DOCSLIB.ORG

EVOLUTION and Diversity of GREEN and LAND PLANTS UNIT II EVOLUTION and DIVERSITY of PLANTS 59

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
EVOLUTION and Diversity of GREEN and LAND PLANTS UNIT II EVOLUTION and DIVERSITY of PLANTS 59 3 EVOLUTION AND DIVERSITY OF GREEN AND LAND PLANTS THE GREEN PLANTS 55 Hornworts 69 70 EMBRYOPHYTA- LAND PLANTS 59 Polysporangiophytes/Pan-Tracheophyta DIVERSITY OF NONVASCULAR LAND PLANTS 62 REVIEW QjESTIONS 71 Liverworts 62 EXERCISES 72 Mosses 65 REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY 72 THE GREEN PLANTS the cells, acting as a sort of cellular exoskeleton. The evolu tion of a cellulosic cell wall was a preamble to the further The green plants, formally called the Viridiplantae or evolution of more complex types of growth, particularly of Chiorobionta, are a monophyletic group of eukaryotic organ self-supporting shoot systems. It is not clear if a cellulosic isms that includes what have traditionally been called “green cell wall constitutes an apomorphy for the Viridiplantae algae” plus the land plants or embryophytes (Figure 3.1). alone, as it may have evolved much earlier, constituting an Like all eukaryotes, the Viridiplantae have cells with apomorphy for the Viridiplantae plus one or more other membrane-bound organelles, including a nucleus (containing groups; in any case, its adaptive significance seems clear. chromosomes composed of linear chains of DNA bound to Perhaps the primary apomorphy for the Viridiplantae is a proteins, that are sorted during cell division by mitosis), micro specialized type of chloroplast (Figure 3.2). As discussed in tubules, mitochondria, an endoplasmic reticulum, vesicles, Chapter 1, chloroplasts are one of the major defining charac and golgi bodies. Although the interrelationships of the non— teristics of traditionally defined “plants”; their adaptive sig land plant Viridiplantae will not be covered in detail here, it nificance as organelles functioning in photosynthesis, the is important to realize that some of the evolutionary innova conversion - of light energy to chemical energy, is unques tions, or apomorphies, that we normally associate with land tioned. Chloroplasts in the Viridiplantae, the green plants, differ plants actually arose before plants colonized the land. from those of most other organisms, such as the red and brown Several apomorphies unite the Viridiplantae (Figure 3.1). “algae,” in (1) containing chlorophyll b in addition to chloro One possible novelty for this group is a cellulosic cell wall phyll a, the former of which acts as an accessory pigment in (Figure 3.2A). Cellulose, like starch, is a polysaccharide, light capture; (2) having thylakoids, the chlorophyll-containing but one in which the glucose sugar units are bonded in the membranes, that are stacked into grana, which are pancake- beta-l,4 position (=3-1,4-g1ucopyranoside). This slight change like aggregations (see Figure 3.2B,C); and (3) manufacturing as in chemical bond position results in a very different molecule. a storage product true starch, a polymer of glucose sugar Cellulose is secreted outside the plasma membrane as micro units (= polysaccharide) in which the glucose molecules are scopic fiber-like units called microfibrils that are further chemically bonded in the alpha-1,4 position (ci-l,4- intertwined into larger fibril units, forming a supportive glucopyranoside). Thus, all green plants, from filamentous meshwork. The function of cellulose is to impart rigidity to green “algae” in a pond or tide pooi to giant sequoia or 55 02010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi: 10. 1016/B978-0- 12-374380-0.00003-9 r 56 CHAPTER 3 EVOLUTION AND DIVERSITY OF GREEN AND LAND PLANTS UNIT II EVOLUTION AND DIVERSITY OF PLANTS 57 Viridiplantae [Chiorobionta] — Green Plants Chiorophytes 1i Streptophytes “Green Algae” (a paraphyletic group) Charophytes -IE Land Plants fi = Embryophytes FIGURE 3.3 Examples of non—land plant Viridiplantae. A. Chlansydomonas reinhardtii, a unicellular form. (Photo courtesy of archegonium Rick Bizzoco.) B. Ulva, a thalloid form. C. Volvox, a colonial form. D. Spirogyra, a filamentous form. Above: vegetative form, with large, chloroplasts. antheridium spiral Below: reproductive conjugation stage, showing + and — mating strains and nonmotile zygotes. parenchyma cuticle Eucalyptus trees have this same type of chioroplast. Recent cells in at least one phase of their life history. “Green data imply that chioroplasts found in the green plants today algae” inhabit fresh and marine waters sporophyte/embryo (alternation of generations) and some live in or on were modified from those that evolved via endosymbiosis, soil (or even on snow!) or in other terrestrial but moist the intracellular cohabitation of an independently living, uni habitats. cellular prokaryote inside a eukaryotic cell (see Chapter 1). The primitive type of green plant sexual reproduction The Viridiplantae as a whole are classified as two sister seems to have been the production of flagellate, haploid (n) groups: chiorophytes, or Chlorophyceae, and streptophytes, gametes that are “isomorphic,” that is, that look identical. or Streptophyceae true starch storage compound (Figure 3.1). The traditional “green algae” Fertilization occurs by union of two of these gametes, result are a paraphyletic group (which is why the name is placed in thylakoids stacked in grana Unique green plant chloroplast ing in a diploid (2n) zygote (Figure 3.4A). The zygote, which features quotation chlorophyll b (chlorophyll a is ancestral) marks) and are defined as the primarily aquatic is free-living, then divides by meiosis to form four haploid Viridiplantae, cellulose in cell wall (may have evolved consisting of all chiorophytes and the non—land spores, each of which may germinate and develop into a new earlier & thus not a synapomorphy for Chlorobionta alone) plant streptophytes. “Green algae” occur in a tremendous haploid individual, which produces more gametes, complet FIGURE variety of morphological 3.1 Cladogram of the green plants (Viridiplantae or Chlorobionta), forms. These include single cells ing what is termed a haplontic (or “haplobiontic”) life cycle modified from Bremer (1985), Mishler and Churchill (1985), and Mishler et al. (1994). Important apomorphies discussed (Figure 3.3A) with or without flagella, thalloid forms (Figure (Figure 3.4A). in the text are listed beside thick hash marks. 3.3B), motile and nonmotile colonies (Figure 3.3C), and non- Within the streptophyte lineage that gave rise to the land motile filaments (Figure 3.3D). Many have flagellated motile plants, a few innovations evolved that may have been HAPLOID (n) HAPLOJD (n) //Z Multicelled Stage Multicelled Stage granum — ..- - .thylakoid -7:-’ : mitosis I / HAPLONTIC •; •; C HAPLONTIC . / Isogamy Oogamy Spores Gamete Gamete Spores i Egg Sperm (n) 1/(n) (n) (n) \ (n) (n) fertilization // -i’‘i•: JneiosisZ3ote nze,oszs fertilization FIGURE Zygote 3.2 A. Elodea, whole leaf in face view, A showing apomorphies of the Viridiplantae: a cellulosic chloroplasts. B. Diagram cell wall and green plant of chloroplast structure of green plants, showing (2n) (2n) thylakoids and grana. C. Electron micrograph of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, a unicellular “green alga,” showing granum of chioroplast. (Photo courtesy of Rick Bizzoco.) FIGURE 3.4 Haplontic life cycles in some of the green plants. A. Jsogamy. B. Oogamy. ii 56 CHAPTER 3 EVOLUTION AND DIVERSITY OF GREEN AND LAND PLANTS UNIT II EVOLUTIONANDDIVERSITYOFPLANT5 57 Viridiplantae [Chiorobionta] — Green Plants Chiorophytes r —j Streptophytes “Green Algae” (a paraphyletic group) J:: Charophytes - - . Land Plants = Embryophytes I FIGURE 3.3 Examples of non—land plant Viridiplantae. A. Chiarnydornonas reinhardtii, a unicellular form. (Photo courtesy of archegonium Rick Bizzoco.) B. Ulva, a thalloid form. C. Volvox, a colonial form. D. Spirogyra, a filamentous form. Above: vegetative form, with large, antheridjum spiral chloroplasts. Below: reproductive conjugation stage, showing + and — mating strains and nonmotile zygotes. parenchyma cuticle Eucalyptus trees have this same type of chloroplast. Recent cells in at least one phase of their life history. “Green data imply that chioroplasts found in the green plants today algae” inhabit fresh and marine waters and sporophyte/embryo (alternation of generations) some live in or on were modified from those that evolved via endosymbiosis, soil (or even on snow!) or in other terrestrial but moist the intracellular cohabitation of an independently living, uni habitats. cellular prokaryote inside a eukaryotic cell (see Chapter 1). The primitive type of green plant sexual reproduction The Viridiplantae as a whole are classified as two sister seems to have been the production of flagellate, haploid (n) groups: chiorophytes, or Chlorophyceae, and streptophytes, gametes that are “isomorphic,” that is, that look identical. true starch storage compound or Streptophyceae (Figure 3.1). The traditional “green algae” Fertilization occurs by union of two of these gametes, result thylakoids stacked in grana are a paraphyletic group (which is why the name is placed in ing in a diploid (2n) zygote Unique green plant chioroplast features (Figure 3.4A). The zygote, which chlorophyll b (chlorophyll a is ancestral) quotation marks) and are defined as the primarily aquatic is free-living, then divides by meiosis to form four haploid cellulose in cell Viridiplantae, wall (may have evolved earlier & thus consisting of all chiorophytes and the non—land spores, each of which may germinate and develop into a new not a synapomorphy for Chiorobionta alone) plant streptophytes. “Green algae” occur in a tremendous haploid individual, which produces more gametes, complet FIGURE 3.1 Cladogram of the green variety of morphological
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Antarctic Bryophyte Research—Current State and Future Directions
    Bry. Div. Evo. 043 (1): 221–233 ISSN 2381-9677 (print edition) DIVERSITY & https://www.mapress.com/j/bde BRYOPHYTEEVOLUTION Copyright © 2021 Magnolia Press Article ISSN 2381-9685 (online edition) https://doi.org/10.11646/bde.43.1.16 Antarctic bryophyte research—current state and future directions PAULO E.A.S. CÂMARA1, MicHELine CARVALHO-SILVA1 & MicHAEL STecH2,3 1Departamento de Botânica, Universidade de Brasília, Brazil UnB; �[email protected]; http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3944-996X �[email protected]; https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2389-3804 2Naturalis Biodiversity Center, P.O. Box 9517, 2300 RA Leiden, Netherlands; 3Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands �[email protected]; https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9804-0120 Abstract Botany is one of the oldest sciences done south of parallel 60 °S, although few professional botanists have dedicated themselves to investigating the Antarctic bryoflora. After the publications of liverwort and moss floras in 2000 and 2008, respectively, new species were described. Currently, the Antarctic bryoflora comprises 28 liverwort and 116 moss species. Furthermore, Antarctic bryology has entered a new phase characterized by the use of molecular tools, in particular DNA sequencing. Although the molecular studies of Antarctic bryophytes have focused exclusively on mosses, molecular data (fingerprinting data and/or DNA sequences) have already been published for 36 % of the Antarctic moss species. In this paper we review the current state of Antarctic bryological research, focusing on molecular studies and conservation, and discuss future questions of Antarctic bryology in the light of global challenges. Keywords: Antarctic flora, conservation, future challenges, molecular phylogenetics, phylogeography Introduction The Antarctic is the most pristine, but also most extreme region on Earth in terms of environmental conditions.
    [Show full text]
  • Seed Germination and Genetic Structure of Two Salvia Species In
    Seed germination and genetic structure of two Salvia species in response to environmental variables among phytogeographic regions in Jordan (Part I) and Phylogeny of the pan-tropical family Marantaceae (Part II). Dissertation Zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades Doctor rerum naturalium (Dr. rer. nat) Vorgelegt der Naturwissenschaftlichen Fakultät I Biowissenschaften der Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg Von Herrn Mohammad Mufleh Al-Gharaibeh Geb. am: 18.08.1979 in: Irbid-Jordan Gutachter/in 1. Prof. Dr. Isabell Hensen 2. Prof. Dr. Martin Roeser 3. Prof. Dr. Regina Classen-Bockhof Halle (Saale), den 10.01.2017 Copyright notice Chapters 2 to 4 have been either published in or submitted to international journals or are in preparation for publication. Copyrights are with the authors. Just the publishers and authors have the right for publishing and using the presented material. Therefore, reprint of the presented material requires the publishers’ and authors’ permissions. “Four years ago I started this project as a PhD project, but it turned out to be a long battle to achieve victory and dreams. This dissertation is the culmination of this long process, where the definition of “Weekend” has been deleted from my dictionary. It cannot express the long days spent in analyzing sequences and data, battling shoulder to shoulder with my ex- computer (RIP), R-studio, BioEdite and Microsoft Words, the joy for the synthesis, the hope for good results and the sadness and tiredness with each attempt to add more taxa and analyses.” “At the end, no phrase can describe my happiness when I saw the whole dissertation is printed out.” CONTENTS | 4 Table of Contents Summary ..........................................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Predatory Flagellates – the New Recently Discovered Deep Branches of the Eukaryotic Tree and Their Evolutionary and Ecological Significance
    Protistology 14 (1), 15–22 (2020) Protistology Predatory flagellates – the new recently discovered deep branches of the eukaryotic tree and their evolutionary and ecological significance Denis V. Tikhonenkov Papanin Institute for Biology of Inland Waters, Russian Academy of Sciences, Borok, 152742, Russia | Submitted March 20, 2020 | Accepted April 6, 2020 | Summary Predatory protists are poorly studied, although they are often representing important deep-branching evolutionary lineages and new eukaryotic supergroups. This short review/opinion paper is inspired by the recent discoveries of various predatory flagellates, which form sister groups of the giant eukaryotic clusters on phylogenetic trees, and illustrate an ancestral state of one or another supergroup of eukaryotes. Here we discuss their evolutionary and ecological relevance and show that the study of such protists may be essential in addressing previously puzzling evolutionary problems, such as the origin of multicellular animals, the plastid spread trajectory, origins of photosynthesis and parasitism, evolution of mitochondrial genomes. Key words: evolution of eukaryotes, heterotrophic flagellates, mitochondrial genome, origin of animals, photosynthesis, predatory protists, tree of life Predatory flagellates and diversity of eu- of the hidden diversity of protists (Moon-van der karyotes Staay et al., 2000; López-García et al., 2001; Edg- comb et al., 2002; Massana et al., 2004; Richards The well-studied multicellular animals, plants and Bass, 2005; Tarbe et al., 2011; de Vargas et al., and fungi immediately come to mind when we hear 2015). In particular, several prevailing and very abun- the term “eukaryotes”. However, these groups of dant ribogroups such as MALV, MAST, MAOP, organisms represent a minority in the real diversity MAFO (marine alveolates, stramenopiles, opistho- of evolutionary lineages of eukaryotes.
    [Show full text]
  • Cell Wall Chemistry Roger M
    3 Cell Wall Chemistry Roger M. Rowell1,3, Roger Pettersen1, James S. Han1, Jeffrey S. Rowell2, and Mandla A. Tshabalala 1USDA, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, WI 2Department of Forest Ecology and Management, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 3Department of Biological Systems Engineering, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI CONTENTS 3.1 Carbohydrate Polymers ..........................................................................................................37 3.1.1 Holocellulose ..............................................................................................................37 3.1.2 Cellulose .....................................................................................................................37 3.1.3 Hemicelluloses............................................................................................................39 3.1.3.1 Hardwood Hemicelluloses ..........................................................................41 3.1.3.2 Softwood Hemicelluloses............................................................................42 3.1.4 Other Minor Polysaccharides .....................................................................................43 3.2 Lignin......................................................................................................................................43 3.3 Extractives ..............................................................................................................................45 3.4 Bark.........................................................................................................................................46
    [Show full text]
  • Is Chloroplastic Class IIA Aldolase a Marine Enzyme&Quest;
    The ISME Journal (2016) 10, 2767–2772 © 2016 International Society for Microbial Ecology All rights reserved 1751-7362/16 www.nature.com/ismej SHORT COMMUNICATION Is chloroplastic class IIA aldolase a marine enzyme? Hitoshi Miyasaka1, Takeru Ogata1, Satoshi Tanaka2, Takeshi Ohama3, Sanae Kano4, Fujiwara Kazuhiro4,7, Shuhei Hayashi1, Shinjiro Yamamoto1, Hiro Takahashi5, Hideyuki Matsuura6 and Kazumasa Hirata6 1Department of Applied Life Science, Sojo University, Kumamoto, Japan; 2The Kansai Electric Power Co., Environmental Research Center, Keihanna-Plaza, Kyoto, Japan; 3School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Kochi University of Technology, Kochi, Japan; 4Chugai Technos Corporation, Hiroshima, Japan; 5Graduate School of Horticulture, Faculty of Horticulture, Chiba University, Chiba, Japan and 6Environmental Biotechnology Laboratory, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan Expressed sequence tag analyses revealed that two marine Chlorophyceae green algae, Chlamydo- monas sp. W80 and Chlamydomonas sp. HS5, contain genes coding for chloroplastic class IIA aldolase (fructose-1, 6-bisphosphate aldolase: FBA). These genes show robust monophyly with those of the marine Prasinophyceae algae genera Micromonas, Ostreococcus and Bathycoccus, indicating that the acquisition of this gene through horizontal gene transfer by an ancestor of the green algal lineage occurred prior to the divergence of the core chlorophytes (Chlorophyceae and Treboux- iophyceae) and the prasinophytes. The absence of this gene in some freshwater chlorophytes, such as Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, Volvox carteri, Chlorella vulgaris, Chlorella variabilis and Coccomyxa subellipsoidea, can therefore be explained by the loss of this gene somewhere in the evolutionary process. Our survey on the distribution of this gene in genomic and transcriptome databases suggests that this gene occurs almost exclusively in marine algae, with a few exceptions, and as such, we propose that chloroplastic class IIA FBA is a marine environment-adapted enzyme.
    [Show full text]
  • The Origin of Alternation of Generations in Land Plants
    Theoriginof alternation of generations inlandplants: afocuson matrotrophy andhexose transport Linda K.E.Graham and LeeW .Wilcox Department of Botany,University of Wisconsin, 430Lincoln Drive, Madison,WI 53706, USA (lkgraham@facsta¡.wisc .edu ) Alifehistory involving alternation of two developmentally associated, multicellular generations (sporophyteand gametophyte) is anautapomorphy of embryophytes (bryophytes + vascularplants) . Microfossil dataindicate that Mid ^Late Ordovicianland plants possessed such alifecycle, and that the originof alternationof generationspreceded this date.Molecular phylogenetic data unambiguously relate charophyceangreen algae to the ancestryof monophyletic embryophytes, and identify bryophytes as early-divergentland plants. Comparison of reproduction in charophyceans and bryophytes suggests that the followingstages occurredduring evolutionary origin of embryophytic alternation of generations: (i) originof oogamy;(ii) retention ofeggsand zygotes on the parentalthallus; (iii) originof matrotrophy (regulatedtransfer ofnutritional and morphogenetic solutes fromparental cells tothe nextgeneration); (iv)origin of a multicellularsporophyte generation ;and(v) origin of non-£ agellate, walled spores. Oogamy,egg/zygoteretention andmatrotrophy characterize at least some moderncharophyceans, and arepostulated to represent pre-adaptativefeatures inherited byembryophytes from ancestral charophyceans.Matrotrophy is hypothesizedto have preceded originof the multicellularsporophytes of plants,and to represent acritical innovation.Molecular
    [Show full text]
  • JUDD W.S. Et. Al. (2002) Plant Systematics: a Phylogenetic Approach. Chapter 7. an Overview of Green
    UNCORRECTED PAGE PROOFS An Overview of Green Plant Phylogeny he word plant is commonly used to refer to any auto- trophic eukaryotic organism capable of converting light energy into chemical energy via the process of photosynthe- sis. More specifically, these organisms produce carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in the presence of chlorophyll inside of organelles called chloroplasts. Sometimes the term plant is extended to include autotrophic prokaryotic forms, especially the (eu)bacterial lineage known as the cyanobacteria (or blue- green algae). Many traditional botany textbooks even include the fungi, which differ dramatically in being heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms that enzymatically break down living or dead organic material and then absorb the simpler products. Fungi appear to be more closely related to animals, another lineage of heterotrophs characterized by eating other organisms and digesting them inter- nally. In this chapter we first briefly discuss the origin and evolution of several separately evolved plant lineages, both to acquaint you with these important branches of the tree of life and to help put the green plant lineage in broad phylogenetic perspective. We then focus attention on the evolution of green plants, emphasizing sev- eral critical transitions. Specifically, we concentrate on the origins of land plants (embryophytes), of vascular plants (tracheophytes), of 1 UNCORRECTED PAGE PROOFS 2 CHAPTER SEVEN seed plants (spermatophytes), and of flowering plants dons.” In some cases it is possible to abandon such (angiosperms). names entirely, but in others it is tempting to retain Although knowledge of fossil plants is critical to a them, either as common names for certain forms of orga- deep understanding of each of these shifts and some key nization (e.g., the “bryophytic” life cycle), or to refer to a fossils are mentioned, much of our discussion focuses on clade (e.g., applying “gymnosperms” to a hypothesized extant groups.
    [Show full text]
  • A Taxonomic Reassessment of Chlamydomonas Meslinii (Volvocales, Chlorophyceae) with a Description of Paludistella Gen.Nov
    Phytotaxa 432 (1): 065–080 ISSN 1179-3155 (print edition) https://www.mapress.com/j/pt/ PHYTOTAXA Copyright © 2020 Magnolia Press Article ISSN 1179-3163 (online edition) https://doi.org/10.11646/phytotaxa.432.1.6 A taxonomic reassessment of Chlamydomonas meslinii (Volvocales, Chlorophyceae) with a description of Paludistella gen.nov. HANI SUSANTI1,6, MASAKI YOSHIDA2, TAKESHI NAKAYAMA2, TAKASHI NAKADA3,4 & MAKOTO M. WATANABE5 1Life Science Innovation, School of Integrative and Global Major, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8577, Japan. 2Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba 305-8577, Japan. 3Institute for Advanced Biosciences, Keio University, Tsuruoka, Yamagata, 997-0052, Japan. 4Systems Biology Program, Graduate School of Media and Governance, Keio University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-8520, Japan. 5Algae Biomass Energy System Development and Research Center, University of Tsukuba. 6Research Center for Biotechnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Jl. Raya Bogor KM 46 Cibinong West Java, Indonesia. Corresponding author: [email protected] Abstract Chlamydomonas (Volvocales, Chlorophyceae) is a large polyphyletic genus that includes numerous species that should be classified into independent genera. The present study aimed to examine the authentic strain of Chlamydomonas meslinii and related strains based on morphological and molecular data. All the strains possessed an asteroid chloroplast with a central pyrenoid and hemispherical papilla; however, they were different based on cell and stigmata shapes. Molecular phylogenetic analyses based on 18S rDNA, atpB, and psaB indicated that the strains represented a distinct subclade in the clade Chloromonadinia. The secondary structure of ITS-2 supported the separation of the strains into four species.
    [Show full text]
  • Cell Wall Ribosomes Nucleus Chloroplast Cytoplasm
    Cell Wall Ribosomes Nucleus Nickname: Protector Nickname: Protein Maker Nickname: Brain The cell wall is the outer covering of a Plant cell. It is Ribosomes read the recipe from the The nucleus is the largest organelle in a cell. The a strong and stiff and made of DNA and use this recipe to make nucleus directs all activity in the cell. It also controls cellulose. It supports and protects the plant cell by proteins. The nucleus tells the the growth and reproduction of the cell. holding it upright. It ribosomes which proteins to make. In humans, the nucleus contains 46 chromosomes allows water, oxygen and carbon dioxide to pass in out They are found in both plant and which are the instructions for all the activities in your of plant cell. animal cells. In a cell they can be found cell and body. floating around in the cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum. Chloroplast Cytoplasm Endoplasmic Reticulum Nickname: Oven Nickname: Gel Nickname: Highway Chloroplasts are oval structures that that contain a green Cytoplasm is the gel like fluid inside a The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the transportation pigment called chlorophyll. This allows plants to make cell. The organelles are floating around in center for the cell. The ER is like the conveyor belt, you their own food through the process of photosynthesis. this fluid. would see at a supermarket, except instead of moving your groceries it moves proteins from one part of the cell Chloroplasts are necessary for photosynthesis, the food to another. The Endoplasmic Reticulum looks like a making process, to occur.
    [Show full text]
  • The Structure, Function, and Biosynthesis of Plant Cell Wall Pectic Polysaccharides
    Carbohydrate Research 344 (2009) 1879–1900 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Carbohydrate Research journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/carres The structure, function, and biosynthesis of plant cell wall pectic polysaccharides Kerry Hosmer Caffall a, Debra Mohnen a,b,* a University of Georgia, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, 315 Riverbend Road Athens, GA 30602, United States b DOE BioEnergy Science Center (BESC), 315 Riverbend Road Athens, GA 30602, United States article info abstract Article history: Plant cell walls consist of carbohydrate, protein, and aromatic compounds and are essential to the proper Received 18 November 2008 growth and development of plants. The carbohydrate components make up 90% of the primary wall, Received in revised form 4 May 2009 and are critical to wall function. There is a diversity of polysaccharides that make up the wall and that Accepted 6 May 2009 are classified as one of three types: cellulose, hemicellulose, or pectin. The pectins, which are most abun- Available online 2 June 2009 dant in the plant primary cell walls and the middle lamellae, are a class of molecules defined by the pres- ence of galacturonic acid. The pectic polysaccharides include the galacturonans (homogalacturonan, Keywords: substituted galacturonans, and RG-II) and rhamnogalacturonan-I. Galacturonans have a backbone that Cell wall polysaccharides consists of -1,4-linked galacturonic acid. The identification of glycosyltransferases involved in pectin Galacturonan a Glycosyltransferases synthesis is essential to the study of cell wall function in plant growth and development and for maxi- Homogalacturonan mizing the value and use of plant polysaccharides in industry and human health.
    [Show full text]
  • IAWA Bulletin N.S., Vol. 3 (1),1982 3 ANTONI V an LEEUWENHOEK
    IAWA Bulletin n.s., Vol. 3 (1),1982 3 ANTONI VAN LEEUWENHOEK AND HIS OBSERVATION ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE WOODY CELL WALL by Pieter Baas Rijksherbarium, Leiden, The Netherlands Summary Following general remarks on the life of Van be traced back to negative but ill-informed Leeuwenhoek and his role in wood anatomy, judgements in some authoritative 19th and his account of the structure of a torn vessel 20th century publications (Baas, 1982a, b). wall of nutmeg rootwood is discussed in detail. Van Leeuwenhoek should be credited with The cross-wise orientation of minute 'vessels or many detailed and original wood and bark ana­ fibres' as observed and interpreted by Van tomical observations, but his work is not easily Leeuwenhoek can be considered to be the first accessible, being scattered in numerous letters, (unintentional) correct record of the fibrillar most of them also dealing with other microsco­ nature of the woody cell wall. pic subjects. Although most of these letters were published in various instalments and sev­ Introduction eral languages during Van Leeuwenhoek's life­ Antoni van Leeuwenhoek was born in 1632, time, this presentation cannot compete with 350 years ago, in Delft (the Netherlands) as the the balanced treatises by Grew and Malpighi, son of a basket maker. Apprenticed to a cloth who each published books solely dealing with merchant, Van Leeuwenhoek's career started as plant structure and function. a shopkeeper. Later he would serve as usher to Interest in Van Leeuwenhoek's plant anato­ the aldermen, chief warden and wine-gauger of mical work has recently also been revived by the City of Delft, and surveyor to the Court of the rediscovery of some of his sections among Holland.
    [Show full text]
  • The Symbiotic Green Algae, Oophila (Chlamydomonadales
    University of Connecticut OpenCommons@UConn Master's Theses University of Connecticut Graduate School 12-16-2016 The yS mbiotic Green Algae, Oophila (Chlamydomonadales, Chlorophyceae): A Heterotrophic Growth Study and Taxonomic History Nikolaus Schultz University of Connecticut - Storrs, [email protected] Recommended Citation Schultz, Nikolaus, "The yS mbiotic Green Algae, Oophila (Chlamydomonadales, Chlorophyceae): A Heterotrophic Growth Study and Taxonomic History" (2016). Master's Theses. 1035. https://opencommons.uconn.edu/gs_theses/1035 This work is brought to you for free and open access by the University of Connecticut Graduate School at OpenCommons@UConn. It has been accepted for inclusion in Master's Theses by an authorized administrator of OpenCommons@UConn. For more information, please contact [email protected]. The Symbiotic Green Algae, Oophila (Chlamydomonadales, Chlorophyceae): A Heterotrophic Growth Study and Taxonomic History Nikolaus Eduard Schultz B.A., Trinity College, 2014 A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science at the University of Connecticut 2016 Copyright by Nikolaus Eduard Schultz 2016 ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This thesis was made possible through the guidance, teachings and support of numerous individuals in my life. First and foremost, Louise Lewis deserves recognition for her tremendous efforts in making this work possible. She has performed pioneering work on this algal system and is one of the preeminent phycologists of our time. She has spent hundreds of hours of her time mentoring and teaching me invaluable skills. For this and so much more, I am very appreciative and humbled to have worked with her. Thank you Louise! To my committee members, Kurt Schwenk and David Wagner, thank you for your mentorship and guidance.
    [Show full text]