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Climate Change Adaptation Strategies Climate Change Adaptation Strategies Water Resources Management Options for Smallholder Farming Systems in Sub-Saharan Africa Stephen N. Ngigi The Earth Institute AT COLUMBIA UNIVERSTY Climate Change Adaptation Strategies: Water Resources Management Options for Smallholder Farming Systems in Sub-Saharan Africa A Study supported by the Rockefeller Foundation By Stephen N. Ngigi Associate Research Scientist / MVP Water Coordinator The MDG Centre, East and Southern Africa The Earth Institute at Columbia University With contributions from: Glenn Denning, Christopher Graham, Tapsoba Ludovic, Amos Majule, Cheryl Palm, Maimbo Malesu, Matayo Indeje, Damaris Mungai, Waithera Gaitho, Jacob Tumbulto, Amadou Balima and Oliver Hounkou The Study report was peer reviewed by: Douglas Merrey, Bancy Mati, Herbert Blank, Kithinji Mutunga, Isaya Sijali, John Ogwang, Henry Mahoo, Abdou-Salam Savadogo, Philip Langat, Ephraim Alamerew, Cosmos Muli and Sharon Gordon December 2009 Climate Change Adaptation Strategies ii Options for Smallholder Farmers in SSA Published by The MDG Centre for East and Southern Africa of the Earth Institute at Columbia University, New York with financial support from the Rockefeller Foundation. Design and Layout Lucy Cherogony Cover photos Courtesy of Self Help Africa (SHA) formerly Self Help Development International (SHDI) project in Gilgil Division, Naivasha District of Kenya. Cataloguing in publication data: Ngigi, S.N. 2009. Climate Change Adaptation Strategies: Water Resources Management Options for Smallholder Farming Systems in Sub-Saharan Africa. The MDG Centre for East and Southern Africa, The Earth Institute at Columbia University, New York. 189p ISBN 978-92-9059-264-8 All rights reserved. The contents of this publication may be reproduced without special permission. However, its source should be duly acknowledged. Views expressed in this report are those of the author and do not necessary reflect the views of The MDG Centre, or The Earth Institute at Columbia University, New York. Printing: UNON, Publishing Services Section, Nairobi, ISO 14001:2004 - certified. Climate Change Adaptation Strategies Options for Smallholder Farmers in SSA iii TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY.......................................................................................v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...................................................................................ix LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS .......................................................xi 1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 1 1.1 Background .......................................................................................................1 1.2 Climate Change and Water Resources for Agriculture ................................................3 1.3 Why Focus on Smallholder Farmers? ......................................................................6 1.4 Gender Perspective .............................................................................................8 2 STUDY METHODOLOGY........................................................................... 11 2.1 Data Collection and Analysis ..............................................................................11 2.2 Scope of the Study............................................................................................12 2.2.1 Study limitations ......................................................................................13 3 CURRENT TRENDS AND PAST EXPERIENCE ................................................ 15 3.1 Water Resources and African Agriculture ...............................................................15 3.1.1 Water resources......................................................................................16 3.1.2 Agricultural water use ...............................................................................23 3.1.3 Anticipated impacts of climate change on agricultural water resources...............26 3.1.4 Upgrading rainfed agriculture ....................................................................28 3.1.5 Conflicts over water resources....................................................................35 3.2 Adaptation Strategies ........................................................................................37 3.3 Adaptation Initiatives .........................................................................................44 3.3.1 Collective action .....................................................................................44 3.3.2 Agricultural Water Management.................................................................48 3.3.3 Research programs ..................................................................................54 3.3.4 Governance interventions..........................................................................59 3.4 Challenges and Constraints ................................................................................62 3.4.1 Economic capacity ..................................................................................63 3.4.2 Technology.............................................................................................63 3.4.3 Technology dissemination..........................................................................64 3.4.4 Information and skills ................................................................................65 3.4.5 Infrastructure ...........................................................................................66 3.4.6 Land tenure ............................................................................................66 Climate Change Adaptation Strategies iv Options for Smallholder Farmers in SSA 3.4.7 Gender issues.........................................................................................67 3.4.8 Governance structures ..............................................................................68 4 FEASIBLE INTERVENTIONS ........................................................................73 4.1 Technical Interventions........................................................................................73 4.1.1 Smallholder irrigation development .............................................................73 4.1.2 Micro-irrigation systems.............................................................................80 4.1.3 Greenhouses for smallholder farmers ...........................................................81 4.1.4 Rainwater harvesting and management........................................................84 4.1.5 Energy sources for pumping water ..............................................................88 4.1.6 Integrated AWM .....................................................................................93 4.2 Crop Varieties and Diversification.........................................................................94 4.2.1 Crop varieties .........................................................................................94 4.2.2 Crop diversification..................................................................................96 4.3 Crop Insurance.................................................................................................97 4.4 Information Management..................................................................................101 4.4.1 Hydro-climatology..................................................................................102 4.4.2 Climatic variability prediction and forecasting .............................................103 4.4.3 Data collection and management .............................................................106 4.5 Capacity Building ...........................................................................................108 4.5.1 Strengthening local innovation systems.......................................................109 4.5.2 Enhancing capacity in research and technology development ........................111 5 POLICY AND INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES....................................................... 113 5.1 Policy and Institutional Framework ......................................................................113 5.2 Necessary Governance Reforms ........................................................................117 5.3 Farmer Support Services...................................................................................121 5.4 Stakeholders and Collaborators .........................................................................127 6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS........................................... 129 6.1 Conclusions ...................................................................................................129 6.2 Recommendations ...........................................................................................133 7 REFERENCES.......................................................................................... 139 8 ANNEXES.............................................................................................. 165 Annex 1: List of Study Interviewees ...........................................................................165 Annex 2: Interviewee Checklist................................................................................171 Annex 3: Stakeholders in SSA .................................................................................173 Climate Change Adaptation Strategies Options for Smallholder Farmers in SSA v EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Climate change, population growth, increasing water demand,
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