Land Use Changes and Their Impacts on Wetlands in Loboi Plains Baringo County, Kenya
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LAND USE CHANGES AND THEIR IMPACTS ON WETLANDS IN LOBOI PLAINS BARINGO COUNTY, KENYA. BY RAPHAEL WAMITHI KARERI A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY OF THE DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY MOI UNIVERSITY ELDORET 2018 ii DECLARATION Declaration by the Candidate This thesis is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in other University. No part of this thesis may be reproduced without the prior written permission of the author and/or Moi University. Raphael Wamithi Kareri -------------------------- ---------------------------- (SES/06/Dphil.96) Signed Date Declaration by the Supervisors This thesis has been submitted for examination with our approval as University supervisors. Professor Paul Omondi ------------------------------- --------------------- Department of Geography Signed Date School of Art and Social Sciences Moi University, Eldoret, Kenya Dr. James K. Chelang’a ------------------------------ ------------------ Department of Natural Resources Signed Date School of Agriculture and Natural Resources Moi University, Eldoret, Kenya iii DEDICATION his thesis is dedicated to: My late father, Gibson Kareri Waithanji and my mother, Martha Wanjira Kinyeru whose contribution to my life is immeasurable; My family (Eve, Ken, Gibson, Martha, Peninah and Willie) for their love and prayers as they looked forward to the end of this work and; The late Emeritus Professor of Geography Reuben Benjamin Ogendo (PhD) who shaped my understanding of the discipline of Geography . iv ABSTRACT Encroachments of land use systems into traditional forests and wetland areas are contributing to degradation of these ecosystems leading to unsustainable development. Whereas such land developments could be contributing to short term socio-economic welfare of the people, they, in the long-run cause degradation and thus threaten the very livelihoods of the local people they were meant to sustain. Generally, this study examined and analyzed land use changes and their impacts on wetlands in the semi-arid lowlands of Baringo County. In particular, the study sought to: analyze the nature of land use changes in the study sites and assess the impacts of the land use changes on the Loboi plains’ wetlands; assess the traditional values and uses of wetlands and the impacts of loss of these ecosystems on people’s livelihoods; and finally, suggest possible culture-based and/or policy interventions to stem wetlands loss and degradation. The study was guided by a broad spectrum of theories including; political economy, political ecology and “the tragedy of the commons”. Secondary data were obtained and maps digitized from the resource inventory in the Survey of Kenya. Landsat Thematic Mapper and Enhance Thematic Mapper plus from 1986 to 2006 were analyzed in Geographical information system to establish the extent of land use/land cover change. Reference data obtained through GPS and photographic loggings of the landscapes guided the interpretation of the images in order to obtain details about the various features of land use changes and the manifestations of their impacts. Content analysis of relevant literature was done. Primary data was obtained through administration of questionnaires to a random sample of 132 household heads. In-depth interviews and discussions were conducted with 10 key informants. The collected data were synthesized, treated and analyzed for necessary generalization using SPSS computer package. Digital image processing indicated loss of 4,248 acres (or 2.23% of total land area) and 8,789 acres (or 4.61% of the total land area) in wetlands and forests respectively, within 20 years. These findings were corroborated by the socio-economic survey results where forests and wetlands were perceived to have declined by 35.1% and 23.4% respectively. Increased crop-cultivation was viewed as a more prominent cause of land use/land cover change (28.8%) compared to others such as population increase at 25.8%. Crop- cultivation was prioritized by most of the respondents (71.3%) because of the expected high returns accruing to irrigation farming. Thus, water withdrawal from river Waseges and the lowland wetlands increased as the influent reduced. Furthermore, upstream deforestation increased sediment load that suffocated wetlands plants. Together these factors led to the degradation of wetlands. In conclusion, attempts at replacing pastoralism as a livelihood strategy with sedentary agriculture have not only been disruptive to the traditional way of life but have exacerbated the prevailing environmental destruction. An integrated watershed management that incorporates payment for ecosystem services is recommended in order to balance ecological gains with livelihood needs within the study area. Further, researches for planning and academic purposes should be carried out to investigate the best ways of managing the watershed areas so as to minimize sedimentation and fluctuations in seasonal river discharge. Research should also be carried out to seek and recommend alternative forms of livelihoods that are compatible with the semi-arid environments. v TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION .......................................................................................................... ii DEDICATION ............................................................................................................. iii ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ...............................................................................................v LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................... ix LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................x LIST OF MAPS ........................................................................................................... xi LIST OF PLATES ...................................................................................................... xii ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ....................................................................xv DEFINITION OF OPERATIONAL TERMS .......................................................... xvii CHAPTER ONE ..........................................................................................................1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................1 1.1 Background to the Study ......................................................................................1 1.2 The Statement of the Problem ............................................................................10 1.3 Research Objectives ...........................................................................................11 1.4 Research Questions ............................................................................................12 1.5 Scope and Limitations of the Study ...................................................................12 1.6 Importance and Usefulness of the Study ............................................................13 1.7 Thesis Outline ....................................................................................................16 CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................................18 LITERATURE REVIEW, THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ..........................................................................................................18 2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................18 2.2 Evolution of Land use Systems in the Rangelands ............................................19 2.3 Transition from Pastoralism to Crop-cultivation ...............................................27 2.4 Capitalism and sustainable use of Natural Resources ........................................30 2.5 Global Wetlands Loss ........................................................................................33 2.6 Community Involvement in Wetland Conservation Efforts ..............................34 2.7 The Ramsar Convention’s Role in Sustainable Wetland management ..............37 2.8 Watershed management: The upstream downstream linkages ..........................37 2.9 Ecosystem Services, Market Forces and Household welfare .............................39 2.10 Wetlands of Kenya ...........................................................................................41 vi 2.11 Land use/cover Change and its Impact on Hydrological Regimes ..................42 2.12 Wetlands of the Semi-arid Lakes Bogoria-Baringo Lowlands ........................43 2.13 Ecological Impacts on wetlands .......................................................................46 2.14 Summary of the Literature Review ................................................................47 2.15 The Theoretical Framework of the Study ........................................................49 2.15.1 Political Economy Theory .........................................................................49 2.15.2 Political Ecology Theory ...........................................................................52 2.15.3 The Tragedy of the Commons ...................................................................53 2. 16 Conceptual framework ..................................................................................55