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Start of Lecture: March 31, 2014 Start of Lecture: March 31, 2014 Title text: We actually stand around the antivirus displays with the Mac users just waiting for someone to ask. Chapter 15: Security !1 Reminders • Hope you had fun with Bob and Jeeva! • Exercise 5 is due this Wednesday • Assignment 3 is due next Wednesday • I will release a practice final soon • Please check your marks on docsdb for any errors Chapter 15: Security !2 Thought Questions • What is the probability of deadlock? Does that increase or decrease with more cores? • Some results that suggest that deadlock decreases if number resources increases, increases as number of processes increases and (un- intuitively) increases if both resources and processes increase together: • http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=808054 • http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download? doi=10.1.1.72.4304&rep=rep1&type=pdf • Not a well understood problem that needs much more research Chapter 15: Security !3 Thought Questions • Is there a technique that tackles both external and internal fragmentation? Which would you consider more detrimental to have happen? • Both are detrimental, though arguably external segmentation builds up over time as processes terminate, whereas internal fragmentation is local to a process and gone when it terminates • Multiple page sizes get some of the best of both worlds, since there can be larger chunks (reducing the number of pages) and then smaller, finer grained pages (reducing internal fragmentation) Chapter 15: Security !4 Chapter 15: Security CMPUT 379, Section B1, Winter 2014 March 31, April 2, April 4 Objectives • Discuss goals of protection in modern systems • Discuss security threats and attacks • Explain fundamentals of encryption, authentication, hashing • Examine the uses of cryptography in computing • Describe various countermeasures to security attacks Chapter 15: Security !6 Protection versus Security • Errors in operation can be accidental or malicious • The role of protection is to provide a mechanism to enforce policies on resource use (an internal problem) • e.g. restrict access to memory and corresponding variables, such as with locks on variables or permissions on files • The role of security is to protect threats/errors that arise from the external environment • e.g. protection system ineffective if user authentication compromised Chapter 15: Security !7 Protection Mechanisms D1 D2 D3 Domain = set of Ͻ O3, {read, write} Ͼ Ͻ O1, {execute} Ͼ Ͻ O1, {read, write} Ͼ Ͻ O2, {write} ϾϽ O4, {print} Ͼ Ͻ O3, {read} Ͼ Ͻ O2, {execute} Ͼ access-rights object F1 F2 F3 printer domain D read read 1 Access Matrix = D2 print Access(i,j) D3 read execute read read D4 write write Chapter 15: Security !8 The security problem • Impossible to ensure resources used and accessed as intended under all circumstances • Intruders (crackers) attempt to breach security • Threat is potential security violation • Attack is attempt to breach security • Attack accidental or malicious — easier to protect against accidental than malicious misuse, which is mostly obtained through protection mechanisms Chapter 15: Security !9 Security Violation Categories • Breach of confidentiality — unauthorized reading of data • Breach of integrity — unauthorized modification of data • Breach of availability — unauthorized destruction of data • Theft of service — unauthorized use of resources • Denial of service (DOS) — prevention of legitimate use Chapter 15: Security !10 Goal of the attacks • Monetary gain • advertising • theft, e.g. programmer embezzled money with intentional rounding errors to add occasional half-cent to own accounts • Information gain • Prove a point and/or (moral) attack on an organization • Status and bragging rights Chapter 15: Security !11 Advertising-Based attacks (Adware) • Goal of attackers not to debilitate the system or steal, but rather to make money through advertising Chapter 15: Security !12 Security Violation Methods • Masquerading (breach of authentication) — pretending to be an authorized user to escalate privileges • Replay attack — intercept and modify message • Man-in-the-middle attack — intruder sits in data flow, masquerading as sender to receiver and vice versa • Session hijacking — intercept an already-established session to bypass authentication Chapter 15: Security !13 Examples of security violation Normal communication sender receiver attacker Masquerading sender receiver communication attacker Man-in-the-middle sender communication receiver communication attacker Chapter 15: Security !14 Security is critical for an OS • Poor memory management can be slow/inconvenient, but security issues can be catastrophic • Many critical events in OS history, such as • Stuxnet — attach Iran’s shut down nuclear reactors, one of the first to bridge the virtual and real world and have physical impact • Heartland Payment Systems — 134 million credit cards exposed • Department of Veteran Affairs — stole info on 26.5 million veterans, including Social Security numbers, dates of births, disability ratings • For a historical list: https://www.securelist.com/en/threats/ vulnerabilities?chapter=40 Chapter 15: Security !15 Early breaches (e.g. Morris Worm) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qg4oNW2xAms Chapter 15: Security !16 Security Measures • Impossible to have absolute security, but makes cost to perpetrator sufficiently high to deter most intruders • either prevent attack or detect attack so can take countermeasures • Security must occur at four levels to be effective: • Physical — data centers, servers, connected terminals e.g. prevent physical damage from intruder into a data centre • Human — dumpster diving, phishing (e.g. email for confidential info) • Operating System — protection mechanisms, debugging • Network — intercepted communications, interruption, DOS • Security is as week as the weakest link in the chain Chapter 15: Security !17 Many weak links due to trade-offs • Convenience: could have multiple layers of authentication, to make it hard to compromise a system with just one password, but inconvenient for the user • Access: could make access to data centres almost impossible, but then difficult for maintenance • Flexibility: could more strictly protect programs from each other, but then inter-process communication difficult • Openness: internet not policed (yet? shiver), so sites and free software can be a risk Chapter 15: Security !18 Program Threats • Many names for the variations of threats, following names most common • Trojan Horse • Trap Door • Logic Bomb • Stack and Buffer Overflow • Viruses Chapter 15: Security !19 Trojan Horse • Exploits mechanisms that allow a program written by a user to be executed as a different user with different permissions • Code segment that is “hidden” inside code, then that code is brought into another domain/environment with different permissions and attacks there • like the legendary trojan horse used to compromise Troy Chapter 15: Security !20 Examples of trojan horses • Text-editor that copies opened file to a special area accessible to the creator of the text editor • “.” in root’s path on Linux • Emulator of login program to steal password • Spyware — often installed by being hidden in freeware/ shareware, but also sometimes in commercial software • e.g. spyware daemon constantly contacts a central site, obtains spam message and delivers the message to the user • in 2010, estimated that 90% of spam delivered as spyware daemon Chapter 15: Security !21 Current working directory in path • Idea is to trick root into running a script • Assume root has put “.” at the start of their path • PATH=$PATH:$HOME/bin:. • I, a non-root user, creates a file named “cd” in some directory root has access to, with one simple command • rm -rf $1 • If root tries to “cd” anywhere from that directory, then my malicious “cd” will execute instead and delete the contents of the destination directory! Chapter 15: Security !22 How to prevent trojan horses • OS design error: enforce principle of least privilege • user of an OS does not need to install network daemons: do not give them that permission, then the installed freeware cannot start daemons • Human error: a user should not run as administrator by default, so that programs user runs do not have more access to the system than necessary • e.g. alternative in Linux is ‘sudo’ when temporarily need to run as root Chapter 15: Security !23 Video Break: brought to you by another dazzling classmate! https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x7ozaFbqg00! Chapter 15: Security !24 Trap Door • Designer of program or system may leave a hole in software that only they are capable of using • e.g. deletes certain important pieces of information periodically • Trap door could be very easily hidden in huge code bases, making it difficult to detect them • Even harder if trap door hidden in compiler, rather than the source code Chapter 15: Security !25 Logic Bomb • A program that initiates a security incident only under certain circumstances • E.g. programmer write code to detect whether still employed; if not, then code could be launched to damage site or spawn daemon to allow remote access • Difficult to detect under normal operation Chapter 15: Security !26 Stack and buffer overflow • Memory-based attacks using stack-overflow or buffer- overflow are most common way to gain access to a system from an unauthorized user • Bob discussed historical smashing the stack paper in detail and showed many ways this approach can be used to compromise a system and how to protect against it • Mostly possible because of ability to execute code in a page not originally
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