharam V.(1982) An Ecological Study of Fresh Water Wetlands in relation to Lake Kolleru and Lake Kondakarla. National Seminar on Resources, Development and Environment of the Eastern Ghats.

10. Seshagiri rao BV (1968) Kolleru lake in india - an important wet lend ecosystem of International importance.

11. Seshagiri Rao Rolla,et al.(1987):Flora of West Godavari district,A.P,India.

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AN ANALYTICAL APPRAISAL ON GROUP COHESIVENESS

Dr.K.Chandrasekhara Rao Assistant Commissioner Dept. of Commercial Taxes Vijayawada

“Life without estrangement is scarcely worth living; what matters is to increase men’s capacity to cope with alienation” –Walter Kaufmann (1970).

Concept and Philosophy of Group Cohesiveness:

Generally a group is defined as “two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who come together to achieve particular objectives”. Groups can be either formal or informal. By formal, we mean defined by the organization’s structure, with designated work assignments establishing tasks and work groups. In informal groups, the behaviors that one should engage in are stipulated by and directed towards organizational goals. According to Festinger (1950), “total field of forces which acts on the members to remain in the group”. Albeit, Feldman (1968) has pointed out that there are at least three different ways in which groups bind their members to them such as cohesiveness- inter personal integration, groups structural– functional integration and cohesiveness –normative integration.

Impact of Group Cohesiveness on work culture:

Our attitudes, values and behavior are greatly influenced by our interaction with other group members. One relies on the group to teach how to behave and self understanding. Groups have very powerful influence on each other in the organizational context. The collective action of a group of individually is much greater than the sum of individual actions. Groups help in explaining the unique behavior of the individual that occur within the group. Groups lend to develop norms

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or accepted forms of behavior or standards of conduct. Study groups may be the real way to find out what it means to be say, a change hand in manufacturing or R&D Project leader in an electronic company or whatever. Groups take decisions or at least an important part of the context in which decisions are taken. Thus cohesiveness captures at best that sense of a group that fits happily together works smoothly, and creates a sense of satisfaction for its members.

Consequences of Cohesiveness:

A highly cohesive group is the one that binds the members tightly together, it naturally is one when the members actually care about one to which they feel committed. Because they value the group, members put more energy into group activities in a cohesive group. It amounts and maintains the quality of communication in the group. It maintains the loyalty and satisfaction of its members. It discloses the power of the group over the opinions and behavior of its members. It improves the ability to achieve its goals and elaborates the group culture.

Some Important Studies on group cohesiveness and its impact on work culture:

1. Nissan Plant in Lerma, Mexico: Studies divulged that many employees are related to each other because one of the most common ways to get hired is through family referrals.

2. Studies of Brazil,Chile,Mexico and other Latin American Countries: Suggests that kinship or close relationships are crucial to hiring and other human-resources practices.

3. Studies of USA: Indicated that acquaintances or weak ties are more common paths to a new job.

4. Anaballa Davila of EGADE Business School in Mexico Marta Elvira of the Institute de Estudios Superiors de la

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Empresa at the University of Navarra in Spain: Researched hiring practices in Latin American Countries with social networks in mind. Because Latin Americans tend to find jobs through networks of relatives and close friends, the researchers found many organizations in the region predominantly hire the kin of existing employees while they flies in the face of hiring purely according to merit, having family members working together can encourage trust, loyalty and responsibility among the staff.

5. Studies in Chile: Divulged that joining a certain country club may count, in addition to job performance, in escalating the corporate echelon. This can lead to a frustrating glass ceiling for those from a lower social class.

6. Studies of HRM in Latin America: Relationships play a conspicuous role in daily life across the region’s societies. To understand the stared benefits and responsibilities within social network, the researchers distinguish between strong and weak ties. Strong ties implies intimate relationships in which there is muted obligation, while weak ties tend to connect distant acquaintances, who have only rarely keep in contact. People in modern market economies tend to have relatively few strong ties, but they have many weak ties that are useful at work. In contrast, Latin American societies tend to have more extensive networks of strong ties cemented through family connections and social class. Throughout Latin America, Social networks are the keys to open the doors to jobs, elite schools, business deals and political influence.

7. In Chile: What is called “Campadrazgo” requires the continuous exchange of favours between members of the middle class.

8. In the Mexico: Some un written rules of compadrazgo are similar, but all socio-economic classes are involved.

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9. In Brazil: The distinctive concept of “jeitinho” is explained as the use of personal contact, friendly smiles and empathy to find a ‘wayout’ around the country’s in famous red tape and bureaucratic restrictions. .

10. Epitome of the above Studies: A kin-favoring local culture and more professionalized human resource practices can clash. Hire practices are changing with the increased use of technology such as finding job candidates through listings on the Internet viewed that Kinship culture can be both an asset and a liability for HRM. It can lead to high levels of trust and reciprocity inside the work place, but it also can be exclusionary and nepotistic.

Suggestions and Conclusion:

Thus beyond any doubt that individuals affiliate with one another because of spatial or geographical proximity in order to achieve particular objectives such as collective action, security and affiliation etc. Research and studies such as Hawthorne experiments divulged that the affiliation motive have a major impact on the human behavior in organization. Now a days the challenge for HRM is to engage with the local culture and make the most of it, which means understanding the family, class and cultural values that underpin it. Therefore the managements of the organizations shall be provided such type of HRD practices and harmonious industrial climate which tend to increase both formal and informal group cohesiveness, where, there should be free and continuous flow of communication, propinquity, working culture, freedom of expression, hale and hearty norms of behavior, recognition of collective actions and specialized functions, standards of conduct, democratic way of decision making and implementation of social security measures besides welfare activities of the employees. It is not an out of place to mention here that among all the factors of production such as land, labour, capital and

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organization – Labour (employees/human resource) plays a predominant role in succumbing the production and productivity effectively and efficiently sans impediments and sine-qua-non , the rest will be put in an hibernation. Therefore if the management will implement the above cited social security measures, welfare activities besides hale and hearty industrial climate and HRD practices, in a systematic and planned way with periodical reviews and appraisals besides remedial measures, it can be surely certified that an eulogisable and extollable results will be yielded by way of optimal Group Cohesiveness with ‘win-win’ and ‘Iam Ok and you are OK’ style of functioning with a positive attitude. Before epilogue to this topic it is an apt to quote here the buzz words: “ In Social Psychological theory, it has long been reorganized that an individual’s membership groups have an important influence on the values and attitudes he holds. More recently, attention has also been given to the influence of his reference groups; the groups in which he aspires to attain or maintain membership” –Siegel and Siegel.

References:

1. The Hindu – Daily Newspaper - Empower column Dated.01.07.2015 P.18.

2. Taylor, D.M. and Simard, L.M; “Ethnic Identity and Intergroup Relations” in Emerging Ethnic Boundaries by D.J. Lee (1979).

3. Tejfel H. “ Social Identity and Intergroup Relations”(1982)

4. Shaw,M.E. “Group Dynamics : The Philosophy of Small Group Behavior, 2nd Edn, Tata Mc GrawHill(1976).

5. Cecillia, L.Ridgway,” The Dynamics of Small Groups”, St.Martins (1983).

6. Luthans, Fred: “Organisational Behavior”, Mc GrawHill, Inc, Newyork (1992).

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7. Subbarao P: “Management and O.B”, Himalaya Publishing House, Mumbai, 2004.

8. Schein H.Edgar: “Organisational Culture and Leadership”, Jossey- Bass, Sanfransisco (1985).

9. Triandras,H.C: “Attitude and Attitude change”, New York, Wiley (1971)

10. Doise,W. “Groups and Individuals : Explanations in Social Psychology”, Cambridge University press (1978).

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A CHRONOLOGY OF MAIN EVENTS IN AMBEDKAR’S LIFE

Surya Raju Mattimalla* Ph.D. Research Scholar Dept. of History , Archaeology and Culture Dravidian University Kuppam,Andhra Pradesh State, India

1891, April 14 : Born to Ramji Maloji Sankpal and Bheema Bhai at Mhow

1905 : Married Ramabai at the age of 14

1908 : Matriculated from Elphinstone high School, Bombay.

1912 : Graduated from Elphinstone College

1915 : Wrote Castes in India- Their Mechanism, Genesis and Development

1916 : M.A. Economics, Columbia University, U.S.A

1916 : Ph.D.

1916 : Joined London School of Economics and Political Science and also the Gray’s Inn

1918-20 : Taught at Sydenham College of Commerce and Economics, Bombay, as Professor of Economics

1919 : Gave evidence before the Southborough Reforms (Franchise) Committee

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claiming political rights for the depressed classes in India

1920, June : Established a Marathi Fortnightly, the Mooknayak

1921 : Obtained M.Sc., Degree in England

1923 : Obtained D.Sc. Degree called to the Bar

1923 : Wrote the problem of the Rupee

1924 : Started legal practice at the Bombay High Court. Also his active public career as a social worker, a politician, a writer and an educationist.

1924 : Started Bahiskriti Hitkarnini Sabha for the moral and material progress of the Untouchables

1925-30 : Set up for boarding –houses in the Bombay Presidency for Untouchable Students.

1926-34 : Nominated the member of the Bombay Assembly

1927 April : Started Bahishkrit Bhart-fortnightly

1927 September : Started Samaj Samata Sangh to preech social equality among the Untouchables and the caste Hindus.

1927 December : Led Satyagraha to establish the civic rights of the Untouchables to draw water from a public tank, “ Chavdar

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Talen” at Mahad. Won this case in the Bombay High Court in March 1937.

1928 : Appointed Professor in the Government Law College, Bombay, and Subsequently Principal of the College.

1929 March : Organized the Samata

1930 : The Janata- a Weekly

1930 March : Led Satyagraha for the Untouchables right of entry to the temple of Kalarama at Nasik.

1930-33 : Nominated delegate to the three Round Table Conference in London

1931 November : Gandhi opposed his demand for separate electorate for the untouchables at the meeting of the Minorities Committee of the Second Round Table Conference.

1932 August : Announcement of the Communal Award Conceding separate electorates for the Untouchables .

1932 September 20-24 : Gandhi went on fast and , finally the Poona Pact was made in Yervada jail.

1935 : Was made Perry Professor Jurisprudence

1935 October 13 : Made an announcement at a public meeting at Yeola, District Nasik, that the Untouchables would leave the Hindu fold and accept another religion.

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1936 October : Founded the Independent Labour Party in India

1942 April : Formed the Schedule Caste Federation as an all-India political party.

1943 : Wrote Ranade, Gandhi and Jinnah

1942 July-1946 March : Member of the Governor-General’s executive council

1945 July : Founded the People‘s Education Society

1946 : Wrote Who Were the Shudras and how they came to be the fourth Varna in the Indo-Aryan Society.

1946-47 : Nominated by the Congress to the Constituent Assembly. Joined the Nehru Cabinet as Law Minister, Chairman of the Drafting Committee and the Constitution of India.

1951 September : Resigned from the Cabinet on the Hindu Code Bill and other controversies.

1952 February : Lost election to Parliament

1952 May : Nominated by the Bombay Legislature to the council of States.

1953 : Lost Second election to Parliament

1953 : Founded Bharatiaya Buddha Mahasabha.

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1956 October 14 : Embraced Buddhism at a historic ceremony in Nagpur.

1956 December 6 : Breathed his Last in Delhi.

1957 : Publication of a posthumous publication, The Buddha and his Dharma

* I am deeply acknowledging my gratitude towards my Ph.D. Supervisor Dr. D. Mercy Ratna Rani for encouraging my research work and my strong gratitude’s towards my beloved Christian parents Mattimalla Suguna Yadav& Mattimalla Anand alias Titus and my sister Mekala Vijaya & her husband Mekala Mani Kumar and their two kids Ravi Verma & Mani Verma along with my Christian philanthropists French Father Dominique; Belgium Sister Mary Veronica; and Madam Josvin Mary Navitha Kumar, A Tamil Nadar Christian; and Madam Srimathi K.Padma gaaru and her husband Shri K Prabhu Das gaaru from the University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, Telangana State for encouraging me academically and intellectually to grow up and helped me financially to study and to attend various conferences and seminars in India and abroad. I never forget the philanthropic help of Smt. Padma madam gaaru and her husband Sri.K.Prabhu Das gaaru for the unconditional support towards my intellectual pursuits.I am deeply acknowledging Prof. Livio Sansone, A Christian white Professor with a kind heart for Dalits from Brazil, who invited me for International Graduate Course in History, Heritage and Memory to study at the Federal University of Bahia in Brazil; And Madam Josvin Mary Navitha Kumar, a Nadar converted Christian from . She had helped me financially to do my Human Rights and Democratisation (Asia-Pacific) Course from the world-class University of Sydney, Australia. I am also indebted to mainstream Anti-Caste Social Scientists Eleanor Zelliot,Gail Omvedt, Christophe Jaffrelot, Perry Anderson, Benedict Anderson, Gopal Guru, Aloysius, Sharmila Rege, Kanche Ilaiah, Upendra Bakshi, Sambaiah Gundimeda, Prof.N.Kanakaratnam, Professor Anand Teltumbde-Grand-Son of Dr B R Ambedkar and my good friend from the United States of America, Claudia for her unconditional love towards India’s Dalits etc for their veracious writings in order to bring social justice to the most oppressed groups in the world i.e DALITS

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THE PLACE AND ROLE OF MATHEMATICS CURRICULUM IN SECONDARY SCHOOL

Dr. Sunil Kumar Sain Dr. Sudhir Sudam Kaware Assistant Professor Assistant Professor Department of Education Department of Education Guru Ghasidas Central Guru Ghasidas Central Vishwavidyalaya Vishwavidyalaya Bilaspur-CG Bilaspur-CG

Introduction

The spirit of modernity and development in nations is reflected in their investment in children’s education in general. If science education is often termed as societal investment in the envisioned future, education in the “high roads of mathematics” perhaps constitutes their hope for the as-yet envisioned future. Presidents and Prime Ministers remind their people that science and mathematics education need to equip the nation’s youth to meet the challenges of the ‘new economy’. Modern nations see value in building a mathematically literate society and hope for a strong mathematical elite that can shape the knowledge economy of the 21st century. At the same time, mathematical proficiency is universally considered hard to achieve. India, with its strong mathematical traditions, may be expected by the world to produce excellence in mathematics. But this may be an unreasonable expectation, since India is grappling with problems of endemic poverty, and even universalizing education is a challenge. Yet, despite adversity, India has managed to produce mathematicians like. All this adds up to an intriguing picture. In contrast to the expectations of the global elite, one should consider the hopes and aspirations of the Indian people themselves. In a population that is largely poor (by any standards), education is seen as the key instrument to break out of poverty. As many adult education programmers in India demonstrated, the non-

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literate or neo-literate poor see the ability to ‘calculate’, to ‘estimate’ and to ‘predict’ as essential life-skills that education must (and hopefully does) impart, skills whose natural home in the school curriculum is mathematics. Once again, what one perceives is a sense of disappointment that school education does not impart such skills. In a public hearing in 2006 when a curriculum group met members of the general public, a grocer bitterly complained that he could never find educated young recruits who could calculate when stocks would need to be replenished and by how much. What then characterizes mathematics education in India? We suggest that it is this mix, of severe systemic challenges, but yet a growing young population approaching them with a sense of hope, in a land of many innovations and initiatives, a system operating rather chaotically. In this article, we attempt to give a bird’s eye-view of the vast landscape of mathematics education in India.

Research

An important agenda for mathematics education in India is research in mathematics education. University departments, while undertaking research in education, by their typical structure, tend to attract largely people who are neither mathematically trained nor thus inclined. Further, the idea of research providing solutions to curricular conundrums or pedagogic trauma remains outside the framework of decision making in education. This is not to belittle the tremendous contributions made by governmental as well as non-governmental initiatives towards reform that have been characterized by innovation and commitment. However, these do not rest on a scaffolding of research and rigorous critique as yet. The system needs to build a way of actively pursuing research on several fronts towards well formulated questions and use the answers to influence policy. It should be noted here that India provides a large enough arena, with tremendous diversity India’s education system is structured by developmental stages from pre-primary to post-graduate level as shown in The

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Ministry of Human Resource Development governs the overall Indian education system, with each State government having its own Education Ministry, and a Central Advisory Board on Education providing the platform for exchanges between the center and states (as well as between states). In all 43 Boards of School Education operate in the country and they are the ones that formulate syllabi, train teachers and offer certification. For school education, the National Council of Educational Research and Training

Structure

Levels of Education in the Indian System Post-Graduate Education (for 2 years) Under-Graduate Education (for 3-5 years) Higher Secondary Education (Age 16-18) Secondary Education (Age 14-16) Upper Primary Education (Age 11-14) Primary Education (Age 6-11) Pre-Primary Education (Age up to 6) Systemic Challenges

The landscape of mathematics education in India calls for a very broad vision to encompass and comprehend. It is not only a matter of scale and magnitude in numbers of children and teachers that constitute the system, but also messy but democratic modes of functioning in which there are pulls from many social and political aspirants of society. We want every child to learn mathematics and enjoy it; the reality of achieving this with millions of children and teachers by democratic means provides a major systemic challenge. Before we look at how this affects mathematics education specifically, we need an understanding of the vast system it operates in. The law called Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act (abbreviated as Right to

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Education or RTE Act) came into force in India as recently as April 1, 2010.

In India

Education in India is provided and controlled by three levels: the central government in Delhi, the state governments and local sources (largely private). It is regulated by both the center and the states; this has crucial implications for designing and implementing curricula and pedagogic practices, policies for hiring and training teachers, monitoring schools, for setting standards and ensuring them, procedures for certification and ensuring overall systemic health. The states are responsible for these functions, the center being largely regulatory but helping with funding. This at once enables many decentralized efforts as well as challenges attempts at national or centralized education reform. The linguistic and cultural diversity of the Indian subcontinent accommodates a range of voices and approaches, and offers multiple ways of approaching mathematical experience. Many states in India are themselves geographically as large as some European nations and often larger in population. Education within these states is administered in further Mathematics education in India – overview 3 divisions of educational districts, but there is little decentralization within the state. Curricular and pedagogic processes are not locally shaped, and the state educational authority is as remote as the central government from the viewpoint Even a cursory look at the numbers shows how daunting implementation can be, and we take up only data from primary education for discussion.

This heady mix can be summarized, perhaps a bit crudely, as follows:

1. The challenge of providing quality mathematics education for all at school level is immense, and the country has some way to traverse to achieve this. 2. The need for a large body of teachers with expertise in mathematics and training in pedagogy is acute.

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3. The Government is the central player in Indian education, but it is not monolithic either. 4. On the other hand, India’s diversity has given rise to a range of initiatives, some small, some large, including some from the Government. We have spoken of problems endemic to the Indian mathematics education system, but many of them are not unlike problems encountered in mathematics education in other societies and nations. The immense size and diversity of the Indian subcontinent, low levels of resources and an almost ungovernable polity complicate, but the sense of hope that prevails suggests that India may yet solve these problems, that force us to take a hard look at mathematics not only in terms of curricula (in diversity), pedagogy (in widely varied milieu) but in social context as well. One thing is for sure: when India manages to provide quality mathematics education for all, mathematics education as a discipline would have new insights and new formulations to work with.

Principles for School Mathematics

1. Whole number arithmetic and the place value system are the foundation for school mathematics with most other mathematical strands evolving from this foundation. This foundation should be the subject of most instruction in early grades.

2. In every grade, the mathematics curriculum needs to be carefully focused on a small number of topics. Most mathematics instruction should be devoted to developing deepening mastery of core topics through computation, problem-solving and logical reasoning.

3. Instruction should be mathematically rigorous in a grade-appropriate fashion. All terms should be defined with language that is mathematically accurate. Key theorems and formulas should be proved, whenever possible.

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4. Disciplined, mathematical reasoning is one of the most important goals of a school education. Although it is difficult to assess on statewide tests, it must permeate all mathematical test

Design Curriculum

The outstanding credentials of members of such committees must reflect the intellectually challenging nature of designing of school mathematics standards and curricula. If mathematics education is to be given a high priority by states and they want expert guidance, then we believe that states would be well advised to follow the model used by the federal government, which turns to the National Academy of Sciences for expert advice. The Academy assembles panels of the nation’s experts on a topic. These panels are chosen free of input from governmental officials or interest groups. Such an expert panel for school mathematics would ideally be composed of distinguished scholars in mathematics and in mathematics education, along with representatives from the schools where the instruction occurs-- practicing teachers-- and representatives from companies and institutions who employ graduates-- mathematical experts from the private sector. The expertise of these groups is needed to design a focused, incremental curriculum, as outlined in the previous section, and to resolve conflicting objectives, e.g., simplicity and age- appropriateness versus mathematical correctness and completeness. State mathematics programs have been redesigned too often. For help in developing more effective, stable mathematics programs, states are advised to draw heavily on successful mathematics programs in other countries, which have been gradually refined for many years. Mathematics Standards Study Group curriculum. Govt must encourage children to communicate, explaining their thinking as they interact with important mathematics in deep and sustained ways. Teacher education programs must include attention to the mathematics component of early childhood programs, and continuing professional

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development opportunities should support high-quality mathematics education. Effective professional programs weave together mathematics content, pedagogy, and knowledge of child development and family relationships . The development of institutional policies that promote teachers’ mathematical learning, teamwork, and planning can provide necessary resources to overcome classroom, community, institutional, and system-wide barriers to young children’s mathematical proficiency.

Conclusion

The observation that role in curriculum development is limited should not be surprising. Literature shows that in a centralized system, curriculum development is done at the exclusion of teachers. Only a few teachers are able to be involved and these are the ones who hold post of responsibilities. Establishing school-based, local, regional and national curriculum development panels would enhance teacher participation. Through these committees, the expertise of teachers could be accessed and contribute to a quality mathematics curriculum that would strengthen mathematics education across An analysis of literature suggests that most educators advocate for increased teacher involvement in all stages of curriculum development as a way to improve curriculum. Carl (2009) reported that without adequate participation, the chances of successful implementation are greatly diminished. Furthermore, it has been found that lack of participation may lead to misconceptions of what is expected. Greater participation may also lead to greater job satisfaction.

Recommendations

Since one of the major roles of teachers is that of developers, it is recommended that curriculum development committees be formed at school, local and regional levels, so that those who are chosen for national panels present views that truly represent those of teachers at

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the three levels. It is not expected that all teachers would participate directly, but their ideas and those from curriculum development education officers combined would lead to the production of a quality mathematics curriculum. A centralized curriculum (a curriculum under the control of the central government) should still be maintained since it helps to distribute resources equally amongst schools, ease the transfer of students and teachers between schools, and ensure that the implementation of a new curriculum can easily be monitored. Since curriculum development education officers play a leading role in the development of mathematics curriculum they should possess both subject matter knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge combination of both education officers who would drive curriculum reforms towards a quality curriculum for Botswana senior secondary schools. Harding, Kelly and have developed a model that shows all the stages inherent in curriculum development in which teachers should actively participate if a quality curriculum is to be achieved. This model is recommended for Botswana and can be seen paper.

References:

1. Patricia Cohen, 1999, A Calculating People, Routledge Press, New York. Robert Hofstadter, 1963, Anti-Intellectualism in American Life, Vintage Books, New York;particularly Part V: Education in a Democracy.Ministry of Human Resource and Development (1986). National Policy on Education. 2. New Delhi: MHRD. Retrieved April 9, 2012 from University Grants Commission Website: http://www.ugc.a c.in/policy /npe8 6.html 3. Ministry of Human Resource and Development (1993). Learning without burden: Report of the National Advisory committee appointed by the Ministry of Human Mathematics education in India – An overview 11 Resource Development. New Delhi: MHRD.

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4. National Council of Educational Research and Training (2005). National curriculum framework. New Delhi: NCERT. 5. National Council of Educational Research and Training (2006a). National focus group on teaching of mathematics report. New Delhi: NCERT.National Council of Educational Research and Training (2006b). National focus group 6. on aims of education. New Delhi: NCERT.National Board of Higher Mathematics (n.d.). Retrieved April 9, 2012 from :http://www.nbhm.dae.gov.in/about.html 7. University Grants Commission (n.d). Model Curriculum. Retrieved April 9, 2012 from University Grants Commission Website: http://www.ugc.ac.in/policy/modelcurr. 8. Bol. L., & Berry III, R.O. (2005). Secondary school mathematics teachers’ perceptions of the achievement gap. University of North Carolina. 9. Carl, A. E. (2009) Teacher empowerment through curriculum development: Theory into practice (2nd Ed.) Cape Town: Juta. Clarke, M. (1997). The changing role of the mathematics teacher. Journal for Research in mathematics Education, 28(3), 278-308. 10. Corno, L. (1977). Teacher autonomy and instructional systems. In L. Rubin (Ed.). Curriculum handbook: administration and theory (pp. 234-245). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. 11. Diphofa, M. (1995). Teacher participation in curriculum development: Views from the ground. Multicultural Teaching, 13(3), 35-40. 12. Eggleston, J. (1977). The sociology of the school curriculum. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. 13. Graven, M. (2002). Coping with new mathematics teachers’ roles in a contradictory context of curriculum change. The mathematics Education 12(2), 21-26.

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14. Gray, J, & Campbell-Evans, G. (n.d). Beginning teachers as teacher-researcher. University of North Carolina. 15. Gooya Z. (2007). Mathematics teachers’ beliefs about a new reform in high school geometry in Iran. Educational Studies Mathematics, 65, 331–347 16. Harding, J. M., Kelly, P. J., & Nicodemus, R. T. (1976). The study of curriculum change. Studies in Science 17. Education, 3, 1-30. 18. Hermsen, A. (2000). Participatory curriculum development in practice: An experience at Eastern Caribbean Institute for Agriculture and Forestry in Trinidad and Tobago. Retrieved August, 1, 2011 from http://w.w.w.fao.org/sd/Exre0030htm. 19. House, E. (1977). The macropolitics of innovations: Nine propositions. In P. Hughes (Ed.), The teacher’s role in curriculum design (pp.1-9). Sidney: Angus and Robertson. 20. Howson, G., Keitel, C., & Kilpatrick, J. (1981). Curriculum development in mathematics .London: Cambridge University Press. 21. Hunkins, F. P. (1972). New identities for new tasks. Educational Leadership 29(6), 503-506.

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TYPES OF WOMEN LABOUR IN UNORGANISED SECTOR

Shabnam Parveen Research Scholar Department of Geography A.M.U., Aligarh

Introduction:

The present study is done to understand the characteristics of unorganised sector and types of women labour in unorganised sector. The widespread unorganised sector in the country is a major contributor to its development but at the same time it creates several problems such as no proper service rules, no wage rules and no possibilities of career advancement. While, women represent 94 per cent of the total work force in the informal sector in India.

ILO broadened the scope of the informal sector. Informal activities are typically characterised by ease of entry, reliance on indigenous resources, family ownership of enterprises, small scale of operations of labour intensive and adaptive technology, skills acquired outside formal schooling system, and unregulated and competitive markets. In spite of the significant contribution of informal sector activities in providing employment opportunities in many third world economies.

Another notable fact is that women represent 50 per cent of the adult population and one third of labour force, they perform nearly two - third of all working hours and receives only one-tenth of the world income (Human Development Report, 2000).

One of the perpetual problems associated with studying the informal sector activities has been the lack of unanimity and clarity regarding the definition of informal sector itself. (Kulashrestha, 1998)

The definition by ILO and UNDP refers ‘to the non-structured sector that has emerged in the urban centres as a result of the incapacity of

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the modern sector to absorb new entrants’. The so called modern sector has not had the capacity to absorb all the new entrants to the labour market, especially in the developing countries. As a means of survival many of the new entrants find themselves engaged in the informal sector. These activities provide an alternative to high open unemployment (ILO and UNDP, 1972).

Women work in the unorganised sector because of easy entry or exit, reliance on indigenous resources, family ownership of enterprises, small scale of operations of labour intensive and adaptive technology, skills acquired outside formal schooling system and unregulated and competitive markets.

Literature Review:

Lower strata of women who are illiterate, go for menial jobs that are available for them. In urban sector, majority of women are engaged in informal activities under most oppressive working and living conditions with no legal protection. It is the reservoir of unemployment and is the survival sector of the urban economy (Bhowmik, K., 2006).

Out of the total work-force of women, 94 per cent are in the unorganized sector and only 6 per cent are employed in the organized sector. Among women employed in the unorganized, informal sector 80.1 per cent are employed in agricultural occupations and 19.9 per cent are in the non-agricultural occupations. Again out of the total female workforce, only 2.7 per cent engaged in the industrial sector and 3.3 percent was found with services and profession (Kumar, R., 2000).

Domestic workers as a part of unorganized (sector) work force remain the most exploited ones, even after six decades of independence. Occupational segregation based, on gender has been a global phenomenon. The women who are occupied in domestic work sector

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belong to the lowest stratum of society and are often considered as cheap labour (Selvam, S. K. P., 2010).

Women in general have a disadvantaged position in the labour market and this is not exclusively an Indian but universal phenomenon. Worldwide economic profile of women indicates that they represent nearly 50 per cent of the total population and constitute 30 per cent of the labour force. They contribute 60 per cent of all working hours and receive only a meagre 10 per cent of world’s income and own less than 1 per cent of the world’s property (Mandal, A., 2005).

The more common denominators of unorganized sector are small size establishments, casual nature of employment, ignorance and illiteracy, scattered nature, labour intensive low skilled/manual jobs, insecure employment absence of welfare measures and trade unions is a major problem of these female workers.

Women, constitute half of the human race, are socially, economically and politically marginalized. Women are not given any importance in the society and even in their families. They are seen primarily as wives, mothers and home-makers rather than as workers. There are various types of unorganised or informal women labours and their common characteristics are described below.

Domestic Labour:

The term domestic service is defined, as a person who is engaged in part-time or full-time basis on domestic services in return for remuneration payable in cash or kind for a fixed period. Domestic work includes all the household tasks such as sweeping, mopping, dusting, cleaning of clothes, utensils and house, cooking, clearing the table after meals, child and old care, picking and dropping children to bus stops, running little errands and marketing etc.

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Industrial Labour:

Industrial labours are those who work in the factories/industries or bring raw material (hardware, locks parts, food items etc.) to their homes to assemble them. Women, who work inside their homes, assemble these raw items and return it to the employer at the right time. They work inside their homes because most of them are unskilled or married labour. So, they easily work at their homes to earn money for the family needs. The women labours who work inside their houses can easily take care of their children and comfortably do household work of their houses.

Tailor or Embroidery Worker:

Women sew up or stitch up the clothes at their homes and do embroidery on clothes at the per piece rate basis and return it to the employer at the right time. They work inside their homes because most of them are self employed skilled tailors/embroidery workers. So, they easily work at their homes to earn money for the family needs.

Washer Women:

Washer women wash the clothes at per piece rate basis. They wash the clothes for their own and family survival. They wash the clothes in the early morning, dry them in the sun and iron them in the evening. All these work are very laborious and exhaustive. It is the responsibility of washer women to return exact clothes to the houses and take money at per piece rate basis. Some of the washer women have skin diseases by this job but they do not have any other choice.

Construction Labour:

The construction sector has the largest number of unorganised labourers in India. Construction labourers are those who work on construction sites. They are unskilled and semi-skilled labours so it is difficult to get better jobs. Some of them are migrated labour, come

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from the nearby areas or villages in the city for better jobs. They live in the temporary houses at the construction sites with their whole family. The majority of construction sites are of a temporary nature; once construction is completed they move to the other places in search of job.

Petty Traders and Small Vendors:

Petty traders collect small and cheap items from the wholesale market to sell at the retail prices. They sell 12-14 hours per day. Similarly vegetable vendors collect and carry vegetables from the wholesale market to the retail market and sell the vegetables from the morning to the evening under the heat of the sun.

Rag Pickers:

Rag picking is the most unhygienic and dangerous job. Women collect waste materials of plastic, tin, iron, bottle, glass from garbage and dirty places of urban area. Rag pickers work 10 to 12 hours and walk approx. 10 to 20 kilometres per day. They carry 40 kilograms of rags on her back for many hours. The continuous exposure to the garbage led to various diseases.

Objectives of the Study:

1. To examine the concentration of women labours in different types of work.

2. To study the problems faced by women labour in the informal sector.

3. To analyse the working conditions such as working hours, income and facilities at the work place.

Data base and Methodology:

The study is mainly based on primary data collected through the field surveys. Which have collected through the questionnaire based interviews with the residents of different wards of Aligarh city. About

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700 women labour households surveyed for the study. The field work was done during May, June 2015.

Type of Women Labour

In Aligarh city women labours are primarily employed in the labour intensive, unskilled unorganized sector with no job security and working facilities, with irregular, unfair and lower wages. It has been noted that women labours are not only discriminated in their earnings as compared to men’s (adult male) earnings but also facing many problems in their working lives.

Data related to the types of women labour in Aligarh city is given in Table 1. The table shows that out of the total surveyed women labour households, 179 of them work as lock labourer, 168 of them work as domestic labour, 92 of them work as tailor, 70 of them are embroidery worker, 51of them are petty retail traders, 49 are rag pickers, 46 are construction labours and remaining 45 are washer women. The common feature of the work performed by women in unorganized sector is that they are low paid and undervalued but there are many causes which pushes women to enter in to the labour market. The main causes of women labour to enter into the unorganised sector are poverty, unemployment, illiteracy and ignorance and unskillness. The other causes are inadequate income, large family, accidents, vulnerability and migratory conditions. Though, poverty is a major cause of women labour.

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Table: 1

Type of Women Labour Total

Lock Labourer 179 Domestic Workers 168 Tailors 92 Embroidery Workers 70 Petty Retail Traders 51 Rag Pickers 49 Construction Labour 46 Washer Women 45 Total 700 Source: Based on Primary Data.

Problems Faced by Informal Women Workers

Women play multiple roles, which create an extraordinary burden on them. But they are not given any importance in the family and in the society. However, the work load, both inside and outside the home is very high, they perform all the responsibilities seriously. Women are honest in balancing these two roles. Unorganised sector provide employment to 96.33 per cent of women workers. So, far as working condition is concerned, it is far from satisfactory. They work longer hours and paid low wages with no job security and facility.

Average Income of Women Labour:

Women are likely to earn less than men for the same type of work and working hours. Gender discrimination is very high in India. Average Income of women labour in Aligarh city is given in Table 2. The table is showing that about 10 per cent women labour receive up to 1500

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rupees per month, about 24.286 per cent women labour receive 1501- 2000 rupees per month, 35.714 per cent women labour receive 2001- 2500 rupees per month, about 21.428 per cent women labour receive 2501-3000 rupees per month and nearly 8.571 per cent women labour receive more than 3000 rupees per month.

Table: 2

Average Income of Women Labour

Average Monthly No. of Female Percentage of Female Income Labour Labour

Up to1500 Rupees 70 10%

1501-2000 Rupees 170 24.286%

2001-2500 Rupees 250 35.714%

2501-3000 Rupees 150 21.428%

>3000 Rupees 60 8.571%

Total 700 100%

Source: Based on Primary Data.

Average Hours of Work:

Average number of working hours of women labour is high in comparison to the men, working same and equal work because of gender discrimination in the unorganised sector. The employers are exploited them by longer working hours and meagre wages.

Women are not only insecure in employment but are also discriminated in wage payments. Table 3 shows that 28.571 per cent women labour work less than 5 hours per day, nearly 20.714 per cent women labour work 5 to 8 hours per day, about 36.429 per cent women labour work 9

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to 12 hours per day and 14.286 per cent women labour work more than 12 hours per day.

Table: 3

Average Working Hours of Women Labour

Per day Working Hours In Numbers Percentage <5 Working Hours 200 28.571% 5 - 8 Working Hours 145 20.714% 9 - 12 Working Hours 255 36.429% >12 Working Hours 100 14.286% Total 700 100% Source: Based on Primary Data.

Conclusion and Suggestions:

Poverty is the main cause which stricken women to work in the worse conditions of informal sector for their survival. They are the deprived, indigent, unfortunate and underprivileged section of the society, live in the pathetic and pitiable conditions. They have more responsibilities, stress, and tensions in their lives. Women labours play dual roles, inside their homes and outside their homes. They manage their home and family responsibilities at one hand and manage their employee work on the other hand. The women respondents reported that they are getting low wages by working longer hours and their employers always give him late payments. They do not have medical and maternity benefits. They are not only insecure in employment but are also discriminated in wage payments.

1. Provide financial support and income generating opportunities to the families of women labour.

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2. Law should be enacted for the regulation of hours of work, conditions of work and identification of areas of employment where women labour would be prohibited.

3. Providing vocational skills training to the women according to their age group.

4. Government should enforce law to remove the discrimination of working hours and wages of adult female and male labours.

References

1. Bhowmik, K. (2006), “Indian Women,” The Ushering of a New Dawn, Mittal Publications, New Delhi.

2. Kumar, R. (2000), Encyclopedia of Women and Development Series, Women and Development, Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.

3. Selvam, S. K. P. (2010), “Women Education and Women Empowerment,” A.P.H. Publishing Corporation, New Delhi, p. 45.

4. Mandal, A. (2005), Women Workers in Brick Factory; Sordid Saga from a District of West Bengal, Northern Book Centre, New Delhi.

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Seyed Mohammadali Motaharinik Dr. L. Ramamoorthy PhD Scholar Research-cum University of Mysore Researcher Officer Mysore, India Central Institute of Indian Languages Mysore, India

1. Introduction:

Whereas there are a great number of key theoretical factors suggested for self-regulated learning, all look to distribute the popular outlooks that ‘student perceptions of themselves as learners and their use of various processes to regulate their learning are critical factors in analyses of academic achievement’ (Zimmerman, 2001). Zimmerman and Schunk (2001) explained self-regulated learning survey as searching to describe how persons apply systematic and regular techniques of acquiring to boost performance, and to describe how learners adjust to conveying notions. Now a day’s enormous importance was given to writing in a different societies and it is considered as the utmost importance to expand proof-based exercises that enhance students’ writing performance (Graham, Gillespie, & McKeown, 2013). On the basis of multiple sources of information, Graham and Harris (2009) suggested that educating planning and sentence-integrating strategies are influential instructional exercises in writing. Nonetheless, little things are discovered about the particular influences and comparable advantages of planning and sentence-integrating instruction.

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Mastery writers are strongly and metacognitively engaged in their writing. Mastery writers commonly involve in three mental exercises: planning, translating, and reviewing (Glaser & Brunstein, 2007). Specifically, they: (a) settle aims and generate cohesive plans;(b) manage their plans to more obviously convey knowledge when writing, where as weak writers frequently “tell” their knowledge; (c) determine text with regard to writing purposes and change language they utilize. Writers do not certainly go through the segmental exercises in all near behavior; rather, mastery writers specified much more time looping through such processes repeatedly (Glaser & Brunstein, 2007; Graham & Harris, 1992; Hayes & Flower, 1986). Hayes and Flower (1986), for example, found out that mastery writers commonly expand a new set of aims or plans to handle the writing procedure. As they write, translating opinions into text perhaps lead them to thinking new beliefs and reviewing the draft to reach persistency. Students extend to reach and clarify their plans whereas translating and changing means is require for achieving their aims. Additionally, students’ knowledge of writing strategies perhaps impact on their metacognitive activities like planning a story (Greene & Azevedo, 2007).Mastery writers’ usage of strategies is provided by supportive metacognitive knowledge. Notwithstanding, a noticeable body of proof proposes that progressive writers reveal few metacognitive activities when writing (Glaser & Brunstein, 2007). Mastery writers articulate writing aims as well adopt strategies to overwhelmed barriers and reach their aims, and persistently monitor the triumph of their attempts in writing; namely, they are self‐regulating (Butler & Winne, 1995; Glaser & Brunstein, 2007; Harris et al., 2006; Zimmerman & Bandur, 1994). Mastery writers frequently have obvious aims and a sense of direction that combine: planning, monitoring, evaluating, and revising as section of learning routines (Graham & Harris, 2000). Be that as it may, knowledge of strategies and metacognition is frequently not enough to increase learning attainment; students require being stimulated to

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utilize these strategies along with to regulate their cognition and attempt (Pintrich, 2000). Persuasive writers commonly keep assertive self-efficacy outlooks about their ability to support comprehensive text (Bandura, 1997).

2. Related studies:

In broad terms the necessity for self-regulation in writing parts from the fact that writing is “self-planned, self-initiated, and self-sustained” (Zimmerman & Risemberg, 1997). Writing is generally nothing but a solitary activity that can be disheartening as it can take a long time and frequently the attempt needed produces little outcomes. The expansion of self-regulation strategies can assist writers overwhelm some of these type of problems, and so it’s no surprise that instruction in self- regulation strategies is a persisting theme in the writing literature (Harris & Graham,1996; Zimmerman & Risemberg, 1997; Hamman, 2005). Self-regulation of writing is described as the self-initiated thoughts, feelings, and actions that writers utilize to attain literary aims like scaffolding better quality written outputs and boosting writing skills (Schunk & Zimmerman, 1997). Employing the social cognitive opinion of self-regulation to writing permits us to model writing self-regulation as three procedures: personal, behavioral, and environmental. The relative significance of each of the procedures alters from one person to the other on the basis of “a) personal self- regulation efforts, b) outcomes of behavioral performance, and c) changes in the environment” (Zimmerman & Risemberg, 1997).

Saddler, et al (2004) used a multiple-baseline design to evaluate the impacts of SRSD instruction on students’ writing in the classification of story writing and personal narrative. Contributors encompass three male and female African-American students. All students were recognized as striving writers. Prior instruction started, students wrote three or more stories to organize performance trends. Data were

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gathered while students acquired how to plan and write a story utilizing the SRSD POW + WWW what=2, How=2 story writing strategy. Subsequent instruction, students independently wrote stories and personal narratives, which were examined for length, number of story constituents, and general quality. Discoveries indicated that students’ stories were longer; more completed, and with the exception of one student, qualitatively better. Additionally, data represented similar influence in whole but one of the students’ personal narratives, an uninstructed type.

Zumbrunn and Bruning (2013) investigated the profitability of implementing the Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) model of instruction (Graham & Harris, 2005) on the writing task and knowledge of six first grade students. A multiple-baseline design for contributors with multiple inquires (Kazdin, 2010) was applied to assess the usefulness of the SRSD intervention, which involved story writing and self-regulation strategy instruction. Students completed stories in response to picture prompts through the baseline, instruction, post-instruction, and maintenance phases along with stories were evaluated for necessity story constituents, length, and general quality. On the top of that students contributed in short interviews during the baseline and post-instruction phases. Outcomes revealed that SRSD can be effective for first grade writers. Students wrote stories that included more important constituents after SRSD instruction. In addition writing knowledge was improved from pre to post-instruction.

3. Purpose of the study:

The purpose of this survey is to investigate that whether self-regulation strategy development (SRSD) instruction improve ESL students’ essay writing and their textual cohesion and coherence. The impact of Self- Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) with explicit generalization

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instruction on essay writing of first year college students who struggled with writing were assessed in the current study and is considered the main purpose of conducting such a research.

4. Research questions:

This study attempted to find out the answers of the following questions:

Research question1: Does the self-regulated strategy development instruction significantly improve the ESL students’ essay writing ability?

Research question2: Does the self-regulated strategy development instruction significantly improve the cohesion and coherence of ESL students’ essay writing ability?

5. Methodology and Techniques Used

5.1. Participants:

The participants in this survey were volunteer students who are selected from two English classes at JSS College for Women in Mysore city, India. This college is affiliated and recognized by the University of Mysore in India.

Two intact ESL classes and 76 female students participated in this study. The ages of students per class ranged from 18 to 21 and the data of 65 students were analyzed. Because some of the participants were absent from classes on the day of the of the pre-test or post-test or missed the treatment sessions or were excluded from the study based on their extreme scores on the proficiency test Information obtained from a questionnaire revealed that all students are Indians and their native language was Kannada (local language) while English was their second language. They had English background from their school. All students never visited abroad (an English speaking country). The total information of the participants is shown in Table 5.1.

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Table 5.1. Number, age and gender of the students per group

Group Number of Age Gender Participants

Experimental 32 18-21 Female

Control 33 18-21 Female

Before starting the instruction, Nelson English Language Test for intermediate learners by Fowler & Coe (1976) was planned to the groups to guarantee that the students in each group were homogenous. The test contains a cloze test and 50 multiple choice questions. The conclusion of Nelson proficiency test indicated that there was not any significant difference between the mean scores of two groups. 5.2. Treatment Materials

For the purpose of engaging students in communicative utilization of English language, self-regulated strategy development instruction was used as treatment instruments in this survey. Pioneered by Karen Harris and Steve Graham, SRSD for writing integrates three areas: (a) six stages of explicit writing instruction across a variety of genres; (b) explicit instruction in self-regulation strategies, including goal setting, self-monitoring, and self-instruction; and (c) development of positive student attitudes and self-efficacy about writing (see Harris, Graham, & Mason, 2003; Santangelo, Harris, & Graham, 2007, Harris et.al, 2008). Each strategy includes chart which is a mnemonic acronym for learning the strategy steps. In this study for the persuasive essay writing, “PLAN + WRITE” is used, which stands for Pay attention to prompt, List main ideas, Add supporting ideas, Number major points, Work from plan, Remember your goals, Include transition words, The Use different kinds of sentences, Exciting, Interesting words. These strategies were taught to the students four times in a week during three months. The instructor also demanded students to write an essay

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and speak some minutes about the specific strategy which they used in their essay.

Prior to treatment sessions, all the material had been piloted on one intact class of freshmen students in the same college and based on the results of piloting; Self- regulated strategy development instruction was adapted to the level of the students. The method of treatment was carried out in this study.

5.3. Measurement Instrument:

To evaluate the students’ essay writing performance, IELTS writing scoring method was applied in this study. The scoring method ranged from 1 to 9. The mentioned approach to evaluate essay writing has been utilized by various scholars in writing assessment. Three topics were suggested to pick by the students in their pre and post- test essay writing. These three topics pointed to various events or matter. Moreover, two expert English teachers were invited to evaluate the writings and the average of the scores given by these two raters was calculated as the final mark for each student. The students had 45 minutes to write an essay that is around 250 words.

To be sure the rates of two teachers have acceptable consistency, the reliability of corrected writing scores of total sixty five students were evaluated. The reliability of 0.74 was achieved which was quite high and statistically significant.

6. Result and Discussion:

6.1. The effects of self-regulated strategy development (SRSD) instruction on ESL students’ essay writing ability.

The present study seeks out to answers the two mentioned questions about the impact of self-regulated strategy development (SRSD) instruction on ESL students essay writing and their textual cohesion and coherence. So the result of pre-test and post-test of essay writing

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scores for two groups were submitted to SPSS software and independent sample t-test was applied.

Before testing the writing scores of two groups in post-test to notice whether the development of experimental group was considerable, the students’ pre-test scores have to be evaluated to find whether the ESL students in two experimental and control groups have the same ability in writing. The mean and standard deviations of scores in the pre-test writing among the control and the experimental groups are displayed in table 6.1. As it is obvious from the table 6.1 that, the mean for control group (M=4.18) is a little bit higher than the mean for experimental group (M=4.06) out of possible 9. Also in terms of standard deviations, control group (SD = 0.73) did better than the experimental group (SD = 0.86). By referring to the table 2, it can be clear that the difference in mean scores of control group (M=4.18, SD=0.73) and the experimental group (M=4.06, SD=0.86) was not significant at the p<.05 level, while the t-value is 0.60 and p=0.52 which is higher than 0.05 level of significance with df=63. This result confirms that the students’ ability in two control and experimental groups are in a same level and there is not any significant difference between them. So, it can be reasonable to apply the SRSD instruction on experimental group and find the impact of this treatment in comparison to control group with traditional instruction.

The result of post-test scores among two groups analysis showed that the means for experimental group is M= 7.21 with SD = 0.80 and for the control group is M = 6.00 with SD = 0.56 (table 6.1).

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Table 6.1. Descriptive statistics for pre and post-test essay writing in two groups Groups Std. Std. Error N Mean Deviation Mean PreWriting Experimental 33 4.06 0.86 0.15 Control 32 4.18 0.73 0.13 PostWritig Experimental 33 7.21 0.80 0.13 Control 32 6.00 0.56 0.10

To realize whether this difference between the control and the experimental groups are significantly different, the independent sample t-test was applied to find out this issue. Table 6.2 confirmed that there is statistically significant difference between the two control and experimental groups while the result shows t-value = 7.05 and p = 0.00 is lower than 0.05 level of significance with df = 57.76. Therefore, the self-regulated strategy development (SRSD) instruction significantly impacts on the ESL students’ essay writing ability.

Table 6.2 Independent sample t-test for post-test essay writing scores in two groups Levene's Test t-test for Equality of Means Sig. Std.

(2- Error tailed Mean Differe F Sig. t df ) difference nce Lower Upper PreWriting 0.24 0.62 - 63 0.52 -0.12 0.19 -0.52 0.27 0.6 3 - 62. 0.52 -0.12 0.19 -0.52 0.27 0.6 023 3 PostWritin 10.2 0.00 7.0 63 0.00 1.21 0.17 0.86 1.55 g 6 2 7.0 57. 0.00 1.21 0.17 0.86 1.55

5 769

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In addition by looking at the Figure 6.1, it is clear that the ESL students’ essay writing progressed across two testing times from pre- test to post-test in two control and experimental groups, but the noticeable point here is that, the enhancement in the experimental group is considerably more than the control group from pre-test to post-test. Hence the self-regulated strategy development (SRSD) instruction significantly improved the essay writing ability of ESL students in the experimental group, and then the answer to the first question is positive.

Figure 6.1.

Groups’ mean scores on ESL students’ essay writing across two testing times.

8

7 6 5

4 Control 3 Experimental

2 1 0 Pre-test Post-test 6.2. The effects of self-regulated strategy development (SRSD) instruction on ESL students’ essay writing ability.

Due to the crucial role of the cohesion and coherence in an essay, this survey tried to find out whether the self-regulated strategy development (SRSD) instruction had any effect on this characteristic or not. In table 6.3 the descriptive statistics of pre and post tests of both

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experimental and control groups are calculated. According to the table 6.3 the experimental group has achieved M=4.15 with SD= 1.12 and the control group has achieved M=4.40 with SD= 1.07 in their pre-test. The means score of both groups in pre-test were so close together but in post-test the experimental group M=7.33 with SD=0.37 and the result for the post control groups is M= 6.28 and SD=0.88. It seems that there is a considerable difference between the mean scores of two groups in post-test.

Table 6.3.

Descriptive statistics for pre and post-test Cohesion and Coherence of essay writing in two groups

Groups Std. Std. Error N Mean Deviation Mean

PreCohesio Experime 33 4.15 1.12 0.19 n ntal

Control 32 4.40 1.07 0.18

PostCohesi Experime 33 7.33 0.73 0.12 on ntal

Control 32 6.28 0.88 0.15

To discover whether the difference between two control and experimental group is significant the result is submitted to independent sample t-test. At the first glance to the table 6.4, it can be achieve that the two control and experimental groups had not any significant difference between themselves, so the participants in two groups had equal ability and knowledge in constructing cohesion and coherence in their essay writing. It means that the participants in this survey were in suitable situation for a research.

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Table 6.4.

Independent sample t-test for pre and post-test Cohesion and Coherence of essay writing in two groups

Levene's T - test for Equality of Means Test F Sig. t df Sig. Mean Std. 95% (2- Differenc Error Confidence tailed e Differenc Lowe Upp ) e r er PRE 0.0 0.91 - 63 0.35 -0.25 0.27 -0.79 0.28 Cohesi 1 0.93 on & Cohere nce not - 62.9 0.35 -0.25 0.27 -0.79 0.28 assumed 0.93 9 POST 1.2 0.27 5.20 63 0.00 1.05 0.20 0.64 1.45 Cohesi 0 on & Cohere nce not 5.19 60.1 0.00 1.05 0.20 0.64 1.45 assumed 7

Also, referring to the table 6.4 shows that the means score of two groups had NOT any significant difference as the t-value is 0.93 and the p=0.35 is higher than 0.05 level of significance with df=63.

Moreover, this table shows that the difference between the two groups in post-test is statistically different. Table 6.4 confirmed that, there is statistically significant difference between the control and the experimental groups in post-test while the result shows t-value = 5.20 and p = 0.00 is lower than 0.05 level of significance with df = 63.

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Therefore, the self-regulated strategy development instruction significantly impacts on the cohesion and coherence of ESL students’ essay writing ability. This result confirmed that the SRSD instruction made ESL students of experimental group to use more professional words in their essay writing and got better organizing and self- evaluating ability in their essay writing.

However, to realize the enhancement of experimental group visually, the figure 6.2 is depicted. As it is understandable from the figure, the outcome of pre-tests in two groups was approximately equal, but after the SRSD instruction the experimental group outperformed the control group and showed an impressive enhancement.

Figure 6. 2.

Groups’ mean scores on Cohesion and Coherence across two testing times

8 7 6 5 4 Control 3 Experimental 2 1 0 Pre-test Post-test In comparison with the experimental group, the control group had less improvement. Hence the self-regulated strategy development instruction significantly improved the cohesion and coherence of ESL students’ essay writing ability in the experimental group, then the answer to the second question of this survey is affirmative and it can be

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achieved that the ESL students of experimental group became more self-organized and self-evaluated that could lead to an organized and coherent essay writing.

7. Conclusions and recommendations:

Analysis of data revealed that the better enhancement of the essay writing scores can be owing to their improvement in learning strategic methods, knowledge, and following it during the essay writing process and managing the strategies cooperated with the instruction which is based on self-regulated strategy development instruction. Applying the SRSD instruction on the experimental group shows that the SRSD instruction concentrated on explicit instruction in setting goals, self- assessment and self-regulation in connection to the gain, maintenance, and generalization of different steps of strategies. Setting goals happened when the first two stages of self-regulated strategy development instruction which the first one was Develop background knowledge and the second one was Discuss It are applying.

During Model It stage, the ESL learners of this study instructed themselves and in Memorize It stage they kept in mind whatever they learnt. While Support It and Independent Performance stage the students of this study skilled self-monitoring and self- reinforcement. While going through these stages the students in experimental group were participating in an active situation of learning process for mastery in writing. Indeed, the participants in Control group typically began their essay writing immediately without giving enough covering reasons and sentences, and also the ESL students in control group ended their essays without having any conclusion, this can be due to the methods which their teacher tried to teach them and only focused on their outcomes.

On the other hand, students in experimental group who were under the SRSD treatment completely made a plan before commencing their

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essay writing and used enough covering and supporting sentences, and at the end they wrote a reasonable conclusion for their topic. All of these unique components and organizations happened by using POW+WRITE mnemonic chart by the participants in experimental group.

To answer the first question of this study, by looking to the tables and figure, it can be simply understand that the ESL students in experimental group got better scores in their post-test and in their writing considerably they used more supporting sentences which were all coherently related together and the main components of a good essay was presented. As the SRSD instruction make the students self- organized and self-evaluated learners who set definite goals for themselves, so this question was raised in the mind of researcher that there may be a possibility that one of the cause of students’ high scores in essay writing, may be the high quality of their cohesion and coherence in writing. So, the score for cohesion and coherence was calculated for both control and experimental group and the result were submitted to the Independent sample t-test in SPSS. The outcomes showed that the quality of cohesion and coherence in both control and experimental group were increased from pre-test to post-test, but in experimental group this improvement was considerably more than control group, also independent sample t-test showed that there was significant difference between students score in control group and experimental group and approximately the students in experimental group achieved one score higher in mean in comparison to mean score for control group.

8. References:

1. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191-215. 2. Butler, D.L., & Winne, P.H. (1995). Feedback and self-regulated learning: a theoretical synthesis. Review of Educational Research, 65, 245-281.

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3. Fowler, W. S., & Coe, N. (1976). Nelson English language tests. Nelson. 4. Glaser, C., & Brunstein, J. C. (2007). Improving fourth-grade students’ composition skills: Effects of strategy instruction and self‐regulation procedures. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99, 297-310. 5. Graham, S., Gillespie, A., & McKeon, D. (2013). Writing: Importance, development, and instruction. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 26, 1–15. 6. Graham, S., & Harris, K. R. (2000). The role of self-regulation and transcription skills in writing and writing development. Educational Psychologist, 35, 3–12. 7. Graham, S., & Harris, K. R. (2005).Writing better. Effective strategies for teaching students with learning difficulties. Baltimore: Paul. H. Brookes Publishing Co. 8. Graham, S., & Harris, K. R. (2009). Almost 30 years of writing research: Making sense of it all with The Wrath of Khan. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 24(2), 58-68. 9. Greene, J. A., & Azevedo, R. (2007). A theoretical review of Winne and Hadwin’s model of self-regulated learning: new perspectives and directions. Review of Educational Research, 77, 334-372. 10. Hammann, L. (2005). Self-regulation in academic writing tasks. International journal of teaching and learning in higher education, 17(1), 15-26. 11. Harris, K. R., & Graham, S. (1992). Self-regulated strategy development: A part of the writing process. 12. Harris, K.R., & Graham, S. (1996). Making the writing process work: Strategies for composition and self-regulation. Cambridge, MA: Brookline. 13. Harris, K.R., Graham, S., & Mason, L.H. (2003). Self-regulated strategy development in the classroom: Part of a balanced approach to writing instruction for students with disabilities. Focus On Exceptional Children, 35, 1-16. 14. Harris, K. R., Graham, S., & Mason, L. H. (2006). Improving the writing, knowledge, and motivation of young struggling writers: The effects of self-regulated strategy development. American Educational Research Journal, 43, 295–340. 15. Harris, K R., Santangelo, T., & Graham, S (2008). Self-regulated strategy development in writing: Going beyond NLEs to a more balanced approach. Journal of Springer, science, business, media, 36, 395-408. 16. Hayes, J.R. & Flower, L.S. (1986). Writing research and the writer. American Psychologist, 41, 1106–1113.

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17. Pintrich, P. R. (2000). The role of goal orientation in self-regulated learning. In M., Boekaerts, P., Pintrich, M., & Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 451–502). San Diego, CA: Academic. 18. Kazdin, A. E. (2010). Problem-solving skills training and parent management training for oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder. Evidence-based psychotherapies for children and adolescents, 211-226. 19. Sadler, T. D., Chambers, F. W., & Zeidler, D. L. (2004). Student conceptualizations of the nature of science in response to a socioscientific issue. International Journal of Science Education, 26(4), 387-409. 20. Santangelo, T., Harris, K. R., & Graham, S. (2007). Selfregulated strategy development: A validated model to support students who struggle with writing. Learning Disabilities: A Contemporary Journal, 5(1), 1-20. 21. Schunk, D. H., & Zimmerman, B. J. (1997). Social origins of self- regulatory competence. Educational psychologist, 32(4), 195-208. 22. -Zimmerman, B.J. (2001). Theories of self-regulated learning and academic achievement: An overview and analysis. In Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: Theoretical perspectives, ed. B.J. Zimmerman and D.H. Schunk. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 23. Zimmerman, B. J., & Bandura, A. (1994). Impact of self-regulatory influences on writing course attainment. American Educational Research Journal, 31, 845-862. 24. Zimmerman, B. J., & Risemberg, R. (1997). Becoming a self-regulated writer: A social cognitive perspective. Contemporary educational psychology, 22(1), 73-101. 25. Zimmerman, B. J., & Schunk, D.H. (2001). Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: Theoretical perspectives. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 26. Zumbrunn, S., & Bruning, R. (2013). Improving the writing and knowledge of emergent writers: the effects of self-regulated strategy development. Reading and Writing, 26(1), 91-110.

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STUDY OF PERSONALITY TRAITS AND PERCEIVED STIGMA AMONG DRUG ABUSERS AND NON-ABUSERS

Dr. Satneet Singh Lakhminder Singh Tver State Medical Academy Research Scholar Tver, Russia Department of Psychology Panjab University Chandigarh & Counsellor, Drug De-Addiction Centre (Civil Hospital, Fatehgarh Sahib)

Dr. Narinder Singh Assistant Professor Govt. Home Science College Sector-10, Chandigarh

Introduction

One of the serious psychosocial hazards being faced by any society today is the addiction to alcohol and illicit drugs. Drug addiction is one of the major problems of most of the nations in the world today. As personality may predispose, perpetuate or precipitate substance abuse and dependence. The complexity of the psychological problems that are associated with drug addiction requires considerable research to identify the psychological features associated with drug addiction. Drug addicts are psychologically prone towards addiction because of characteristic personality traits that make them vulnerable to the use of drugs to adapt themselves to cope with psychological distress (Alexander and Hadaway, 1982). It results into impulsivity, low tolerance for frustration, depression, anxiety, alienation and psychopathic and sociopathic traits.

A drug can be any substance, other than food, whose chemical and physical nature alters structure or functions in living organisms (Verma and Misra, 2002). Individuals who frequently abuse these substances may develop changes in behavior and their body's physical response due to disturbed interaction between mind and the body. Drug

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addiction as described by WHO (1992) is a “behavioral pattern of drug use characterized by an excessive use of a drug, impelling drug-seeking behavior and a high possibility of relapse after withdrawal”. Substance abusers rely excessively and chronically on drugs and in doing so damage their social relationships, fail to function properly at work, and also put themselves in danger.

Personality Characteristics

There are certain personality types that are found to be more prone to drug abuse. The literature is revealing that personality characteristics play a significant role in determining drug abuse behavior. The drug addicts possess poor self-esteem and are unable to face the day to day challenges of life and demands of the society. Drugs provide them a temporary shelter fromthis inadequacy and inferiority. Low self- concept constitutes another causative factor that is considered as a powerful predictor in drug misuse (Khalily, 2001).

Tripathi et al. (2001) determined that social isolation and unconventional behavior patterns are among the major risk factors for the use of illicit drugs in a person. Personality patterns exhibited by subjects with substance dependence include behavioral deviance, delinquency, violence, vandalism and hostility. They often have more behavioral and psychiatric problems. Khalily (2001) found the dominant characteristic of drug addicts is the tendency for momentary pleasure seeking. Hale et al. (2003) report novelty-seeking is significantly higher among drug abusers than among non-abusers. Drug abusers have been consistently reported to show low levels of self- esteem (Serednseky, 1974). They report feelings of inferiority, inadequacy and insecurity.

Addicts often show neurotic tendencies too. According to Mohanty and Saraswat (1982) the basic anxious personality type subjects take on to drugs. It has been observed that drug users are more neurotic, more

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psychotic and have criminal propensity than non-drug users. Dhillon and Pawah (1981) found that drug addicts are emotionally very insecure as they suffer from strong feelings of isolation, rejection, anxiety, hostility, inferiority, helplessness and inadequacy. Drug addicts tend to be more rebellious. They are hostile to the authorities who oppose conventional social values and traditional values. They use drugs as “a symbol of rejection” or to show an inclination towards other deviant behaviors (Lukoff, 1974). Tahir (1993) revealed that the drug addicts are emotionally immature, having reduced inner control, and have the tendency to violate social norms.

Stigma

Recently, more attention has been drawn toward stigma and its possible outcomes, especially after WHO began programs against stigma. Stigma is a social phenomenon that may vary from one society to another, depending on the existing social context (Jones, 1984). Stigmatized people might have to deal with three forms of stigma: 1) Enacted stigma (the experience of rejection, discrimination, and devaluation): labile individuals frequently encounter social disapproval problems in securing employment, housing and governmental facilities (Link, Yang, Phelan, Collins, 2004; Major B, O`Brien, 2004). 2) Perceived stigma include, a perception of negative social judgment and devaluating attitudes about the stigmatized person (Link, 1987). 3) Self-stigma: this stigma refers to the internalization of discrediting believes resulting in low self-esteem and feeling of shame and worthlessness (Luoma et al., 2007). People with mental illnesses and especially substance users are the most common victims of stigmatization in almost every culture (Corrigan, Kuwabara, O’Shaughnessy, 2009). Stigma, in its several forms, plays a critical role in stigmatized people’s health and psychological wellbeing (Ahern, Stuber, and Galea, 2007; Corrigan, 2004).

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Substance users are strongly stigmatized in most countries due to their illegal use and unaccepted behavior (Rasinksi, Woll, Cooke, 2005). As compared with other mental patients, substance users are considered more responsible for their actions (Schomerus et al., 2011). Even after entering the treatment process, the stigma associated with substance use stays with the user (Anstice, Strike, Brands, 2009). Some studies also suggest that the stigma of drug injection is one of the most stigmatized conditions among substance users, which increases the risk of HIV, as they hesitate to seek help and engage in needle exchange programs (Jimenez et al., 2011). In a recent research, participants reported high levels of self-stigma and moderate levels of stigma-related rejection and perceived stigma as a way of coping (Etesam, Assarian, Hosseini, and Ghoreishi, 2014).

There can be little doubt that substance abusers in recovery face stigma in its various forms, including enacted, perceived, and self-stigma (Link, Yang, Phelan, & Collins, 2004). In general mental health areas, enacted stigma is associated with multiple negative outcomes such as unemployment (Link, 1987), diminished self-esteem/ self-efficacy (Corrigan & Watson, 2002), and lower quality of life (Rosenfield, 1997). Samples of substance abusing individuals self-report fear of stigma as a reason for not seeking treatment (Cunningham, Sobell, Sobell, Agrawal, &Toneatto, 1993; Corrigan, 2004). The aim of the present investigation is to study the differences between drug addicts and non- addicts on personality characteristics such as openness, agreeableness, neuroticism, extraversion, conscientiousness and perceived stigma.

Method

Participants

The sample of the study consisted of 60 participants (30 substance abusers and 30 non-abusers) within age ranging from 18 to 45 years. The ethnicity of all the participants was Asian (Indian Origin).The

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sample was taken from the reputed hospitals in North India region. The data was collected with purposive incidental randomized sampling technique. The drug abusers were undergoing treatment in these hospitals. Non-drug abusers were those participants who had claimed either they have never used any drug, or they did not have any history of drug abuse. The drug addicts were contacted individually in their respective rooms, in the de-addiction centers of the hospital. Before data collection, due ethical permission was obtained from the concernedauthoritiesof the hospital andparticipating participants. After developing a good rapport, the tests were administered in two sittings, of two hours each, which was sufficient for them to complete their tasks. The administration of the tests for the non-abusers was done in groups of three to four subjects, in two sittings, of approximately two hours each. The instructions were provided to the subjects as given in the respective manuals. A good rapport was maintained throughout the administration. Confidentiality of their results was promised and maintained so that authentic and reliable results could be obtained. Scoring of the tests was done according to the procedures given in their respective manuals.

Tools Used

NEO-Five Factor Inventory:-

Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI-R) is developed by Costa, Jr, and McCrae, (1992). The Revised NEO-FFI Personality Inventory is a 60 item measure of the five major domains of personality. The NEO- FFI is a 60 item version of form 5 of the NEO PI-R that presents a concise, comprehensive measure of the five domains of personality. It consists of five 12-item scales that measure each domain. The five major domains of personality measured through NEO-FFI are as follows:

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1. Neuroticism: The term neuroticism mainly refers to emotional instability or the general tendency to experience negative affect such as anxiety, fear, sadness, embarrassment, anger, guilt and disgust that form the core of the neuroticism domain.

2. Extraversion: Extraverts are friendly. In addition to liking people they prefer large groups and gatherings; they are also assertive, active and talkative. They like stimulation, excitement and tend to be cheerful in disposition as compared to introverts who are more reserved and independent.

3. Openness: The elements of openness include active imagination, attentiveness to inner feelings, aesthetic sensitivity, preference for variety, independence of judgment and intellectual curiosity. Susceptible individuals are curious to know about both inner and outer worlds, and their lives are experimentally richer. They are willing to entertain novel ideas, unconventional values, and they experience both positive and negative emotions more keenly than do closed individuals.

4. Agreeableness: The agreeable person is fundamentally altruistic. He is sympathetic to others and eager to help them and believes that others will be equally helpful in return.

5. Conscientiousness: The conscientious individual is purposeful, strong-willed, determined, and probably few people become great musician or athletes without a high level of this trait.

The NEO-FFI, Form S (Adult) contains 60 items, and the subject has to respond on a five-point scale. The responses range from strongly disagree (SD), disagree (D), neutral (N), agree (A) to agree strongly (SA). Scoring is done according to the procedure given in the manual to obtain the subscale scores. Internal consistencies of the subscales range from .56 to .81. The test-retest reliability of NEO PI-R domains has been reported to be .79, .79, .80, .75 and .83 for N, E, O, A and C, respectively. The test also has a high content and criterion validity. The

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findings that subjects in psychotherapy score high on N and that drug abusers score low on A and C (Brooner et al., 1991) provide evidence of criterion validity. The test has been used extensively in many studies in India and abroad.

Perceived Stigma of Substance Abuse Scale

Perceived Stigma of Substance Abuse Scale (Luoma, O'Hair, Kohlenberg, Hayes, and Fletcher, 2010): This brief scale has eight questions considering a subject’s perceived stigma towards substance abusers. The scale measures an individual’s attitude and perception towards a substance abuser. The responses are based on a 4 point Likert scale, from ‘strongly agree’ to ‘strongly disagree’.This scale gives a single total score. The reversed scored items are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, & 8. The scale total score range varies from 8-32 with higher scores indicating greater perceived stigma. It is a brief and one-dimensional measure with a good face and construct validity. Convergent validity has been demonstrated through comparison with measures of other stigma- related dimensions. The items were reversely scored which has higher scores indicating more perceived stigma. The Cronbach’s alpha was 0.65.

Results

The t-test was applied to the obtained data to assess the significance of the difference between the two groups of subjects, the drug abusers and the non-abusers.

Table: Showing Means and S.D.s and t-ratio of drug abusers and non- abusers on personality traits and Perceived Stigma.

Variables Drug Abusers Non-Abusers t-ratios Mean S.D. Mean S.D.

Neuroticism 37.54 5.24 31.48 4.65 4.73**

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Extraversion 32.47 4.21 38.12 4.74 4.88**

Openness 36.12 3.48 35.12 2.94 1.20

Agreeableness 31.69 3.47 36.85 3.62 5.63**

Conscientiousness 30.54 2.98 42.64 3.54 14.32**

Perceived Stigma 21.54 3.23 17.28 3.64 4.79**

** Level of significance at .01 levels

The obtained findings show that the mean scores of drug abusers is higher on neuroticism whereas low on extraversion, agreeableness and conscientiousness. No notable differences have been seen between the two groups on openness. Drug abusers have shown a higher level of perceived stigma as compared to non-abusers. It is evident from obtained findings that drug abusers are more neurotic but low on sociability, altruism, compliance, dutifulness, competence and self- discipline.

Discussion

The findings clearly shows that the drug abusers have scored significantly higher on neuroticism (t = 4.73, p < .01). It suggests that the drug addicts suffer from a continuous state of threat and apprehension; they are more predisposed to experience feelings of guilt, hopelessness, bitterness, dejection and frustration. The high scores on impulsiveness and vulnerability indicate that they are unable to control their urges, are unable to cope with stress and are more prone to feelings of inferiority. Olivenstein et al. (1975) have also reported that abusers use drugs to cope with neurotic or psychotic conditions. Since the non-addicts have scored considerably low on neuroticism, they may be perceived as emotionally competent and well-adjusted in their environment.

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In case of extraversion the non-abusers have scored significantly higher (t = 4.88, p < .01). This score reflects that the non-addicts are warm, affectionate, they keep themselves busy and possess the tendency to feel positive emotions such as happiness, joy love, and such individuals are cheerful and optimistic. On the other hand, drug addicts may be characterized as reserved, lonely, avoid social interaction but crave for excitement and stimulation and are less likely to be satisfied in life. Sensation seeking has been consistently associated with drug abuse (Kosten et al., 1994; Vukov et al., 1995). On the basis of the above significant differences, it can be inferred that the drug addicts possess the characteristics of an emotionally unstable introvert personality as described by Eysenck (1982).

The mean scores on agreeableness are also higher for the non-abusers (t = 5.63, p < .01) as compared to drug abusers which indicate that the non-abusers are frank, honest and trust others, they are altruistic, refrain from interpersonal conflicts and emphasize on human values. Whereas, the drug addicts who have scored low on this dimension portray to be modest but are cynical, dishonest, self-centered and aggressive. Many research studies (Cox et al., 2001; Khalily, 2001; Tahir, 1993) show that antisocial behaviour is a common behavioural problem among drug addicts. The significantly higher scores have been revealed on conscientiousness (t =14.32, p<.01) as compared to drug abusers. The scores indicate that the non-addicts perceive themselves to be capable, prudent and efficient in problem-solving. They are well organized, responsible, have high aspirations and work hard to achieve their goals. They are self-regulated and are cautious before they act. On the other hand, the drug addicts have scored low on conscientiousness that clearly depicts that the addicts perceive themselves to be less capable and ineffective while dealing with the problems of life. They are less methodical, lackadaisical, lazy, lack ambition, aimless and are less likely to succeed in life. The low scores on self-discipline and

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deliberation are an evidence of poor self-control; they are therefore hasty and often act without considering the consequences. Khalily (2001) also reported a low motivation level among drug addicts.

The drug abusers have scored significantly higher on perceived stigma (t = 4.79, p < .01). It suggests that the drug abusers continuously perceive that the society is going to see them with a negative image even after they may have left the addiction. There is a silent state of threat and apprehension regarding their perceived image by the society members.

People with mental illnesses with associated substance use problems are the most frequent victims of stigmatization in almost every culture (Corrigan, Kuwabara, O’Shaughnessy, 2009). Stigma, in its several forms, plays a critical role in stigmatized people’s health and psychological wellbeing (Ahern, Stuber, and Galea, 2007; Corrigan, 2004). Drug users are strongly stigmatized in most nations due to their illegal use and unaccepted behavior (Rasinksi, Woll, Cooke, 2005).

There are no considerable variations between the two groups on the dimension of openness. Since both the groups consist of young boys, males of this age group are curious about their inner and outer worlds and possess unique values.

To conclude, the present research revealed that the drug abusers are higher on neuroticism whereas low on extraversion, agreeableness and conscientiousness. They also have shown a higher level of perceived stigma as compared to non-abusers. It is evident from obtained findings that drug abusers are more neurotic and stigmatized but low on sociability, altruism, compliance, dutifulness, competence and self- discipline.

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14. Hale, R.L., Whiteman, S., Muehl, K., and Faynberg, E. (2003). Tridimensional personality traits of college students marijuana users. Psychological Reports, 92 (2), 661-666. 15. Jimenez, J., Puig, M., Sala, A., Ramos, J., Castro, E., Morales, M., Santiago, L., and Zorrilla, C. (2011). Felt Stigma in injection drug users and sex workers: focus group research with HIV-risk populations in Puerto Rico. QualityResearch in Psychology,8,26 – 39. 16. Jones, E., Farina, A., Hastorf, A., Markus, H., Miller, D., and Scott, R. (1984).Social stigma: the psychology of marked relationships. New York: Freeman. 17. Khalily, M.T. (2001). A comparison between the psycho-social characteristics of drug addicts and non-addicts.Pakistan Journal of Psychological Research, 16 (3-4), 113-128. 18. Kosten, T.A., Ball, S.A., and Rounsaville, B.J. (1994).A sibling study of sensation seeking and opiate addiction.The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 182, 284-289. 19. Link, B.G. (1987). Understanding labeling effects in the area of mental disorders: an assessment of the effects of expectations of rejection. AmericanSociological Review,52,96 – 112. 20. Link, B.G., Yang, L.H., Phelan, J.C., and Collins, P.Y. (2004).Measuring Mental Illness Stigma.Schizophrenia Bulletin, 30,511 – 541. 21. Lukoff, I. (1974). Issues in the evaluation of heroin treatment.In E., Josephson, and E. Corroll (Eds.) Drug use: Epidemiological and Sociological approaches (pp. 129-157). New York: Wiley. 22. Luoma, J. B., O'Hair, A. K., Kohlenberg, B. S., Hayes, S. C., Fletcher, L. (2010). The development and psychometric properties of a new measure of perceived stigma toward substance users.Substance Use and Misuse, 45, 47-57. 23. Luoma, J.B., Twohig, M.P., Waltz, T., Hayes, S.C., Roget, N., Padilla, M., et al. (2007). An investigation of stigma in individuals receiving treatment for substance abuse.Addiction Behaviour, 32,1331 – 1346. 24. Major B,O`Brien, L.T. (2004). The social psychology of stigma.Annual Review Psychology, 56,393 – 421. 25. Mohanty, B., and Saraswat, G.P. (1982).Attitude towards narcotic drugs as a function of some personality variables.Asian Journal of Psychology and Education, 9, 29-33. 26. Olivenstein, C., Braconnier, A., and Charles – Nicholas, A.J. (1975).Youth and drugs.Psychiatric De L’ Enfant, 18, 443-475. 27. Rasinksi, K.A., Woll, P., and Cooke, A. (2005). Stigma and substance use disorders. In: Corrigan P, ed. On the Stigma of Mental Illness: Practical Strategiesfor Research and Social Change. American Psychological Association. Washington, DC: 219 – 236.

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28. Schomerus, G., Lucht, M., Holzinger, A., Matschinger, H., Carta, M.G., and Angermeyer, M.C. (2011). The stigma of alcohol dependence compared with other mental disorders: a review of population studies. Alcohol and Alcoholics,46,105 – 112. 29. Serednseky, G.E. (1974). Drug abuse as related to early childhood rearing practices.Addiction and Drug Abuse Report, 5, 4. 30. Tahir, M. (1993).The Personality profile of drug addicts.Unpublished M.Phil.Thesis. Peshawar: Department of Psychology, University of Peshawar. 31. Tripathi, B.M., Lal, R. and Kumar N. (2001). Substance abuse in children and adolescents: An overview. Journal of Personality and Clinical Studies, 17 (2), 67-74. 32. Verma, M.K. and Misra, S. (2002). Rorschach’s response patterns of drug addicts. Journal of Projective Psychology and Mental Health, 9(1), 62-64. 33. Vukov, M., Baba-Milkic, N., Lecic, D., Mijalkovic, S., and Marinkovic, J.(1995). Personality dimensions of opiate addicts. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 91, 103-107. 34. WHO (1992): International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10), Geneva: World Health Organization.

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STUDY HABITS OF HIGH SCHOOL PUPILS IN RELATION TO CERTAIN PSYCHO SOCIOLOGICAL FACTORS IN X CLASS STUDENTS IN MEDCHAL MANDAL, RANGAREDDY DISTRICT S.Srilatha Research Aspirant M.A Psychology & S.E.T in Psychology Osmania University Hyderabad INTRODUCTION:

Habits are true indicators of individuality in a person. Study habits relate to the behavior of an individual related to studies. The behavior of an individual is adjusted from his study habits. Styles of studying are known as study habits. Study habits of the pupils means the ability to schedule his time, the plan of his study, reading and note-taking, habits of learning, utilizing the social environment over all learning, the habits of memory and concentration, application methods and so on.

Majorities of the pupils don’t know how to utilize their time properly. Pupils may feel no sense of urgency to study from beginning. They are confronted with the questions like, What to study? How to study? Where to study? When to study? etc. All these arise only with the lack of proper study habits among the pupils.

Study habits play a dominant role in the pupils’ academic achievement and in their career building. Study habits differ from pupil to pupil. Many pupils do badly academically, due to factors other than low general intellectual capacity. One such factor is unhealthy study habits, which often result in poor academic performance even among the naturally bright pupils. It deserves careful investigation. It is, therefore pertinent to collect data regarding the study habits of pupils by administering study habits inventory. Thus, the investigator

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can have a clear picture of the problem and employ it as a logical starting point, for developing good study habits.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The title of the present investigation is, “STUDY HABITS OF HIGH SCHOOL PUPILS IN RELATION TO CERTAIN PSYCHO SOCIOLOGICAL FACTORS IN X CLASS STUDENTS IN MEDCHAL MANDAL, RANGAREDDY DISTRICT”

NEED FOR THE STUDY

It is seen that there is an explosion of knowledge and it is not possible to teach everything of everything. It is not only the teacher’s responsibility to provide learning experiences, but it is also the responsibility of the pupils to utilize them properly by adopting efficient learning. One will be able to learn by himself if he has developed proper study habits which can lead him to learn and read efficiently and effectively, how to memorize quickly and how to read systematically.

Study habits is an important factor in learning. Generally study habits are acquired by the pupils from their family members, peer group, relatives, etc. Study habits reveal pupil’s personality in action at their studies. Hence, it is necessary to investigate into its nature and also to know whether it is related to factors like personality, academic achievement, intelligence, socio-economic and demographic too.

SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The main object of the study is to draw the relationship or difference among study habits score of the pupils belonging to different sex, locality, region, type of school and division obtained in the S.S.C. public examination.

The study is also intended to test the impact of study habit areas, personality factors, academic achievement, intelligence and socio-

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economic factors on study habits of the pupils. The study is restricted to some selected schools.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The present study is designed:

1. To compare the study habits of the pupils in Rural, Urban and Residential localities; in Medchal Mandal, Rangareddy District of A.P. Residential, A.P.S.W.R.Schools and to examine the significance or otherwise of these differences.

2. To know the general level of study habits persisting in high school pupils.

3. To study the influence of Study habit areas on study habits of the pupils.

4. To study the influence of Personality factors on study habits of the pupils.

5. To study the influence of Academic Achievement of the pupils on their study habits.

HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY

The following null hypotheses have been set up for the purpose of this study.

1. The variables such as Sex, Region, Locality, Type of School and Division obtained in the S.S.C. public examination would not have any significant influence on study habits of the pupils.

2. There exists no relationship between the Study habit areas and study habits of the pupils.

3. There exists no relationship between the Personality factors and study habits of the pupils.

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4. There doesn’t exist any relationship between the Academic Achievement and study habits of the pupils.

5. Intelligence of the pupils doesn’t have any influence on their study habits.

6. Socio-economic factors wouldn’t have any significant impact on study habits of the pupils.

7. No independent variable out of 52 turns out to be significant predictor of study habits of the pupils.

VARIABLES STUDIED

The present study envisages study habits of high school pupils in Andhra Pradesh State in relation to certain Psycho-Sociological factors.

Dependent variable

Study habits score (i.e. Study habits total score) is taken as the dependent variable for the study. Study habits inventory consists of nine areas namely- Home environment and planning of work, Reading and note taking, Planning of subject, Habits of concentration, Preparation for examination, Tuition and social environment, Audio- Visual programmes, General habits and attitudes and also School environment.

Independent variables

The independent variables considered in this investigation are 5 Demographic variables (Sex, Region, Locality, Type of School and Division), 9 Study habit areas, 14 Personality factors, Intelligence variable, 7 Academic Achievement scores and 16 Socio-Economic variables.

TOOLS USED IN THE STUDY

The tools administered in this study are given below:

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1. Study Habits Inventory (SHI) consists of 98 statements.

2. High School Personality Questionnaire (HSPQ) – Form A.

3. Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM).

4. Pupils S.S.C. public examination subject wise and total marks are taken as the indices for their Academic Achievement.

5. Socio-Economic Scale (SES) of 16 statements. The validity and reliability of the above tools are established.

SAMPLE SELECTED

The sample for the investigation consists of 180 high school pupils studying X class. The sample was .Selected from different management’s (Government, Private, Zilla Parishad, A.P.R. Society, A.P.S.W.R. Society) were situated in different localities (Rural, Urban and Residential). The sample frame for the study consists of 90 Boys and 90Girls (N=180).

COLLECTION OF DATA

The investigator has intimated the heads of institutions about his programme well in advance. After permission taken from them, he moved to collect the data.

The required numbers of pupils are chosen from class X, seated them in a separate room and given the instructions orally and were also asked to read the instructions given along with the instruments and motivated to respond genuinely to all the items in the data gathering tools.

In the Forenoon SHI, HSPQ and SES tests were administered and the response sheets are collected from them. Whereas in the Afternoon the RPM test is administered on only selected pupils among them and collects the data from them. Similarly the investigator has collected the data from all the 36 schools.

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After publication of the S.S.C. public examination results, the investigator again obtained permission from heads of the institutions and collected the subject wise marks and total marks of the sample subjects, which were taken as the indices of the level of their academic achievement.

SCORING AND ANALYSIS

The study habits inventory was scored on a 5-point scale by giving the weights 5,4,3,2 and 1 in case of positive items and 1,2,3,4 and 5 in case of negative items. The total score of each study habits area and grand total of study habits is marked on the top right corner of the inventory. For HSPQ and RPM, the scoring keys prepared by the concerned authors were used. For SES, the numerical values are given for each variable to suit the computer analysis.

The data is analysed with various perspectives based on the objectives of the study and hypotheses formulated for the study. Tables and graphs are used wherever necessary for presenting the data.

STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES EMPLOYED

Descriptive statistics such as mean, median, mode, Q.D, S.D, skewness, kurtosis etc., were used to describe the distribution of scores. The inferential statistical techniques such as ‘t’ and ‘F’ tests were employed to test different hypotheses. Step wise regression analysis is employed to predict the study habits score of the pupils. The obtained numerical results were interpreted meaningfully.

MAJOR FINDINGS

The statistical treatment of the data reveals the following major findings of the study.

1. The mean value of Study habits score for the whole group (N=180) is 311.19 and median is 310.00. Hence, the frequency distribution of Study habits score follows the normal distribution. The mean value

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of study habits is more than neutral value and hence the pupils have better study habits.

2. The frequency distribution of Study habits score for Boys and Girls follows the normal distribution. It is concluded that the study habits of Girls are better than that of Boys.

3. The mean values of Study habits score of the pupils for the Urban, Rural and Residential localities are concluded that the Residential pupils’ study habits are better than the other two locality pupils.

4. The mean Study habits score of the pupils studying in different Type of schools such as Government, Private, Zilla Parishad, APRS and APSWR schools are better than others and the study habits of ZPHS pupils are very low.

5. The mean values of Study habits score of the pupils who secured the different Divisions like First, Second, Third class and Failure in the S.S.C. public examination are respectively. Thus, it is evident that the performances of study habits of the first division pupils are better than the others.

6. The variable Sex doesn’t have any significant influence on study habits of the pupils.

7. All the two-factor interactions have significant influence on study habits of the pupils.

8. For the three-factor interactions namely Sex X Region X Locality and Region X Locality X Division have its own significant influence on study habits of the pupils. But the three-factor interactions such as Sex X Region X Division and Sex X Locality X Division have no significant impact on study habits of the pupils.

9. The four-factor interaction namely Sex X Region X Locality X Division doesn’t show any significant influence on study habits of the pupils.

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10. The variable Type of School has its own impact on study habits of the pupils.

11. The two-factor interactions such as Sex X Type of School, Region X Type of School and Division X Type of School have significant influence on study habits of the pupils.

INFLUENCE OF ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT ON STUDY HABITS

The subject wise marks for all the subjects and the total marks of the pupils’ Academic Achievement have showed significant influence on all the Study habit areas and Study habits score. Hence the Academic Achievement of the pupils has significant influence on their study habits.

IMPACT OF INTELLIGENCE ON STUDY HABITS

The Intelligence variable has showed significant influence on study habits of the pupils.

IMPACT OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS ON STUDY

HABITS

1. Sex doesn’t show any significant influence on all the Study habit areas and Study habits score.

2. Age of the pupils has not any significant influence on study habits of the pupils.

CONCLUSIONS

1. From the above findings, the following conclusions are drawn out.

2. The frequency distribution of Study habits score for the whole group follows normal distribution.

3. On the whole the high school pupils have good study habits.

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4. The study habits of Girls are better than that of Boys.

5. Pupils studying in Residential locality have better study habits than Urban and Rural localities.

6. Type of school has its own influence on the pupils study habits. APRS pupils have better study habits than the other groups.

7. Generally First Division/Class pupils have good study habits. It is proved in this investigation.

8. The Study habit areas have their own impact on study habits of the pupils.

9. Most of the Personality factors don’t show any influence on study habits of the pupils.

10. All the Academic Achievement scores have shown their significant impact on study habits of the pupils.

11. Intelligence has its own influence on study habits of the pupils.

12. Age of the pupils doesn’t show any significant influence on their study habits.

13. Education of the sisters of the pupils doesn’t have any impact on their study habits.

14. Order of birth of the pupils doesn’t show any significant influence on their study habits.

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

In the present days, study habits are an important factor in the pupils’ academic achievement and personal improvement. If good study habits are inculcated, nurtured and promoted at the young and impressionable age of a child, it will go a long way in removing a number of hurdles on the way to the development of good and cultured citizens.

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If the habits like reading, writing and study skills begin even from elementary stage, the pupils automatically possess good scholastic success in high school and college stages.

On the basis of the results of the study, the following recommendations are made.

1. The study habit is an important for pupils in their school education and their academic achievement. Hence, it is essential to inculcate the good study habits among the high school pupils.

2. The study habits of the boys are less than that of the girls. Care may be taken to improve the performance of boys.

3. The study habits of the rural pupils are very poor. Hence, the teachers, parents and friends have to take necessary steps to promote good study habits among them.

4. The Z.P.H. school pupils study habits are poorer than any other school pupils. Hence, facilities should be provided to improve study habits of the pupils.

5. Every one generally knows that those who get First Division in their annual examination have good study habits. This is proved in this investigation. Pupils who passed in First Division have better study habits than the pupils who passed in other Division. Hence, teachers have to maintain study hours separately even after school hours for backward pupils.

6. It is found that very few personality factors have their own influence on the pupils study habits. It is recommended to improve those personality characteristics in the pupils related to their study habits.

7. Academic Achievement of the pupils is associated with their study habits. Hence proper study habits may be developed among the pupils for attaining good academic achievement.

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8. Intelligence is also associated with the good study habits. Therefore, intelligence skills should be inculcated among the pupils.

9. The Socio-Economic factors such as 1) Age 2) Caste 3) Education and Employment of the family members 4) Income of the family 5) Place of birth etc., are associated with the study habits of the pupils. It is recommended that the teachers may provide necessary knowledge for the pupils in the above aspects.

10. On the whole, the study habit of Reading and note taking is dominant independent variable to predict study habits score of the pupils. Thus, the study skills, reading skills etc., should be inculcated in the pupils.

11. It is recommended that the parents should keep the home environment neatly and instruct them to keep their place of work neatly for improving the study habits of secondary school pupils.

12. It is recommended that teachers should inculcate the good habits in the classrooms and in the leisure hours too.

13. Parents should clear off the doubts of the children and provide the habits of divergent thinking.

14. Pupils with poor study habits have to take the suggestions from their friends and teachers for developing good study habits.

15. It is instructed to parents that they allow the children for watching the Audio-Visual programmes according to their interests. Sometimes it may also give the children to develop the divergent thinking and associate the situations with his studies.

16. Establish Book banks and Libraries compulsory in every school. This enables the student to refer to many books.

17. Parent-Teacher associations should be conducted once in a month and the parents should be informed of the pupils’ progress.

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Necessary instructions may be provided for the parents for the improvement in study habits among the pupils.

18. Pupils can consult subject teachers for clarification of their doubts in the subject concerned and can discuss the topics.

19. Healthy competitions such as group discussions, debate, quiz programmes, essay writing etc., are to be conducted in the schools, because healthy competitions promote the good study habits in the children.

20. Teachers can give homework, assignments etc, to the pupils regularly. With this, it is possible to promote good study habits among the pupils.

21. Family members and teachers can develop a habit of supervised study for the children.

22. It is recommended that the teachers should inculcate the Moral, Social, Esthetic values among the pupils.

23. The research findings are also used for the improvement of study habits of the pupils.

24. It is very essential that the teachers can remove the test anxiety among the pupils, because some times a good student may fail in the examination with test anxiety.

25. Pupils can participate in the sports/games, yoga and meditation. These activities make them healthy and keep their minds fresh.

References

1. Norton Peter (2000) Introduction to computer, TATA Mc Graw Hills Publications, New Delhi.

2. Gupta Vikas (2001) Comdex Computer Kit, Dream Tech Publications, New Delhi.

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3. Pradeep Sinha (2003) Computer Fundamentals, BPB Publications, New Delhi.

4. Proof Laini Varnasi, V. Sudhakar (2004) Computer Education, Neelkamal Publications, Hydrabad.

5. J.W Best (2006) Research Methods in Education, Dram Tech publications, New Delhi.

6. Rajamanikam Statistical Methods in Psychological & Educational Research.

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OSLO SUMMIT, INDIA’S RURAL ILLITERACY AND ROAD AHEAD

Prof. S.N. Misra Mr. Sanjaya Ku. Ghadai Director, School of Leadership & Executive Prof. Economics & Law School of Leadership KIIT University KIIT University Bhubaneswar Odisha Bhubaneshwar, Odisha

INTRODUCTION

As the global economy is increasingly becoming ‘knowledge based’, education and skills of a country’s people have become far more important than ever before in securing its future. Countries that fail to build ‘inclusive education system’ face the prospect of sluggish growth, rising inequality and lost opportunity in world trade. The recently concluded Oslo Summit on ‘Education for Development’ underlined the declaration made at Incheon, (South Korea) to ensure “inclusive and quality, primary and secondary education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all” by 2030. In this back drop the Socio Economic and Caste Census (SECC) 2011 Report on Rural India, published this week cannot be more timely and grim. The high incidence of casual labourers (51%), 56% of population having no land, 74% with income less than 5000, and more than one third with literacy is symptomatic of the appalling sloth that manifests our policy space. Right from the work of Adam Smith (1776) to Robert Solow (1956) to Hanushek (2002), the importance of learning in productive capital has been underscored. The positive correlation between average years of education and its GDP Growth was also highlighted by Barrow (1991).

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This paper attempts to examine (a) India’s report card w.r.t. the Incheon Declaration with special reference to RTE Act (2009) (b) The major findings of SECC & ASER reports on various aspects of literacy, employment and income in rural areas and (c) Policy issues that need to be grappled to usher in quality primary education in rural India.

INCHEON DECLARATION (2015)

The Incheon Declaration is a takeoff on the Millennium Development Goals which had underlined the need to ensure “universal primary education and eliminate gender decimation in primary and secondary education”. Several countries like India have a achieved the largest after introduction of RTE Act 2009. However, quality, skill acquisition, and real learning have received a short shrift; thanks to the total obsession with access & equity. The Incheon Declaration (2015) has underlined the need to ensure ‘quality education for all’ as the primary objective by 2030 and has called upon all countries to commit at least 4-6% of their budget to education. The recently concluded Oslo summit ‘Education on Development’ brings out interesting contribution by Prof. Watson & Irina Bokova where they argue for (a) abandoning market based experiments on education (b) reduce education disparities on the basis of gender, wealth and rural-urban divide (c) Commit public funding for 12 years of schooling to foster skill and a value system which is equitable, resilient and inclusive.

RTE ACT (2009) AND ITS IMPACT

The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act enacted in 2009 was rooted in the understanding that “the value of equality, social justice and democracy and the creation of a just and humane society can be achieved only through provision of inclusive elementary education at all”. The Act effectively

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obligated the states to provide “Free elementary education and ensure compulsory admission, attendance and completion of elementary education to every child in the six to fourteen age group”. The education profile as evidenced in a few states is summarized below.

Table-1: Education Profile

Parameter All Odisha Gujarat India

Illiterates 36 35 11 31

Below Primary 14 14 8 13 Literates

Primary 18 20 17 28

Middle 14 15 20 9

Secondary 10 8 24 11

Higher Secondary 5 5 12 5

Graduate 3 3 8 3

Total 100 100 100 100

Dropout % 27 7 - 25.7

Source: Socio Economic & Caste Census, 2011

It would be seen that Kerala has been the leading light both in terms of literacy, high % of educated in higher secondary and graduate levels compared to the other states. The dropout rates are almost nil. In contrast both Odisha and Gujarat show a low level of educational attainment and Gujarat in particular having a high dropout % at standard I-V level.

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Its impact on employment and income is brought out in the following table.

Table-2: Employment & Income Profile (Rural)

All India/ Salaried Private Casual Income 5000- 10000 & States Jobs Sectors Labour <5000 10000 More

All India 9.7 3.6 51.0 74 17 9

Odisha 6.8 1.9 39.5 88 7 5

Gujarat 9.5 5 36.9 69 22 9.5

Kerala 14 6 40 70 17 12.3

Source: Socio Economic & Caste Census, 2011

It would be seen for the above that Odisha has a unusual high % of rural population with income level <5000(88%) compared to Kerala and Gujarat high education has ensured that the % of people in high income bracket is higher in Kerala (12.3). with this back drop it would be useful to have an overview of ASER findings in terms of enrolment, physical infrastructure, attendance, and learning levels.

ASER FINDINGS ON IMPACT OF RTE

Table-3: ASER Findings: Trend

Parameter 2012 2013 2014

Total Enrollment (Primary) 96.5 96.8 97.97

Schools with Library 66.1 77.1 79.1

School Attendance % 71.3 77.1 71.1

Arithmetic Level 46.5 26.5 25.3

Basic Reading 47 47 48.1

Source: ASER Report 2014

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In terms of educational outcomes the findings of ASER 2014 are quite revealing as only 58% of children enrolled in classes 3 to 5 can read a class-1 text, 47% are able to do a simple two-digit subtraction, 37% of children in class 4 or 5 can read fluently, less than half (45%) are able to divide 20 by 5 and reading and Mathematics skills of class 4 pupils in India’s top schools are below the international average.

RISING TREND IN ENROLMENT IN PRIVATE SCHOOLS

An interesting trend has been the significant rise in enrolment of children in private schools. What is interesting to observe that the two states viz. Odisha, Gujarat do not show similar trends as the All India trend or Kerala, where private schooling is predominant norm.

Table-4: The Proportion of Children Enrolled in Private Schools Trends

Year Odisha Gujarat Kerala All India

2009 4.4 10.2 51.5 21.8

2011 5 10.8 60.8 25.6

2014 8.5 13.3 62.2 30.8

Source: ASER 2014

Tooley and Dixon (2005) in tests administered to students in Hyderabad found that students in unrecognized private schools scored 22-23% higher than their counterparts in government schools in Maths and much higher in English. Muralidharan and Kremer (2006) have brought out that private schools are characterized by lower teacher absence and teachers hold more college degrees that their counterparts.

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INFRASTRUCTURE CONCERNS

The ASER report flags the infrastructural concerns under various parameters.

Table-5: Infrastructure Facilities

Parameter All India Kerala Gujarat Odisha

2010 2014 2010 2014 2010 2014 2010 2014

Play Ground 62.2 65.0 76.3 74.7 75.5 88.1 44.4 32.0

Library 62.6 78.1 83.1 94.7 83.8 92.3 65.3 88.0 Books Available

Drinking 72.2 75.6 85.7 83.0 79.4 87.0 70.3 81.6 Water

Girls Toilet 32.9 55.7 43.9 80.2 49.9 81.4 34.7 53.0

Computer 15.8 19.6 82.8 89.8 52.2 81.3 7.1 14.1 Available

Source: ASER Report 2014

It would be seen from the above, that availability of girls’ toilet (except in Kerala) is a serious concerns area. Also, the promise of ‘Digital India’ does not match up with the computer availability both at all India level and in Odisha. Gujarat and Kerla, however, fare much better.

POLICY ISSUES

(a) Budget Adequacy for Education The following table brings out the allocation trend & over the last three years.

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Table-6 : Allocation to Education (Rs. Crore)

Type of Education 2013- 2014- 2014 % 2015- % 2014 2015 - Chan 2016 Chan (BE) 2015 ge (BE) ge (RE)

(a) Primary 36803 39665 4150 12.8 36829 -11.3 Education 5

(b) Secondary 10053 5450 5300 -47.3 5390 1.7 Education

(c) Higher Education 24465 27656 2370 -3.1 26855 13.3 0

Total 71321 7277 7050 -1.1 69074 -2.0 1 5

Source: India Budget: 2015-2016, MHRD

It would be seen that total spending on Primary Education as % of GDP which was 1.7% (1993) went up to 2.1 (2002), and has remained at that level even in this year’s budget. The overall allocation of around 3% is grossly less than a desirable minimum of 6% which was recommended even by Kothari Commission way backing 1966. The Incheon Declaration (2015) has called upon the developing countries to earmark at least 15-20% of their central government expenditure. India’s allocation to education is invariably less than 10% of CGE. In this backdrop it would be useful to take note of the global trends in terms of Mean Years of Schooling, public expenditure on education and GER (Gross Enrolment Ratio) at different levels.

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Table-7 : HDI, MYS, Investment in Education, R&D and GER

Count HDI Mean Public R&D Gross Enrollment Ratio ry Year Expendit Expendit Prima Second Terti of ure on ure as % ry ary ary Scho Educatio to GDP oling n at % of GDP

USA 0.914 12.6 5.6 2.81 99 94 95

Germa 0.91 12.9 5.1 2.94 100 100 57 ny

Japan 0.89 11.3 5.6 3.49 100 100 60

China 0.79 7.5 3.7 2.02 100 87 24

India 0.586 4.4 3.3 0.9 97 69 23

Source: Human Development Report, 2014 & OECD Report

It would be interesting to observe that both in terms of GER in higher education and MYS, the record of both India and China is not edifying. Also grossly inadequate investment in R&D in India compared to develop and Emerging Market Economies (EMEs) seriously affects higher education, quality publication and patenting.

(b)Pedagogy

Quoting Lindn (2008) Prof. Muralidhran suggests that blanket use of computers in schools may not be effective for fostering instruction. However, the teacher based remedial programmes are more cost effective than computer assistance learning programmes. Paul Frier (1968) had argued that the student is not a vessel to be filled with knowledge but as a co-creator of knowledge with the teachers. This important pedagogical innovation has been adopted by many western countries with astounding benefits.

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(c) Performance Linked Pay Programme

In a programme conducted in Andhra Pradesh where bonus payments were made to teacher based on improvement of student’s test course it was seen that performance linked pay programmes are hugely successful. In the Oslo Summit also Prof. Kevin Watkins strongly argues for strong incentives, effective training, and dependable support systems to deliver real learning.

(d) Teachers Training Programme The global experience has been that a strong teachers training programme on a continuing basis is the major key to educational improvement and economic growth. In a pioneering study Prof. Eric Hanushok has demonstrated that by removing average quality teachers with more competent ones the economic growth of a country has been impacted significantly.

CONCLUDING THOUGHTS

Thomas Jefferson, 236 years ago, moved a bill that called for a “system of instruction that embraces citizen from the richest to the poorest”. It was the first step in the creation of the American system of public education –an institution that has helped propel the country’s rise to global prominence. It’s time we move beyond the flawed logic of ‘market driven education’, and refrain from looking at poor people as pariahs to be given education vouchers as ‘doles’. Rural India is in a seething cauldron of neglect and denial; with the goal of ‘higher inclusivity’ (12th Plan) proving to be a cruel irony for them. The goals of universal access needs to be supplemented by quality as the Oslo summit has underlined. Secondary education has to be a fundamental right as a logical continuum to primary education. The critical infrastructural deficits like toilets, drinking water and computes should be made good in a time bound manner. A pedagogy that puts a premium on ‘remedial instruction’ along with

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computer aid, and a system that values performance of teachers through incentives and quality training and politics that is ‘inclusive’ and a value system that encourages equitable, resilient and inclusive growth will be the piped pipers for rural India. The politics of reservation should give way to the economics of affirmative action as in USA. Education serves as a bridge from poverty to prosperity, from exclusion to participation for all. In the increasingly knowledge based and technology driven world that we live in the SECC (2011) hopefully will bring in an inclusive education policy which fosters quality and makes a significant dent in the high degree of rural illiteracy and deprivation in terms of credible employment and asset ownership.

References

1. ASER Survey Report, 2014 2. Corbridge, S., Harriss J. & Jeffrey, C. India Today-Economy, Politics and Society. Polity Press, UK, 2013 3. Debroy, B., Tellis, A.J. & Trevor, R. (2014). “Getting India Back on Track-An Action Agenda for Reforms”. Random House Publisher India Pvt. Ltd. Gurgaon, Haryana 4. Dreze, J. & Sen, A. (2013). “An Uncertain Glory India and its Contradictions”. Penguin Books India Pvt. Ltd, Panchsheel Park, New Delhi 5. Freire, P. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Penguin Book Ltd. England, 1970 6. Hanushek, E.A. Making Schools Work: Improving Performance and Controlling Costs. Brookings Institution, 1994 7. Malhotra, R. India Public Policy Report-2014 Tackling Poverty, Hunger & Malnutrition. Oxford University Press, Jai Singh Road, New Delhi 8. Panagariya, A. “India- The Emerging Giant”. Oxford University Press, New York, 2010 9. Piketty, T. Capital in Twenty First Century. First Edition, Le Capital au XXI Siede, England, & Gopson Papers Ltd. India, 2014

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10. Sharma, R. Breakout Nations-In Search of the Next Economic Miracles. Penguin Group, UK, 2012 11. Thirlwall, A.P. (2011) Economics of Development. Ninth Edition, Palgrave Macmillan, New York th 12. 12 Plan Document, Government of India 13. Bokova, I. How can we achieve a quality education for all? Economics Education Global Challenges, collaboration with Project Syndicate, Jul 6 2015 14. Gokarn, S. & Sandhu, R. Accelerating Access to Quality Education. The Brookings Institution India Centre, 2015 15. Government of India. Economic Survey 2014-2015, Government of India 16. Higher Education in India: Twelfth Five Year Plan (2012–2017) and beyond FICCI Higher Education Summit 2012 17. Human Development Report, 2014-Sustaining Human Progress: Reducing Vulnerabilities and Building Resilience-UNDP 18. India’s Budget Document 2015-2016 19. Karopady, D.D. Does school choice help rural children from Disadvantaged sections? Evidence from longitudinal research in Andhra Pradesh. EWP, December, 20, 2014 20. Muralidharan, K. Priorities for Primary Education Policy in India’s 12th Five-Year Plan, NCAER-Brookings India Policy Forum 2013 21. Progress Overview of Research, 2011, EDCIL (India) Limited, A GOI Enterprise. 22. Socio Economic and Caste Census, 2011 Report 23. Tooley, J & Dixon, P. Private Education is Good for the Poor-A Study of Private Schools Serving the Poor in Low-Income Countries. Cato Institute, Washington, 2005 24. Watkins, K. Why education is essential for growth. Economic Growth and Social Inclusion Economy Education. Article is published in collaboration with Project Syndicate, Jul 7 2015 25. Muggeridge, M. Which countries spend the most on research and development, The World Economic Forum, Jul 9 2015

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THE ART OF DEALERSHIP IN TODAY’S ECONOMY

Reetika Madaan Department of Business Administration Bajaj College, Ludhiana (Affiliated to Panjab University) Chandigarh

INTRODUCTION

A dealer is the back-bone member and arteries of channel of distribution. FMCG sector makes use of multiple terms like dealer, distributor, authorized wholesale distributor, and stockist which all refer to the same term ‘dealer’. The main function of dealer is (a) buying products from manufacturer, (b) safe storage of products, and (c) moving the products to their specified market. Beyond these functions the dealer should have responsibilities related to their products. Even though the product is good, it may fail in a particular market. The same may be successful in some other markets. Dealers make it possible through their extended activities. This article tries to bring out the salient features which can make a dealer of fast moving consumer goods (FMCG) successful and which can also be used as a checklist for a dealer to self-evaluate himself.

1. Availability of Stock

Every dealer has a bundle of product mix. The dealer should stock right from the fast moving item down to any specific item needed by retailer. If a dealer reduces the closing stock it is difficult to supply the retailers with the wanted stock. This ultimately affects the movement of the product.

2. Order Taking Frequency

Each area is divided into segments called beats. Each beat will have a minimum of 40 shops and an up market area with a higher sales

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volume should have coverage of once in two days, whereas a suburban market will have coverage of once a week. The dealer should have the route chart of his salesman's beat in a visible location in his office.

3. General Procedures

A dealer will have a combination of different company products. If the same salesman approaches the retailers with products from different companies, it will create confusion in the minds of the retailers. Hence, a separate salesman should be appointed to represent the products of each company. Separate delivery conveyance, separate order taking, separate bills collection procedure will enhance a better service to retailers.

4. Stock Delivery

The standard norm is that any order should be serviced within six hours. In some cases immediate stock replenishments will be needed by retailers. If such feasibilities can be successfully worked out by the dealer then it creates a win situation for both of them.

5. Trade Load Offer Distribution (Scheme Delivery)

All companies provide retailer based TLO through dealers. Most of the dealers make an extra profit by not operating the TLO properly, the reason being the fact that the retailer has no chance of knowing what TLOs are being provided by the company. If the TLOs are being operated by the dealer in an honest manner then higher sales can be achieved.

6. Credit Offer

Cash and carry sales should be accompanied by cash discount. For shops which are not able to pay immediately they should be provided a limited period credit even without expecting support from the company. If credit is extended by the company then full credit should be provided for the valid period, if possible, an extra period also.

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7. Payment Collection Policy

The standard time norm for collection is after 17.00 hrs. On any applicable day. The collection may be daily, weekly, fortnight, bill to bill or monthly but is specific for each retailer. A dealer has to follow all these methods if he has to satisfy each and every retailer. Collection is done by employees who often finish this routine by 21.00 hours. Certain retailers (especially bakeries) are usually 128 B. Karthikeyan et al. / Indian Management Studies Journal 12 (2008) 127-131 willing to pay the collection after 22.00 hours only. Hence, necessary care has to be taken in case of such retailers.

8. Merchandising

The art of merchandising is to create a visibility for the product. The internal merchandising method includes danglers, streamers and related point of purchase materials and in-shop painting. The dealer should provide the retailer with these points of purchase materials. The dealer should locate the places of utmost visibility in town and force the company to provide hoardings and wall paintings in such places. The dealer should get merchandiser from the company or use its own personnel to develop these external pull factors.

9. Damage Return

Some dealers clear the return stocks (unsold, expiry dated and packing damaged) every month, whereas some allow the materials to stay for a year before taking return. When the return stock is being taken regularly the retailer gets a psychological boost to stock a larger volume of product. The return can be taken back in two methods :

(1) Bill Reduction

(2) Stock Replacement.

The damaged stocks should be maintained in a separate place and destroyed according to company procedures and Government rules

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without affecting environment. There are instances where ignorance of destroying procedure on the part of dealers have ended in creating an environment hazard.

10. Maintaining Relationship with Retailers

The dealer should develop a lasting relationship with the retailers. The dealer should arrange company visits for the retailers, conduct exhibition and in-shop sales, frequently conduct display contest, and motivate the retailers. The dealer can plan to invite company authorities and make the officials to meet the retailers. It will help retailers to make in person enquiries about product complaints and necessary suggestions can be implemented. (mushtaq, may 21 2015)

11. Data Management

The dealer should maintain the details of a minimum of five years sales targets and achieved targets. Such details should also be available month-wise and product-wise. The dealer should also be able to ascertain the potential of select retail outlets, their purchase capacity details and their scope for improvement. This data will help to know the development that can be had every year. (Pinto, October 25, 2014)

12. Information to Company and Retailers

The dealer should do market research and find out competitor activities. He should devise strategies to overcome competitor's moves; and this information should be used as an opportunity for seasonal sales. The dealers are the right people to inform the company about new product introduction and offer details. The product quality and packing complaints of products, if any, should be informed to the company. Most of the new product ideas are initiated by the dealers.

13. Infrastructure Facilities

The dealer should have necessary infrastructure facilities like the communication equipments, air conditioners when necessary. Vehicles,

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tricycles, computers, billing equipments, name board so as to maintain and distribute the products to the satisfaction of the retailers. The products especially food items should be stored in a hygienic way.

14. Investments

The dealer should have proper investment policies. Even if the company has a basket of different products it should be capable of making investment so as to make products of appropriate quantity available at the right place and at the right time.

15. Ethical Practices

The dealer should deal with areas which are within his boundaries. The dealer should not engage in counter-sales, i.e. the dealer should not make retail sales from his dealership establishment. The dealer should not play with schemes to increase his profit. The dealer should not engage in undercutting market by illegally transferring products from another area where high schemes are being operated. The dealer should preferably desist from stocking competitive products. The dealer should pay the government whatever taxes are due.

16. Innovative Sales Methods

The dealer should rather than the usual retail sales try to implement innovative sales like industrial sales, local government orders, in-shop sales and festival sales. It will give extra sales and also it will create awareness among the consumers.

CONCLUSION

A dealer should make use of all the above-said aspects and even if he is lagging in one aspect it will have an impact on the movement of products. This affects the brand name of the product, the relationship with the retailer, the distribution of other products of the dealer which results in a decline in the profit margin of the dealer. If a dealer finds a salesman ineffective he can arrange for training. A dealer who can

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satisfy these aspects when he manages a small company gives himself a chance to be appointed the dealer of a bigger or a multinational company. Dealership is a difficult job but the one who follows all these aspects can make dealership an enjoyable profession.

References

1. Mushtaq, O. (May 21 2015). 6 Proven Techniques To Increase Sales. Http://Www.Alphagamma.Eu/.

2. Pinto, V. S. (October 25, 2014). E-Commerce And Fmcg Stay Out Of Each Other's Way, But Only Just. Http://Www.Business- Standard.Com/.

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GREEN MANUFACTURING AND USE OF ANALYTICAL NETWORK PROCESS (ANP) DECISION TOOL IN GREEN MANUFACTURING

Ravinder Kumar Yogesh Sharma M.Tech Student Assistant Professor CBS Group of Institutions CBS Group of Institutions Jhaajar ,Haryana Jhaajar, Haryana

INTRODUCTION:

Manufacturing plays a very strategic role in an organization, especially to build competitive advantage and improve performance. With rapid changes in technology, customer needs and globalization, manufacturing itself is constantly transforming and evolving. The beginning of the century saw the automobile industry introduce the mass production techniques which revolutionized manufacturing processes. Over the years the need for meeting individualistic customer demands without compromising productivity or quality, brought about the introduction of flexible and mass customization techniques. The fig. 1.1 below shows this change in manufacturing philosophies with time.

Fig. 1.1 Change in Manufacturing Philosophies

Recent volatility in the price of fossil fuels and global awareness about the finite nature of our resources is creating the need for a more sustainable way of how we produce and use. Therefore the focus is now on Green Manufacturing (Environment Conscious Manufacturing), green manufacturing itself is not new. The concept has been around for

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a couple of decades, but has never received much attention from manufacturers except for participation in seminars and scoring well in polls and surveys. However recent trends show that with the heightened focus on climate change, a transformation of mindset is happening and so positive action is now finally imminent. The basic concept of environment conscious manufacturing or green manufacturing and its impact on manufacturing can be understood from the fig. 1.2 shown below. Both the environmental impact and manufacturing are related with the environmental conscious manufacturing.

Fig. 1.2 Concept of Environment Conscious Manufacturing

METHODOLOGY:

The term green manufacturing was coined to reflect the new manufacturing paradigm that employs various green strategies and techniques to become more eco-efficient. These strategies include creating products/systems that consumes less material and energy, substituting input materials (e.g. non-toxic for toxic, renewable for non- renewable), reducing unwanted outputs and converting outputs to inputs (recycling). Although interest in green manufacturing is increasing more and more within the research and industrial communities, a clear description of what is meant by this term is becoming more essential. So until and unless the decision tools are not applied in the results the accuracy can never be achieved so the use of integrated decision tools will improve the findings base.

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There are numerous factors which affect the environment and the selection of these factors is critical criteria for any organization if it wants to implement environment conscious manufacturing (ECM). Here in this work five major categories are selected namely research and product design, waste control, packaging control, manufacturing control and quality control for the evaluation of the ECM. These five major factors are subdivided into 31 factors on which ECM depends. However there are many other factors which are also affecting the environment but the time limit do not allow studying all those factors and so limited numbers of factors are choosing and then decision tool is applied on them to find out the result. Let us first discuss about the factors on which the whole ECM process depends.

Table 3.1 Factors Description

GOAL ASSESSMENT DIMENSIONS FACTORS CODE Energy Savings of Products E S O P Health & Safety H S Proportion of Product Reuse P O P R Proportion of RESEARCH & DESIGN Product Recycling P O P R C PROCESS Conformity with Eco-Concept C W E C Simplification &

Standardization SS Reliability & Durability RD Staff with Eco- Awareness S W E A Pollution from Product P F P Proportion of Waste WASTE CONTROL Renewable Products P O W R P Ability to Minimize A T M W A M Waste and T U ENVIRONMENTAL CONSCIOUS MANUFACTURING (ECM) (ECM) MANUFACTURING CONSCIOUS ENVIRONMENTAL

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Maximize the Utility Management of Waste Classification M O W C Waste Reduction Rate of Production Facilities W R R P F Application of Foolproof Devices A O F D Production Automation P A Packaging Simplification P S Ease of Disintegration E O D I Application of Product Intensified Packaging A O P I P PACKAGING Proportion of Non- CONTROL Packaging P O N P Additional Processing of Packaging Materials A P O P M Inspection Pass Rate of Green Part I P R O G P Green Procurement Capabilities G P C MANUFACTURING Environmental CONTROL Pollution During Production EPDP Environmental- Related Injury to Operator ERITP Capabilities of Pollution Prevention During Production COPPDP Waste Reduction Capabilities WRC Energy Efficiency During Production EEDP QUALITY CONTROL Ability to Obtain Green Certification ATOGC Customer Satisfaction With CSWRTGD

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Respect to Green Demand Ability to Identify Flawed Green Product ATIFGP Compliance With Outsourcing Regulations For Green Products CWORFGD

ANP BASIC MODEL

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Table 3.2 Ranking for Questionnaire 1 Equal 2 Between Equal and Moderate 3 Moderate 4 Between Moderate and Strong 5 Strong 6 Between Strong and Very Strong 7 Very Strong 8 Between Very Strong and Extreme 9 Extreme Decimal judgments, such as 3.5, are allowed for fine tuning, and judgments greater than 9 may be entered, though it is suggested that they be avoided.

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RESULT:

As it is well known that different factors possess different priorities with relation to the environmental conscious manufacturing so in order to have a wider reach over them, the priorities are easily predicted using the super decisions software. The inputs to the priorities are filled by various questionnaire prepared during our course of study. Their inconsistency index is also mentioned in the fig with

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desired value. This priority table help the researchers to judge the relative importance between all these factors and based on the judgement the decision is made for environmental manufacturing. The priority defer from category to category as the expectation/desires differs from person to person, category to category therefore the priorities for the different categories are discussed below one by one. Also the priority for entire group/model is discussed.

Category Rank Percentage Importance Waste Control 1st 38.23% Research and Design 2nd 20.38% Process Packaging Control 3rd 14.04% Manufacturing Control 4th 13.93% Quality Control 5th 13.40%

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CONCLUSION:

Based on considerable data from ECM practices and feasible industrial methods, while incorporating comments from experts in relevant fields, this work here developed assessment model and evaluate factors, followed by a calculation the weights of evaluating factors via ANP. Finally, the model is used for extracting successful factors of implementing ECM in any organizational system. Based on the results of this study, the following conclusion points can be drawn:

1. The proposed model contains 5 strategic factors, i.e. research & design process, waste control, packaging control, manufacturing control and quality control and 31 assessment factors/sub factors.

For strategic subjects, based on evidential analysis, the importance of assessment factors from each category can be seen judged from the result and the relative importance for five main categories can be judged from the fig 5.1 shown below

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FUTURE WORK:

The environmental problems are increasing day by day and environment conscious manufacturing is best solution to those problems. But the environment and market is dynamic they changes time to time so it require to use new techniques to find out the best solution/alternate. The researchers, academicians, scholars and industrialist are already working on this field but there is still some gap and a lot of work is required to remove this gap. Today environmental conscious manufacturing (ECM) is implemented by many of the organization and others are working to implement due to the global pressure, to handle this pressure ECM requires to evaluate/upgrade timely.

As new technology comes daily and this required to upgrade the system to get the benefits from that technology. This required the researchers to implement new techniques on the ECM so that better results are obtained. Analytical Network Process (ANP) also provides good result but it also have certain limitations so new factors evaluation is always needed with new techniques. Also it is more beneficial to obtain the factors which affect the ECM through some research and to monitor the actual impact of the factors to get more reliable and accurate result.

The ANP is widely applied in project selection, strategic decision making, optimal scheduling and many other fields to find the solution for particular problem. But there are certain limitations of ANP like problem of uncertainty, problem to quantify the precise ratio of weights between criteria, problem of fuzzy sets concept and other problem which needs improvement in future.

References

1) Ahmed M.Dief Industrial system engineering- University of Regina A System Model for Green Manufacturing.

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2) Anastas P. T. and Zimmerman J. B. (2007), Design through the 12 principles of green engineering, Engineering Management Review, IEEE, Vol.35(3), 2007, pp. 16-18. 3) Anastas, P. T., Zimmerman J. B. (2007), Design through the 12 principles of green engineering. Engineering Management Review, IEEE, Vol. 35, no. 3, may 2007, pp.16-19. 4) Baoju H., Jian L. (2011) Virtual Green Manufacturing and its Application in manufacturing, International Conference on advanced manufacturing technology new requirements to China's manufacturing, Vol.11, no.5, june 2011, pp.244-248. 5) Carmen N. C., Sofia E. C., Stefan B. (2011), An AHP approach to evaluate the implementation of WEEE management systems, Recent Researches in Environment, Energy Planning and Pollution, Vol. 12, march 2011, pp. 978-982. 6) Field J.M., Sroufe R.P. (2002) The Use of Recycled Materials in Manufacturing: Implications for Supply Chain Management and Operations Strategy, Vol. 12, no.5, august 2002. 7) Francis, F. (2009), Environmentally conscious quality function deployment - A new approach for green manufacturing, International Conference on Advances in Computational Tools for Engineering Applications, Vol. 10, 15-17 July 2009, pp.340-343. 8) Fresner, J., J. Jantschgi, (2006), The theory of inventive problem solving (TRIZ) as option generation tool within cleaner production projects, Journal of Cleaner Production, Vol. 18, 2006, pp.128-136. 9) Gary G. B., Paul R. M. (2009) Lean Manufacturers’ Transcendence to Green Manufacturing, Industrial Engineering Research Conference, Vol. 23, no.5, may 2009, pp. 336-370. 10) Gencer C., Gurpinar D. (2006) Analytic network process in supplier selection: a case study in an electronic firm, Applicable Math Model, Vol. 31, no.11, May 2006, pp.2475–2486. 11) Genevois M. E., I. Bereketli (2009), Green product design for EEE, International Conference on Future Computers & Industrial Engineering, 2009. 12) Jiang, Z. and H. Zhang (2006), A vector projection method to evaluating machine tool alternatives for green manufacturing, Technology and Innovation Conference, 2006. 13) Ji-hong Z., Jun-guang (2009),Study progress on the cleaner production and environmental management system of ISO14000, International Conference on Future Bio Medical Information Engineering, Vol.9, june 2009, pp 23- 27. 14) Ji-hong Z., Jun-guang, (2009), Study progress on the cleaner production and environmental management system of ISO14000, International

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Conference on Future Bio Medical Information Engineering, Vol. 5, may 2009. 15) Liang, D. H. (2012) Cloud Computing and Green Management, International Conference on Intelligent System Design and Engineering Application, Vol. 7, 6-7 Jan. 2012, pp.639-642. 16) Panyaluck U. (2004), Roadmap to green supply chain electronics: Design for manufacturing implementation and management, International IEEE Conference on Asian Green Electronics (AGEC), Vol. 45, March 2004, pp.169-173. 17) Rao R. V., Bleicher F., Singh D., Kalyankar V., Dorn C. (2011) Selecting environmentally conscious manufacturing program using combinatorial mathematics approach, International Journal of Production Research, Vol. 46, 20-21 Sep 2011, pp. 4011-4033. 18) Rusinko C. A., (2007) Green Manufacturing: An Evaluation of Environmentally Sustainable Manufacturing, IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, Vol. 54, no. 3, august 2007. 19) Saaty T.L., (2005), Theory and applications of the analytic network process: decision making with benefits, opportunities, costs and risks, IEEE Conference, 2005. 20) Sangwan K. S., (2006), Performance value analysis for justification of green manufacturing systems, Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Systems, Vol.5, no.1, 2006, pp.59-73. 21) Sharma, A., S. K. Ong, et al. (1999). Technology and innovation management strategies for green manufacturing, Management of Engineering and Technology, Vol. 7, may 1999. 22) Tan X. C., Liu F., Cao H. J., Zhang H., (2002), A decision-making framework model of cutting fluid selection for green manufacturing and a case study, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol.129, 2002, pp.467-470. 23) Xianlin W., Zhang H., Jiajia S. (2009) Multi-objective Decision-Making and Combination Evaluation of Green Manufacturing Enterprises, Information Management, Innovation Management and Industrial Engineering, Vol. 4, 26-27 Dec. 2009, pp. 631 – 634. 24) Xiaozhen W. (2009), Connotation and Architecture of Green Production Logistics in Manufacturing Enterprises, International Conference on Environmental Science and Information Application Technology, Vol.1, 4-5 July 2009, pp.279-282. 25) Xiuyan J. (2009), Comprehensive Evaluation on Green Productions Based on TOPSIS Methodology, International Conference on Information Management and Industrial Engineering, Vol.1, 26-27 Dec. 2009, pp. 570- 572.

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26) Yinsheng Y., Guang H., Xueyi G., Ryoichi Y. (2003) Greenness Assessment of Products in PLCA by DEA Approach, Japan Institute of Metals, Vol. 44, no. 4, 2002, pp. 645-648. 27) Zanakis, S.H., Solomonb A., Wisharta N., Dublishc S. (1998) Multi- attribute decision making: A simulation comparison of select methods, European Journal of Operational Research, Vol. 107, no. 3, 16 June 1998, pp. 507–529. 28) Zhang Q., Min L. (2009) Research on Green Supply Chain Construction and Operation of Automobile Enterprise, International Conference on Information Science and Engineering, Vol.7, July 2009, pp. 978-982. 29) Zhang Y. (2010) Research on Development & Application of Information Resources of Green Manufacturing Enterprise, International Conference on Information Management, Innovation Management and Industrial Engineering, Vol. 3, march 2010, pp. 130-134. 30) Zhonghua, Y., Zhaowei W. (2006), Study on the integration of green manufacture and total quality management, International Conference on Technology and Innovation Conference, Vol. 8, 6-7 Nov. 2006, pp. 745-748. 31) Zhongling Z., Xiwen F. (2010) The research and practice of green production and recycling economy in gold mine enterprise, International Conference on Information Management and Engineering, Vol. 5, 16-18 April 2010, pp.518-522. 32) Zhou M. (2011), Simulation based analysis for selection and evaluation of green manufacturing strategies, International Conference on service Systems and Service Management, Vol. 10, 25-27 June 2011, pp.1-6. 33) Zhou X., Zhang Q.S., Zhang M., Li X., (2008), Research on evaluation and development of green product design project in manufacturing industry, International Conference on Wireless Communications, Networking and Mobile Computing, 2008. 34) Zhu A. (2007) Research on deployed issues of green degree about green product, Chinese National Natural Science Foundation research and development about appraisal system of manufacturing green product, 2007.

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JUVENILE JUSTICE AFTER THE DELHI GANG RAPE

Dr Nutakki Sateesh Child Rights Activist Andhra Pradesh

The hallmark of culture and advance of civilization consists in the fulfillment of our obligation to the generation by opening up all opportunities for every child to unfold its personality and rise to its full stature, physical, mental, moral and spiritual. It is the birth right of every child that cries for justice from the world as a whole.

Justice V.R. Krishna Iyer

The juvenile justice system in India contemplates the legal response with respect to two categories of children, namely those who are 'in conflict with law' (an individual under the age of 18 years who is accused of committing an offence); and those 'in need of care and protection' (children from deprived and marginalized sections of society as well as those with different needs and vulnerabilities). The juvenile justice policy in India is structured around the Constitutional mandate prescribed in the language of Articles 15(3), 39 (e) & (f), 45 and 47, as well as several international covenants, such as the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) and the UN Standard Minimum Rules for Administration of Juvenile Justice (Beijing Rules).

Juvenile Justice Act of 1986, Section 2(a) defined the term juvenile as a "boy who has not attained the age of 16 years and a girl who has not attained the age of 18 years" but later on the parliament enacted Juvenile Justice Act, 2000 (herein after 'JJ Act') and the age bar was raised to 18 years for both girl and boy. The JJ Act, 2000 lays down that juvenile in conflict with law may be kept in an observation home while children in need of care and protection need to be kept in a children home during the pending of proceedings before the competent

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authority. This provision is in contradistinction with the earlier Acts which provided for keeping all children in an observation home during the pending of their proceedings, presuming children to be innocent till proved guilty. The maximum detention could be imposed on a juvenile is for 3 years remand to Special Home irrespective of the gravity of offence committed by him and JJ Act, 2000 immunes the child who is less than 18 Years of age at the time of the commission of the alleged offence and from trial through Criminal Court or any punishment under Criminal Law in view of Section 17 of the Juvenile Act.

The JJ Act was passed in 2000 with the purpose of incorporating into domestic law India’s obligations under international law as a signatory of the U.N. Convention on the Rights of the Child of 1989, the U.N. Standard Minimum Rules for Administration of Juvenile Justice 1985 (known as the “Beijing Rules”) and the U.N. Rules for the Protection of Juveniles Deprived of their Liberty 1990. Underlying these international texts is the legal philosophy that juveniles lack the physical and mental maturity to take responsibility for their crimes, and because their character is not fully developed, they still have the possibility of being rehabilitated.

As per the reports of the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) entitled ‘Crime in India 2011’ and ‘Crime in India 2012’ the percentage of crimes committed by juveniles as compared to total crimes has not significantly increased from 2001-2012. According to the NCRB statistics, India is not in the throes of a general crime wave by juveniles. However, the NCRB statistics relating to violent crimes by juveniles against women are very troubling. “Crime in India 2011” suggests the number of rapes committed by juveniles has more than doubled over the past decade from 399 rapes in 2001 to 858 rapes in 2010. “Crime in India 2012” records that the total number of rapes committed by juveniles more than doubled from 485 in 2002 to 1149 in 2011. As the data suggests, between 2011 and 2012 alone, there was a

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massive increase in instances of rape by juveniles by nearly 300, which is almost as much as the increase in such cases over the entire previous decade.

It is vital for the authorities involved in the juvenile justice system to build effective partnerships with civil society. Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO’s) have the capacity to provide community-based life-skills programs, ‘group counseling’, community work opportunities, and open ‘custody group homes’ for children in conflict with law. Voluntary sector organizations can thus help the governmental agencies to engineer a substantial shift towards non-custodial alternatives for corrective measures involving juveniles.

Juvenile Law in Other Countries

Get Tough Approach in U.S.A

In most U.S. States, the jurisdiction of juvenile courts is automatically waived when a juvenile above a certain age, usually 13 or 15, commits a violent or other serious crime, and the case is automatically transferred to adult court. A certification hearing takes place and an adult court prosecutor is required to convince the adult court that the case should be transferred. The juvenile is entitled to an attorney at the hearing and to present any evidence which mitigates against the transfer. For example, in Indiana, South Dakota and Vermont, children as young as 10 can be tried as adults. California’s Proposition 21 which was passed in 2000 allows prosecutors to automatically try juveniles who commit felonies as adults. Under Michigan’s Juvenile Waiver Law passed in 1997, juveniles can automatically be tried as adults. Till now many juvenile offenders have been executed under capital punishment but in 2005 Supreme Court of U.S.A in the case of Roper v. Simmons, held that it is unconstitutional to impose capital punishment for crimes committed while under the age of 18.

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United Kingdom

In U.K child between 10 to 18 years becomes criminally responsible for his action and be tried by the Youth Court and could be tried in an adult court as per the gravity of the offence committed. Similar to the idea of U.S.A., the U.K. is also working on the concept of ‘youth court’. The Crown Court can also give “extended sentence” to a minor. If a youth is jointly charged with an adult, the charge is heard and tried by a regular court. If the youth is found guilty, the Crown Court can impose a sentence which does not exceed the maximum sentence applicable to an offender who is 21 years or older. Therefore, in both the U.S. and the U.K., juveniles who commit violent crimes such as rape are prosecuted in the same manner as adults.

Delhi Gang Rape Case

The recent gang rape of a 23-year old girl in New Delhi, India raised a lot of pertinent questions in the minds of the public. People across the country reacted with rage and hurt and collectively came together to start a movement for the safety of women in India. In the midst of this agitation, the media shared details about a young boy whose odious acts of violence further sculpted public opinion. The people of India called for amendments in the juvenile justice system by reducing the age of juveniles to 16 years (currently 18 years) whilst child rights organizations/activists argued to adhere to the present justice system for children.

All the accused were arrested and charged with sexual assault and murder. One of the accused, who was a juvenile, was convicted of rape and murder and given the maximum sentence of three years' imprisonment in a reform facility, as per the JJ act. It was the conviction of this juvenile in this case, which raised the hue and cry for lowering down the age of juvenile from 18 to 16. In the 33-page charge sheet, the Delhi Police described the juvenile as the most brutal of the

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six accused. The accused was declared as 17 years and six months old on the day of the crime by the Juvenile Justice Board (JJB), which relied on his birth certificate and school documents. The JJB rejected a police request for a bone ossification (age determination) test for a positive documentation of his age.

On 28th January, the juvenile was declared to be a juvenile by the JJB. A petition moved by Janata Party president Subramanian Swamy seeking the prosecution of the minor as an adult because of the ghastly nature of his alleged crime was rejected by the JJB. The minor was tried separately in a juvenile court. On 31st August, the juvenile was convicted of rape and murder under the Juvenile Justice Act and given the maximum sentence of three years' imprisonment in a reform facility, inclusive of the eight months he spent in remand during the trial.

Against the Amendment

The basic aim behind the enactment of the JJ Act as well as forming up of the Juvenile Justice Boards was to reform the offenders and not to punish them. The basic aim and approach with which the JJBs are supposed to work is to somehow reform the child and not to punish him like the other courts. If only this is to be done by the JJBs, then there was no need to set up boards like JJBs, the same was already being done in a very nice manner by our judicial courts of law. The basic ideology for enacting an act with such type of differential approach was to save children from devastating ill-effects of criminalization, penalization and stigmatization, in short, the ‘welfare’ of the children and not to punish them. There was no concrete data to prove that stiff punishment resulted in the lowering of the crime rate anywhere in the world.

It is argued by some, mainly the Superintendents and staff of Observation Homes and Special Homes, that due to the increase in the

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age of boy juveniles under the 2000 Act, a much larger number of juveniles in conflict with law are entering the juvenile justice system, therefore, the existing infrastructure is insufficient to cope with this added burden. Some officials have publicly demanded that the age of the boy juvenile be reduced to 16 years. This demand is irrational and defeatist and can never be entertained. It is essential to understand that reducing the age to 16 is not an option. Furthermore, statistics belie this contention. Statistics denote an initial growth in the juvenile crime rate in 2001, but the same soon thereafter stabilized. The following figures have been reproduced from Crime in India published annually by National Crime Records Bureau, Ministry of Home Affairs, and Government of India.

India is a signatory to the UNCRC which mandates the age of a child to be below 18 years. Countries all over the world use this definition. India too, defines a child between the ages of 0-18 years. By law, he/she is not allowed to vote, sign a contract or engage a lawyer because he /she is not considered mature enough to make such decisions. Neuroscience proves in more ways than one, that an adolescent is at an age where he/she is not mature enough to understand the consequences of his/her actions. He/she is still vulnerable and can live a normal healthy adult life if allowed to undergo reformation through corrective measures. Our reluctance to acknowledge and prevent issues that cause children to turn to crime is a detriment to society. Why not have the State take responsibilities for their duty as care takers to our children? Proper guidance, corrective treatment, education, healthcare etc gives a child a chance to reform. It is the responsibility of the community and state to provide these facilities to a child in order to increase the possibility of a better life. Instead, children are sent to remand homes, observation homes etc where they are subject to various forms of abuse. How then is a child supposed to grow up normal if provisions made for him/her lead him to further crime? Most children have hope for reformation.

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With adhering to current juvenile justice laws, we give our children hope for a better life.

Repercussions

Lowering the age of the juvenile, which mainly came into the spotlight after the ‘Nirbhaya’ i.e. Delhi gang rape case is more of an emotional issue than a legal issue as of now. Public demanding the lowering the age is mainly carried of their emotions related to the Delhi gang rape case and is ignoring the other side of the coin, i.e. the repercussions it can have on the other juveniles in the country.

Girls under the age of 18 years, who are forced to work in brothels, at present, are rescued and rehabilitated under the Juvenile Justice Act, but once the age is reduced to 16, police will arrest them and charge them with prostitution for no fault of theirs. The reduction of age would certainly help the police as homeless juveniles are easy targets for them and can be easily implicated in false cases.

In terms of the definition of a child, India doesn't have uniformity even though it is a signatory to the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), 1989, Article 1, which clearly states a child means every human being below the age of 18 years. In India, majority is attained at 18. But, a child labourer is a person below the age of 14. The Constitution of India, in the Fundamental Rights and the Directive Principles of State Policy, prohibits child labour below the age of 14 years; a person can have consensual sex at 16 but can marry only at 18 and consume alcohol only when he/she turns 25. Amending the age of a juvenile at such a stage under the JJ Act, when we have such ambiguous laws can for sure lead to disturbance in the other laws.

Therefore, we should not rush into a decision under pressure of the societal outrage resulting from a single incident, but should give into more thoughts before actually making the amendment. The age should be decided not on the basis of knowledge but on the basis of culpable

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mind. The basic idea behind enacting the JJ Act kind of law was to protect the juvenile offenders for their illegal and wrongful acts done under innocence and non awareness of the consequences.

Besides, having many other reasons, one of the reasons which may be counted as for not reducing the age of the juvenile is that it may lead to throwing open of the gate for frivolous complaints and FIRs, leading to the creation of another problem.

Supreme Court on the Issue

The Supreme Court of India earlier on 18th January, 2013 issued notice to Union government on a public interest litigation petition seeking a direction to amend the Juvenile Justice Act. The petition called for amending the Act to insert a provision whereby an exception is mentioned regarding the non-applicability of the Act, qua juvenility, depending upon the facts and circumstances of a particular case, irrespective of the age of the accused i.e. below 18 years. A Bench of Justices K.S. Radhakrishnan and Deepak Misra also issued notice to the Delhi government on the petition filed by advocate Salil Bali. It also issued notice on another petition filed by novelist and computer engineer Shilpa Arora Sharma that sought the appointment of a criminal psychologist to determine through clinical and medical examination if the juvenile accused in the case would be a threat to society and women if allowed to walk free.

However, the hon’ble apex court on 17th of July, 2013 dismissed a batch of petitions seeking a direction to the Centre to take steps to make changes in the Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act 2000 to ensure that juveniles be tried under normal law in offences like rape and murder. The petitions also demanded that protection to juveniles under the Act be removed.

A three-judge Bench of incumbent Chief Justice Altamas Kabir, and Justices S.S. Nijjar and J. Chelameswar, while rejecting the batch of

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petitions, also did not accept the plea that the investigating agency be permitted to keep records of the juvenile offenders, and take preventive measures to ensure that repeat offenders were brought to justice.

Writing the judgment, the incumbent Chief Justice said: “There is little doubt that the incident (the Delhi gang rape) which occurred on the night of December16, 2012, was not only gruesome, but almost maniacal in its content, wherein one juvenile, was involved. But such an incident, in comparison to the vast number of crimes occurring in India, makes it an aberration rather than the rule.”

The Bench said ‘If what has come out from the reports of the Crime Records Bureau is true, then the number of crimes committed by juveniles comes to about 2% of the country’s crime rate. The JJ Act is in tune with the provisions of the Constitution and the various Declarations and Conventions adopted by the world community represented by the United Nations. The basis of fixing of the age till when a person could be treated as a child at 18 years in the JJ Act was Article 1 of the Convention of the Rights of the Child. The age limit, which was raised from 16 to 18 years in the JJ Act, is a decision which was taken by the Government, which is strongly in favour of retaining Sections 2(k) and 2(l) in the manner in which it exists in the statute book.’ The Bench said that a misunderstanding of the law relating to sentencing of juveniles needed to be corrected.

The general understanding, the court said, was that a juvenile guilty of a heinous offence could be allowed to go free on his attaining the age of 18 years. The Bench made it clear that even if a juvenile attained the age of 18 years within a period of one year, he would still have to undergo a sentence of three years. The Bench pointed out that the essence of the Juvenile Justice Act is ‘restorative and not retributive, providing for rehabilitation and reintegration of children in conflict with law into the mainstream society.’

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‘The age of 18 has been fixed on account of the understanding of experts in child psychology and behavioral patterns that till such an age the children in conflict with law could still be redeemed and restored to mainstream society, instead of becoming hardened criminals in future.’

Justice Verma Committee on the Issue

On 22nd December 2012, a judicial committee headed by J. S. Verma, a former Chief Justice of India, was appointed by the Central government to submit a report, within 30 days, to suggest amendments to criminal law to sternly deal with sexual assault cases.

The committee in its report submitted that assuming that a person at the age of 16 is sent to life imprisonment, he would be released sometimes in the mid-30s. There is little assurance that the convict would emerge a reformed person, who will not commit the same crime that he was imprisoned for (or, for that matter, any other crime). The attempt made by Ms. Kiran Bedi to reform Tihar Jail inmates was, and continues to be, a successful experiment. But we are afraid that that is only a flash in the pan. Our jails do not have reformatory and rehabilitation policies. We do not engage with inmates as human beings. We do not bring about transformation. We, therefore, breed more criminals including juveniles in our prison and reformatory system by ghettoing them in juvenile homes and protective homes where they are told that the State will protect and provide for them, but which promise is a fruitless one. We are of the view that the 3 year period (for which delinquent children are kept in the custody of special home) is cause for correction with respect to the damage done to the personality of the child. We are completely dissatisfied with the operation of children's' institutions and it is only the magistrate (as presiding officer of the Juvenile Justice Board) who seems to be taking

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an interest in the situation. The sheer lack of counselors and therapy has divided the younger society into 'I 'and 'them'.

Conclusion

The researcher at the end stands completely in support of the apex court decision that reducing the age of the juvenile under the JJ Act is not the solution to the problem. Instead of reducing the age, we should try to remove the very root cause of the problem i.e. mould our juveniles in such a way and provide them with such an atmosphere that they don’t commit crime at the very first step itself. We should not forget that the essence of the Juvenile Justice Act is “restorative and not retributive, providing for rehabilitation and reintegration of children in conflict with law into the mainstream society.”

Undoubtedly, juveniles in conflict with law and children in need of care and protection are defenseless and they need special protection. The state guarantees special treatment to them through statutory law. However, in practice, they often get victimized by legal and procedural entanglements. They are more prone to human rights violations at the hands of state agencies, their own family and community in the form of arbitrary detention, cruel punishments, torture and abuse. The best solution is to provide proper care and help to juveniles so that they don't turn into criminals. The Juvenile Justice Act is comprehensive and if implemented honestly can curb incidents like Delhi gang rape by providing timely help to juveniles who might turn into criminals. The problem is not with the act but with its implementation.

References

1. Balancing the juvenile act, The Hindu on 9th Sept., 2013 by Aparna Vishwanathan. Plea to try juveniles under normal law rejected, The Hindu on 17th July, 2013 by J. Venkatesan. 2. Supreme Court notice to Centre on PIL to amend Juvenile Justice Act, The Hindu on 19th January, 2013 by J. Venkatesan.

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3. Lower age of juveniles for justice to victims, New Indian Express on 18th Sept. 2013. 4. Juvenile justice marriageable age juvenile crime, Times of India on 3rd Sept. 2013 by Maitreyee Boruah. 5. Bajpai, Asha, “Child Rights in India- Law, Policy & Practise”, 2nd ed., Oxford University Press, New Delhi: 2006. 6. Pachauri, S.K., “Children and Human Rights”, 1st ed., S.B. Nangia & A.P.H. Publishing Corporation, New Delhi: 1999. 7. Diwan, Paras; Peeyushi Diwan, “Children and Legal Protection”, 1st ed., Deep & Deep Publications, New Delhi: 1994. 8. Singh, Dolly, “Child Rights and Social Wrongs- An analysis of contemporary realities”, 3rd Vol., 1st ed., Kanishka Publishers: 2001. 9. Narayana, P.S. Justice; Anita B. Gogia, “Law relating to children in India”, 1st ed., Gogia Law Publications: 2007. 10. Juvenile Justice (Care & Protection of Children) Act 2000. 11. Should a 16-year-old be treated as an adult? The times of India, 3rd Sept. 2013. 12. Crime rate is defined as the “incident of crime” per 1,00,000 population. Juvenile crime rate is the number of juvenile crimes per 1,00,000 population. 13. JJA 2000 came into force on 1-4-2001. 14. Crime in India, National Crime Records Bureau, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. 15. http://www.dayafterindia.com/detail.php?headline=content&cat id=4340, retrieved on 18/12/2013. 16. Should a 16-year-old be treated as an adult? Times of India, 3rd September, 2013. 17. Supreme Court notice to Centre on PIL to amend Juvenile Justice Act”, The Hindu, 19th January, 2013. 18. Plea to try juveniles under normal law rejected, The Hindu, 18th July, 2013. 19. http://www.childlineindia.org.in/Must-we-or-must-wenot-reduce- the-age-of-a-juvenile-in-India-to-16-years.htm,retrieved on 18/12/ 2013.

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NEED TO RETHINK ON BIHAR STATUS OF BIMARU

Manoj Kumar Junior Research Scholar M.SC Geography (Kurukshetra University) Center for Tribal and Customary Law Central University of Jharkhand

INTRODUCTION The word BIMARU1 was coined by Ashish Bose in the mid 1980s.It has a resemblance to a Hindi word BIMAR which mean sick in English. The acronym BIMARU is used to describe the poor economics condition of the backward states of Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. Latter on Odisha was introduced in this list and the word became BIMAROU from BIMARU.Several studies by the Indian govt. and UNO showed that the performance of the above said BIMARU or BIMAROU states were dragging the development and growth rate of the country.

OBJECTIVES

 The objective of paper is to analyses the growth of Bihar, and contribution of Bihar in growth rate of India.

 Is Bihar still a BIMARU state?

 Measure taken for the development of Bihar in the field of Agriculture through scientific temperament.

METHODOLOGY

The paper deal with Humanism, place of meaning so that theoretical assumption, Data and analytic approaches has been used to enquire for gaining information regarding present position of Bihar in the term of BIMARU status.

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Present Status of Bihar

In recent times the Bihar state has given real push to Indian economy in terms of economy growth. Bihar contribution has been shown in Indian economy and their contribution is following:-

GROSS STATE DEMOSTIC PRODUCT

From 2006 – 2010 the GSDP of Bihar grew by 18%which was higher than the past 10 years and one of the highest recorded by the Govt.of that

period. For year 2014 -2015, Bihar is at 14th position and among 3rd2 top fastest growing states; they are Pondicherry, Madhya Pradesh and Bihar. Rank of Bihar is 8th among all states and union territories..

LITERACY

‘‘For the purpose of census any person who is seven and above, who can both read and write with understanding in any language, is treated as literate.’’3

The literacy rate of India is 74.04 percent according to the census of India, which show increase of 9.02 percent of 2001.the literacy rate of Bihar is 63.82 percent and position is 35 among the all state and union territories. Census of India divided all union territories and state among two groups’ i.e. EAG states and Non EAG states. In EAG categories Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Uttarakhand fall. The literacy rate in EAG categories Bihar hold first position and percentage is 74.83 and other state Jharkhand (59.24%), Uttar Pradesh (56.40 %), Rajasthan (40.68%) Chhattisgarh (39.61%), Madhya Pradesh (38.37%) Uttarakhand (37.05%) and Orissa (36.68) held last position.

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A recent survey is conducted by NEUPA and result show that the quality of education in Bihar is better than all state, so called BIMARU.

ANNUAL HEALTH SURVEY

Annual health survey (Second Bulletin) 2013-20144conducted by censuses of India among nine states i.e., Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Rajasthan, Chhattisgarh, Assam and Uttarakhand, there result is in the favour of Bihar.

.Bihar rank first in Crude Birth Rate among nine surveyed states i.e. is 26.1 per thousand. In Infant Mortality Rate it registered sharpest fall in nine surveyed states, it is 48 in last survey bulletin and 51 in 2011 -2012.

Bihar recorded the third lowest Neo-Natal Morality Rate (NNMR) of 32.NNMR is death of Infants within 28 days. Bihar ranks fifth highest in terms of death of children below five years of age. The phenomenon is known as Under-5 Mortality Rate (U5MR).

For the Annual Survey (second Bulletin) 2011-2012, Bihar Govt. is working well for the improvement of Health of their people and it is good among nine surveyed states. Bihar still needs to work harder for matching the national average.

AGRICULTUE

Geographical area of Bihar is about 93.60 lakh hectare ,out of which only 56.03lakh is the net cultivated area and gross cultivated area and gross cultivated area being 79.4lakh hectare, about 33.51 lakh hectare net area and 43.86lakh hectare gross are receive irrigation from different sources.5

The climate of Bihar is (Cwa). 6. The agriculture of Bihar is totally depend on Monsoon rain, partially depend on sone cannel and tube well.

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Based on soil characterization, rainfall, temperature, and terrain, four main agriculture zone have been identified. Zone I, North Alluvial plain, Zone II, North East Alluvial Plain, Zone III, South East Alluvial Plain, Zone IV, South West Alluvial Plain. Each zone has its own feature and prospects.

The principal agriculture crops paddy, white, jute, maize and oilseeds Cauliflower, cabbage, carrot, tomato, radish, beat etc more.

76 percent of Bihar people is employed in Agriculture sector and contribution of Bihar GDP is 22 percent.

MEASURES SUGGECT FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF BIHAR

 There is urgent need of more than dozen Agriculture Research Center for the ignite to Organic Green Revolution.

 Revamp of sugar Industry, on urgent basics. The Northern Bihar climate is suitable to produce sugarcane. The inputs are comparatively lesser than that of other states. Obsolete equipment and inadequate skills are the two factors which are driving towards the closing down of many sugar mills in Bihar.

 Like Punrasar Jute Park, more park need to open and also plan for jute handicraft, which shall generate employment.

 For resolving the drought like situation in north Bihar and south Bihar, there is need of interlinking of river and transfer of water to drought prone area.

 Along the east –west corridor need to develop new Industrial like sugar Industry, Jute Industry. Develops handicraft industry in Muzafurpur, because the east west corroder passes through this city by the state govt.

 Promote tourist Industry, around the Historical sites of Bihar.

 Develop fishing Industry along the various rivers of state.

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 Make suitable education policy to stop the brain drain

 Go for solar energy because abundant of solar rays available along the state throughout the year due to it latitude and longitudinal position.

 Huge investment in health sector.

 Last and not the least, make policy for do way the corruption from the state.

CONCLUSION

It is need to rethink Bihar is a BIMARU state, or not. The Work of the last 10 years reflects that stat e is growing in all fields. There is lot of capabilities in the State to contribute in the national GDP. Today contribution of Bihar peoples on all fields like Administrative services, Indian Army, Indian Air force, Indian Navy and Multi National Company. In the last, decayed the scenario of demographic is changing and it shall achieve the goal of became developed state.

Reference

1. Strahler.H.A & Strahler. N.A (2004),Modern Physical Geography,(4th edition),Singapore, Asia ,John Wiley &sons Pte Ltd.

2. Singh,G,(2014 Jan).A Geography of India,Agriculture,Fishing and Livestock,(7nd ed.,pp114-140),Delhi,India,Atma Ram &Sons.

3. CHANDRA. C.A, (2004), Geeography of Population, Population Canges (5th ed.,pp132-239), New Delhi, Kalyani Publishers.

4. Census of India , (2012-2013) Annual Health Survey fact sheet, Ministry of Home Affairs, Govt.of India.

5. Kohli.G(2014 Dec 30),Solar city in India,Patna,India.

th 6. 'Don't call them Bimaru states now'(2010 July 19 ),Hindustan Times.

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7. "BIMARU or bimari?".( 2005 Aug12),The Hindu. Notes

1. Bose, A. (2012), Alphascript publishing,

th 2. Govt. of India,(19 March 2015), Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation

3. Census of India,( 2011), our census and our future.Govt.of India, Ministry of Home Affairs

4. Annual Health Survey (2012-2013) fact sheet, Census of India, Govt. of India, Ministry of Home Affairs.

5. Department of Agriculture, Bihar Govt.

6. Koppen.W.P,The koppen classification of climate region.

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Ubah Adem Meder Dr. M. Sarada Devi Research Scholar Professor Department of Commerce and Department of Commerce and Management Studies Management Studies Andhra University Andhra University Visakhapatnam Visakhapatnam

Introduction

Ethiopia has 19 banks, of which 16 are privately owned, and they form the country’s main financial institutions. Access to financial services has been improving and the total number of bank branches reached 2208 in 2014 (about 34% of which are located in Addis Ababa, capital city), bringing the ratio of bank branches to population from 49675 to

39834. The total capital of the banking system is ETB 25.6 billion (USD 1.28 billion), of which private banks account for 53.9%. The Commercial Bank of Ethiopia, the biggest state-owned bank, accounted for 34.2% of the total capital of the banking system.1

Ethiopia’s banking sector is stable and sound. According to the IMF, the system-wide capital adequacy ratio stood at a comfortable rate of 17.5%, (well over the 8% requirement). Return on assets and return on equity showed solid performance, at 3.1% and 44.6%, respectively. The NBE regularly monitors adherence to Basel I capital adequacy requirements, and virtually all commercial banks have risk adjusted capital adequacy ratios well above the minimum requirement. The loan portfolio of banks also continues to be sound and the ratio of non- performing debt is currently below the 10% target (at about 2.1%). Growth in deposits has been robust and the share of savings and time

 Ethiopian currency is known as Birr, 1 Birr = $ 20.6938

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deposits in total deposits has risen. However, the financial sector remains shallow with a limited range of services. The financial sector remains closed to foreign participation and capital markets are non- existent. Lending is mainly collateral based and the vast majority of small entrepreneurs lack the necessary collateral. According to the 2014/15 Global Competitiveness Report, Ethiopia scored 3.3 out of 10 and ranked 120th out of 144 countries in financial market development, lower than the average of “factor driven economies”2.

Compared to most countries, Ethiopia has taken a cautious approach toward the liberalization of its banking industry. For all intents and purposes, its industry is closed and generally less developed than its regional peers. Currently, foreign Banks have shown interest to join Ethiopian banking sector for instance, Pan-African banking group, Ecobank has opened its first representative office and Turkey’s largest state-owned lender, Ziraat Bank, has proposed opening the first foreign-owned bank branch in Ethiopia.

The industry comprises one state owned development bank and 18 commercial banks, two of which are state-owned, including the dominant Commercial Bank of Ethiopia (CBE), with assets accounting September, 2014 for approximately 70 percent of the industry’s total holdings.3 The banking industry’s nonperforming loan ratio is commendably low, and profitability is good, but the dominance of public sector banking certainly restricts financial intermediation and economic growth. It contrasts with regional and international peer countries where banking industries have a much higher share of private sector and foreign participation.4

History

There are five principal events, which may conveniently be taken as dividing Ethiopian banking history into different periods. The first event was establishment in 1906 of the Bank of Abyssinia, marking the

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advent of banking into the country. The second event was Italian occupation in 1936, when, following liquidation of the Bank of Ethiopia, a broad colonial banking network, extended to encompass all Italian possessions in the Horn of Africa (Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia) and closely linked with the metropolitan financial system, was set up in the country.5

The third event was, in 1943, establishment of the State Bank of Ethiopia, marking the rebirth of the Ethiopian independent banking. This occurred during World War II after liberation of the country. The fourth event was the revolution of 1974, which wiped out the monarchy, nationalized companies and shaped a “socialist banking” two-tier model “suited” to Ethiopia, the whole credit system being based on the central bank and three state-owned financial institutions, each of them enjoying monopoly in its respective market. The fifth event was the collapse of socialist regime followed by a financial sector reform and liberalization according to Monetary and Banking Proclamation of 1994.6

After fall of military government in 1991, the government has started to introduce reforms that assisted market liberalizations and promote the private sector involvement in the Banking industry. Currently, there are three state owned and sixteen private Banks with more than 2357 branches across the country (NBE). Recently,

Structure

The Ethiopian banking industry is consisting of three public and sixteen private sector banks under the control of National Bank of Ethiopia (NBE), the central bank of the country. The NBE is having full control over the commercial banks in the country.

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Figure 1. Structure of Ethiopian Banking Industry

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Table 1. Capital and Branch network of banking system as on June 30/2014

Source: National Bank Report as cited from commercial banks

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Table 2. Number of Banks and Branches

Year No of Banks Number of Branches

2007 11 463

2008 13 596

2009 15 667

2010 16 839

2011 17 1126

2012 18 1515

2013 19 2015

2014 19 2208

Source: National Bank of Ethiopia and Ecobank Research

Services Provided

The banking sector in Ethiopia renders various domestic and international services to customers. As financial intermediaries, domestically or locally, work on mobilization of savings, granting loans, and facilitate money transfers. Similarly, at international level, the bank service includes trade settlements, foreign exchange transactions and money transfers. Table 3 and 4 show the domestic services and international services provided by state owned and private banks.

Tables 2: Domestic Banking Services

Service Service Type Description Category Deposit Saving Account Interest-bearing deposit account Services Fixed Deposit Interest calculated according to duration of deposit

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Current Account Non-interest-bearing deposit account that is operated by checks Loans and Term Loans To be repaid with interest within Advances a specific period of time i.e. short, medium and long term loans Merchandise Loans Credit extended using merchandised as collateral Overdraft A credit that allows a customer to withdraw from current account in excess of balance Agricultural Loans Mostly focus on financing Input and Investment Mortgage Financing To finance housing and building construction Local Telegraphic Transfer (TT), Mail Transfer Transfer (MT), Demand Draft (DD), and Cashier’s Payment Order(CPO) Safety Commonly for gold and other Deposit Box valuable documents E-Banking ATM, Internet A recent phenomenon in the banking, SMS, and country with limited coverage Mobile Banking Interest free Deposit, financing, A Banking services that operates banking and International in line with Islamic principles of trade services business and finance. Source: Own Compilation

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Table 3: International Banking Services

Service Service Type Description Category Deposit service Nonresident It is hard currency account and Foreign currency gives service for Diplomatic

account community and member s of International Organizations by facilitating payment in both local and hard currency. Non-Resident This is a local currency account. Transferable For Diplomatic community and Birr account member s of International Organizations by facilitating payment in both local and hard currency. Non-resident It is local currency account. The Non_ holder can buy foreign currency transferable upon presentation of permit. account Foreign Credit Import Letter of Letter of credits facilitates Services for Credit Facility Import and Export Credit This includes pre-shipment, Export Letters Facility Revolving and documentary of Credit collection export credit facilities. Facility Foreign undertaken through Mail Transfers transfer, Telegraphic transfer, SWIFT, Western Union Money Transfer Service , Demand drafts, and Travelers check Source: own compilation

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Porter’s Five Forces Analysis

The successes of Banks depend on the number of clients they have. Thus, in order to have more number of clients, the Banks need to provide the best quality services. The Ethiopian Banking industry is competitive with undifferentiated services and easily substituted products and services.

Threat of New Entrants- Low threats of new entrants because of the strict criteria set by National Bank of Ethiopia, high paid up capital, to start banking business and still the country’s close door policy to foreign banks to join the Ethiopian market.

Power of Suppliers- Low suppliers of capital might not pose a big threat, but the threat of suppliers luring away human capital.

Power of Buyer- High bargaining power of customers since the banks provides undifferentiated services and lower cost to switch to competitors.

Availability of Substitutes- High that is, there are plenty of substitutes in the banking industry. Banks offer a suite of services over and above taking deposits and lending money. On the lending side of the business, banks are seeing competition rise from institutions like micro finances and credit and saving associations.

Competitive Rivalry - High The existing banking industry is highly competitive. Banks must attempt to lure clients away from competitor banks. They do this by offering fastest services and best quality services.

Key Players

Based on branch network and capital share, Commercial Bank of Ethiopia holds the first rank with 34. % capital share and 38.8% branch network share with branch network while Awash Bank International and Dashen Bank follow with branch network share of 6.9% , 6.4% and

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capital share of 7.5% each respectively. Therefore, the above mentioned banks are the key players in Ethiopian banking Industry with capital share, branch network and even with technology advancement.

PEST Analysis

Political Analysis

 Monetary analysis The monetary policy of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia is defined as ‘maintenance of price and exchange rate stability and creating conducive macroeconomic environment for continuous economic growth’. Thus, the main operating tool for the implementation of monetary policy is sale of Treasury bills, setting of minimum deposit rate and reserve requirements. The attempts to slow down yearly inflation were done by the government not to have a loan of from National Bank of Ethiopia and foreign exchanges were set up to sale at satisfactory level. 7

Starting July 2011, a policy was implemented to use base money (reserve money) as a nominal anchor for monetary policy and to stabilize base money growth for better inflation control. As a result, over the second half of 2011 the base money growth has received its previous trend, after having increased by more than 42 percent from July 2010 to June 2011. In contrast, over the ten months from July to May, 2012, base money declined by a total of Ethiopian birr 5.9 billion or 8.5 percent. This was largely driven by a decline of the credits from the National Bank of Ethiopia to the Government.8

The lowering of reserve requirement ratio by 5 percentage points is also indicative of a slightly looser stance of monetary policy. This move, which occurred in January 2012, may weaken the tightening effects on base money as it frees resources to increase lending through the banking system. This is a welcome policy change for private banks,

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which are subject to a restrictive policy that has, since April 2011, compelling them to hold certain levels of central bank bills. But it will also enable the commercial Bank of Ethiopia to increase its lending volume, which in turn may refuel broad money growth.

Monetary policy in 2013/14 has largely been geared toward maintaining single-digit inflation by limiting the amount of money growth in the economy. The fiscal authorities also restricted the size of the direct bank advance the government could seek from the central bank in a bid to eliminate any monetary push to inflation.

Base money growth in 2013/14 was in line with the National Bank of Ethiopia’s inflation objective, aided by the Government’s limited recourse to the central bank for budget financing. Monetary policy will remain anchored on base money and in line with an 18% nominal GDP growth rate in 2014/15.

 Regulation The latest banking act in Ethiopia is proclamation No. 592/2008. According to this law National Bank of Ethiopia (NBE) is the only financial regulatory body that licenses and supervises banks operations. All banks are required to get the permission by the NBE to carry out any kind of banking business by Ethiopian nationals. Foreign nationals and organizations fully or partially owned by foreign nationals are not allowed to acquire share of Ethiopian banks, to open banks or offices or subsidiaries of foreign banks in Ethiopia.

National Bank of Ethiopia (NBE) has issued directive no SBB/59/2011 and raised the minimum paid up capital requirement to establish a new bank from birr 75 million to 500 million effective, from September 19, 2011. As per the directive, the 500 million minimum paid up capitals should be paid fully and must be deposited at the NBE in and to account of the bank. National Bank set deadline for the banks that have not achieved the required minimum capital by June, 2016. The

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raise of minimum capital chopped out three new Banks under formation Tsehay, Kokeb and Noh due to the impossible task of raising the 500 million birr minimu.

Economic Analysis

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) ranks Ethiopia as among the five fastest growing economies in the world. After a decade of continuous expansion (during which real GDP growth averaged 10.8% per annum), in 2013/14 the economy grew for its 11th consecutive year posting 10.3% growth. Over the 12 months from July 2013 (the country’s fiscal year runs from July-July), all of the economy’s main sectors performed well. Agriculture (which represents 40.2% of GDP) grew by 5.4%, industry (14% of GDP) expanded by 21.2% and services (46.2% of GDP) rose by 11.9%. This positive growth should continue for the coming two years, although constraints on private sector development could slow its momentum9.

The country's growth and transformation plan (GTP) for 2011 to 2016 would help Ethiopia to join the grouping of middle-income countries. Therefore, banks are expected to provide capital for development of different sectors. Moreover, this is a great opportunity for the industry growth.

Social Analysis

Following the economic growth of the Ethiopia there are tremendous improvement in social aspect such as health, education and infrastructure development. Thus, there would be great opportunity for banks to reach rural untapped market to increase the number of client and expand their market share.

Technological Analysis

The application of software and technology is inevitable in the present competitive banking industry. Ethiopian banking system is one of the

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most underdeveloped compared to the rest of the world.10 Although the banking sector is going through modernization, cost and network issues concern some banks in addition; most banks had trouble with their ATM services continuously failing due to network problems.11

The National Bank of Ethiopia has set July, 2011 as the deadline for the existing banks to interface with the National Payment System. Almost all of the banks are installing or upgrading their centralized, online, real-time, electronic (CORE) banking system.12

Conclusion and Recommendation

The existence of Ethiopian Banking Industry is more than a century but there were limitations to grow thus, no significant progress was recorded for a long time. It is only after reform (in 1991) that the industry has started to flourish and change. Currently, the industry is on the right trajectory, benefiting the society and contributing to the growth of the country. Moreover, the national investors are benefiting from the closed door policy to foreign banks. However, the country has still the lowest number of banks compared to other African countries and the banks are expected to go deep in to the rural areas.

Finally, the authors recommend the following points that might be considered by Government and Banks:

 The Government should create encouraging conditions that enable new banks to enter the market and open up the sector for foreign Banks. Moreover, the Government should also think of strategies that make private Banks powerful.

 The Banks need to be innovative and bring new products and services. Additionally, they might consider the branches expansion out of capital city, Addis Ababa.

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References

1 Ethiopia 2015, http://www.africaneconomicoutlook.org

2 Ethiopia 2015, http://www.africaneconomicoutlook.org

3 International Monetary Fund (IMF), “The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia: 2013

Article IV Consultation,” IMF Country Report, no. 13/308 (October 2013), p. 20 (data as of

May 2013).

4 World Bank, Ethiopia Economic Update II, p. 6.

5 Mauri, A. (2003), Origins and early development of banking in Ethiopia Working Paper n.04

6 ibid

7 Grenchal, Z. (2013), Tackling the opportunity cost of holding foreign exchange reserves given

the returns in highly profitable infrastructure projects’ (IMF, 2012: Ethiopia Draft Review)

8 Michael, G. & Goh, C., (2012), Ethiopia Economic Update Overcoming Inflation, Raising Competitiveness the World

9 Ethiopia, http://www.africaneconomicoutlook.org

10 Reddy,Vijay, & Assefa. (2011), E: business: application of software and technology in selected Ethiopian Banks: issues and challenges, IJCSI International Journal of Computer science issues, Vol. 8, Issue 6, No 1, ( online): 1694-0814

11 http:// www.addisfortune.com

12 ibid

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INFRASTRUCTURAL FACILITIES FOR EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN ASSAM: A STUDY OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION

Upen Konch Department of Political Science Dhemaji College, Dhemaji Assam, India

1. Introduction Education is the birth right of every child. Education starts with us when we start our life’s journey. From the very first moment, a baby steps into this world, he starts to learn. He learns to cry, to show any sort of discomfort, smiles to show his happiness and also learns to identify his mother’s touch. This process continues throughout the life because the baby learns something new every moment of the life. John Dewey said: “Education is not preparation for life, education is life itself” [Kumar, 2012].

In fact, education is a systematic process of establishing the pillar of society. The term education has been derived from the three Latin words ‘Educatum’ which means the ‘act of teaching or training’; ‘Educare’ which implies ‘to bring up’ ‘to raise’, ‘to educate’ and ‘Educere’- this means ‘to bring forth’ ‘to lead on’ [Aggarwal, 1992]. Thus, the fundamental concept of education is ‘to develop’ i.e., development of children. Panini defines “Human education means the training which one gets from nature”. In the words of Kautilya, “Education means training for the country and love for the nation”. defines education as “An all-round drawing out of the best in child and man – body, mind and spirit.”

Education, according to Indian tradition, is not merely a means to earning a living; nor it is only a nursery of thought or a school for citizenship. It is initiation into the life of spirit, a training of human souls in the pursuit of truth and the practice of virtue. It is a second birth ‘dvitiyam janma’ [Safaya, 1993].

The term education is a multi-faceted and multi-dimensional concept. It has a very wide connotation. No single indicator can cover the whole poles of www.ijmer.in 160 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE UGUST V 4, I 8(2), A 2015 the term. However, one can safely say that education includes every environment, every surrounding and every activity that helps to shape the human being. Education includes all influences – climatic, cultural, domestic, economic, geographical, political, religious and social. The inter-action results in the modification of the human behaviour, i.e., education take place [Aggarwal, 1992].

Education and infrastructure are inter-related and inter-connected with each other. Infrastructure is both the umbrella as well as key to the educational development. Inadequate infrastructure results poor educational development. The word ‘infrastructure’ means that which lies beneath the structure [Hazarika, 2013]. Infrastructure refers to the fundamental facilities and systems serving a country, city, or area, including the services and facilities necessary for its economy to function. It typically characterizes technical structures such as roads, bridges, tunnels, water supply, sewers, electrical grids, telecommunications, and so forth, and can be defined as “the physical components of inter-related systems providing commodities and services essential to enable, sustain, or enhance societal living conditions” [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure]. It may be socio-economic or political. Social infrastructure which includes health, education, housing etc. is directly linked with the over-all development society.

Infrastructural facilities in terms of education imply the underlying framework or fundamental physical facilities and installations needed for proper functioning of education system or organization to facilitate quality education to the students. It is in fact, the underlying base or foundation for running an educational institution. Educational infrastructure includes the facilities like school buildings with adequate and well equipped classrooms, toilet facilities, drinking water facilities, boundary wall and playground; well trained and dedicated teaching staffs etc. Without these fundamental facilities, one cannot think about modern education. Therefore, these aspects need to be addressed while talking about the educational development in Assam.

2. Objectives of the Study The study has the following objectives:

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 To examine the infrastructural facilities for educational development in elementary educational institutions in Assam.

 To know the Pupil Teacher Ratio (PTR) of elementary educational institutions in Assam.

 To evaluate the financial facilities provided for the development of elementary education in the State.

3. Research Questions In light of the above mentioned objectives, the paper has made an honest attempt to examine the following research questions:

 How far the State is successful in providing infrastructural facilities for development of elementary education in Assam?

 Are the financial allocations adequate to fulfil the objectives of elementary education in Assam?

4. Methodology The present piece of work on “Infrastructural Facilities for Educational Development in Assam: A Study of Elementary Education” is a descriptive research and the methodology that has been followed for the collection of relevant data and information is historico-analytical. The historical method has been applied for historical records, information and documents etc. while the analytical method is employed to analyze the facts pertaining to the study.

In fact, the study is solely based on secondary data. For the collection of relevant data and information, the study has consulted the existing literature available in the form of journal articles, books, online articles etc. in a right perspective written by the different researchers and academicians in depth and details. Besides, the secondary data related to infrastructural facilities in educational institutions, numbers of teachers imparting elementary education, Pupil Teacher Ratio (PTR), allocation of budget and expenditure in elementary education in Assam have been collected from the following two main sources:

 Statistical Hand Book, Assam, various issues from 2009 to 2013. www.ijmer.in 162

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 Economic Survey, Assam, various issues from 2011-12 to 2013-14.

5. Limitations of the Study The present study is limited to the following respects:

 The findings of the study are based on the data collected mainly from the two main sources - Statistical Hand Book, Assam and Economic Survey, Assam which may have their own limitations. Of course, in this connection it is worth mentioning that uttermost attention was taken while collecting the authentic information. However, possibility of hiding certain facts on the part of the official records and reports cannot be ignored completely.

 The scope of this research is limited to the following three important key indicators:

a. School-Based Indicator,

b. Teacher-Based Indicator, and

c. Financial-Related Indicator. The first two indicators i.e. School-Based Indicator and Teacher-Based Indicator cover for a period of 5 years from 2008-09 to 2012-13 while on the other hand, in respect of Financial-Related Indicator the study covers for a period of 9 years i.e. 2001-02 to 2009-10 due to non availability of year-wise data from 2010-11 to 2012-13 in Statistical Handbook, Assam and Economic Survey, Assam which are the two main government publications, published by the Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Planning and Development Department, Government of Assam every year with a view to presenting the detail development perspective of the State for the reference year.

Therefore, the conclusions based on this study have their own limitations and can be made applicable elsewhere, with certain precautions.

6. Elementary Education in Assam: A Brief Scanning The stages of school education in India can be broadly divided into four categories namely, primary, upper primary, secondary and higher secondary education. In fact, the combination of primary and upper primary schooling is

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The prevalent educational system of India was introduced by the British rulers in the 19th century. The present educational system owed its origin to the “Wood’s Despatch” of 1854. As A.N. Basu says, “This despatch is said to be the corner stone of Indian Education. It is said to have laid the foundation of our present system of education”. It was postulated in this famous despatch that the educational framework would be pyramidical one, starting from the primary school as the base, going up to the middle school, further up to high school, college and the university [Mathur, 2010].

In fact, the evolution of primary education in Assam has passed through a long history of development since ancient times. Unfortunately, it is very difficult to get a reliable record to know the actual educational position of Assam. The only thing that can be said is that the foundation of modern system of education was established by foreigners, particularly the British rulers. Assam came under the British rule in 1826 after the “Treaty of Yandabu” and immediately the British rulers introduced their system of education in Assam to support their needs and problems. Till date, no modern system of education was introduced in Assam. Mr. David Scott, the first Agent of the British East India Company, came to Assam in 1826 and started to promote indigenous system of education. Therefore, for expansion of primary education, he established few schools both at the plains and hills to win over the confidence of Assamese people.

Besides, the beginning of modern education and the promotion of language and literature in Assam can be attributed to the efforts of the Christian Missionaries. The Christian Missionaries rendered unique services towards the promotion of vernacular language and upliftment of the tribal areas of Assam. The American Baptist Missionaries under Rev. Nathan Brown www.ijmer.in 164

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Soon in the last part of the nineteenth century, the British India Government constituted an Indian Education Commission called “Hunter Commission” on 3rd February, 1882 to study and provide suggestions for development of education in India. The Commission produced a report of about 700 pages in which the Commission gave the following suggestions for the reformation of primary education:

 It should be useful to life;

 Primary school passed persons should be given preference in some services;

 More efforts should be made for development of primary education;

 Special primary schools should be opened in tribal and hilly areas;

 The local boards should be made wholly responsible for primary education;

 Normal schools should be opened;

 The Provincial Governments should determine the nature of the curriculum; and

 The indigenous schools should be encouraged [Chaube, 2005]. During the early period of 20th century, primary education received great impetus and made considerable progress due to the liberal policy of Lord Curzon. The untiring efforts made by Gopal Krishna Gokhale for introduction of compulsory primary education during 1910-1912 made the provincial governments conscious about the necessity of universal education and they passed compulsory primary education Act during 1918-1920. The Government www.ijmer.in 165

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In spite of so many efforts made by the foreigners, the achievement in the field of educational development was not satisfactory. No perceptible development of primary education was seen during this period. Most significant reasons for slow progress of education can be attributed to the wrong policy of the government in giving grant-in-aid, wrong methods of implementation of the British system, inefficiency of the local boards to control primary education, indifferent attitude of the Indian people etc. contributed largely to the failure of educational development in India.

In fact, the British rulers had no intention to make India educationally developed; rather they took India merely as a colony to be squeezed to fulfil their needs and aspirations. It would not at all be wrong to affirm that the British rulers had left India on 15th August, 1947, with a bleeding polity, a ruined economy and a very sick society. At the time of independence, majority of the Indian people were illiterate. The system of education which we inherited while attaining our independence, had hardly any relevance to the needs of the life situation then prevailing in the country [Mathur, 2010]. The literacy rates in accordance to British in India rose from 3.2 per cent in 1881 to 7.2 per cent in 1931 and 12.2 per cent in 1947 [Shah, 2013]. At the time of independence, the percentage of school going children between the age group of 6-11 years was only 30 per cent [Benerjee, 2012].

Thus, against the back-drop of slow pace of educational development, the expansion of education particularly at the primary stage has become one of the major priorities drawing the greater attention of the government and policy planners of the state. With this aim, the Article 45 has been incorporated in the Indian constitution under Directive Principles of State Policy which lays down that “The state shall endeavour to provide within a period of ten years, from the commencement of the constitution, for free and compulsory education for all children until they complete the age of fourteen years.” Further, the constitution of India guarantees right to education (Article 21A); facilities for instruction in mother tongue at the primary stage (Article 350); “It shall be duty of every citizen of India who is a parent or www.ijmer.in 166

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Right from the independence, reliance was placed on implementation of Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS) for the development of elementary education in Assam. Apart from the implementation of CSS and national policies of education, the government of Assam has passed two major elementary education specific legislations i.e. The Assam Basic Education Act,1954 and The Assam Elementary Education Act, 1962 in order to achieve the goal of elementary schooling. In the beginning of new millennium, the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), a comprehensive and integrated flagship programme of Government of India was started in the later part of 2001-2002 in the state of Assam to attain the goal of Universalization of Elementary Education (UEE). The SSA is an effort to universalise elementary education to all the children up to the age of 14 years by 2010. Though the management of schooling has been traditionally controlled by the state and district administrations, after implementation of SSA the involvement of community in the management of elementary schools has been encouraged. Since its inception, the programme was implemented in Assam with a lot of enthusiasm and initiatives with a view to universalise elementary education.

7. Results and Discussion

7.1. School-Based Indicator The school – based indicator has been analysed in terms of strength of elementary educational institutions and different infrastructural facilities available in the educational institutions in Assam. Again, the infrastructural facilities have been examined by concentrating four important feeder points viz. drinking water facilities, toilet facilities, classroom facilities and student classroom ratio. Results (Table – 7.1) reveal that the number of educational institutions imparted elementary education in Assam up to 2012 – 13 stood at 40887 comprising 35064 Primary Schools and 5823 Upper Primary Schools. The highest with 85.76 per cent and the lowest with 72.62 per cent of Primary Schools were recorded during 2008-09 and 2012-13 respectively. The highest (27.38 per cent) and the lowest (14.24 per cent) Upper Primary Schools were

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Table – 7.1: Strength of Elementary Educational Institutions in Assam up to 2012 -13.

Year No. of Schools

Total Primary School Upper Primary School

2008-09 41441 30094 11347

2009-10 35917 30054 5863

2010-11 35899 30050 5849

2011-12 40886 35061 5825

2012-13 40887 35064 5823

Source: Compiled from Statistical Hand Book, Assam 2009 to 2013.

Figure – 7.1: Percentage of Elementary Educational Institutions in Assam up to 2012 -13.

Percentage of School 100 85.75 85.76 72.62 83.68 83.71 50 27.38 16.38 16.32 14.25 14.24 0 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13

Primary School Upper Primary School

The number of Primary Schools up to 2012 - 13 having drinking water facilities was 31460 (Table – 7.1.1) which stood at 89.72 per cent (Figure – 7.1.1) of the total schools of the State. The number of toilets for girls was found reasonably better (32886) in comparison to common toilets (25318).

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The infrastructural facilities in educational institutions in Assam also exhibits that the number of Upper Primary Schools with drinking water facilities up to 2012-13 stood at 5398 against the total 5823 number of schools (Table – 7.1.1). The percentage of achievement was 89.72 per cent (Figure – 7.1.1). The toilet facilities for girls students were relatively high (5646) in comparison to common toilets (4033) in Upper Primary Schools (Table – 7.1.1). The expansion of toilet facilities for girls shows a record of continuous increase during the reference period i.e. from 64.81 per cent in 2009-10 to 74.20 per cent in 2010-11, 82.69 per cent in 2011-12 and 96.96 per cent during 2012-13 (Figure - 7.1.2). However, the number of common toilet facilities shows a dismal picture as compared to girls toilet (74.65 per cent in 2009-10, 73.17 per cent in 2010-11, 73 per cent in 2011-12 and 69.26 per cent in 2012-13).

Table – 7.1.1: Infrastructural Facilities in Educational Institutions in Assam.

Primary School Upper Primary School

Year No of Drinking Common Girls No of Drinking Common Girls Schools Water Toilet Toilet Schools Water Toilet Toilet

2008-09 30094 24477 12698 NA* 11347 5920 3107 NA

2009-10 30054 26752 19941 11630 5863 5233 4377 3800

2010-11 30050 27026 20953 15110 5849 5316 4280 4340

2011-12 35061 32074 26747 23944 5825 5317 4252 4817

2012-13 35064 31460 25318 32886 5823 5398 4033 5646

Source: Compiled from Statistical Hand Book, Assam 2009 to 2013.

NA*= Not Available.

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Figure – 7.1.1: Percentage of Infrastructural Facilities in Primary Schools in Assam.

Percentage of Infrastructural Facilities93.79 100 89.01 89.93 91.48 81.33 89.72 80 69.73 76.29 Drink 66.35 72.2 60 ing 42.19 68.29 Water 40 Com 50.28 20 38.7 mon 0 Toilet 0 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13

Figure – 7.1.2: Percentage of Infrastructural Facilities in Upper Primary Schools in Assam.

Percentageof Infrastructural Facilities 120 96.96 89.25 90.89 82.69 91.28 100 Drink 74.65 92.7 ing 80 52.17 Water 60 Com 73.17 73 69.26 40 64.81 74.2 mon 27.38 Toilet 20 0 2008-090 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13

The average number of classrooms in Upper Primary Schools was relatively better (4.2 in 2010-11, 4.1 in 2011-12 and 4.5 in 2012-13) as compared to Primary Schools (2.9 in 2010-11, 2.7 in 2011-12 and 2.9 in 2012- 13). The average number of classrooms in Primary Schools was discouraging below than the 3 numbers per school.

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The statistical data relating to average Student Classroom Ratio (SCR) indicated that the ratio was below as per the norms of SSA. The SCR in Primary and Upper Primary schools stood at 28.10 and 29.80 respectively. The highest (31.20) SCR in Primary Schools was recorded during 2011-12. Against this, the highest (37.15) SCR in Upper Primary Schools was found in the year 2010-11 (Table – 7.1.2).

Table – 7.1.2: Status of Classrooms in Educational Institutions in Assam.

Primary School Upper Primary Average Student Classroom School Ratio Year No Average No. No Average No. Primary Upper Primary of of Classroom Classroom 2008-09 30094 NA* NA NA NA NA 2009-10 30054 NA NA NA NA NA 2010-11 30050 2.9 5849 4.2 25.09 37.15 2011-12 35061 2.7 5825 4.1 31.20 36.40 2012-13 35064 2.9 5823 4.5 28.10 29.80 Source: Compiled from Statistical Hand Book, Assam 2009 to 2013.

NA*= Not Available.

7.2. Teacher – Based indicator The availability of teachers in educational institutions is an important variable for quality education. The analysis of teacher – based indicator was concentrated with the pupil teacher ratio and number of teachers imparting elementary education. At the primary level, the total 85691 number of teachers were engaged in teaching during 2008 – 09 which rose to 104330 in 2012 – 13 (Table – 7.2). At the Upper Primary level, it was 1824199 in 2008 – 09 which decreased to 1608590 in 2012 – 13. The PTR in Primary Schools was relatively batter (28.35) as compared to Upper Primary level (19.34).

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Table – 7.2: Teacher Strength and PTR in Educational Institutions in Assam.

Primary School Upper Primary School

Year Total Total Pupil Total Total Pupil Teacher Enrolment Teacher Enrolment Ratio (PTR)

Ratio (PTR)

2008-09 85691 2367302 27.63 73914 1824199 24.68

2009-10 82929 2298928 27.72 77168 1739082 22.54

2010-11 81554 2655582 32.56 100477 2156110 21.46

2011-12 78456 3927798 50.06 65035 1833169 28.19

2012-13 104330 2957340 28.35 83161 1608590 19.34

Source: Compiled from Statistical Hand Book, Assam 2009 to 2013.

7.3. Financial – Related Indicator The allocation of budget in educational sector especially in elementary education has become a great concern for government and economic planners of Assam so as to fulfil the aim and objective of UEE. Therefore, emphasis has been given on allocation of huge funds in this sector. An amount of Rs. 121739.85 lakh was received under elementary education during 2001 – 02 to 2009 – 2010 as against Rs. 118539.95 lakh sanctioned amount (Table – 7.3). The highest allocation of budget (19.05per cent) was recorded in 2002-03 while the lowest (3.25 per cent) was found during 2007-08 financial year (Figure – 7.3).

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Table – 7.3: Budget Allocation and Expenditure in Elementary Education in Assam.

(Rs. in Lakh)

Year Budget Allocation Amount Released Amount Utilised

2001-02 20867.50 22553.66 22553.66

2002-03 22586.55 22417.74 22417.74

2003-04 13071.80 12587.93 12587.93

2004-05 11115.00 13484.95 13484.95

2005-06 21595.00 21595.00 21595.00

2006-07 4484.10 4044.09 4044.09

2007-08 3850.00 4151.48 3850.00

2008-09 9380.00 9315.00 9315.00

2009-10 11590.00 11590.00 11590.00

Total 118539.95 121739.85 121438.37

Source: Economic Survey, Assam 2011-12.

Figure – 7.3: Percentage of Year – wise Allocation of Budget in Elementary Education.

Year - wise Allocation of Budget 17.63 19.05 18.21 11.03 9.37 7.91 9.77 3.78 3.25

2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10

Year

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The percentage of expenditure stood at 99.75 per cent. Significantly, except the financial year 2007 – 08 (92.74 per cent), the expenditure under elementary education in the State was 100 per cent (Figure – 7.3.1).

Figure – 7.3.1: Percentage of Expenditure in Elementary Education.

150 Percentage of Expenditure 121.32 108.08 107.83 100 102.7 100 99.25100 96.3 100 100 100 100 99.31 100 100 100 99.75 100 90.19 92.74

50

0 2001-022002-032003-042004-052005-062006-072007-082008-092009-10 Total

Amount Received

8. Key Observations Based on the study of infrastructural facilities for development of elementary education in Assam, the study draws the following key observations:

 The study reveals a continuous increasing trend of educational institutions imparting primary education in Assam. The percentage of Primary Schools increased significantly from 72.62 per cent in 2008-09 to 83.68 per cent in 2009-10 which again showed a continuous increasing trend from 83.71 per cent in 2010-11 to 85.75 per cent in 2011-12 and 85.76 per cent during 2012-13. Thus, the increase of Primary Schools in Assam during the reference period was significant and encouraging.

 The analysis does not show any optimistic picture of quantitative expansion of educational institutions imparting upper primary education in Assam. The study shows a continuous decreasing trend of Upper Primary Schools in the state (27.38 per cent in 2008-09, which decreased alarmingly to 16.38 per cent in 2009-10, 16.32 per cent in 2010-11, 14.25 per cent in 2011-12 and 14.24 per cent during 2012-13).

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 The drinking water facility in elementary educational institutions in Assam was encouraging. The number of Primary Schools with drinking water facility stood at 89.72 per cent while 92.70 per cent in terms of Upper Primary Schools.

 The toilet facilities in Primary Schools in Assam show a continuous increasing trend from 42.19 per cent in 2008-09 to 66.35 per cent in 2009-10, 69.73 per cent in 2010-11 and 76.29 per cent in 2011-12 which declined to 72.20 per cent in 2012-13. It indicates that almost 28 per cent of the total Primary Schools of Assam are yet to be provided toilet facilities.

 The picture of toilet facilities at the Upper Primary level was very dismal in comparison to Primary Schools. In 2009-10, the toilet facility was alarmingly increased to 74.65 per cent from 27.38 per cent in 2008- 09. However, in the subsequent years viz. 2009-10 to 2012-13, the study shows a continuous disappointing picture (73.17 per cent in 2010-11, 73.00 per cent in 2011-12 and 69.26 per cent in 2012-13).

 The expansion of toilet facilities for girls students indicates a record of continuous increasing trend over the years (64.81 per cent in 2009-10 to 74.20 per cent in 2010-11, 82.69 per cent in 2011-12 and 96.96 per cent during 2012-13). The state was successful in creating toilet facilities for girls in educational institutions in Assam.

 The average number of classrooms in Primary Schools in Assam was not adequate. The study shows that the number of classrooms (per school) was less than 3 numbers.

 However, the average number of classrooms in Upper Primary Schools was encouraging (above 4 numbers per school) in comparison to Primary Schools.

 The average student classroom ratio in Primary and Upper Primary Schools was satisfactory. Except the financial year 2011-12 in case of Primary Schools (31.20) and 2010-11 in terms of Upper Primary Schools (37.15), the student classroom ratio in educational institutions was

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below as per the norms of SSA (30:1 for Primary Schools and 35:1 Upper Primary Schools).

 The increased of number of teachers engaging in imparting primary education in Assam was encouraging. It increased from 85691 numbers in 2008-09 to 104330 numbers in 2012-13.

 At the Upper Primary level, the number of teachers engaged in teaching in elementary education stood at 1824199 numbers in 2008-09 which decreased to 1608590 in 2012-13. Thus, the strength of teachers engaged in Upper Primary Schools was discouraging.

 The PTR in Primary Schools was almost adequate (28.35:1) as per the norms of the SSA (30:1). However, at the Upper Primary level, the PTR was far below (19.34:1) than the provision of 35:1 as fixed by the SSA.

 The percentage of expenditure incurred in elementary education in Assam was significant (99.75 per cent) during the reference period. However, the allocation of budget in elementary education over the years exhibits wide spatial variation. The allocation of budget during 2002-03 accounted 19.05 per cent which decreased to 9.77 per cent during 2012-13. Thus, the study indicates that no proper attention was given by the Government of Assam in raising the funds for the development of elementary education in the State.

9. Conclusion The preceding analysis suggests that the achievements in creation of infrastructural facilities in elementary educational institutions in Assam have both the success and failure. The State is successful in respect of numbers of schools imparting Primary education and providing drinking water facilities in educational institutions in Assam. Similarly, the expansion of toilet facilities for girls students, the average student classroom ratio in Primary and Upper Primary Schools, the numbers of teachers imparting primary education and the PTR in Primary Schools have showed an encouraging trend over the years.

However, the study brings to light many optimistic pictures i.e. quantitative expansion of educational institutions, strength of teachers and PTR in Upper Primary Schools in Assam. At the same time, the toilet facilities www.ijmer.in 176

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Thus, all this calls for a redefined the facilities provided in the educational institutions in Assam to make a perceptible change in the State’s educational sector especially in the institutions imparted elementary education. Taking this into account, there is an urgent need for the Government of Assam to give a fresh look on the various issues relating to infrastructural development and allocation of funds for the development of elementary education in Assam.

References

1. Aggarwal, J.C. (1992). History and Philosophy of Pre-Primary and Nursery Education. Delhi: Doaba House Bookseller & Publishers.

2. Benerjee, J. P. (2012). Education in India – Past, Present and Future. Kolkata: Central Library.

3. Chaube, S. P. (2005). History of Indian Education. Agra: Vinod Pustak Mandir.

4. Hazarika, Padmalochan (2013). Disparities in Infrastructural Development in Assam – A District Level Analysis. In M. C. Behera (ed.) Northeast and Globalisation Issues Betwixt and Between (pp. 378 – 398). Panbazar, Guwahati: DVS Publishers.

5. Kumar, D. Sampath (August, 2012). Recent Reforms in Education in India – Achievements and Unfinished Tasks. International Journal of Social Science & Interdisciplinary Research, 1 (8): 82-94.

6. Mathur, K.P. (2010). Philosophical and Sociological Foundation of Education. Agra: Shri Vinod Pustak Mandir.

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7. Safaya, R. N. & Shaida, B. D. (1993). Development of Educational Theory and Practice. Jalandhar – Delhi: Dhanpat Rai & Sons.

8. Safaya, R. N., Srivastava, S. N. & Singh, Ved Meena (2007). Development of Education in Emerging India & Its Current Problems. New Delhi: Dhanpat Rai Publishing Company (P) Ltd.

9. Shah, Navinchandra R. (October, 2013). Literacy Rate in India. International Journal of Research in all Subjects in Multi Languages, 1(7): 12-16.

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POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY OF DR. B. R. AMBEDKAR: VIEWS ON DEMOCRACY Yugendar Nathi Junior Research fellow Dept. of Philosophy, OU, Hyderabad. Introduction

Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (1891-1956) was one of the front-ranking nation-builders of modern India. Ambedkar has in his own way, made significant contributions to the contemporary political ideas. In course of his public life over three decades, Ambedkar was fully convinced that politics should be the instrument to fight for justice in adorning all sections of the Indian people with freedom. As such, he tirelessly worked towards the goal of justice for the untouchables in an unjust society, mainly through political means. In the course of these activities, Ambedkar developed his own ideas about society and politics of the contemporary India. Viewed from the subject of political science, those ideas obviously merit attention.

Ambedkar was influenced by all the major political traditions of his times. His political thought has emerged from the three grand traditions of political thought, i.e. liberal, conservative and radical. The unique feature about him is that he has transcended all these traditions. He was influenced by the ideas of John Dewey, the pragmatic American and the teacher of him. The Fabian Edwin R. A. Seligman had considerable impact on his thought. He often quoted Edmund Burke, the conservative thinker of British, though we can’t brand Ambedkar as conservative. Ambedkar’s notion of liberty comes close to T.H. Green.

Ambedkar’s philosophy is primarily ethical and religious. He thoroughly explored the Indian traditions and its philosophical systems

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in a unique way. He developed political concepts like democracy, justice, state and rights from his understanding of Indian society and the functioning of its institutions on the moral grounds. The core of political thinking of Ambedkar is contained in two of his statements- the rights are protected not by law but by social and moral conscience of society, and a democratic form of government presupposes a democratic form of society. He considers democracy essentially as a form of society of a more associated living and a social conscience is the only safe guard of all rights. “The roots of democracy are to be searched in social relationships, in terms of associated life among the people who form a society”.1 For him, social relationships are the key to democracy. Ambedkar is a social democrat in spirit and practice. His special contribution to political thought lies in his linking up liberty, equality and fraternity to the concept of social democracy, which in turn, he relates to democracy as a form of government.

Ambedkar on Democracy

Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar is known as staunch protagonist of Democracy in his belief and action. Many thinkers have given many definitions and meaning of democracy. But the fact is Democracy is not merely a form of Government but it is a way of life.

The most popular definition of Democracy is given by Abraham Lincoln as, “Democracy as Government of the people by the people and for the people.”2

According to Walter Bagehot Democracy is a, “Government by discussion”.3

Ambedkar defines democracy in a much more concrete way. He says, “Democracy is a form and a method of Government whereby revolutionary changes in the economic and social life of the people are brought about without bloodshed”.4

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Dr. Ambedkar further defined Democracy as, “Democracy is a mode of associated living. The roots of Democracy are to be searched in social relationship, in terms of associated life between the people who form the society”.5

According to Ambedkar, democracy means fundamental changes in the social and economic life of the people and the acceptance of those changes by the people without resorting to disputes and bloodshed. He wanted to establish the principle of one man, one vote and one value not only in the political life of India but also in social and economic life. He wanted political democracy to be accompanied by social democracy. He gave central importance to social aspects of democracy over political aspects, unlike many others whose discourse on democracy is confined to the political and institutional aspects. Ambedkar paid greater attention to social linkage among people than separation of powers and constitutional safeguards for democracy. The concept of power contained in his thinking has a direct relationship between social power and political power. He was conscious of the social and economic inequalities which corrode the national consciousness of the Indian people. Ambedkar said, “We must make our political democracy a social democracy as well. Political democracy cannot last unless there lies at the lease of it social democracy”.

Ambedkar paid serious attention to religious notions that promote democracy. Ambedkar viewed the religious foundation of caste as the fundamental obstacle to democracy in India on the one hand and the Buddhist doctrine of liberally, equality and fraternity as the foundations for democracy on the other hand. Ambedkar thinks of democracy from the viewpoint of practical life. He belongs to the realistic school of political scientists. He is not bothered about the principles and theories of political science. He aspired for having a

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government of the people, for the people and by the people. According to Ambedkar, democracy means no slavery, no caste, no coercion. He wants free thoughts that choice and capacity to live and let live, which his conscience, would be the right path to democracy. Ambedkar says “Democracy is a mode of associated living. The roots of democracy are to be searched in social relationship, in terms of the associated life between the people who form the society”.

Ambedkar says, “If you give education to the lower strata of the Indian society which is interested in blowing up the caste systems, the caste system will be blown up”.6 Giving education to those who want to blow up caste system will improve prospect of democracy in India and put democracy in safer hands.

Parliamentary Democracy

According to Ambedkar, “parliamentary democracy has all the marks of a popular Government, a government of the people, by the people and for the people”. “In parliamentary democracy, there is the Legislature to express the voice of the people; there is the Executive which is subordinate to the Legislature and bound to obey the Legislature. Over and above the Legislature and the Executive there is the Judiciary to control both and keep them both within prescribed bounds”.7

Ambedkar says, “Parliamentary democracy has not been at a standstill. It was progressed in three directions. Firstly, it began with equality of political rights by expanding in the form of equal suffrage. Secondly, it has recognized the principle of equality of social and economic opportunities. Thirdly, it has recognized that the state cannot be held at bay by corporation which is anti-social in their purpose”.8 Parliamentary democracy produces the best result in the long run, because it assigns great significance to virtues like ability and cooperation, mutual respect and self help, discipline and devotion to work, for the happiness of the millions of people. The system of

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parliamentary democracy, thus, embodies the principle of change and continuity to which Ambedkar attaches great importance. To him, only the spirit of the people can help parliamentary democracy to function well. People and democracy are closely related to each other. Ambedkar says, democracy is another name for equality. The result is the parliamentary democracy in standing out as a protagonist of liberty has continuously out as a protagonist of liberty has continuously added to the economic wrongs of the poor, the downtrodden and the disinherited class.

Ambedkar says, “the wrong ideology which has initiated parliamentary democracy is the failure to realize that political democracy cannot succeed where there is no social and economic democracy. Some way question this proposition. To those who are disposed to question it, I will ask a counter question. Why parliamentary democracy collapsed so easily in Italy, Germany and Russia ? Why did it not collapses so easily in England and the U.S.A? To any mind, there is only one answer – namely, there was a greater degree of economic and social democracy in the latter countries than it existed in the former. Social and Economic democracy are the tissues and the fiber of a political democracy. The tougher the tissue and fiber, the greater the strength of the body. Democracy is another name for equality. Parliamentary democracy developed a passion for liberty. It never made even a nodding acquaintance with equality. It failed to realize the significance of equality and did not even endeavor to strike a balance between liberty and equality, which the result that liberty swallowed equality and has left a progeny of inequalities”.9

He says, under the democratic system of government only we could ensure equally socio-economic, political and religious freedom to every man and woman. Ambedkar’s ultimate aim of life was to create a “real social democracy”.

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Political Democracy

According to Ambedkar, political democracy rests on four premises. They are:

i) “The individual is an end in himself.

ii) The individual has certain inalienable rights which must be guaranteed to him by the Constitution.

iii) The individual shall not be required to relinquish any of his constitutional rights as a condition precedent to the receipt of a privilege.

iv) The state shall not delegate powers to private persons to govern others.”10

All these points are absolutely important in Democracy. Thus according to Dr. Ambedkar the main objective of Democratic Government should be the welfare of individuals. The dignity of the individual, political liberty, social progress and human rights are necessary constitutional safeguards which form Ambedkar’s basic decent democratic ideals in the political democracy. To him, the ground plan means the social structure of a community to which the political plan is sought to the applied. Political democracy and liberty are nothing if not beaked and bucked up by equal social patterns, because the political structure rests on the social structure. “Indeed, the social structure,” he says “has a profound effect on the political structure. It may modify it in its working. It may nullify it or it may even make a cherry of it.” It is therefore, essential that before passing any Judgment on any scheme of political relationship even making plans for economic reforms, the people must consider the ground plan that means social relations; Democracy should be regarded as both a social and a political method.

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“The soul of Democracy”, he says, “is the doctrine of one man, one value”. This principle finds intrinsic worth in the individual personality of each man in political and social relation. This stands for the economic well being of the people, without which democracy, to him, has no value.” The sum of democracy, according to him, essentially consists in the economic welfare of all men living in a particular society, besides its realization in political relation. Otherwise, democracy would kill its own soul and democracy without soul would be useless, unrelated to human aspirations.

Conditions precedent for the successful working of modern Democracy

Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar had very explicitly stated the conditions which are very much necessary for the successful working of democracy. They can be stated in brief as under.

1. There must be no glaring inequalities in the society – He says, “there must not be an oppressed and suppressed class. There must not be a class which has got all the privileges and a class which has got all the burdens to carry. Such a thing, such a division, such an organization of a society has within itself the germs of a bloody revolution, and perhaps it would be impossible for the democracy to cure them”.11

2. The existence of Opposition – For Ambedkar, “Democracy means a veto of power. Democracy requires that not only that the Government should be subject to the veto, long term veto of five years, at the hands of the people, but there must be an immediate veto. For this, there must be an Opposition in the Parliament to challenge the Government”.12

3. Equality in law and administration - There must be not only equality before Law, but there must be equality of treatment in administration.

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The administration must be well responsive, responsible and impartial; and it must be well determined. It should command obedience to authority, “We must have a Government,” he said,” in which the men in power will give their undivided allegiance to the best interest of the country. We must have a Government in which men in power, knowing where obedience will end and resistance will begin, will not be afraid to amend the social and economic code of life which the dictates of justice and expediency so urgently call for.”13

4. Constitutional Morality - Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar said that, “A Constitution which contains legal provisions, is only skeleton. The flesh of the skeleton is to be found in what we call constitutional morality.”14 According to Dr. Ambedkar Constitution is important for success of democracy but more important was constitutional morality in polity and society.

5. No Tyranny of majority – Ambedkar says, “there is one other thing which is very necessary in the working of Democracy, and it is this that in the name of democracy there must be no tyranny of the majority over the minority. The minority must always feel safe that although the majority is carrying on the Government, the minority is not being hurt, or the minority is not being hit below the belt”15

6. Moral order - Dr. Ambedkar said, “A politician does not merely trade in politics, but he also represents a particular faith covering both the method as well as the metaphysics of politics.” He further said that, Politics has become a kind of sewage system intolerably, Unsavory and insanitary. To become a politician is like g oing to work in drain.

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According to Dr. Ambedkar Politics is the key of all emancipation. Therefore he asked depressed classes to capture political power. For realization of Social democracy in true spirit, he emphasized for moral order in Politics just because he wanted Democracy to be implemented in true sense.

7. Public Conscience - According to Dr. Ambedkar Public Conscience means, “Conscience which becomes agitated at every wrong, no matter who is the sufferer; and it means that everybody whether he suffers that particular wrong or not is prepared to join him in order to get him relieved.”

Dr. Ambedkar considered the condition but public conscience as essential condition for successful working of democracy because without public conscience democracy cannot be successful. It is the will of the people that makes healthy democratic atmosphere.

Dr. Ambedkar wanted Social democracy to cherish in India. He said very categorically Political Democracy cannot be successful unless there lies at the base of it of Social democracy. He warned the nation in this direction that, “on the 26th January 1950, we are going to enter into the life of contradictions. In politics we will be recognizing the principle of one man, one vote and one value. In our social and economic life, we shall by reason if our social and economic structure continues to deny the principle of one man, one value. How long shall we continue to live this life of contradictions? How long shall we continue to deny equality in our social and economic life? If we continue to deny it for long, we will do so only by putting our political democracy in peril. We must remove this contradiction at the earliest possible moment or else those who suffer from inequality will blow up the structure of political Democracy which this Assembly has so laboriously built up.”

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Dr. Ambedkar was of opinion that political Democracy must change its form to social Democracy in order to develop state socialism.

Conclusion

Dr. Ambedkar had unshakeable faith in democracy. In his conception of exploitation less society, democracy has an extra-ordinary role which he defined as ‘one person, one vote'; and 'one vote, one value'. Democracy means empowerment of any person for participating in the process of decision-making relating to her/him, democracy means liberty, equality and fraternity - Ambedkar's definition of democracy had such a tone. He defined parliamentary democracy as "voting by the people in favour of their owners and handing over the rights of ruling over themselves". His conception of democracy appears to be purely people oriented. He showed that the bookish concepts of equality are detrimental to the disabled sections of society in the prevailing social setting and proposed a fundamental change in the concept of equality. It envisaged complete abolition of inequality. His principle of positive discrimination is based on this very concept of equality.

Dr. Ambedkar firmly believed that political democracy cannot succeed without social and economic democracy. In his concept of democracy, he opined that political democracy is not an end in itself, but the most powerful means to achieve the social and economic ideals in society. It is necessary to stress that his greatness lies in the radicalism of his conceptions, his vision of a human society sans any kind of exploitation; not in the remedies or apparatus he proposed in the circumstances prevailing in his time. Thus, Ambedkarism is of great relevance to Indian society even today in achieving social justice, removal of untouchability, in establishing equality and freedom and true democracy. Democratic socialism is the key note of his political thought and constitutionalism is the only way to achieve it.

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References

1. Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Writings and Speeches, volume 17 (3) p. 519

2. Kshirsagar Ramchandra Kamaji, Political thought of Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar, Intellectual publishing house, New Delhi, 1992, p.53.

3. Ibid, p. 53.

4. Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Writings and Speeches, volume 17 (3) p. 475

5. Ibid, p. 519

6. Ibid, p. 523

7. Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Writings and Speeches, volume 10, p.106- 107

8. Ibid, p. 107-108

9. Ibid, p. 108-109

10. Shashi S.S. (Dr.) (Editor), Ambedkar and social justice, volume I, Director, Publications division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, New India, 1992, p.162.

11. Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Writings and Speeches, volume 17 (3) p. 475-476

12. Ibid, p. 477

13. Bhagwan Das (ED), Thus spoke Ambedkar, Bheem Patrika , Vol I, Jullundhar, 1977, p.22.

14. Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Writings and Speeches, volume 17 (3) p. 480

15. Ibid, p. 482

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A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF MAJOR PROBLEMS FACED BY STAKEHOLDERS REGARDING SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES ADOPTED BY MUNICIPALITIES WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO SATARA AND BARSHI MUNICIPALITY

Prof. V.P.Deshmukh Dr. B.S.Sawant Asst. Professor Director Bharati Vidyapeeth University Rayat Shikshan Sanstha’s Y.M.Institute of Management KBP Institute of Management Karad and Research. Satara

Prof.Mrs.S.V.Deshmukh Asst. Professor Bharati Vidyapeeth University Y.M.Institute of Management, Karad

INTRODUCTION: Solid Waste Management (SWM) is an organized process of storage, collection, transportation, processing and disposal of solid refuse residuals in an engineered sanitary landfill. It is an integrated process comprising several collection methods, varied transportation equipments, storage, recovery mechanisms for recyclable material, reduction of waste volume and quantity by methods such as composting, waste-to-power and disposal in a designated engineered sanitary landfill. The stakeholders such as employees of the municipality, citizens, and organizations have faced the major problems regarding the solid waste management.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY:

1. To study the present Solid Waste Management Practices of selected Municipalities

2. To identify the major problems related to Solid Waste Management practices of the selected Municipalities.

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3. To identify the problems of stakeholders related to Solid Waste Management practices of selected municipalities.

HYPOTHESIS OF THE STUDY:

Major problems faced by the stakeholders are differ significantly

METHODOLOGY ADOPTED FOR THE STUDY

The researcher studied the existing practices of solid waste management adopted by selected municipalities. This research was both exploratory and descriptive in nature and it was utilized both quantitative and qualitative data collection tools. In view of the objectives and hypothesis stated above the methodology adopted for the present study is elaborated as under:

Firstly, before the pilot survey the researcher has decided the stakeholders which are Chief Officer of the municipality, health department employees, citizens of the municipality and organizations. By the pilot survey researcher has observed the problems faced by the stakeholders are low morale of the staff, inadequate number of waste transport vehicles, lack of public awareness regarding solid waste management, lack of planning and execution, lack of public bin management and lack of landfill management.

SOURCES OF DATA

The researcher was adopted Survey Method to collect the required information for the study. The researcher was used primary and secondary data collection methods for this research.

Primary Data: The researcher was collected required information from the respective officers, employees of the selected Municipalities. The primary data was collected through questionnaire, discussion, interviews, observation and necessary field work. The researcher was selected appropriate number of samples. The researcher was collected the data on the basis of present practice of solid waste, sources of waste

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generation, process of collection of waste from various places, waste transportation schedule, waste disposal process, total manpower and infrastructure deployed, management of all the types of waste at landfill site, problems with existing solid waste management system, and future plans about municipal solid waste management. The researcher was covered and refers five years data from 2008 to 2013.

Secondary Data: The researcher was collected necessary information from Books, M.Phil. Ph.D. research work, magazines, internet, different websites, newspapers, articles, Govt. publications and Govt. offices.

STATISTICAL METHODS USED

Researcher was used appropriate statistical method for data analysis and interpretation such as mean, percentage and Graphs etc. Researcher was also used Excel spread sheet, SPSS computerized software for finding inter relationship between and among different variables.

SAMPLE DESIGN

Using purposive quota sampling method 600 citizens from each municipality were selected. Chief Officer from each municipality totally 2 was selected. 10 Health Department employees 5 from each municipality were selected. In addition 5 organizations from each municipality were selected.

Table No 1: Sample Design Sample Units to be selected Name Sr. Health of the Chief People Organizational No Dept. Municipality Officer (Citizens) Representatives Employees 1 Satara 01 05 600 05 2 Barshi 01 05 600 05 Total 02 10 1200 10

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SIGNIFICANCE AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The selected study has vast relevance and significance in the present scenario. A pilot survey of different municipalities has shown that these civic authorities are struggling with the problem of municipal solid waste and are in search of an effective solution for management of municipal solid waste.

The researcher found that the municipalities in the sample area are not interested in spending the money to improve the existing municipal solid waste management system. The primary aim of this research is to study the existing municipal solid waste management practices in the selected municipalities and to identify different problems faced by municipalities as well as stakeholders and to suggest feasible solutions for the improvement of solid waste management practices in the sample area.

 Geographical Scope: This study is confined to Satara municipality and Barshi Municipality only.

 Topical Scope: The focus of this study is on solid waste management practices adopted by the selected municipalities and the major problems faced by the stakeholders of the selected municipalities.

 Functional Scope: This research study covers the various aspects of solid waste management practices adopted by selected municipalities.

HYPOTHESIS TESTING

Let, Null Hypothesis be Major problems faced by the stakeholders do not differ significantly.

Alternative Hypothesis be Major problems faced by the stakeholders are differ significantly.

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By testing the above hypothesis Kruskal Wallis ANOVA method is used.

Table No: 2: Major problems faced by the stakeholders by Kruskal Wallis ANOVA method

Municipali Mea p-value Statements S.D. H-value ty n Satara 4.18 0.47 Low morale Barshi 4.30 0.42 74.8773 0.00001* of the staff Total 4.24 0.45 Inadequate Satara 1.73 0.43 number of Barshi 1.66 0.46 waste 252.8310 0.00001* transport Total 1.70 0.45 vehicles Satara 1.50 0.51 Lack of public Barshi 1.41 0.43 35.0130 0.00001* awareness Total 1.46 0.47 Satara 1.57 0.44 Lack of planning and Barshi 1.68 0.42 340.3170 0.00001* execution Total 1.63 0.43 Satara 1.70 0.44 Lack of public bin Barshi 1.76 0.45 444.0580 0.00001* management Total 1.73 0.45 Satara 1.75 0.39 Lack of landfill Barshi 1.72 0.41 24.6580 0.00001* management Total 1.74 0.40

Based on the results presented in the above table it is inferred as follows:

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1. A significant difference is observed between the selected municipalities with respect to low morale of the staff, with scores of H=74.8773, p<0.05 at 5% level of significance. It means that the morale of the staff differs among the selected municipalities.

2. A significant difference is observed between the selected municipalities with respect to inadequate number of vehicles for waste collection and waste transportation with scores of H=252.8310, p<0.05 at 5% level of significance It means that in the selected municipalities the number of vehicles available differs.

3. A significant difference is observed between the selected municipalities with respect to lack of public awareness for solid waste management with scores of H=35.0130, p<0.05 at 5% level of significance It means that in the selected municipalities the public awareness regarding solid waste management differs.

4. A significant difference is observed between the selected municipalities with respect to lack of planning and execution for solid waste management with scores of H=340.3170, p<0.05 at 5% level of significance It means that in the selected municipalities the planning and execution regarding solid waste management differs.

5. A significant difference is observed between the selected municipalities with respect to lack of public bin management for solid waste management with scores of H=444.0580, p<0.05 at 5% level of significance It means that in the selected municipalities the lack of public bin management regarding solid waste management differs.

6. A significant difference is observed between the selected municipalities with respect to lack of landfill management for

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solid waste management with scores of H=24.6580, p<0.05 at 5% level of significance It means that in the selected municipalities the lack of landfill management regarding solid waste management differs.

Hence the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted. Hence it is clear that, major problems faced by the stakeholders are differing significantly.

ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA:

Graph No 1: Problems faced by the stakeholders regarding solid waste management

5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 Satara 2 Barshi 1.5 1 0.5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

 It is observed that, the low morale of the staff scores is significantly higher in Barshi municipality as compared to the Satara municipality. That is staff of the Barshi municipality face the problem of low morale.

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 It is observed that, the problem of inadequate number of vehicles for waste collection and waste transportation scores is significantly higher in Satara municipality as compared to the Barshi municipality.

 It is observed that, the problem of lack of public awareness for solid waste management scores is significantly higher in Satara municipality as compared to the Barshi municipality.

 It is observed that, the problem of lack of planning and execution for solid waste management scores is significantly higher in Barshi municipality as compared to the Satara municipality.

 It is observed that, the problem of lack of public bin management for solid waste management scores is significantly higher in Barshi municipality as compared to the Satara municipality.

 It is observed that, the problem of lack of landfill management for solid waste management scores is significantly higher in Satara municipality as compared to the Barshi municipality.

CONCLUSION: It is concluded that, the major problems faced by the stakeholders regarding solid waste management is different in the selected municipalities.

References:

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2. Assessing the solid waste management practices in Bacolod city, Philippines by Ma. Teresa B. Ballados. 4th Asian Rural Sociology Association (ARSA) International Conference, September 2010 , page 37-44, 4th Asian Rural Sociology Association (ARSA) International Conference, September 2010

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3. Rodic (2010), Comparing solid waste management in the world’s cities by Ljiljana Rodic, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands Anne Scheinberg, WASTE, Gouda, Netherlands David C. Wilson, Imperial College, London, UK March 2010, ISWA World Congress 2010, Urban Development and Sustainability – a Major Challenge for Waste Management in the 21st Century, Hamburg, Germany, 15-18 November 2010, http://edepot.wur.nl/169383

4. Visvanathan (2006), Solid Waste Management in Asian Perspectives http://dste.puducherry.gov.in/envisnew/books&reports7.pdf

5. Themelis (2004), Solid Waste Management in Vietnam by Prof. Nickolas J.Themelis, An Industrial Ecology Study by Thao Nguyen School of International and Public Affairs, Columbia University 2004, page 8-20 http://www.seas.columbia.edu/earth/wtert/sofos/Nguyen_Vietnam_Waste_management. pdf

6. Sarkar (2003), Solid Waste Management In Delhi – A Social Vulnerability Study by Papiya Sarkar Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Environment and Health, , India, 15-17 December,2003. Chennai: Department of Geography, University of Madras and Faculty of Environmental Studies, York University, Pg 451– 464.

7. Achankeng (2003), Globalization, Urbanization and Municipal Solid Waste Management in Africa by Eric Achankeng African Studies Association of Australasia and the Pacific 2003 Conference Proceedings - African on a Global Stage

8. Urban Solid Waste Management in Low-Income Countries of Asia, How to Cope with the Garbage Crisis by Christian Zurbrugg, Presented for: Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE) Urban Solid Waste Management Review Session, Durban, South Africa, November 2002 http://slunik.slu.se/kursfiler/TN0280/20155.0910/Zurbrugg_waste_dev_.pdf

9. The Economics of Residential Solid Waste Management by Thomas C. Kinnaman, Don Fullerton. Working Paper 7326. http://www.nber.org/paper s/w7326 National Bureau of Economic Research. 1050 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge MA02138 August 1999.

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13. Environmental Status Report 2008–2009, Kolhapur Municipal Corporation

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14. Mahabaleshwar Municipal Council,IMPROVEMENTS TO GLEN OGAL DAM Prepared By: Varad Ent., 2013, 27th march 2014 12.30pm http://mhmc.in/Links/ProjectReport(DPRGlenOglDam).pdf

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24. Handbook on Scaling up Solid and Liquid Waste Management in Rural Areas 25. MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT AND FORESTS NOTIFICATION New Delhi, the 2"' July, 2013, The GAZETTE OF INDIA: EXTRAORDINARY (http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in, 24th march 2014, 5.29pm)

26. State of Environment Report: Maharashtra, by Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research, Mumbai ,page 151, 25th march 2014,11.45am http://moef.nic.in/soer/state/SoEreporoMaharashtra.pdf

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28. Identification of Tourism Circuits across India, Interim Report (Revised) – Maharashtra February – 2012, Submitted to: Ministry of Tourism, Government of India, 24th march 2014, 5.15pm

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29. Performance Benchmarking of urban water supply and sanitation in Maharashtra: Data Bool (2008-09), Meera Mehta, Dinesh Mehta, CEPT University Ahmedabad, India, April 2011, page 18 http://www.pas.org.in/Portal/document/ResourcesFiles/pdfs/ClasswiseCityProfiles Maharashtra / City Profiles ClassCMaharashtra.pdf

30. Local bodies status- Maharashtra Pollution Control Board, MPCB 31. Brief Note For Dialogue On Solutions To Local Problems In Municipal Solid Waste Management Submitted To The Urban India Reforms Facility By The Resources And Livelihoods Group, Prayas, Pune 2011

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33. Shantha Rashmi Parthan (2012), Improved Cost Estimation For Solid Waste Management In Industrialising Regions, Department Of Civil And Natural Resources engineering University Of Canterbury (Uc), 2012 http://ir.canterbury.ac.nz/bitstream/10092/7279/1/thesis_fulltext.pdf , 24th march 2014, 4.50pm

34. Ranjith (2012), Sustainable Solid Waste Management in India by Ranjith Kharvel Annepu, submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Earth Resources Engineering Department of Earth and Environmental Engineering Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science Columbia University in the City of New York January 10, 2012

35. Jonathan (2005), Approaches toward Sustainable Urban Solid Waste Management: Sahakaranagar Layout by Jonathan Elisha Mull, Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the Degree of Master’s in International Environmental Science at Lund University, Lund, Sweden, May 2005 http://www.lumes.lu.se/database/alumni/03.04/theses/mull_jonathan.pdf

36. Tang (2004), A Case Study of Hotel Solid Waste Management Program in Bali, Indonesia by Janeen Tang, Thesis presented to the University of Waterloo in fulfillment of the thesis requirement for the degree of Master of Environmental Studies in Planning Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, 2004, https://uwspace.uwaterloo.ca/bitstream /handle/10012/983/jtang2004.pdf

37. Tsiboe (2004), A look at urban waste disposal problems in Accra, Ghana by Isaac Alfred Tsiboe, Ernest Marbel, Master’s thesis Roskilde University May 2004, http://dspace.ruc.dk/bitstream/1800/322/1/A_Look_at.pdf

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BUDDHISM: THE ETHICAL THEORY OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

Vijayalaxmi Munagala Research Scholar Dept. of Philosophy, OU, Hyderabad Introduction

Buddha’s teachings aim at the total extinction of suffering and attainment of nirvana here on earth. The whole of the teachings of the Buddha is summed up in the four noble truths: There is suffering; It has a cause; It can be stopped; There is a way to stop it. Buddha teaches neither Being nor Non-Being, but becoming. He teaches neither self- indulgence nor self-mortification, but the middle path of moderation – right view, right speech, and right conduct. He teaches the religion of ahimsa and self-help. He preaches the doctrine of the ethical mean.

Teachings of Buddha

The whole of the teachings of the Buddha is summed up in the four noble truths:

1. Life is full of suffering. 2. Cause of suffering. It is of three fold. 3. Cessation of suffering. 4. The way to extinction of suffering. It is the Eightfold Path.

The first noble truth is suffering. ‘Birth is attended with pain; decay is painful; disease is painful; death is painful. Union with the unpleasant is painful, painful is separation from the pleasant; any craving that is unsatisfied, that too is painful. In brief, the five aggregates which spring from attachment are painful. The cause and conditions of individuality are painful. The whole world is on fire; where is the scope for merry-making.’ Sensual pleasure is transitory and followed by pain.

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‘Sorrow comes from merriment. Fear comes from merriment.’ The loss of objects of sensual pleasure leads to sorrow. The world is completely unsubstantial, void of being and perpetual becoming. It is afflicted with death and decay, and full of suffering. Therefore the wise do not grieve, knowing the nature of the world. Mere grieving is unavailing. When a house is on fire it must be extinguished by water. A man, who is pierced by the arrow of grief, must draw it out.

The second noble truth is concerning the origin of suffering. Craving which generates the cycle of birth and death is the cause of suffering. It is threefold: (1) Craving for sensual pleasures, (2) craving for being, and (3) craving for wealth and power! ‘Verify, it is craving causing the renewal of existence, accompanied by sensual delight, seeking satisfaction now here, now there-that is to say, the craving for the gratification of passions, or the craving for a future life, or the craving for success in this present life. This is the noble truth concerning the origin of suffering. Craving or will-to-live is the cause of suffering. All pain arises from individuality which is due to ignorance (avidya). Ignorance is due to will-to-live, which is the root cause of suffering.

The third noble truth is the extinction of suffering. It is complete destruction of craving or will-to-live. Delusion of individuality, desire for mind-body-complex and egoism are the causes of suffering. Destruction of egoism and will-to-live leads to extinction of attachment, aversion, delusion and suffering. Nibbana is the extinction of desire, doubt, and sensual pleasures based on the reflection on nothingness. It is grasping at nothing, and possessing nothing. It us perfect calm and tranquility undisturbed by desires and passions. It is complete desirelessness. All desires for this life and the next life are extinguished in it. Non-grasping is attained by the knowledge of impermanence and voidness. Nibbana is insuperable, unchangeable, matchless.4

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The fourth noble truth is the way to the extinction of suffering. It is the eightfold path: (1) Right Belief, (2) Right Resolve, (3) Right Speech, (4) Right Conduct, (5) Right Livelihood, (6) Right Effort, (7) Right Mindfulness, and (8) Right Concentration. When the four noble truths are grasped, and craving or will-to-live is extirpated, there is no more birth. The four noble truths are suffering, the origin of suffering, the destruction of suffering, and the eightfold way of destruction of suffering. The eightfold path consists of moral conduct, and insight. It leads every aspirant to the complete extinction of suffering.

Buddha’s Ethics

The Buddha clearly enunciated the morality of Ahimsa. He says, “May all beings be happy and secure, may they be happy-minded”. “Let no one deceive another, let him not despise another in any place, let him not out of anger or resentment wish harm to another”. “Let man overcome anger by love; let him conquer evil by good. For hatred does not cease by hatred at any time, hatred ceases by love”. “Returning good for good is very noble, but returning good for evil is nobler still”. “Good men melt with compassion even for one who has wrought the harm”. “To the man who foolishly does me wrong I shall return the protection of my ungrudging love; the more the evil that comes from him, the more the good that shall go from me”. “With pure thought and fullness of love, it will do to others what I do for myself”. Hatred is conquered by love. “He, who has no wound in his hand, may touch poison with his hand; poison does not affect one who has no wound; nor is their evil for one who does not commit evil”. The wrong-doer cannot effects the purity of a virtuous person but he offends himself and degrades his character. If a man offends a harmless, pure, and innocent person the evil falls back upon that fool, like a light dust thrown up against the wind”. Evil should be conquered by good. “Do not speak harshly to anybody; those who are spoken to will answer thee in the

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same way. Angry speech is painful; blows for blows will touch thee”. Anger and resentment should be conquered by love. Since violence begets violence, it should pacified by love. “The awakened called patience the highest penance, long-suffering the highest Nirvana; for he is not an anchorite who strikes, he is not on Nirvana; for he is an anchorite who strikes, he is not an ascetic who insults others”. “Silently shall endure abuse as the world is ill-natured”. Wrongs should be endured patiently rather than crushed with violence. Patient endurance is better than violent opposition. It is not calm submission to evil, but it is acquisition of moral strength which makes wrong impossible. “Victory breeds hatred, for the conquered person is unhappy. He who has given up both victory and defeat, he, the contented, is happy”. If the wrong doer is crushed by violence, he will harbour hatred and enmity and inflict injury again. So violence should be overcome by endurance and love. “Let man overcome anger by love, let him overcome evil by good, let him overcome the greedy by liberality the liar by truth”. Anger should be overcome by love, evil by good, greed by liberality, falsehood by truth. The vices of others should be overcome by our virtues. “A man is not just if he carried a matter by violence: he who distinguishes both right and wrong, who is learned and leads others, not by violence, but by law and equity, and who is guarded by the law, is called just”. We should be guided by justice and equity and the law of righteousness (dhamma). “A man is not cultured (Arya) because he injures living creatures: he is called an Arya because he has pity for all living creatures”. Violence is a sign of barbarity. But non-injury, compassions, or love is a sign of culture.

Buddha says, “There is no shark like hatred”. “The fields are damaged by weeds; mankind is damaged by hatred”. “Let us live happily then, not hating those who hate us! Among men who hate us dwell from hatred.” Love in the cementing factor among mankind. Hatred is the disintegrating force among them. Bind men to men with golden ties of

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love. Do not separate them by hatred, malice, and ill-will. “Refrain from hurting any creature, both those that are strong, and those that tremble in the world”. “Suffuse the world with friendliness: let all creatures, both strong and weak, see nothing that will bode them harm, and they will learn the ways of peace.” Give up ill-will, a malice, and hatred: suffuse the world with love and good will: and the world will be filled with love, and peace and hatred and ill-will will disappear. As light dispels darkness, so love dispels hatred. “A votary of ahimsa lives as binder of those who are divided, a peace maker, a lover of peace, a speaker of words the make for peace.” Love brings peace, but hatred brings on war. “Do not harbour hatred: do not speak in hatred: do not harm in hatred. Burn the roots of hatred by all-consuming love. Liberally, courtesy, benevolence, kindness – these are to the world what the linchpin is to the rolling chariot.” These are abundantly necessary for the smooth running of the human society. The gaping wounds of the heart of mankind urgently require the healing balm of universal love and brotherhood.

Eight-fold Path: The doctrine of Ethical Mean

The Buddha rejects both Being and Non-Being and believes in Becoming. He rejects both self-indulgence and self-mortification, and enjoins the ethics of moderation. He preaches the doctrine of the ethical mean. He lays down the eightfold path.

(1) Right view or belief consists in right knowledge of the four noble truths, which leads to dispassion, self-control, peace and nirvana. (2) Right resolve consists in the determination to uproot attachment to sensual pleasure, ill-will towards others, and desire to do harm to them. Mere right knowledge of right and wrong does not help the aspirant reach his goal. It must be

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expressed in right resolve to do what is right and desist from doing what is wrong. Right resolve is aspiration towards renunciation, benevolence, and compassion. (3) Right speech is an outward expression of right resolve. It consists in abstention from lying, slander, abuse, harsh words and frivolous talk. One should speak what is right, not what is unrighteous. One should speak what is pleasing, not what is pleasing. One should speak what is true, not what is false. One should speak well. One should speak what does not pain oneself nor hurt others. Truth should be in harmony with right and good. The just stand firm in what is true, in what is good, and in what is right. (4) Right conduct consists in abstention from the destruction of life, theft, sex-indulgence, lying, drinking intoxicating liquor, eating between meals, attending social entertainments, the use of unguents and ornaments, the use of luxurious beds, and the handling of gold and silver, which are binding upon the monks. The first five duties are binding on lay men. They should observe chastity in their married life. These sins should neither be committed, nor caused to be committed, nor approved. Lay men have specific duties. The duties of parents, children, teachers, pupils, husbands, wives, masters and servants are laid down. Liberality, courtesy, kindness, and unselfishness should be cultivated by all. (5) Right livelihood consists in earning living by honest means. Trade in arms, animals, flesh, liquor, and poison is forbidden. Earning livelihood by under-weights, fraudulence, bribery, ingratitude, crookedness, mutilation, persecution, confinement, robbery, and plunder is forbidden. (6) Right effort consists in constant vigilance, effort, and activity which are necessary for self-control, sense-restraint, arrest of evil thoughts, stimulation of good thoughts and concentration of

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the mind on universal good- will. Restless mind is not conducive to good thoughts, good emotions, and good conduct. Right effort consists in suppressing evil states and stimulating good states. (7) Right mindfulness consists in recollection of the impurity of the body, the nature of feeling, pleasure, pain, and neutral feeling, the nature of mind endowed with greed, hatred, and delusion, the nature of dharmas, five aggregates, sense-organs, sensible objects, means to enlightenment, and four noble truths. Right mindfulness is an indispensable pre-requisite of right concentration. (8) Right concentration consists of four meditations. It is the crown of the eightfold path. The first Jhana is a state of joy born of seclusion, accompanied by reflection and investigation, in which sensuality is destroyed. The second Jhana is a state of joy born of deep tranquility, without reflection or investigation, which are suppressed; in it thought is tranquilized, and intuition predominates. The third Jhana is a state of neutral consciousness in which all passions are destroyed. The fourth Jhana is a state of complete tranquility and self-possession in which joy and sorrow are destroyed. Buddhism stresses right conduct, right concentration and right insight. Right insight purges the mind of lust, becoming, and ignorance.

Buddhism emphasizes purity of the inner life. Mere pure external conduct does not suffice. The mind must be purged of all impurities. Greed, hatred, delusion, anger, envy, and jealousy must be rooted out. All passions that ruffle the calm of the mind must be extirpated. The mind must be sanctified.

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Conclusion

The Buddhist morality is altruistic. Though nirvana is the highest good of an individual, it is realized through universal good-will and love. We should pervade the whole world with love, pity, sympathy, and equanimity. Universal love, compassion for the distressed, joy for the virtuous, and indifference to the vicious are enjoined. Love generates compassion, joy, and indifference, and is consequently higher than these. Buddhist morality is the mean between self-indulgence and self- mortification. It advocates neither hedonism nor asceticism. Gautama underwent severe penances and self-torture which proved fruitless. Self-torture emaciates the body and fills the mind with evil thoughts. If the fires of lust, hatred, and delusion are not quenched, self- mortification can lead us nowhere. Craving for pleasure springs from egoism. When egoism is rooted out, craving for worldly and heavenly pleasures is quenched. On the other hand, self-indulgence is enervating and degrading. But to satisfy hunger and thirst, to keep the body in good health, to protect it from heat and cold, to save it from fatigue, to cover it comfortably and decently are necessary to keep the mind strong and pure. This is the Middle path that avoids both extremes. It resembles Aristotle’s doctrine of virtue as the mean between the two extremes of over-indulgence and total abstention. The Dharma spurns both pursuit of pleasures and self-mortification. It aims at purity of heart, purity of conduct, equanimity, peace, and enlightenment.

The ethics of non-injury (ahimsa) is the keynote of Buddhism. Hatred should be conquered by love; harm should be conquered by good. Evil recoils upon one who offends a harmless, pure, and innocent person. Hatred generates hatred. A harsh word excites a harsh word. We should be tolerant with the intolerant, mild with fault-finders, free from passion among the passionate. We should not offend anyone by body, word, or thought. A man is not just, if he carries a matter by law

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and equity. Non-injury, in thought, word, and deed, love, good-will, patience, endurance, and self-purification constitute the Buddhist morality. It is not inactivism; it inculcates calm and selfless life of activity for the good of humanity. It doesnot enjoin an active life dedicated to God as the teaches. It inculcates altruistic humanism.

References

1. Jadunath Sinha, A Manual of Ethics, Central Publishing House, 1984. 2. Jadunath Sinha, A History of Indian Philosophy, Vol, I. Central Publishing House, 1985. 3. Jadunath Sinha, Outlines of Indian Philosophy, Central Publishing House, 1985. 4. Santideva. H, Buddhist Ethics, Wisdom Publications, 1970. 5. Peter Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics, Cambridge University Press, 2000. 6. Damien Keown, The Nature of Buddhist Ethics, Pargrave Mac Milan, 2001. 7. Venerabla Master Hsing Yun(Translated by Tom Graham), Being Good: Buddhist Ethics for Everyday Life, Buddha’s Light Publishing, 2009.

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PROPER CAPACITY UTILIZATION OF THERMAL POWER PLANT ( P.T.P.S)

Vikas Maan Yogesh Sharma M.Tech Student Assistant Professor CBS College of Engineering CBS College of Engineering Jhajjhar, India Jhajjhar, India

Introduction

Electricity is a form of energy. The energy in the form of electricity is most desired as it is easy to transport, easy to control, clean in its surroundings and easily convertible to heat or work. The availability of electrical energy and its per capita consumption is regarded as an index of national standard of leaving. Electricity is basic part of nature and it is one of the most widely used forms of energy. We get electricity, which is secondary energy source, from the conversion of other sources of energy, like coal, natural gas, oil, nuclear power and other natural resources, which are called primary source. Energy is the ability to do work or cause change in things. There are many forms of energy such as heat, light, electricity, moving air and water. Energy cannot be created or destroyed. It merely changes from one to another. Electricity generation is grouped in two ways depending on the source of energy being used: electricity from a renewable energy source, or electricity from non renewable energy source.

A renewable energy source is one that is replaced in a reasonable period of time by natural processes: example includes wind, solar, wave, tidal, biomass, hydro and geothermal. A non- renewable source is one that is depleted once it is used. It will run out over time; examples include coal, natural gas, oil and uranium. The most of the electricity is generated using non- renewable energy sources such as fossil fuel (coal, gas and oil) and radioactive substance such as uranium. Burning fossil

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fuels remains the easiest and most cost effective way of producing electricity.

In India, dismal performance of power plants has adversely hit the industrial activity production levels have come down, production cost has shot up and industrial sickness has assumed alarming proportions, one of the most important reasons for this poor availability of energy is under utilization of productive capacity of power plants. So identification of factors responsible for this low utilization of capacity and finding proper remedial measures will make energy management much simpler. Better capacity utilization is regarded as precondition for accelerating the tempo of industrial growth, improving the rates of return on capital and generating additional resources. It also provides on opportunity for a quick increase in output and efficiency in the short run, thus improving the prospects for controlling inflation and creating condition for accelerated growth in output as well as investment in the years to come. Besides, employment absorption rises implicitly with the rise in capital operation. Thus it is widely accepted that economic growth and employment in less developed countries, depend upon additions to the capital stock. While the poor utilization of capacity represents wastage of resources.

The problems of under employment and unemployment have received wide attention, while those of under utilization or non utilization of capital or capacity have not probably received much attention in India. Thereby increasing employment and output at the same time. The issues involved relate to the concept of capacity and its measurement, factors influencing capacity utilization, nature and extent of gains as a consequence of improved utilization and remedial and precautionary measures. There is an urgent need to foster full utilization because of unemployment, shortage of output etc.

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Hence the optimum utilization of capital in developing countries like India is an important but complex aspect of development strategy in view of priorities and limitations in the power plant planning. Considering the importance of the problem the literature on the subject in the Indian context is rather in adequate. Therefore, a modest attempt is made to estimate capacity utilization with a view to suggest a viable policy so as to curb the growing menace of idle capacity.

Literature Survey

Y.P.Kedia has highlighted some factors responsible for poor utilization of plant capacity like poor maintenance planning, labor problems and raw material shortage. A.C.Hubert give involvement of people to the greatest extent possible in the performance of their own work is generally emphasized, getting people to work smarter rather than harder to increase productivity.G.D. Sardana & Prem Vrat gave their measurement model on the basis of working hours. They coined new term 'capacity utilization index'. It is the ratio of total hours worked to the total hours available. S,Samarapungavan said that production can be increased by adding additional inputs men, material, and equipment, merely increase in production will not be an indicator of the health of an industry, and hence its growth, would depend on how efficiently the total inputs are utilized to generate internal resources. Sanatan Nayak said the consumption of electricity is the most important input for determining the value of industrial output. M.K. Kolay, organization in a bid to earn more profits undertake various strategies that do affect the consumers, the national economy and the society at large (Kolay, 1990). T.P. Singh, & Ajay Batish, Repetitive tasks are viewed as highly monotonous, boring and unmotivating, resulting in reduced worker productivity. S. Giriappa, the role of renewable energy sources especially in the developing countries is becoming very crucial. To evaluate energy consumption in rural households belonging to various social groups using different

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biomass fuels (fuel wood, fuel stick, crop residues and cattle dung) and modern resources (electricity, kerosene, liquid petroleum gas) including biogas. B.C. Mathur, sustained attention has not been paid towards the repair and maintenance of plants, resulting in a large number of breakdowns. P.F. Jain, C.N. Ahire, J.T. Joshi & A.M. Baranth, have described how in multijet spray condenser, cold water provided to both spray and jet nozzles, if changed to hot water, by this, quantity of water to be handled in spray pond was reduced and one spray pump could be stopped thereby achieving power reduction. M.S. Mitra, in an industry of today, Plant Engineering is probably the biggest force to increase productivity (other than the motivated work force) and Maintenance/Maintenance Management is the most important component of Plant Engineering.

From literature survey it is evident that; to overcome these difficulties related to Less Utilization of power plant capacity like labor shortage, raw material shortage and improper maintenance planning so that we can increase the productivity of power plants to fulfill the daily need of power in various sectors.

Capacity Utilization

The term capacity is subject to various interpretations. The objective of the study is to determine the extent of capacity utilization. In most of the power plants, it is found that the actual generation is less than the installed or planned capacity. This difference in generated capacity and installed capacity is an index of capacity utilization. Under utilization of capacity leads to blocking of resources, high cost of generation, obsolescence of equipment and materials and wide spread repercussion on linked industries. We can also analyze power plant capacity in six forms:

• Total investment in creating capacity

• Theoretical installed capacity

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• Theoretical rated capacity

• Budgeted capacity

• Planned capacity

• Actual capacity

The importance of optimum utilization of capacity can be hardly over emphasized especially, in a developing economy where the availability of resources is acute. In economic literature growth is normally associated with new investment, but it is as well important that these investments contribute their maximum possible yield to the economy. Through better utilization of installed capacity, the economy can bring down the prevailing capital output ratios and capital labour ratios, resulting in more employment. In a mixed economy, like India to some extent excess capacity is bound to arise even its the planning and implementation process is near perfect. This calls for studying problem from time to time.

Measurement

Measurement of capacity utilization is not based on a commonly accepted quantitative approach. Many engineers and scientists have worked on the calculation of capacity utilization on their own terms and justified it. Different factors account for utilization of capacity in different places, so we have to study the relative applicability of these measurement methods. Some of these different measurement approaches are: -

1. According to Samarpungaran believes that capacity utilization is the product of labor efficiency and equipment utilization.

Capacity Utilization = Labor Efficiency X Equipment Utilization

Labor Efficiency = Actual man hours utilized / Total Hours available.

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Equipment Efficiency = Actual Machine hours utilized / Total machine hours available.

2. According to Dr. A.C. Hubert has put forward the following expression for the capacity utilization.

Capacity Utilization = Market Value Generation / ( L+M+C+X)

Where :

L = Input

M = Material Input

C = Capital Input

X = Miscellaneous Input

But all these measurement approaches are oriented towards manufacturing industries. For a power plant, best solution for measuring the capacity utilization could be plant land Factor.

Generating Capacity x 100 Plant Load Factor = ______

Installed Capacity PROPER CAPACITY UTILIZATION OF PANIPAT THERMAL POWER PLANT

Panipat Thermal Power Station (P.T.P.S) is a project of Haryana Power Generation Corporation Limited. This plant produces electricity with the neat of coal. It was establish in 1979. The raw material for this plant is mainly water and coal. The Present installed capacity of PTPS is 1367.8MW with a investment of Rs. 550 crores.

Features:

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Capacity Year/Date of commissioning

UNIT - 1(117.8 MW) 01-11-1979

UNIT - 2(110 MW) 27-03-1980

UNIT - 3(110 MW) 01-11-1985

UNIT - 4(110MW) 11-01-1987

UNIT - 5(210MW) 28-03-1989

UNIT - 6(210 MW) 04-07-2001

UNIT - 7(250 MW) 28-09-2004

UNIT - 8(250 MW) 28-01-2005

Daily coal requirement 21,000 M.T.

In a thermal power plant, converts the chemical energy of the fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas) into mechanical energy and mechanical energy is further converted into electrical energy. This is achieved by raising the steam in the boilers, expanding it through the turbines and coupling the turbines to the generators which convert mechanical energy to electrical energy as shown in the Figure 4.1.

For better understanding of the whole plant, we divide the whole system into the following parts.

1. Coal handling system.

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2. Ash handling system.

3. Feed water system.

4. Fuel oil.

5. Steam generation system.

6. Steam turbine system.

7. Combustion Equipment for Steam Boiler.

Conclusion

In view of scarcity of capital in relation to labor in a poor country like India, a failure to utilize capital fully should be regarded as a matter of serious concern. The planners, in fact, have all along given high priority to full utilization of capital while evolving plans; however this concern appears to have made little impact since Indian thermal power plants worked at three fourths of its capacity. By analyzing the given data it has been found that the Power Load Factor is changing yearly. During the year 2006-2007 it is found that the Power Load Factor is 83.17% which is the highest since commissioning of all the units. While on previous years PLF was found to be only 46 to78%. The various causes of this significant value of Power Load Factor are raw material shortage like coal, presence of impurities in coal, lack of maintenance, employer - employee relationship, vacuum deviation, flame failure, turbine stop valve temperature deviation, feed water temperature deviation, excess combustible in refuse, excess quantity of makeup, furnace pressure is high. Thus Power load factor can be increased up to a significant value by removing all these causes by suitable methods. In future this thesis work can be very useful in improving the capacity utilization of panipat thermal power plant because the electricity demand will continue in the future.

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Future Scope

In future this thesis work can be very useful in improving the capacity utilization of High capacity power plants having capacity of 10000 mw. The technical and non-technical aspects which are suggested in this thesis work can also be very useful and applicable in proper capacity utilization of steam power plants and hydro power plants. This thesis work can be very useful in better capacity utilization and better availability of energy in the future because the electricity demand will continue in the future.

References

1. Budin, M. &Pauls, "The Utilization of Power Plant Capacity of India", 1949 -59, Indian Economic Journal, vol. 9, 1961, pp. 40-43

2. Mitra, M.S., "Maintenance for Capacity Utilization", Productivity (NPC), Oct -Dec, 1975, vol. XX VI no. 3, pp. 913 - 917.

3. Mathur, B.C, "Capacity Utilization in Thermal Power Plant", Productivity (NPC), July-Sept., 1981, pp. 41 -49.

4. Kedia, Y.P., "Improving Capacity Utilization", Productivity (NPC), Jan March, 1982 pp. 393-401.

5. Sardana, G.D. & Vrat, P., "Performance Objective-Productivity (POP)", Oct. -Dec. 1983, vol. XXIV, no. 3, pp. 299 - 308

6. .Hubert, A. C,"Productivity Pendulum", Productivity (NPC), Oct - Dec, 1983,vol. XXIV, no. 3, 1983 pp. 251 - 256

7. .Samarapungavan, S., "Capacity Utilization in Thermal Power Plant Productivity", 1983, vol. XXIV, no. 3, pp. 335 - 338

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9. Aneja K.K., et.al, "Instrumentation and Control in Thermal Power Stations", 57th Annual R&D Session, C.B.I. P (India) 1992.

10. Giriappa, S., "Productivity in Household Energy Consumption". Productivity. vol. 33, no. 2, July-Sept. 1992.

11. Kolay, M.K., "Measuring the Total Performance of an Organization", Productivity, vol. 34 no. 2, July- Sept., 1993

12. .Bhattacharyya, S.C. (1994)., ”Environmental-thermal power generation nexus: the Indian scenario” Energy and Environment, Vol. 5, pp.105.12

13. CEA (1996.1997) Performance Review of Thermal Power Stations 1996.1997, Central ElectricityAuthority, Ministry of Power, Government of India, New Delhi

14. Rao, G.M., Kalirajan, K.P. and Shand, R.T. (1998).,”The Economics ofElectricity Supply in India”, Macmillan India Ltd

15. Khanna, M., and D. Zilberman. 1999. “Barriers to energy efficiency in electricity generation in India.” Energy Journal 20(1): 25–41

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17. .Nayak, Sanatan, "Electricity Consumption & Industrial Growth", vol. 44. no. 1. • April-June, 2003.

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