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rambutans and all kinds of fruit… powers and political entities well beyond At the end of the 13th century, the Tuan Raffles went into the centre its immediate borders. aforementioned Palembang prince Sri Tri of the house. About 4 o’clock in the Yet, it is undeniable that Raffles and Buana was on an expedition in Bentan afternoon, they came out and went his deputy , along with the (Bintan) when he spotted the white sandy Looking Back at on board again.”2 machinery of the colonial administration, coast of from a distance. He played an instrumental role in furthering decided to relocate here and rename the But the story of goes Singapore’s rise into a bustling port-city, island Singapura.5 We know something of back much further. The island as it was and by extension, the global city we know Temasek’s life, trade, people and culture 700 years ago in fact shares a number today. The year 1819, therefore, marks the from sources such as the 14th-century of similarities with today’s cosmopolitan beginning of a journey that resulted in the Daoyi Zhilue (岛夷志略; A Description of city-state. In the 14th century, Singa- eventual blossoming of a cosmopolitan the Barbarians of the Isles), a collection Years of pore was already a centre for a vast and independent republic. of accounts from Yuan dynasty Chi- trading network and actively engaged Two hundred years after that fate- nese traveller and trader Wang Dayuan in commerce with neighbouring ports ful day, we can reflect on our history (汪大渊), and Sejarah Melayu (Malay 700 and regions. Commodities such as and heritage and the elements that Annals), a 17th-century Jawi work that hornbill casques and lakawood (a type contributed to the Singaporean iden- traces the history and genealogy of the of aromatic wood used as ) were tity and spirit as we know it today. A Malay kings of the Sultanate.6 exported from Singapore, or Temasek, series of setbacks that threatened to Interestingly, almost everything we as it was known then. pronounce the demise of the island at know of Singapore from this period of its Archaeological finds provide evi- various stages of its post-1819 history, history comes from textual sources beyond Singapore dence that early Singapore imported such as the devastation of World War its shores – all of which point to early ceramic wares from , along with II, the exit of the British, the merger Singapore as being part of a much wider other products from around the region. with the Federation of Malaya and then sphere and sustained by trade. Singapore’s history didn’t begin in 1819 when Stamford Singapore also traces a royal lineage separation from Malaysia, have become Similarly, the establishment of mod- Raffles made footfall on the island. Tan Tai Yong makes that has its roots in the 13th century, inextricably woven into a narrative that ern Singapore in the early sense of our 700-year history in this wide-ranging essay. beginning with a prince from Palembang, speaks of ever-resolute tenacity. had very much to do with its position as Sri Tri Buana (also known as Sang Nila a strategic location for trade. Lying at an Utama), and ending when the last king, Linkages and Connectivity important crossroad along the East-West Iskandar Shah, fled to Malacca, following A confluence of regional and international trade route between the South China Sea a scandal involving the daughter of a royal factors contributed to the rise of Temasek and the Indian Ocean, the Malacca Strait minister and an invasion by Majapahit as a port in the 14th century. Under was the key passageway through which On 28 January 1819, son of the late sultan of the Johor-Riau- man in his 80s, he shared his recollection forces from .3 the Song dynasty, Chinese trade with the markets of the Indian subcontinent, and his entourage landed on an island that Lingga empire – who was later installed of what transpired on that day: All this is proof that Singapore was grew between the 12th and the Middle East and beyond gained was home to some 1,000 Chinese, Malay by the British as Singapore’s first sultan, already a city of considerable stature and 13th centuries. The new trade access to China, Southeast Asia and and orang laut (“sea people” in Malay). Hussein Mohamed Shah. “I remembered the boat landing in centuries even before Raffles set foot policies reduced reliance on a single main Australasia.7 Soon after their arrival, they met Temeng- Along with a formal ceremony and the morning. There were two white o here. Hundreds of years before modern entrepôt – Srivijaya in Palembang – in the As the Dutch held sway over much of gong Abdul Rahman, the local chief in banquet, a treaty was signed on 6 Febru- men and a Sepoy on it. When they Singapore came to be, the island was Malacca Strait and encouraged the rise of Southeast Asia at the time and controlled Singapore, and Tengku Long – eldest ary 1819 allowing the British East landed, they went straight to the already firmly embedded in a wider numerous autonomous port-polities in the the seaways through which EIC ships had Company (EIC) to set up a trading post Temenggong’s house. Tuan Raffles regional web and frequently engaged with region that engaged directly with China.4 to pass, Raffles saw the need for the on the island.1 Conventional narrative was there, he was a short man… Professor Tan Tai Yong is the second President looks back to this day as the beginning Tuan Farquhar was there; he was and Professor of Humanities (History) at Yale- of modern Singapore. taller than Tuan Raffles and he View of Singapore from Government Hill (present-day ), based on a painting by government surveyor J.T. Thomson, 1846. It illustrates NUS College. He is also Honorary Chairman the ceremony during which Governor of the Straits Settlements William J. Butterworth (shown in the foreground with his family) presented a state sword of the National Museum of Singapore and a Wa Hakim, then 15 years old, was wore a helmet. The Sepoy carried one of the orang laut who was present on a musket. They were entertained by to Temenggong of Johor Daing Ibrahim on 31 August 1846 to acknowledge his role in helping to curb piracy in the area. Courtesy of National Museum of member of the Board of Trustees of ISEAS-Yusof Singapore, National Heritage Board. Ishak Institute, among other appointments. the day the British arrived. Already an old the Temenggong and he gave them

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as Munshi Abdullah who published his schools, as well as ethnic communities of diverse peoples. The dialogue was to autobiography, (Stories taking greater ownership in providing continue for decades afterwards. of Abdullah), in 1849 – Malacca fell into vernacular education.17 With the devastation of World War II a “drought” while Singapore experienced New Chinese, Tamil and Muslim- in Singapore – and the failure of the British “the rain of plenty”.13 In his book, Munshi Malay schools were established, teach- Empire in protecting Singapore – came Abdullah describes the rapid transforma- ing a more updated curriculum in their further questions about nationalism and tions that took place in the first few years respective ethnic languages. However, independence.21 Britain surrendered and of the settlement: the better jobs still went to English-edu- the locals were left to face the brutality cated locals. Still, Asians of any calibre of the Japanese. Literature that hinted of “I am astonished to see how invariably faced a ceiling when it came the suffering of war, anti-Japanese senti- markedly our world is changing. A to their career advancement: in 1912, ments and expressions about nationalism new world is being created, the old the British Empire officially barred non- appeared in newspapers, such as the world destroyed. The very jungle Europeans from assuming senior roles poems of the local Malay poet Masuri S. N. becomes a settled district while in public administration.18 Anti-Japanese resistance move- elsewhere a settlement reverts to As these issues of discrimination ments also took root, the chief example jungle. These things show us how brewed, locals began to ponder over the being the Malayan People’s Anti-Japanese the world and its pleasures are idea of nationalism, and what it meant for Army (MPAJA) created by the Malayan but transitory experiences, like Singapore, whose population comprised Communist Party.22 In the wake of the something borrowed which has to mainly migrants who hailed from differ- failure of the colonial government to The heavy reliance on trade, how- be returned whenever the owner ent countries. Eunos Abdullah, the first protect Singapore, people had no choice ever, meant that the fortunes of Singapore comes to demand it.”14 Malay Legislative Councillor, spoke up but to hold their ground alone. were inevitably susceptible to larger eco- against a colonial administrative system The Japanese surrendered in 1945 nomic developments beyond its shores. At The men who came with Farquhar that favoured foreigners over locals, and and the British returned. They were in the turn of the 20th century, the adverse were determined to carve out a better life argued for greater education and career for a rude shock; instead of the warm impact on the local economy caused by for themselves, seizing the opportunity opportunities for “sons of the soil”, a term reception they were expecting, what volatile commodity prices, notably rubber, to start afresh under the British. In the he gave to the . He saw Malays they saw resounding in the streets of illustrated the danger of being heavily decades that followed, the colony con- as collectively belonging to the nation, Singapore was a cry for freedom or dependent on the world market. tinued to witness the arrival of tens of and rejected the idea of any allegiance “merdeka” among English-educated 19 (Top) This gold armlet and rings are part of a larger cache of gold ornaments recovered in 1926 at Trade continued to play a major thousands of Chinese migrants in search to the local sultan. locals. Their calls for independence were Fort Canning. Reminiscent of East Javanese craftsmanship during the time of the Majapahit empire factor in Singapore’s revenue even after of better opportunities: by 1897, there Likewise, the Straits Chinese com- met with strong support from the other (c.1293–c.1500), these ornaments are proof that Singapore’s history predates Stamford Raffles’ independence, and remains a vital part were 200,000 inhabitants in Singapore. munity also faced the dilemma of remain- communities.23 arrival by more than 500 years. Courtesy of National Museum of Singapore, National Heritage Board. of the economy today. Upon becoming an Among them was the great-grandfather ing loyal to a distant and increasingly Having been left to fend for them- (Above) Earthernware shards from circa 14–15th century recovered from Empress Place indicate that independent nation in 1965 and losing of the man who was to become the first politically unstable China, or declaring selves and endure the atrocities of war, Singapore had social, economic and cultural links with other population centres in maritime Southeast Malaysia as a hinterland, the govern- prime minister of independent Singapore, allegiance to Singapore and a British the people of Singapore now knew that Asia, including , Java and . Image reproduced from Kwa, C.G., Heng, D.T.S., & Tan, T.Y. ment turned its attention from regional Lee Kuan Yew.15 administration in which their career they could not count on a foreign govern- (2009). Singapore, a 700-Year History: From Early Emporium to World City (p. 44). Singapore: National trade to a more global perspective. To Many of these migrants worked as opportunities were curtailed.20 ment for their security and prosperity. Archives of Singapore. (Call no.: RSING 959.5703 KWA-[HIS]) embed itself in the international market, coolies, trishaw riders and shop owners, The early 1900s saw people in Sin- They began to have a newfound confi- (Above right) A facsimile of the last page of the treaty signed on 6 February 1819 between Stamford Singapore began establishing stronger and toiled away to send whatever money gapore becoming more disillusioned by dence, driven by the disappointment of Raffles and the Malay chiefs. The page shows the signatures of Raffles, Sultan Hussein Shah and communication links and more seamless they could back to their families in China. their lowly status under the British. With being abandoned during the war. They Temenggong Abdul Rahman. Courtesy of National Museum of Singapore, National Heritage Board. transportation networks.12 Since these workers were often men, this disgruntlement began a dialogue now desired to be freed from the masters Today, as one of the world’s most Singapore soon faced a gender imbal- about what nationalism meant in a colony who had proven themselves unworthy. company to secure a port for itself along free flow of goods, people and ideas – to trade-dependent nations, Singapore ance, which was mitigated in the 1900s the India-China trade route.8 In 1818, the larger world. continues to seek new ways to stay rele­ by a surge in Chinese female migrants. The British brought prisoners from India to Singapore to build the settlement’s early Raffles described the problem in a letter As Singapore’s soil was unable to vant in the global market and remain Among these women were hardy samsui infrastructure. One of the prisoners’ early tasks included transporting soil from Pearl’s Hill and Bras to his superiors in the EIC: support large-scale agriculture, and connected with the rest of the world. This labourers, who worked in tin mines and Basah as landfill for the marshy area that would become the commercial hub of Singapore. Courtesy sustained only a small population at often explains its ambition to punch above construction sites, and amahs (domestic of National Museum of Singapore, National Heritage Board. “The Dutch possess the only passes the point of Raffles’ arrival, the young its weight in order to entrench itself in the servants).16 These women were just as through which ships must sail into settlement became reliant on its hin- global community. determined as the men to eke out a living. the Archipelago, the straits of Sunda terland for essential resources. People Singapore became a place of oppor- and Malacca; and the British have were also needed to enable the port Resilience and Enterprise tunity and new beginnings: while these now not an inch of ground to stand to thrive. By 1821, the population in As mentioned earlier, when Farquhar migrants laboured to send most of their upon between the Cape of Good Singapore had grown to 5,000, many of announced he was moving to Singapore hard-earned wages to their families back Hope and China, nor a single friendly whom were Malaccans who had followed to set up a new British settlement, thou- home, they also seized the fresh start port at which they can water and William Farquhar when he moved here sands of Malaccan men left their homes that the island offered to build a new life. obtain refreshment.”9 to become Resident of Singapore (he to start a new life here, despite Dutch While still tied by birth to the lands was previously Resident of Malacca).11 attempts to stop the mass migration. they came from, the new arrivals were also Singapore was a rich prize because In addition, the EIC brought prisoners Among the motley group of traders, ped- invested in building new lives in Singapore, of its location. Soon after the British from India to build local infrastructure. dlers, carpenters, labourers and other and – when they started families of their arrived, the value of the island’s entrepôt Therefore, diverse peoples from around workers were a number who quickly rose own here – to building a better life for their trade rose to almost 40 percent of its total the region and beyond came together to become prominent businessmen: children. The latter decades of the 1800s commerce.10 Colonial Singapore became in a collective effort to bring life to in the words of Raffles’ Malay scribe to early 1990s saw a reform in education, inextricably linked by trade – through the modern Singapore. Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir – better known with more government-operated English 12 13 BIBLIOASIA JAN - MAR 2019 VOL. 14 ISSUE 04 FEATURE

Yet with the abrupt arrival of inde- much support as the newspaper that pertinent than ever. These questions pendence in 1965, a massive burden expressed the voices of the local com- now needed answers, and the answers was thrust upon the new government led munities. Readers and contributors would come to impact the everyday lives by the People’s Action Party. How the first often discussed ideas of nationhood and of the people. generation of leaders laid the foundations belonging, and of their role in Singapore. Questions of racial identities and of what Singapore has become today is As Chinese and Indian workers con- citizenship featured prominently in the a whole other story of its own, complete tinued to stream into Malaya in search of negotiations leading to Singapore’s with its fair share of moral courage, enter- work, questions of who were the rightful merger with the Federation of Malaya prise and resilience against a backdrop sons and heirs of the Malayan land (was in September 1963. While part of the of struggle and turbulence. it open to all races who claimed Malaya Federation, tensions ran high as Singa- as their home, or were only the Malays pore’s Chinese-dominant People’s Action Diversity and Differences eligible?), and whether it was appropri- Party (PAP) directly contested the ruling Whether in colonial, independent or early ate to maintain ties with one’s country United Malays National Organisation Singapore, a diverse, migrant population of origin, were debated in the Tribune. (UMNO), which sought to protect Malay has always characterised the island-city. One lawyer wrote in the newspaper: interests. As a result, riots broke out in In Daoyi Zhilue, Wang Dayuan notes that “No matter what their nationality is, they Singapore between Chinese and Malay Chinese people lived alongside orang [the local-born] should be proud to be factions in 1964.29 Even after Singapore laut natives at Longyamen (“Dragon’s called Sons of Malaya as much as Sons and Malaysia went their separate ways Tooth Strait”; most likely referring to the of other Countries.”28 and Singapore gained independence in waterway between Sentosa and Labrador 1965, the racial divide within the island’s Point), where ships called for trade. Later, Identity and Unity boundaries presented the PAP govern- the Malaccan immigrants who came with In light of the increasing dissatisfaction ment with the daunting task of managing Farquhar largely comprised Indians and with the colonial administration, a sense these racial tensions and forging a com- Singapore’s growth as a global port and the world’s busiest transhipment hub has come a long way since the 14th century. Today, the container port Straits Chinese.24 of collectiveness among the locals began mon Singaporean identity. operated by PSA Singapore consists of the , Keppel, Brani and Pasir Panjang terminals. These function as an integrated facility, handling In 1822, Raffles, dissatisfied with the simmering: what was the significance The ruling party’s stand was clear: transhipment arrangements seamlessly around the clock. Photo by Richard W.J. Koh. way Farquhar had developed the settle- of their living together, and how were equal treatment across ethnic groups, ment, instructed assistant engineer Philip these dwellers to distinguish themselves and integration rather than separation. A trans-cultural Singaporean iden- Singapore continues to welcome 10 Tan, 2005, p. 4 Jackson to draw up a plan for the town through their sense of belonging to this English, a “neutral” language among tity and business practicality took pre- the influx of new immmigrants, while also 11 Frost & Balasingamchow, 2009, pp. 18, 63, 65; Tan, 2005, p. 3. of Singapore. Titled “Plan of the Town of island? If these migrants of diverse the main ethnic groups, was to be the cedence over one’s ethnicity, with the seeking ways to integrate these newcom- 12 Rajaratnam, S. (1972, February 6). Singapore: Global Singapore” (more commonly known as backgrounds considered this land as language of business as well as of inter- government envisioning that racial dif- ers. As the city’s population continues city. Retrieved from the National Archives of Singapore website; National Archives of Singapore. (2016, Raffles Town Plan or ), the their home, how should they be united racial communication in Singapore. ferences would give way to a sense of to grow more diverse, its identity also June 24). Connecting Singapore to the world – from blueprint demarcated living spaces and in order to be set apart? English was hence taught alongside collective nationhood. Concrete policy becomes increasingly more fluid. One submarine cables to satellite earth stations. Retrieved organised the island’s layout according to As much as these issues lingered ethnicity-based mother tongue lan- steps were taken: in stark contrast to the thing is certain: as the canvas grows more from National Archives of Singapore website. 13 Frost & Balasingamchow, 2009, p. 63; Abdullah Abdul ethnic communities. Hence, the diverse in people’s minds, they only remained guages, in line with the government’s racially segregated clusters that Raffles colourful, the difficult task lies in blending Kadir (1849). Hikayat Abdullah. Singapore: Mission population was segregated rather than abstract concepts until the British left bilingualism policy.30 By 1987, all schools mandated, the PAP set ethnic quotas in the colours seamlessly while ultimately Press. (Microfilm nos.: NL7912, 9717, 7810) united, with different neighbourhoods laid and a united Malaya – and later, a united used English as the primary medium of public housing estates in 1989, ensur- creating a harmonious whole. 14 Abdullah Abdul Kadir. (1985). The Hikayat Abdullah: out for the Chinese, Malays, Bugis and Singapore – was born. When Malayans instruction – bringing the curtain down ing that every such estate and block of The autobiography (A.H. Hill, Trans.) (p. 162). Singapore: Notes Oxford University Press. (Call no.: RSING 959.51032 32 ABD) (Original work published 1969) Indians, as well as a dedicated European were left to govern themselves, free of on ethnic-based vernacular schools – flats housed families of different races. 1 Frost, M.R., & Balasingamchow, Y.-M. (2009). 25 15 Frost & Balasingamchow, 2009, pp. 132, 150; Town by the Singapore River. their colonial masters, the questions with Chinese, Malay and Tamil taught This move made clear the government’s Singapore: A biography (pp. 40–46, 48). Singapore: Singapore: Island, city, state. (1990). (p. 83). Singapore: 31 Editions Didier Millet and National Museum of Each ethnic group retained its dis- of identity and unity became more as second languages. stand against the formation of communal Times Editions. (Call no.: RSING 959.5705 SIN-[ISK]) Singapore. (Call no.: RSING 959.57 FRO-[HIS]) 16 Singapore: Island, city, state, 1990, pp. 84–85; Frost & tinct culture and livelihood, and continued enclaves: in the PAP’s opinion, the key to 2 Haughton, H.T. (1882, June). Landing of Raffles in Balasingamchow, 2009, pp. 152, 204–205. speaking its native language or dialect. harmony was not to keep diverse peoples Singapore by an eye-witness. Journal of the Straits 17 Frost & Balasingamchow, 2009, p. 182. On 9 August 1965, Singapore separated from Malaysia to become an independent and sovereign Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 10, p. 286. Because the groups were kept separate, apart, but to bring them together. 18 Frost & Balasingamchow, 2009, pp. 182–183. state. Singapore’s union with Malaysia had lasted for less than 23 months. Image reproduced from Retrieved from Internet Archive. 19 Frost & Balasingamchow, 2009, pp. 189, 197. there was minimal interaction and little The Straits Times, 10 August 1965, p. 1. Since Singapore’s earliest days as 3 Heng, D. (2011). Situating Temasik within the larger 20 Frost & Balasingamchow, 2009, pp. 194–195. need to negotiate differences in the pur- an entrepôt 700 years ago, diversity has regional context: Maritime Asia and Malay State formation 21 Frost & Balasingamchow, 2009, pp. 275, 314. in the pre-modern era (pp. 46–47). In D. Heng & Syed suit of unity. As already mentioned, the been a constant. Singapore has always 22 Frost & Balasingamchow, 2009, pp. 306, 315. Muhd Khairudin Aljunied (Eds.), Singapore in global history. 23 Frost & Balasingamchow, 2009, pp. 322–323. idea of a distinct Singaporean nationhood been a city of migrants, who brought Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. (Call no.: RSING 24 Frost & Balasingamchow, 2009, pp. 23, 63. 959.57-[HIS]); Frost & Balasingamchow, 2009, pp. 24–26. and the question of national identity only with them trade, dynamism, cultural 25 Frost & Balasingamchow, 2009, p. 66. 4 Kwa, C.G, Heng, D., & Tan, T.Y. (2009). Singapore, a began to take shape around the 1900s, diversity, and the wherewithal to make 26 Frost & Balasingamchow, 2009, p. 84. 700-year history: From early emporium to world city (p. 27 Lee, P., & Wang, N. (2017, January). Port cities: Multi- as Asian locals became better educated the nation what it has become today. 23). Singapore: National Archives of Singapore. (Call no.: cultural emporiums of Asia. Muse SG, 9, p. 5. Singapore: RSING 959.5703 KWA-[HIS]); Heng, 2011, p. 44. and increasingly dissatisfied with their lot. Colonial Singapore required migrants to National Heritage Board. Available via PublicationSG. 5 Kwa, Heng & Tan, 2009, p. 24; Brown, C.C. (1952). 28 Frost & Balasingamchow, 2009, pp. 200–202. By 1833, “Chinese, Malays, Bugis, build up its infrastructure and develop its The Malay Annals. Journal of the Malayan Branch of 29 Frost & Balasingamchow, 2009, pp. 414, 417. Javanese, Balinese, natives of Bengal and economy, and all throughout its history, the Royal Asiatic Society, 25 (2), 29–31. Singapore: 30 Chong, T. (2011, July). Manufacturing authenticity: The Malayan Branch, Royal Asiatic Society. (Call no.: RCLOS Madras, Parsees, Arabs, and Caffrees waves of foreigners have been arriving on cultural production of national identities in Singapore. 959.5 JMBRAS-[GBH]) Modern Asian Studies, 45 (4), p. 887. London: [Africans]” could all be found in Singa- its shores in search of better prospects. 6 Ptak, J. (1995). Images of Maritime Asia in two Yuan Cambridge University Press. (Call no.: R 950 MAS) pore, as a great variety of ships sailed Contemporary Singapore is no dif- texts: “Daoyi zhilue” and “Yiyu zhi”. Journal of Song- 31 The exception was Special Assistance Plan schools that 26 Yuan Studies, 25, 47–75. Retrieved from JSTOR via into its protected harbour. The story of ferent: as the city continues to search for offered both English and Chinese at the first language NLB’s eResources website. level. See Alfred, H., & Tan, J. (1983, December 22). It’s Singapore as a thriving port city in Asia new ways to remain relevant in the global 7 Kwa, Heng & Tan, 2009, p. 64. English for all by 1987. The Straits Times, p. 1. Retrieved is “the story of multi-racial communities marketplace, people from all around the 8 Tan, T. Y. (2005). Early entrepot portal: Trade and from NewspaperSG. 27 founding of Singapore (p. 1). In A. Lau & L. Lau (Eds.), and networks”. world find themselves here in search of 32 Wee, A. (1989, February 17). Racial limits set for Maritime heritage of Singapore. Singapore: Suntree HDB estates. The Straits Times, p. 1. Retrieved from In the earlier decades of the 20th investment and work, and to carve out Media. (Call no.: RSING q387.5095957 MAR) NewspaperSG. century, The Malaya Tribune received a better life for themselves. 9 Frost & Balasingamchow, 2009, p. 47. 14 15