Vol.8(4), pp. 56-61, April 2016 DOI: 10.5897/JAERD2015.0686 Articles Number: 72BA92D57577 Journal of Agricultural Extension and ISSN 2141-2170 Copyright ©2016 Rural Development Author(s) retain the copyright of this article http://www.academicjournals.org/JAERD

Full Length Research Paper

Adaptive capacity of evicted agro-pastoralists from Ihefu Basin in Tanzania

Given Msigwa Msomba1*, Zebedayo K. Mvena2 and Kizito Mwajombe2

1Department of Community Development, University of Iringa, P. O. Box 200, Iringa, Tanzania. 2Department of Agricultural Education and Extension, Sokoine University of Agriculture P.O.Box 3002, Morogoro, Tanzania.

Received 13 March, 2015; Accepted 8 February, 2016

This paper looks at the adaptive capacity of evicted agro-pastoralists who were evicted from Ihefu Basin in Mbarali District and forced to settle in new resettlement areas. Household questionnaires, life stories, and focused group discussions with a sample of 110 resettled agro-pastoralists was used to capture the data. Quantitative and qualitative data were analysed. The adaptive capacity index was used to determine the adaptive capacity of the resettled pastoralists. Findings revealed that the resettled pastoralists adopted different coping behaviors and livelihood strategies to adapt the resettlement areas. It was further observed that different livelihood capitals had different contributions on adaptive capacity among the resettled agro-pastoralists.Variations in the adaptive capacity of resettled agro- pastoralists were noted. For improving the adaptive capacity of resettled agro- pastoralists, the Government and other stakeholders should improve infrastructure such as rural roads, clean and safe water supply, schools, extension and veterinary services, reliable markets for agro and livestock products and marketing information.

Key words: Adaptive capacity, agro-pastoralists, impoverishment, livelihoods, resettlement

INTRODUCTION

Pastoralism often refers to extensive husbandry of herds and grazing activities, although there may be different of different animal species (cattle, sheep, goats, degrees of integration of these activities, with specific camelids, and equines) requiring periodic migration to consequences for land use. An economic definition is that access pasture. A commonly used definition in various agro-pastoralists derive more than 50% of household literatures is that pastoralist households are those in gross revenue from livestock and 10-50% from farming which at least 50% of household gross revenue (including (Oxfam, 2008). income and consumption) comes from livestock or Pastoralists in Ihefu Basin in Mbarali District have livestock-related activities (Oxfam, 2008). Agro- stayed in the area for more than thirty years from 1972. pastoralism describes the coexistence of both agricultural The Ihefu Basin area was gazetted as a conservation

*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected] Tel: +255 754455656.

Author(s) agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 International License

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area in 1998 (SMUWC, 2001). Gazettement of Ihefu material and non-material assets. The earlier livelihood Basin as a conservation area opened up processes for definition was provided by Chambers and Conway (1992) pastoralists‟ eviction. As part of the move to safeguard who stated as follows: “A livelihood comprises the the environment in Ihefu Basin, the Government issued a capabilities, assets (stores, resources, claims and notice on 9th March 2006 banning all livestock keepers‟ access) and activities required for a means of living”. The activities in Mbarali District. About 1,000 pastoralist livelihood framework is an analytical approach that puts households were evicted by the Government from people‟s livelihoods, meaning their interaction with their Mbarali District. During the operation, an estimated environment at its centre. The framework incorporates 218,000 herds were actually relocated to various places five elements of analysis; context and policy analysis, (Walsh, 2007). analysis of livelihood resources, institutions and Various studies have shown that there is organizations, livelihood strategies and sustainable impoverishment and a change in livelihoods in pastoral livelihood outcome. The core livelihood approach lies in societies following transformation in land use and analyzing different assets and capital upon which ownership (Vangen, 2009; Brockington and Igoe, 2006). individuals or households draw to produce. Cernea et al. (2003) examined how eviction affects Adaptive capacity is the ability to design and implement people‟s livelihoods in terms of major hardship risks, effective adaptation strategies, or to react to evolving which include landlessness, joblessness, homelessness, hazards and stresses to reduce the likelihood of the marginalization, food insecurity, increased morbidity and occurrence and/or the magnitude of harmful outcomes mortality, loss of access to common property and social resulting from different hazards (Adger and Brooks, disempowerment and disruption to social institutions. 2007). At the local level, the ability to adapt can be The eviction of agro-pastoralists from the Ihefu influenced by such factors as managerial ability, access Wetlands and their definitive settlement was incited by a to financial, technological and information resources, the series of factors. The intention of the Government was to institutional environment within which adaptation occurs, safeguard the environment and seen to have deteriorated political influence and kinship networks (Kelly and Adger, affecting not only the Usangu plains and the Ihefu 2000; Smith and Pilifosova, 2001; IPPC, 2007; Schipper wetlands but also the Rufiji Basin ecosystem. Agro- and Burton, 2009). However, it is suggested that humans pastoralist was taken as the major cause of severe water possess the ability to plan and manage adaptation depletion leading to drying up of Mtera and Kidatu dams. (Schipper and Burton, 2009). During the 2006 dry season, the drying of Great Ruaha River forced Mtera Hydroelectric Plant to close and this measure reduced the Kidatu Hydroelectric Plant‟s METHODOLOGY production of electricity by almost 50% (PINGOS, 2007; Walsh, 2007; Ngailo, 2011). This study was conducted in Mbarali, Chunya and Kilwa districts of Eviction of agro-pastoralists from Ihefu to new areas of Tanzania Mainland. Mbarali District was purposively included in this study because it was the area where agro-pastoralists were evicted Tanzania has created some negative socio-economic from. Chunya and Kilwa were among eight districts where agro- impact on their livelihoods. However, there is little pastoralists were eventually directed for resettlement after eviction documentation on these adverse impacts. The exact from Ihefu Basin in Mbarali District. The study involved 110 nature and extent of these effects on the receiving or respondents who were mainly affected by the eviction process. resettlement areas are not well known and documented, Both primary and secondary data were collected. This involved qualitative and quantitative data collection methods. Ouantitative and in particular, the adaptive capacity of evicted data were gathered using questionnaire, while qualitative data were pastoralists from Ihefu to new resettlements. The collected through key informant interviews, life histories and research questions addressed in this research includes; Focused Group Discussions. The quantitative data were analyzed what livelihood strategies were undertaken by agro- using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version pastoralists to sustain their livelihoods and what were the 16.0 computer software, which provided descriptive and inferential determining factors for the adaptive capacity of the agro- statistics. In descriptive statistical analysis, frequencies, percentages, means and cross-tabulation were used to measure pastoralists in the resettlement areas. Therefore, this associations, while, inferential statistics, chi-square and t-test were paper reveals the state of adaptive capacity and used to measure variations in some variables in adaptive capacity. examines the livelihood strategies used by agro- Qualitative data were analyzed by using content analysis. To pastoralists in the course of adapting in the resettlement examine the adaptive capacity of the agro-pastoralists resettled in areas. Kilwa, Chunya and Mbarali districts an adaptive capacity index was developed. An adaptive capacity index was used to determine the adaptive CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK capacity of pastoralists resettled in Kilwa, Chunya and Mbarali districts. The index was developed using 25 indicators (Table 1). The conceptual framework of this study was adopted by Based on the variables in the conceptual framework of this study, the measure of indicators for adaptive capacity was obtained by modifying some elements from the DFIDs Sustainable asking the respondents several questions and their answers were Livelihood Approach framework (SLA). Livelihood scored. The questions were based on ability of pastoralists to concerns the way people shape their lives by using formulate their adaptive strategies, to access various forms of

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Table 1. List of 25 adaptive capacity indicators.

Capitals Indicator Maximum score Social aspects 1 Loss of kinship networks 1 2 Maintaining kinship network through visiting each other 1 3 Maintaining kinship network through mobile phone 1 4 Maintaining kinship through joining together during special occasions 1

Economic aspect 5 Price of farm inputs 2 6 Access to credit 1 7 Selling of crops and animal products 1

Physical aspect 8 Access to dips 1 9 Access to market 1 10 Access to veterinary clinics 1 11 Access to charcoal dam 1

Natural aspect 12 Access to good pasture 1 13 Access to water 1 14 Access to area free from disease 1 15 Access to land for cultivation 1 16 Access to forest and forest products 1 17 Access to grazing land for animals 1

Human capital 18 Type of residence 2 19 Procedure for acquiring land 4 20 Type of housing 2 21 Access to extension services 1

Transforming structures 22 Government support before eviction 1 23 Government support for mitigating losses 1 24 Government preparations for arrival in areas 1 25 Link with different organizations 1

Total score 31

capital and to follow institutional processes. The respondents‟ referred to respondents‟ access to good pasture, water, areas free answers were scored based on the interval scale of a particular from disease, land for cultivation, the forest and forest products and question. In this study, the social aspect of adaptive capacity grazing land for animals. (indicators 1 to 4) referred to respondents maintaining a kinship Human aspects referred to the ability of the respondent to network. “Yes/No” questions were used to ask if they had acquire a residence. If the respondent had a permanent residence maintained kinship networks. This implies that a respondent who he/she was given a score of 2, if it was semi-permanent he/she was reported “Yes” had lost the kinship network and so was given 0 but given the score of 1 and if it was a temporary residence he/she was if “No” was given 1. given the score of 0 (indicator 18), which implies that this person Economic aspects referred to their financial status measured by may not have decided to settle in that area, and so can decide to three indicators: price of farm inputs, access to credit, and the sale leave the area and move to another area. Regarding the acquisition of crop and animal products (indicators 5 to 7). Physical aspects of land, if the answer was by inheriting the score given was 1, if by (indicators 8 to 11) referred to access to dips, market, veterinary renting the score was 2, if allocated by the government the score clinics and charcoal dam. Natural aspects (indicators 12 to 17) was 3, and if the land had been acquired by purchasing it the score

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Table 2. Adaptive capacity of resettled pastoralists.

District Total Adaptive capacity categories Kilwa (n=40) Chunya (n=30) Mbarali (n=40) n % n % n % n % Poor adaptive capacity 1 5.9 14 82.4 2 11.8 17 100 Moderate adaptive capacity 11 35.5 15 48.4 5 16.1 31 100 Good adaptive capacity 28 45.2 1 1.6 33 53.2 62 100

was 4, which implied that the respondent had the decision to Those with „good adaptive capacity‟ of 55% and more resettle in that area and had the ability to purchase land (indicator were able to use different adaptive strategies and access 19). Other indicators were type of housing and access to extension several capitals. services (indicators 20 and 21). Transforming structures referred to Government support before eviction, during the eviction process, preparation for arrival in areas and the respondents‟ link with different organizations. State of adaptive capacity (human, social, economic, For all questions with a response of “Yes”/“No”, if the response physical and natural capitals and transforming was “Yes” they were given a score of 1 and if “No” they were given structures) no score (0). The maximum score was 31. The total score for each respondent was divided by 31 so as to have a cumulative index ranging from 0 – 1 (0-100%). The adaptive capacity indices of An ANOVA-F test was conducted to compare the respondents were put into three categories, such as poor adaptive contribution of different capitals to the adaptive capacity capacity (adaptive capacity index score of 0.00 and less than 0.44), of resettled pastoralists in Kilwa, Chunya and Mbarali moderate adaptive capacity (adaptive capacity index score of 0.44 districts (Table 3). The attribute of human capital differed and less than 0.55) and good adaptive capacity (adaptive capacity significantly between the three districts (F (2,107) =50.55, index score of 0.55 and less than 1). The cut-off point for one standard deviation increase was zero + 1 std dev= poor; = 2 std dev p=0.012). Human capital contributed less to adaptive = moderate; above + 2 std dev = good adaptive capacity. capacity in Chunya District (M=0.23) and more to adaptive capacity in Kilwa and Mbarali districts (Ms= 0.31 and 0.36 respectively). RESULT AND DISCUSSION Based on the results of ANOVA-F test, means of economic adaptive capacity (F (2,107) =53.91, p=0.001), Adaptive capacity of resettled pastoralists physical adaptive capacity (F (2,107=123.46, p=0.025), natural adaptive capacity (F (2,107) =116.62, p=0.031) Table 2 shows the respondents adaptive capacity and transforming structures (F (2,107=12.14, p=0.005) in categories, which were poor adaptive capacity (adaptive the three districts had a very strong statistically significant capacity index score between 0.00 and less than 0.44), difference. moderate adaptive capacity (adaptive capacity index Post hoc comparisons using the Fisher LSD test score of 0.44 and less than 0.55) and good adaptive revealed that economic capital contributed more adaptive capacity (adaptive capacity index of 0.55 and less than capacity in Mbarali than Kilwa and Chunya districts. 1). It was evident that respondents‟ adaptive capacity During FGDs it was noted that in Mbarali District the was poor in Chunya District (82.2%). Good adaptive majority of resettled pastoralists had access to financial capacity was noted in pastoralists who resettled in Kilwa institutions. Physical capital made a greater contribution (45.2%) and Mbarali (53.2%). to adaptive capacity in Mbarali and Kilwa districts but A t-test was carried out to determine whether there was much less so in Chunya District (Table 3). Adaptive a significant difference in the adaptive capacity of capacity was greatly contributed to by natural capital in respondents in Kilwa, Chunya and Mbarali districts. The Kilwa and Chunya districts. There was plenty of land for test showed that there were highly (t=33.889, p=0.012) grazing and cultivating in these two districts, which statistically significant differences between the adaptive increased their animal and plant productivity. Resettled capacity of pastoralists who had resettled in Kilwa and pastoralists in Mbarali District had minimal access to Chunya districts. cultivating and grazing land. The results suggested that the observed difference Regarding the contribution of social capital to adaptive could be attributed to the ability of respondents to apply capacity, the results showed that there was no statistical different adaptive strategies by accessing several capitals difference between the three districts (F (2,107) =1.08, and institutional processes e.g. village governments. For p=0.172). From this finding it shows that even if agro- example, in the case of „poor adaptive category‟, it means pastoralists were relocated to different areas, most of a maximum of 44% were capable of applying different them were able to maintain their kinship networks. Social adaptive strategies and accessing several capitals. networks were very important for resettled pastoralists in

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Table 3. State of adaptive capacity (human, social, economic, physical, natural capitals and transforming structures) (n=110).

District Capitals Kilwa (n=40) Chunya (n=30) Mbarali (n=40) F-value P-value Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Human 0.31 0.12 0.23 0.66 0.36 0.17 50.55 0.012 Social 0.73 0.23 0.70 0.21 0.78 0.12 1.80 0.172 Economic 0.38 0.19 0.20 0.15 0.55 0.19 53.91 0.001 Physical 0.56 0.14 0.18 0.13 0.67 0.12 123.46 0.025 Natural 0.75 0.14 0.83 0.10 0.29 0.22 116.62 0.031 Transforming structures 0.13 0.16 0.19 0.14 0.31 0.17 12.14 0.005

Table 4. Adaptive strategies used after eviction (n=110).

District Strategies Kilwa Chunya Mbarali Total n % n % n % n % Increased area for crop cultivation (extensive cultivation) 38 34.5 39 35.5 30 27.3 107 97.3 Growing cash crops 0 0 26 23.5 0 0 26 23.3 Diversifying livelihood activities 25 22.7 8 7.3 18 16.4 51 46.4 Sending families to different parts of the country 27 24.5 30 27.3 24 21.8 81 73.6 Modified livestock composition and number 8 7.3 7 6.4 17 15.5 32 29.2

the early days of resettlement. Through social networks tobacco. they got financial support, market information and food It was further noted that 46.4% of the respondents from their relatives. opted to diversify their major livelihood activities. These included income-generating activities, such as petty trade and local transport services locally named “boda boda”, Adaptive strategies undertaken in new resettlement selling roasted meat “Nyama choma” and making local areas brew (especially by women in Mbarali District). A woman in Mbarali once stated that: “depending only on livestock Adaptive strategies are those that seek to spread the risk does not ensure that I will be able to meet the needs of of failure in response to anticipated adverse trends. This my family, especially when you consider the great loss may be by intensifying existing livelihood strategies or we sustained during the eviction process, and so it was diversifying into new activities. Table 4 shows the crucial to make use of all alternatives at our disposal”. adaptive strategies adopted by the evicted pastoralists. Other adaptive strategies used to improve livelihoods The majority of respondents (97%) reported that they had were reported. Twenty-nine percent of the respondents increased crop-farming areas, which caused agriculture modified their herd composition and the number of to become an important economic activity. This enabled animals kept. This was reported mainly in Mbarali District them to improve household food security and have a (15.5 %) (Table 4). The livestock keepers in Mbarali surplus for sale. Seventy-four respondents revealed that District decided to increase livestock breeds and adjust another strategy was to send members of the family to herd composition by reducing the number of grazing settle in different parts of the country. This also was animals (cattle and sheep) and increasing the number of narrated during FGDs. The study also revealed that browsers (goats). This strategy was especially adopted in during the eviction process, some families divided into Mbarali District, where grazing land was shrinking and different groups to minimize the risk of losing the entire the quality of the pasture deteriorating. However, among herd if they all settled in one area. Such family division the livestock only goats were able to browse and strategy enabled family members to engage in new reproduce to generate income to meet family needs. The activities, which improved their livelihoods through income generated from goat sales sometimes was used sharing their outcome. It was also noted that 23.5% of the to generate other business activities such as petty trade. respondents, especially in Chunya District, used another Similar observations of having more grazing animals than adaptive strategy that of growing cash crops, mainly browsers have been reported. A study by CARE

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International in Longido District, following support by HPI Ngailo A (2011). Assessing the effects of eviction on household food Project, found that household members opted to raise security of livestock keepers from Usangu wetland in SW Tanzania. Livest. Res. Rural Dev. 23(3):12-25. camels (Richiè et al., 2009). Through raising camels they Oxfam (2008). „Survival of the Fittest: Pastoralism and climate change could get more milk during the dry season unlike other in East Africa. Available at: households who refused the option. Camels can easily http://www.oxfam.org.hk/content/98/content_3534tc.pdf. browse herbs and thorn bushes. PINGOs-Forum Hakiardhi HIMWA (2007). A Report on Eviction and Resettlement of Pastoralists from Ihefu and Usangu-Mbarali District to Kilwa and Lindi Districts. Paper presented to the Parliamentary Committee for Natural Resources and Environment Seminar, Conclusion Dodoma, April 15. Richié B, Hachileka E, Awuor C, Hamila A (2009). Climate-related vulnerability and adaptive capacity in Ethiopia‟s Borana and Somali Resettled pastoralists had various ways of adopting communities. International Institute for Sustainable Development different adaptive strategies and accessing several (IISD). P 84. livelihood capitals. Such capabilities were considered to SMUWC (2001). Final Project Reports. Directorate of Water Resources. be good adaptive capacity. Availability of good pastures Ministry of Water, Government of Tanzania, Dar es salaam. The SMUWC (Sustainable Management of the Usangu Wetlands and Its and water, organizations, different skills, culture and Catchment Project, Mbeya Region Tanzania P 107. tradition were good drivers for pastoralists to adapt in Vangen C (2009). Evicted in the name of Nature: The process of in and resettlement areas.Government and its institutions were its impact on local rural livelihoods in Mount Elgon, Uganda. important in enhancing adaptive capacity of resettled Dissertation for Award of Msc Degree at MDCCCLX Norwegian University of Life Science, Norway. P 156. pastoralists. For improving the adaptive capacity of Walsh M (2007). Pastoralism and Policy Processes in Tanzania: Case resettled agro- pastoralists, the Government and other Study and Recommendations September. Filling in the Knowledge stakeholders should improve infrastructure such as rural Gaps to Better Understand Policy Options for Pastoralism and roads, water supply, schools, extension and veterinary Rangeland Management. A Report to the Tanzanian Natural Resources Forum, Contribution to the collaborative study. 44p. services, reliable markets and marketing information tailored to specific needs of pastoralists.

Conflict of interests

The authors have not declared any conflict of interests.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Sincere gratitude goes to THE University of Iringa for financial support throughout the course of study. Acknowledgement also goes to Dr. Adam Mwakalobo for the invaluable contributions, guidance and comments accorded. Thanks are also to M. Mwankeja, R. Konga and M. Ngilangwa and DALDO‟s officers in Kilwa, Chunya and Mbarali districts who helped in the data collection process.

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