Analysis of Sustainability in the Slum Upgrading Process: the Stormwater Subsystem and the Accessibility, Mobility and Transport

Analysis of sustainability in the slum upgrading process: the stormwater subsystem and the accessibility, mobility and transport

Mateus H. Andrade student Escola Politécnica da Universidade de São Paulo (EP-USP) Brazil [email protected]

Architect Patricia Aulicino, EP-USP, Brazil, [email protected] Professor Alex Kenya Abiko, EP-USP, Brazil, [email protected]

Summary

The process of rapid urbanization in developing countries has produced divided cities where the formal and informal live side by side. Informal settlements have become complex forms, where the social and environmental problems are major challenges for the government and the population for decades, in order to find ways to include them in the urban environment of the formal city, and to improve the quality of life of its inhabitants and minimize environmental impacts caused by the land occupation without infrastructure. In relation to urban systems, accessibility, mobility and transport system and the storm water drainage subsystem directly impact on the environment and quality of life of residents, especially in environmental preservation areas. However, as slums are very specific and complex systems, the slum upgrading project should be aware of the location characteristics, observing certain principles related to minimum conditions for the implantation of urban systems. Based on cases of slum upgrading in environmental protected areas, this paper aims to analyze the solutions encountered at implementing the urban infrastructure of drainage and road system in slums, examining the techniques employed and finding innovative solutions implemented by the interaction between the technicians with the local community. The results show the benefits that the urban upgrading process of informal settlements can provide to the environment and to the slum dwellers, if properly planned and performed.

Keywords: slum upgrading, road system, urban drainage, recovery of degraded human settlements, sustainability

1. Introduction

There are several solutions to improve the life conditions of marginalized groups living in slums, tenements and squatter settlements. From forced removal of slum dwellers and self-construction programs to the different approaches to the improvement of infrastructure in slums – known as slum upgrading – the alternatives are many, but not always appropriate to the circumstances of each settlement. In this paper, a discussion will be made on the slum upgrading, a process a process through which informally settled areas are gradually improved, formalized and incorporated into the city itself, extending access to land, urban services and citizenship to the slum dwellers (since the dwellings are not located in a risk area, such as hillsides, near streams and other high-risk situations). It offers to slum dwellers services that can cover both the infrastructure – water supply, sewerage, drainage, roads, etc. – and the education, land tenure or reduction of crime.

2. The sustainability on Slum Upgrading

The particularly large urban agglomerations are major contributors to environmental degradation and resource depletion. The slums, due to lack of basic infrastructure, also cause severe impacts on the environment, even the smaller ones, damaging the water quality of the soil and the water springs, and debilitating the regions where they are. Through urban upgrading, whose approach involves all urban functions, such as land use, construction, water supply, transportation and recreation, these undesirable environmental implications can be addressed and reversed. The slum upgrading is not a new solution to the housing problem, as well as precarious settlements are not recent in the history of cities in the developing world. The favelization (i.e. slum formation) exposed the fragility of the interaction of these communities with the formal city, what hampers the sustainability outlook in a slum upgrading project and its positive externalities beyond the technical issues faced in its planning and execution.

Several projects arise when there is this intention of incorporating the irregular city into the formal city through urban upgrading, from the villas miserias of Buenos Aires to the gecekondus of Istanbul – and even between the favelas of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. It is necessary an extensive discussion about the improvement of slum upgrading projects. Through projects that seek to bring an adequate infrastructure to precarious settlements, which would include the access and use of environmentally sound technologies in the slum and reduce the demand for mobility and transport, for example, it could produce significant energy savings and contribute to sustainable development in the region in which the community involved is inserted.

3. Considerations and challenges

There‟s still a lot in order to develop determinant guidelines for slums around the world, although the way to sustainability in slum upgrading had advanced greatly in recent years. Slum upgrading improves the quality of life of slum dwellers, mitigates the environmental impacts caused by illegal occupants, integrates the community to the city and brings many other social, environmental and economic benefits. But its poor implementation can bring many disadvantages, bringing negative aspects of cities, such as soil impermeabilization through the unnecessary or exaggerated paving, and disrespect to the environment in which it is located. A slum upgrading program must regard the slums not as resource-draining liabilities but as opportunities to make sustainable changes to the city as a whole. There is already technology available to obtain fresh water from sea water, produce fuel from garbage and to generate electricity from solar energy, but they are far from sufficient to supply the needs of over one billion people who call urban slums their homes.

Several studies will be necessary for achieving sustainability not only in the slums, but in most cities of the developing world, which still have basic questions as congenital problems e.g. water supply and housing. As the slum has to acquire the existing infrastructure in the city, cities have much to learn from the slums. Slums are complex organic entity, just like the cities are.

Analysis of sustainability in the slum upgrading process: the stormwater subsystem and the accessibility, mobility and transport

Mateus H. Andrade student Escola Politécnica da Universidade de São Paulo (EP-USP) Brazil [email protected]

Architect Patricia Aulicino, EP-USP, Brazil, [email protected] Professor Alex Kenya Abiko, EP-USP, Brazil, [email protected]

Summary

Keywords: slum upgrading, road system, urban drainage, recovery of degraded human settlements, sustainability

1. Introduction

When there is a concern, particularly from the government, on improving the life conditions of marginalized groups living in slums, tenements and squatter settlements, there are several solutions to this urban problematic. From forced removal of slum dwellers and self-construction programs to the different approaches to the improvement of infrastructure in slums – known as slum upgrading – the alternatives are many, but not always appropriate to the circumstances of each settlement. In this paper, a discussion will be made on the slum upgrading, a process a process through which informally settled areas are gradually improved, formalized and incorporated into the city itself, extending access to land, urban services and citizenship to the slum dwellers [1], since the dwellings are not located in a risk area, such as hillsides, near streams and other high-risk situations. It offers to slum dwellers services that can cover both the infrastructure – water supply, sewerage, drainage, roads, etc. – and the education, land tenure or reduction of crime. Surveys have indicated a high level of demand and strong support for urban upgrading from the local government in many countries, which are taking greater responsibility for the provision of municipal services [2].

Any policy that seeks to improve social conditions of slums through sustainable development will inevitably address the economic and environmental issue as well. Balancing all three dimensions of sustainability is fundamental to the success of an upgrading project, which must be addressed in a holistic manner; when it comes to the slums, however, there is an even worse position because of the fragility of the communities involved. So fragile that, due to improvement works originated from urbanization, the value of houses and land can increase and thereby cause a removal of these populations, feeding the process of favelization (i.e. slum formation) and leading to undesirable social and environmental costs. Slums are present in all cities, but once acknowledged they can become meaningful parts of a whole city. By recognizing and using nature's tools properly, a slum upgrading project strengthens the people's rights to have the basic necessity for human dignity: a home in their communities [3]

2. Bringing the city into the slums

The slum upgrading is not a new solution to the housing problem, as well as precarious settlements are not recent in the history of cities in the developing world. The favelization, creating divided cities in which marginalization, removals and indifference to basic needs dominate the scenario of slum populations, exposed, as has been said, the fragility of the interaction of these communities with the formal city. This hampers the sustainability outlook in a slum upgrading project and its positive externalities beyond the technical issues faced in its planning and execution.

Another problem lies in understanding the forms of occupation of these settlements, such as technology used in project design and implementation of infrastructure. As environmental conditions in slums are often quite different from those found in the formal city, projects that relate to its upgrading must be treated carefully; in addition, the construction for the population with lower income imposes serious limitations on resources. If, when establishing criteria for slum upgrading, these limitations are not considered, it runs the risk of developing projects dissociated from reality, compromising its sustainability and therefore its continuation.

and transport, for example, it could produce significant energy savings and contribute to sustainable development in the region in which the community involved is inserted.

Given the complexity of the forms of occupation of slums and their ways of upgrading. in this article a greater focus will be taken on the road system and drainage. Of all infrastructure network systems – roads, drainage, energy and communications – the road system is the most delicate, deserving more careful studies because it is the subsystem that is more associated to users, occupies a significant portion of the city area and is the most expensive set of urban systems, since it normally covers more than half the cost of urban upgrading [4]. In the formal city, the set of traffic routes is complemented by a network of storm drainage; in slums, this relationship is even closer, since the absence of an adequate pre-existing drainage system turns the roads of the community into exclusive systems that transport, at the same time, people and fluids. Thus, it becomes imperative to do a joint study of road and drainage systems, so interconnected and essential to the communities that will be upgraded.

3. The sustainability on Slum Upgrading

These human settlements can be managed in an orderly and equitable manner through participatory and resource-conscious planning and management, together with the improvement of living conditions [5]. Sustainable development must balance the economic, environmental and social needs of the communities, which should be addressed in the planning design process in a holistic manner.

The slum is a complex system in which everything is connected to everything, not unlike any other urban center and its interaction with the environment. By bringing aspects of the city to slum settlements, Fig. 1 creek in a valley urban upgrading of slums modifies not only the environmental bottom of a favela in São process, but also the social through technology. Paulo [6]

3.1 The road system

The urban road network is the element that articulates the activities that take place in the community and thus is a constant focus of conflict. These conflicts cannot be avoided, because these positions involve both the traffic of pedestrians and vehicles, access to buildings, parking, local trade (trade fairs, stalls, etc.) and leisure, social life, the implementation of public infrastructure and the natural spacing between buildings. The rapid traffic of vehicles is at odds with the leisure activities, with the movement of pedestrians, with parking, and even with access to buildings. The traffic of service vehicles and public transportation conflicts with the traffic of passenger vehicles. It is possible to evaluate the difficulty of equating it, ensuring to attend such diverse functions. By today‟s standards, the increasing need to move within the cities takes care of ensuring areas where the road network will continue and flow into the city center, or sub centers. Therefore, not only the geometric design of streets is important, but also their condition [7]. In the process of informal occupation of slums, the streets and alleys which resulted from this process

are too narrow and do not obey the urban layout of the formal city. Thus, in slum upgrading, in which it is desirable to achieve the smallest number of removals, it must be sought to maintain the road network layout to set the local road system, even in highly populated slums.

In order to ensure proper access, the existence of adequate access roads must be verified, in relation to both trafficability and size. The requirements regarding the size of the roads should be treated with greater care, because the exaggeration of the road width obliges to make large movements of earth and increases the risk of geotechnical accidents in high natural slopes. Moreover, the narrowness of the roads becomes problematic when it does not allow the access of larges vehicles (garbage trucks, the maintenance of urban infrastructure systems, transportation of construction material or change, ambulance, fire brigade, etc.). It also creates an unhealthy climate, by not allowing sunlight and ventilation into the houses. Narrow alleys restrict the quality of the built environment, but the requirement of minimum width of the roads does not guarantee the quality of the projects as well.

To undertake the functions for which the road was designed, some of these functions should be preferred. If a street has the access to buildings, recreation and pedestrian circulation as main roles, geometric patterns are needed to prevent high speed traffic [8]. It is expected of the designer a good judgment that, in addition to fulfilling the functions for pedestrians and vehicles, leisure, social interaction, deployment of infrastructure and technical standards that ensure safety, quality and functionality, relates the geometric dimensions of the roads also from discussions with the community, who will manifest their wills about the road network that will articulate the community activities.

Through community engagement and participation, the community development and social cohesion are enhanced. Transforming a slum into a sustainable community can only be achieved through working with people. Engaging the community is an important step in enhancing community development during the planning and design stages, in which slum dwellers, academics, concern groups, schools and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) can be briefed on the constraints and opportunities of the project in a series of facilitated workshops. The workshops help them to understand the concerns and aspirations of their built environment [9].

3.2 The drainage system

The storm drainage system is closely linked to the road system. The implementation of the urban road system leads to clear concentration of storm water. Even in non-urbanized slums, streets and alleys formed by the process of informal occupation cause the rainwater to concentrate in the ways of the road network. Thus, the drainage network has a key role to ensure traffic flow and prevent erosion and flooding. From the resulting soil impermeabilization by paving the roads of the slum, the flow velocity and the amount of non- infiltrated stormwater increase, causing major concerns about the sustainability of the built environment after the works of urbanization. In addition, most of the world's slums are located in tropical countries (where rainfall is high), and on land unsuitable for habitation, such as the valleys and steeply sloping terrain.

Drainage systems in developing countries have generally evolved from natural systems passing through significant changes as land uses change from low-density village settlements to gradually increasing higher densities of urban populations, like the urban slums. The main feature that most squatter settlements have in common is that the land is usually low-lying and even tidal. Drainage is normally non-existing, roads are built above the level of the housing land, (houses then being built with raised timber floors), and occupiers fill their land with solid waste and other fill materials as they become available. The whole reclamation procedure can take many years, depending on the country, on the community to be upgraded, and on the procedure adopted. The methods vary a lot, and both large machines and the only the road system can be used to solve the various problems related to the drainage in slums.

The drainage systems must be planned in relation to the total urban system – not only for the community –, and must be integrated with other elements of the urban infrastructure, such as roads, buildings, etc. Being greatly influenced by local environment planning processes, analyses of these systems in slums should be based on measured or observed real system behavior, and not on reasonable or “logical” assumptions, which are inferior to hard evidence.

The design and construction of new roads should be fully integrated with the drainage need of the urban area. This results in better roads, better drainage, and minimization of flood hazards during major storms.

The good of the community, expressed through a concern for adequacy, safety and economy, is the basis for determining the type performance, standard and scale of drainage works. Designers must strike a balance between the objectives of providing a high standard of performance and of minimizing costs, and they should be influenced by professional considerations such as ethics, standardization and innovation. A drainage system should be designed and operated to maximize benefits to the community. What arrangements have been made for access during construction? A detailed health impact statement of the project has been prepared? Does the project create any new health hazards, including during the construction phase? What arrangements have been made for selling new plots to the urban poor (can they afford then)? Do the urban poor need special help to participate in, or benefit from, the project? What legal safeguards have been incorporated into the project to protect the poor? Does the project require any houses or other buildings to be demolished? (If so, what arrangements have been made for relocation? Are the acceptable to those households to be relocated?). As an important part of a slum upgrading program, the design of the drainage project brings as many questions as the project as a whole. Reference to these basic principles is helpful in resolving uncertainties arising in design management of these systems [10].

Any landform includes a natural drainage system and planning and development of new areas should be in harmony with this system to preserve it in its natural state as far as possible. New development proposals should take account of both possible flood hazards in the whole system and the possibility of upstream development, erosion hazards and runoff reduction as an objective.

So, the concentration of rainwater should be carefully considered, i.e. urban planning should be in accordance not only with the environmental characteristics of the place, but also with the social conditions and the economic capabilities.

3.3 Non-paved roads and drainage system

It is interesting to note the possibility of dispensing paving works, due to its high cost. Although usually associated to the image of a total lack of additional works of urbanization, the "dirt roads" have technical criteria that constitute an important topic of planning regulation of upgraded slums. Without being paved, examples of streets that have been indeed urbanized are relatively rare. The routes with limited circulation, relatively low slope, and the essentially local roads can be dispensed from paving, since paved sidewalks and trees are provided (in order to ensure good conditions for movement of pedestrians), and the primary treatment of the road is provided, besides a drainage system which prevents erosion and ensures traffic flow, even during periods of rain. It is necessary an integrated solution of the primary treatment of road, paved sidewalks (not forgetting the trees), and drainage of ground and stormwater run-off. Is it possible to break the negative image of unpaved road through judicious implementation of works, with relatively low costs, if compared to the cost of paving.

The economic aspect cannot be promoted, however, instead of the quality of work and of the built environment, by dispensing paving of all street and alleys of the slum road network. There are situations where paving becomes indispensable, like when there is heavy traffic of buses and trucks, high speed traffic and in steep or poorly drained roads. The implementation of unpaved

roads must be subject to implementation of the drainage works, primary treatment, and sidewalk paving.

Moreover, the technical criteria for the project design of the drainage system for paved roads cannot be simply transferred. In order not to damage the drainage system in a short space of time, some specific care should be necessarily taken: provide easy access for cleaning and maintenance of the network, which is more subject to soil deposition (the implementation of buried pipes must be avoided); all roads should have covered drainage channel (or gutter); ensure special protection along the gutter, preventing the formation of grooves on it (see image beside); implement channels which are compatible with the sidewalks and devices that lead the water along the route until the drainage system, thus avoiding the eventual formation of the groove; the coating of the channels could be done with Fig. 2 Protection along the curb, to grass, cement, stones accumulated by hand and other prevent erosion [11]. alternatives to the concrete, aiming not only reduced costs but also the employment of local workmanship and preventing the further soil impermeabilization.

4. Case Study: the community Jardim Esmeralda, São Paulo

The community Jardim Esmeralda is located on the right bank of the Guarapiranga dam, south side of São Paulo. It went through a slum upgrading process in the late „90s, as part of the “Pollution and Water Quality Control Project”, financed by the World Bank. Better known as “Guarapiranga Program”, The Project had two specific objectives: the development of institutional capabilities to manage the basin in an environmentally sustainable manner, and the improvement of the quality of life of the 550,000 inhabitants of the Guarapiranga basin, especially those living in slums and illegal Fig. 3 Overview of Jardim Esmeralda [12] settlements, through sanitation infrastructure (sewers, solid waste collection and disposal, and drainage). Given the inability of solving the environmental problem without addressing also the social and economic issue, it started an extensive process in this region, which will be discussed below.

The area of the Jardim Esmeralda community began to be occupied in 1967, basically structured by the presence of the Iporanga creek. The population was then consolidated, and the buildings became predominantly of masonry, which shows the situation of the dwellers, who stayed in this area (the slums of temporary occupation are mainly characterized by the presence of wooden houses and made of another improvised materials). The slum is characteristic of irregular occupation on the banks of streams, and has no sewage system, two typical characteristics of the slums of São Paulo at the time of urbanization (49.2% and 84.6%, respectively) [13]. In Jardim Esmeralda, the problem was further aggravated by the presence of the creek, which received the sewage from the slum, together with the garbage that was thrown at their banks.

To solve this and many other situations found in areas upgraded by the program, not always the conventional solution was the most appropriate because, besides being quite distinct regions of

the formal city (valley bottom, hillside area, contaminated soil, etc.), it was aimed to relocate the least possible of families, as well as to ensure that the implementation of infrastructure in the slum was technically and economically feasible, and that the conditions of operation and maintenance of networks would provide a lifetime similar to the networks implemented in normal urban settlements. A new term of reference for projects was developed, linking the different variables that compose the agenda of intervention in slums.

The works at Jardim Esmeralda were performed between July 1996 and May 1998. 4,113m² of paved roads were implemented, together with 252m of stormwater network, 801m of curbs, as well as water and sewage network, sidewalks, retaining wall and the open channel of the Iporanga creek, benefiting 517 inhabitants of the community [14].

4.1 Road system

The urban layout of the road system predicted an adaptation of the road system for the pedestrians, and only a part of the vehicle traffic on the banks of the creek, with paved roads. The Iporanga creek, which was incorporated into an open channel drainage project, structures the central axis of circulation in the slum, rising as a major element in the landscape. The banks of the Iporanga were restricted to pedestrian use at its greatest extent, with only one street to vehicle traffic. The rest of the circulation system is formed by internal pedestrian alleys that provide access to housing, and streets that flank the slum in its boundary lines with the surroundings. Despite the apparent loss of mobility, the urban design of the favela central area, which restricted the use of cars within the slum, made a connection between the main square (along the creek) and the streets outside through short and straight alleys, creating a comfortable living space, being close by foot to bus stops, points of garbage collection and public telephone.

This road layout however damaged the residents of the central area of Jardim Esmeralda, which have the pedestrian alleys as the only access to their homes. For 64.8% of residents, getting home became easier, and for 24.1% it remained unchanged. For 65.4% of the residents, space for children to play got better after the slum upgrading program, and got worse for 15.4% [15]. These areas concern the alleys where children can play without risk of contamination because the sewers do not go on the surface of road anymore. Residents who stated that, with the program, the spaces have worsened after the works justified their answer by explaining that, with the paving of streets and alleys and the construction of the square, the movement of cars had increased and there was also an intensification of the use and trade of drugs, which involved mainly teenagers and young people in the slum and surrounding regions. It is verified that, when the access is solved, the leisure system is harmed, since in the slums, the streets and alleys are commonly used for children to play.

There is a gradual integration with the adjacent neighborhoods. In general, there is continuity of the systems of roads, connecting slum and neighborhood, where similar characteristics are found in buildings of both places, and community facilities are used by both slum dwellers and neighborhood residents.

It had been scheduled a wide action in the slum upgrading project, in which would be promoted participatory activities of environmental education in all districts and slums of the Guarapiranga program, with foresight of afforestation and gardening. These activities were first being postponed, then simply removed of the budget, what was approved by the World Bank [16]. The correct treatment of urban design allowed, however, that this environment – consisted of alleys, streets and squares –, had places of breathe and ventilation, although there was no green areas, which would produce a pleasing effect with respect to the micro-climate and humidity.

The flexibilization of the criteria for width of streets arose from discussions with the Sanitation Company of São Paulo (Sabesp), the company responsible for the implementation and maintenance of water mains and sewers. Initially, Sabesp required a minimum of four meters in

width for the passage of any public sewage system, due to the access of mechanical maintenance, desirable because of the operation of established networks. Noting the configuration of the slums and given the capacity of mechanical equipment for cleaning, widths of up to 1.20 m alleys were admitted for networks implemented, provided that the manholes needed for cleaning the pipes had access via vehicles with four meters wide [17]. This adaptation of the sanitation company to the reality of the favela and its upgrading program was extremely important, because it showed the company‟s concern to address the demands of the community, without reducing the quality of service, due to technical difficulties imposed by different environments from the formal city.

The alleys are two meters wide and paved with concrete, the streets are four meters wide, paved with flexible asphalt. Both the pavements were waterproof. Paving with concrete is cheaper to build, what would be an appropriate solution also to the streets of the community. However, it could have been used a more permeable pavement, as the cobblestones that, besides increasing the infiltration of rainwater and slowing stormwater runoff, encourages the use of local workmanship , because it is easy to implemented.

4.2 Drainage

The drainage in Jardim Esmeralda accounted for 41.9% of the cost of the upgrading works (excluding the housing units), almost four times the figure for the road and earthworks [18]. Uncommon, but this can be justified by the Iporanga open channel project. The open channel stream with lateral pathway to pedestrian, and closed gallery only in parts required by the road system, is an example of adoption of unconventional technology in implementation of the drainage system. The area of the slum was characterized by the presence from the basin of the stream with the community, which featured a picture of intense land use with different patterns of housing and high levels of impermeabilization.

The almost total occupation of the banks of the creek restricted the flow section, and this stream already didn‟t have the adequate capacity for the transport of heavy rains in the region. This flow condition was aggravated by the amount of debris, rubble and trash thrown into the creek by the local population, which had no access to garbage collection service. The proposal adopted was using closed concrete gallery in places where the availability of space in the slum did not allow the combination of the channel with the suggested road system. At central area of the favela, the solution adopted was the open channel with pedestrian pathways beside. Due to the strong slope of the site, stair-step grading set in concrete was done against soil erosion, and also to decrease stormwater flow velocity. Whenever possible, technically and economically, the drainage would be conducted parallel with the creek, avoiding partial release, thus diminishing the gallery section. It is noteworthy that the solution to consolidate an open channel is quite positive, compared to solutions channeling the creek underground. By that, it was achieved an appreciation of the area along the creek as a qualified area, a good option for circulation of pedestrians and some points of leisure with parks.

The cleaning routine of the river, however, is precarious. A systematic maintenance by the city administration is missing, which affects the proper functioning of the drainage system introduced. For 84.7% of residents, the street or alley where he lives never floods, 10.2% of slum dwellers rarely suffer floods and for 5.1% their street or alley flood often [19].

5. Considerations and challenges

The way to sustainability in slum upgrading had advanced greatly in recent years, but there‟s still a lot in order to develop determinant guidelines for slums around the world. Slum upgrading improves the quality of life of slum dwellers, mitigates the environmental impacts caused by illegal occupants, integrates the community to the city and brings many other social, environmental and economic benefits. But its poor implementation can bring many disadvantages, bringing negative aspects of cities, such as soil impermeabilization through the unnecessary or exaggerated paving, and disrespect to the environment in which it is located. A slum upgrading program must regard the slums not as resource-draining liabilities but as opportunities to make sustainable changes to the

city as a whole. There is already technology available to obtain fresh water from sea water, produce fuel from garbage and to generate electricity from solar energy, but they are far from sufficient to supply the needs of over one billion people who call urban slums their homes [20].

6. References

[1] CITIES ALLIANCE, “Slum Upgrading Fact Sheet”, available in citiesalliance.org/ca/sites/citiesalliance.org/files/CA_Images/SUFactsheet_English_0.pdf. Accessed on April 13th 2011. [2] web.mit.edu/urbanupgrading/upgrading/whatis/history.html#Anchor-Why-1659, accessed on April 13th 2011. [3] DAVIDSON, C.C., "Slum Networking of Indore City." In: Legacies for the Future: Contemporary Architecture in Islamic Societies. London: Thames and Hudson, ed. 1998, pp. 54-65. [4] MASCARÓ, J.L., “Desenho Urbano e Custos de Urbanização”. D.C. Luzzatto Editores, 1989, pp. 15-18. [5] UN-HABITAT (United Nations Centre for Human Settlements), “People, Settlements, Environment and Development: improving the living environment for a sustainable future”, UNCHS, 1991, pp. 3-16. [6] FRANÇA; E., “Guarapiranga: recuperação urbana e ambiental no Município de São Paulo”, M. Carrilho Arquitetos, 2000, p. 32 (image). [7] FREITAS, C.G.L. et al., “Habitação e Meio Ambiente: abordagem integrada em empreendimentos de interesse social”, Instituto de Pesquisas Tecnológicas do Estado de São Paulo – IPT, p. 26. [8] MORETTI, R. S., “Normas urbanísticas para Habitação de Interesse social: recomendações para elaboração”, Instituto de Pesquisas Tecnológicas do Estado de São Paulo – IPT, 1997, pp. 60-63. [9] NG, J.C.Y., “Microclimate in Public Housing: an environmental approach to community development” in: Designing High-Density Cities for Social & Environmental Sustainability, Earthscan, London, 2010. [10] UN-HABITAT, “Stormwater drainage and land reclamation for urban development”, UNCHS, 1991, pp. 38-50. [11] MORETTI, R. S., “Normas urbanísticas para Habitação de Interesse social: recomendações para elaboração”, Instituto de Pesquisas Tecnológicas do Estado de São Paulo – IPT, 1997, p. 51 (image). [12] LABHAB – FAUUSP, “Parâmetros técnicos para a Urbanização de favelas: relatório final”, pt. 2, vol. 3, FAUUSP, 1999, p. 17 (image) [13] LABHAB – FAUUSP, “Parâmetros técnicos para a Urbanização de favelas: relatório final”, pt. 2, vol. 2, FAUUSP, 1999, p. 73. [14] FRANÇA; E., “Guarapiranga: recuperação urbana e ambiental no Município de São Paulo”, M. Carrilho Arquitetos, 2000, p. 145. [15] LABHAB – FAUUSP, “Parâmetros técnicos para a Urbanização de favelas: relatório final”, pt. 2, vol. 2, FAUUSP, 1999, p. 78. [16] LABHAB – FAUUSP, “Parâmetros técnicos para a Urbanização de favelas: relatório final”, pt. 2, vol. 3, FAUUSP, 1999, p. 18. [17] FRANÇA; E., “Guarapiranga: recuperação urbana e ambiental no Município de São Paulo”, M. Carrilho Arquitetos, 2000, p. 119. [18] LABHAB – FAUUSP, “Parâmetros técnicos para a Urbanização de favelas: relatório final”, pt. 2, vol. 2, FAUUSP, 1999, p. 72. [19] LABHAB – FAUUSP, “Parâmetros técnicos para a Urbanização de favelas: relatório final”, pt. 2, vol. 2, FAUUSP, 1999, p. 82. [20] http://citymayors.com/report/slums.html, accessed on April 15th 2011.