humanities Article Resilience and Euripides’ Heracles

Sonia Pertsinidis Article

Resilience and Euripides’ Heracles Centre for Classical Studies, The Australian National University, Canberra 2602, Australia; Article [email protected] Sonia Pertsinidis Resilience and Euripides’ Heracles Abstract: In the midst of the current global health crisis, there is ongoing discussion about the need to cultivate resilience, that is, the ability to survive tragic events, adversity and prolonged stress. Centre for ClassicalSonia Studies, Pertsinidis The Australian National University, Canberra 2602, Australia; [email protected] This paper engages in a reading of Euripides’ Heracles, a bold and disturbing tragedy in which the eponymous hero suffers several striking reversals of fortune. After being victimized by Hera and Centre for Classical Studies, The Australian National University, Canberra 2602, Australia; Abstract: In the midst of the current global [email protected] crisis, there destroying is ongoing his discussion family, aboutHeracles the resolv need es to commit suicide. Only two hundred lines to cultivate resilience, that is, the ability to survivelater, tragic he resolves events, to adversity continue to and live. prolonged This change stress. in outlook is remarkable given the traumatic events Abstract: In the midst of the current global health crisis, there is ongoing discussion about the need This paper engages in a reading of Euripides’ Heraclesthat he, ahas bold just and suffered. disturbing How tragedy does Heracles in which find the the strength to endure? What factors bring about to cultivatethis positive resilience, change that is, in the Heracles’ ability to perspective? survive tragic This events, paper adversity will draw and prolonged on findings stress. from modern resil- eponymous hero suffers several striking reversalsThis paper of engages fortune. in After a reading being of Euripides’ victimized Heracles by Hera, a bold and and disturbing tragedy in which the ience research to shed light on Heracles’ decision. It will discuss the complex combination of internal unwittingly destroying his family, Heracles resolveseponymous to commithero suffers suicide. several Only striking two reversals hundred of lines fortune. later, After being victimized by Hera and he resolves to continue to live. This change inunwittingly outlookand external isdestroying remarkable factors his givenfamily,that play theHeracles traumaticinto Heracles’resolv eventses to change commit that of suicide. mind. Only I argue two that hundred the processes lines that Euripi- he has just suffered. How does Heracles findlater, the deshe strength resolves portrays toto continue endure?in his play to What live. dramatize This factors change bringmany in outlook aboutof the thisisprot remarkableective factors given thethat traumatic are said events to promote resilience positive change in Heracles’ perspective? Thisthat paperhein has real willjust life. suffered. draw on How findings does Heracles from modern find the resilience strength to endure? What factors bring about research to shed light on Heracles’ decision.this It will positive discuss change the in complex Heracles’ combination perspective? This of internal paper will and draw on findings from modern resil- ience Keywords:research to shed resilience; light on Heracles’Heracles; decision Theseus;. It will trauma; discuss madness the complex combination of internal external factors that play into Heracles’ change of mind. I argue that the processes that Euripides and external factors that play into Heracles’ change of mind. I argue that the processes that Euripi- portrays in his play dramatize many of thedes protective portrays factorsin his play that dramatize are said many to promote of the prot resilienceective factors in that are said to promote resilience real life. in real life.

Keywords: resilience; Heracles; Theseus; trauma;Keywords:1. madness Introduction resilience; Heracles; Theseus; trauma; madness Euripides’ Heracles is not just a psychologically compelling dramatization of mad- ness; it is also a thought-provoking enquiry into heroism (Riley 2008, p. 5; all translations are my own; the Greek text is from Diggle 1981). In classical scholarship, the reasons for Citation: Pertsinidis, Sonia. 2021. 1. Introduction 1. IntroductionResilience and Euripides’ Heracles. Heracles’ rejection of suicide and his heroic decision to live have been variously inter- Euripides’ Heracles is not just a psychologically compelling dramatization of mad- Euripides’HumanitiesHeracles 10:is 44. not https:// just a psychologicallypreted. compelling Some have dramatization argued that Heracles of madness; expresses it a new type of virtue (


ness; it is also a thought-provoking enquiry into heroism (Riley 2008, p. 5; all translations doi.org/10.3390/h10010044 ἀ
 is also a thought-provoking enquiry into heroismare my own; (Riley the 2008 Greek, p. text 5; all is translationsfrom Diggle 19 are81). my In own; classical scholarship, the reasons for Citation: Pertsinidis, Sonia. 2021. ρετ the Greek textResilience is from and Diggle Euripides’ 1981 Heracles).. In classicalHeracles’ scholarship, rejection of the suicide reasons and for his Heracles’ heroic decision rejection to live have been variously inter- Citation: Pertsinidis, Sonia. 2021. Received: 8 January 2021 of suicide andHumanities his heroic 10: 44. decisionhttps:// to live havepreted. been Some variously have argued interpreted. that Heracles Some expresses have argued a new type of virtue ( Resilience and Euripides’ Heracles. that Heraclesdoi.org/10.3390/h10010044 expressesAccepted: 2 March a new 2021 type of virtue (ἀ $ετή; Chalk 1962, pp. 9–10; James 1969, p. 19); Humanities 10: 44. https://doi.org/ others have arguedPublished: that 4 March it is really2021 Theseus whoρετή saves; Chalk Heracles 1962, pp.(Adkins 9–10; James 1966 ,1969, p. 219) p. .19); Some others have argued that it is really 10.3390/h10010044 see in HeraclesReceived: a new 8 January internalised 2021 “courageTheseus founded who; Chalk onsaves love” 1962, Heracles (Arrowsmith pp. (Adkins9–10; James 19561966,, 1969, p. 2 53;19). p.Riley Some 19); othesee inrs Heracles have argued a new thatinternal- it is really Theseus 2008, pp. 41–42),Accepted:Publisher’s while 2 March Note: others 2021 MDPI see stays a newfound neu-ised “couragewho commitment saves founded Heracles toon human love”(Adkins (Arrowsmith solidarity 1966, p. or 219).195 to6, fate Somep. 53; Rileysee in 2008 Heracles, pp. 41–42), a new while internalised “cour- Received: 8 January 2021 Published: 4 March 2021 others see a newfound commitment to human solidarity or to fate (Papadopoulou 2005, (Papadopouloutral 2005 with, p.regard 182 ; tode jurisdictional Romilly 2003 ,age p. 289).founded For many, on love” it is the(Arrowsmith saving grace 1956, of philia p. 53; Riley 2008, pp. 41–42), while others see a Accepted: 2 March 2021 claims in published maps and institu-p. 182; de Romilly 2003, p. 289). For many, it is the saving grace of philia (friendship) that (friendship) thatPublisher’s is the Note: core MDPI message stays neu- of the playnewfound(Stafford 2012 commitment, p. 92; Gregory to human 2011 ,solidarity pp. 141–49; or to fate (Papadopoulou 2005, p. 182; de Ro- Published: 4 March 2021 tional affiliations. is the core message of the play (Stafford 2012, p. 92; Gregory 2011, pp. 141–49; Papadimi- Papadimitropoulostral with 2008regard, p.to 132;jurisdictional Barlow 1996tropoulosmilly, pp. 2008, 14–16; 2003, p. Yoshitake p.132; 289). Barlow For 1994 1996, many,, pp. pp. 151–53;it 14–1 is the6; YoshitakePadilla saving grace1994, pp.of philia151–53; (friendship) Padilla 1994, that is the core 1994, p. 280; claimsSilk in1985 published, p. maps 2; Bond and institu- 1981,p. pp. 280;message xxii–xxiii). Silk 1985, of p. Morethe 2; Bondplay recently, 1981,(Stafford pp. scholars xxii–xxiii). 2012, have p. 92;More used Gregory recently, 2011, scholars pp. have 141–49; used Papadimitropoulos con- Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral tional affiliations. with regard to jurisdictional claims in contemporary approaches to mental illnesstemporary2008, to explain p.approaches 132; Heracles’ Barlow to mental 1996, madness pp.illness 14–16; (Charlier to explain Yoshitake 2003 Heracles’; 1994, madness pp. 151–53; (Charlier Padilla 2003; 1994, p. 280; Silk published maps and institutional affil- López Saco 2002). Some view HeraclesLópez as a1985, war Saco veteran p.2002). 2; Bond Some recovering view1981, Heracles pp. from xxii–xxiii). combatas a war traumaveteranMore recently, recovering scholars from combat have trauma used contemporary Copyright: © 2021 by the author.(Konstan 2014, pp. 4–6; Meagher 2006, pp. 50, 60). The range of factors identified by schol- iations. (Konstan 2014, pp. 4–6; Meagher 2006, pp. 50,approaches 60). The range to mental of factors illness identified to explain by scholars Heracles’ madness (Charlier 2003; López Saco Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.ars suggests that the situation is complex and that the identification of a single definitive suggests thatCopyright: the situation © 2021 isby complexthe author. and that2002). the identification Some view Heracles of a single as definitive a war vetera reasonn recovering from combat trauma (Konstan This article is an open access articlereason for Heracles’ rejection of suicide is impossible: rather, we should perhaps be ex- for Heracles’Licensee rejection MDPI, of Basel, suicide Switzerland. is impossible: 2014, rather, pp. we4–6; should Meagher perhaps 2006, be pp. examining 50, 60). The the range of factors identified by scholars sug- distributed under the terms andamining the interplay between different factors. interplay betweenThis articledifferent is an open factors. access article conditions of the Creative Commons Ingests light that of this,the situationI would like is complexto shift the and discussion that the away identification from (a) the of emphasis a single ondefinitive reason In light ofdistributed this, Iunder would the terms like and to shift the discussion away from (a) the emphasis on Copyright: © 2021 by the author. conditionsAttribution of the Creative(CC CommonsBY) license Heracles’ for Heracles’ madness and rejection (b) attempts of suicide to argue is impossible:in favour of a rather, “definitive we factor”should that perhaps leads be examining Heracles’ madness and (b) attempts to argue in favour of a “definitive factor” that leads to Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. Attribution(http://creativecommons.org/licenses (CC BY) license to Heracles’the interplay rejection between of suicide, different in favour factors. of examining the range of factors that contribute This article is an open access article Heracles’ rejection(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). of suicide, in favourto of resilience examining according the range to studies of factors from modern that contribute psychology. I argue that resilience studies distributed under the terms and to resilience according/by/4.0/). to studies from modern psychology. I argue that resilience studies conditions of the Creative Commons can provide a useful framework for analysing the complex combination of internal and Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// external factors that contribute to Heracles’ decision.

creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ Humanities 2021, 10, 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/h10010044 www.mdpi.com/journal/humanities Humanities 2021, 10, 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/h10010044 www.mdpi.com/journal/humanities 4.0/).

Humanities 2021, 10, 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/h10010044 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/humanities Humanities 2021, 10, 44 2 of 12

2. Surviving Crisis Events It is well recognised in psychology that failure to cope effectively with adversities, such as the death of a loved one, serious illness or natural disasters, can trigger a range of illnesses and psychological disorders (Smith and Ascough 2016, p. 8). In recent decades, modern psychology has shifted from studying disorder to analysing the processes that help people cope effectively, that is, resilience (Ungar 2018a, p. 34). While the term “resilience” originates from the Latin verb resilio, meaning “to spring back, bounce back or rebound”, the use of the term in modern psychology does not necessarily imply recovering quickly from exposure to trauma. Psychologists recognise that there is no fixed timescale for recovery and that recovery may involve considerable emotional distress (Masten and Wright 2010, p. 221). Thus, the American Psychological Association defines resilience as “the process of adapting well in the face of adversity, trauma, tragedy, threats or significant sources of stress”. Resilience research began with developmental studies of children living in disad- vantaged and dangerous environments (Greene et al. 2004, p. 76). Leading researchers including Rutter(1987), Garmezy(1983), Werner and Smith(1982) and Masten et al.(1990) observed that some children thrived despite being exposed to factors such as violence, parental divorce or psychopathology (risk factors). This finding prompted further inves- tigation into the protective factors that help children thrive in adversity. Protective factors include internal and individual factors, such as intelligence, expressiveness and secure attachment, as well as external factors, such as family cohesion and stability, positive role models, and cultural/spiritual identification. Most, if not all, theorists emphasise supportive social relationships as an important protective factor (Shean 2015, p. 27). Today, resilience research has expanded beyond the fields of child psychology and psy- chiatry to examine the wellbeing of individuals from diverse age groups and backgrounds (Ungar 2018a, p. 34). Resilience is now understood as a complex and dynamic process that depends on a combination of factors (Greene et al. 2004, p. 78). Whilst it is recognised that some external factors are largely beyond one’s control (such as educational opportunities), there are a number of internal factors, such as positive self-regard and confidence, making firm plans for the future, and managing strong negative feelings (Smith and Ascough 2016, p. 2). Importantly, researchers have concluded that resilience is not an innate trait but a set of behaviours, thoughts and actions that can be learned and practised over time (Reich et al. 2010, pp. xiii–xiv). One of the primary factors in building resilience is said to be the cultivation of close and supportive relationships based on love and trust. In addition, there are several internal factors that can typically help to build resilience, including utilising problem-solving skills; maintaining confidence in one’s strengths and abilities; having a sense of meaning in life; and cultivating feelings of personal control (Rutter 1987). There are, of course, other considerations. An individual’s willingness to express an emotional response to a traumatic event, for example, is a matter for each individual and it may, in part, reflect cultural differences (Greene et al. 2004, p. 79). Accordingly, one must consider resilience within broader cultural contexts (Ungar 2012, p. 387). Further, in order for a person to express resilience, s/he needs access to psychological, social, cultural, and physical resources and the opportunity to engage with those resources in a way that is empowering and culturally meaningful (Ungar 2011, p. 10). The resources themselves need to be appropriate and address psychological as well as social needs (Ungar 2018b, pp. 33–44). Applying these observations to a reading of Euripides’ Heracles, let us start by examining Heracles’ early life.

3. Heracles: Early life As the character of Heracles points out in the play, he has unfortunate origins and was exposed to high levels of risk from birth. Zeus is an absent father and is unknown to Heracles (see line 1263; subsequent line numbers from the Greek text will appear simply as numbers; on Zeus’ absence see Wolff 2009, p. 12; on the “emotional damage” caused by Humanities 2021, 10, 44 3 of 12

both fathers see Padilla 1994, p. 294; for a different reading see Gregory 2011, p. 137). The fact that Zeus used deception to impregnate Alcmena but takes no interest in his offspring strongly suggests that Zeus is unjust and unprincipled (347). When Zeus is called upon in desperate times, he remains silent and invisible (341, 501, 922–93; nor can Zeus prevent Hera and Lyssa from harming Heracles, see 828–9). Amphitryon, in contrast, is loving and supportive but he too is a problematic father figure since he is tainted by blood-guilt (1258–62). On the maternal side, Alcmena is dead (Wolff 2009, p. 12n14) while Hera is hateful (1263–64). Hera sent serpents to strangle Heracles in his cradle (1266–68) and since that time, Hera’s persecution has been vicious and relentless. It culminates in the mad rage that Hera inflicts upon Heracles in this play. Apart from his difficult origins, Heracles has an unstable identity owing to the fact that he is a demi-god, occupying a liminal state between humanity and divinity (Papadopoulou 2005, pp. 47–48; Silk 1985, p. 6). By the time this play was produced (around 415 BC), this ambivalence was an accepted feature of Heracles’ character (Silk 1985, pp. 6–7; on the date of this play see Bond 1981, p. xxxi; Riley 2008, p. 1). Euripides contrasts Heracles’ superhuman strength with his human weakness: his love for his children is presented as a defining quality of humanity (636). Thus, while Heracles has the potential to achieve divine status through his glorious exploits, he is also prone to human loss and suffering. This tension within Heracles has explosive capabilities and, in order for it to be resolved, Heracles must become either entirely divine or entirely mortal (Papadimitropoulos 2008, p. 136; Silk 1985, pp. 17–18; Papadopoulou 2004). Ultimately, Heracles relinquishes his divine attributes and embraces humanity. It is this resolution that makes Heracles such an extraordinary example of human resilience.

4. Physical and Emotional Resilience Resilience research stresses the importance of utilising problem-solving skills to deal with adversity (Rutter 1987, p. 328). The first half of Euripides’ play, in effect, primes us to view Heracles as a hero with a proven and remarkable ability to overcome tremendous obstacles using physical strength and bravery. With his superhuman strength, Heracles has boldly battled the earthborn Giants (178–79), the hubristic Centaurs (181) and the Minyans (220–21). He has also successfully undertaken a series of Labours (359–429) that entailed journeying to distant lands, battling monsters and eradicating dangers for the benefit of humankind (696–700; see Stafford 2012, pp. 89–90; on the labours and landscape see Barlow 1982). In some respects, Herakles’ experiences resemble the experiences of Greek warriors who also fought battles in distant lands, against foreign enemies, for the sake of both personal glory and communal benefit. In this way, Herakles’ experiences would have resonated with war veterans and survivors in the theatre audience. Although Heracles may have proven to be highly experienced and capable during the Labours, this does not necessarily guarantee psychological and emotional resilience in matters involving his own home and family (on the spiritual rather than physical qualities of Heracles see Papadopoulou 2004, p. 267). The twelve Labours were tasks set by another (Eurystheus) and they largely required extraordinary physical effort. In this play, Heracles will have to face violence within his own home, committed by his own hands, and he will have to rely on inner psychological and emotional strength to overcome it (Meagher 2006, p. 60). According to Euripides, enduring personal adversity is more difficult than facing an opponent’s weapons (1349–50; on the labours as a precondition of Heracles’ downfall see Wolff 2009, p. 11). The doubt about whether Heracles can survive this new type of trial is voiced by Lycus who jibes that while Heracles has built a reputation for fighting wild animals, in other respects he is not brave at all (158). After Heracles’ mad rampage, he awakens from his “palliative sleep” and must come to terms with the terrible scene before his eyes (1089ff; Riley 2008, p. 39). There can be no doubt in the audience’s mind that “mad Heracles” was not himself (931). He was a puppet of divine and vengeful forces (one view of Heracles’ madness is that it is simply a manifestation of a pre-existing tendency toward excess and violence, see von Wilamowitz- Humanities 2021, 10, 44 5 of 13 Humanities 2021, 10, 44 Humanities Humanities 2021 2021, 10, ,,44 1010 ,, 4444 Humanities 20212021,, 1010,, 4444 4 of 13 4 of4 13of 13 44 ofof 1313

Humanities 2021, 10, 44 4 of 13 his acts were involuntary (Konstan 2013, pp. 434, 430). In modern legal terms, one might downfall see Wolff 2009, p.downfall 11).downfall The seedoubt seeWolff Wolffabout 2009, 2009,whether p. 11). p. 11). HeraclesThe The doubt doubt can about survive about whether whether this newHeracles Heracles can can survive survive this this new new say that Heracles lacked mental culpability,downfall or mens see Wolff rea, which 2009, absolvep. 11). Thes him doubt of the about crimi- whether Heracles can survive this new type of trial is voiced by Lycustypetype of who trialof jibestrial is voiced isth voicedat while by Lycusby Heracles Lycus who who has jibes jibesbuilt that tha Humanities whileatreputation while Heracles 2021 Heracles for, 10 , has44 has built built a reputation a reputation for for 4 of 13 nal conduct. 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(158).doubt about whether Heracles can survive this new After Heracles’ mad rampage,AfterAfter he Heracles’ awakens Heracles’ mad from mad rampage, his rampage, “palliative he awakenshe sleep” awakens andfrom from must his his“palliative come “palliative sleep” sleep” and and must must come come deeds in the past, including rescuing TheseusAfter from Heracles’ the Underworld madtype rampage, of(1221 trial –he2 is2). awakens voiced Using rhe- byfrom Lycus his “palliative who jibes sleep”that while and mustHeracles come has built a reputation for to terms with the terrible sceneto termsto before terms with hiswith the eyes theterrible (1089ff;terrible scene Rileyscene before 2008, before his p. his eyes39). eyes There(1089ff; (1089ff;(1089ff; can Riley be RileyRiley no 2008, 2008,2008, p. 39). p.p. 39).39). 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There can be no festation of a pre-existing festationtendencyfestation of toward aof pre-existing a pre-existing excess and tendency tendencyviolence, toward towardsee vonexcess excessexcessWilamowitz- and andand violence, violence,violence, see seeseevon vonvon Wilamowitz- Wilamowitz-Wilamowitz- ῖ festationfestation ofof aa pre-existingpre-existingdoubt tendencytendency in the audience’stowardtowardAfter excessexcess Heracles’ mind andand that madviolence,violence, “mad rampage, Heracles” seesee vonvonhe awakenswas Wilamowitz-Wilamowitz- not himself from his (931). “palliative He was sleep” a puppet and must come Moellendorf 1895, pp. 562–82;MoellendorfMoellendorf Kamerbeek 1895, 1895,1966, pp. pp. 562–82; 562–82;12–13; Kamerbeek Grube Kamerbeek 1961, 1966, p.1966, 252;pp. pp. 12–13;Silk 12–13; 1985, Grube Grube 1961, 1961, p. 252; p. 252; Silk Silk 1985, 1985, σι κα Moellendorf 1895, pp. 562–82;of divine Kamerbeek andto vengefulterms 1966, with forces pp. the 12–13; terrible(one Grubeview scene of 1961, Heracles’before p. his252; madness eyes Silk (1089ff;1985, is that Riley it is 2008, simply p. 39).a mani- There can be no p. 17; or a subconscious partp. 17;ofp. the17;or aorhero’s subconscious a subconscious soul, see part Papadimitropoulos part of theof thehero’s hero’s soul, 2008,soul, see p. seePapadimitropoulos 134. Papadimitropoulos An- 2008, 2008, p. 134.p. 134. An- An- ὶ p. 17; or a subconscious festationpart of the of hero’sdoubta pre-existing insoul,soul, the see seeaudience’s tendencyPapadimitropoulosPapadimitropoulos mind toward that excess“mad 2008,2008, Heracles”and p.p. 134.134. violence, An-An- was notsee himselfvon Wilamowitz- (931). He was a puppet otherHumanities view2021 is, that10, 44 Heracles’other madnessother view view isis causedthat is that Heracles’ by Heracles’ external madness madness factors, is caused seeis caused Riley by 2008, externalbyby externalexternal pp. factors,37– factors,factors, see seeseeRiley RileyRiley 2008, 2008,2008, pp. pp. pp.37–4 of 37–37– 12 μέγας φ other view is that Heracles’Moellendorf madnessof is1895, divinecaused pp. and by562–82;by externalexternalvengeful Kamerbeek factors,factors, forces (onesee see1966, RileyRiley view pp. 2008,2008, of12–13; Heracles’ pp.pp. Grube 37–37– madness 1961, p. is252; that Silk it is1985, simply a mani- 38; Hartigan 1987, pp. 26–35;38; 38;HartiganBond Hartigan 1981, 1987, p. 1987, xviii. pp. pp. 26–35;I agree 26–35; Bond with Bond the1981, 1981,latter p. xviii. p.view: xviii. I agreeHeracles I agree with withis the thelatter latter view: view: Heracles Heracles is is ί 38; Hartigan 1987, pp. 26–35;p. 17; Bondor a subconscious 1981,festation p. xviii. of a partI pre-existingagree of thewith hero’s the tendency latter soul, view: see toward Papadimitropoulos Heracles excess is and violence, 2008, p. see 134. von An- Wilamowitz- an innocent victim of Hera,an with innocentan innocent Lyssa victim acting victim of as Hera,of her Hera, agent). with with Lyssa Iris Lyssa announces acting acting as herasasthat her heragent). Hera’s agent).agent). Iris Iris Irisannounces announces that that Hera’s Hera’s λος; 1252). Theseus’ message is simple:an innocent Heracles victim has ofovercome Hera,other with tremendousview Lyssa isMoellendorf that acting Heracles’difficul- asas 1895, herher madness agent). agent).pp. 562–82; isIrisIris caused announces Kamerbeek by external that 1966, Hera’s factors, pp. 12–13; see Riley Grube 2008, 1961, pp. p. 37– 252; Silk 1985, wish was to stain Heracles’wish handswish was withwas to stain tohis stain family’s Heracles’ Heracles’ blood hands hands (831–32). with with his Amphitryon hisfamily’s family’s blood appeals blood (831–32). (831–32). Amphitryon Amphitryon appeals appeals tiesMoellendorf in the past 1895 and ,he pp. can 562–82; do so Kamerbeekagain.wish was 1966 to, pp. stain 12–13; Heracles’ Grube38; Hartiganhands 1961, with p.p. 1987, 252; 17; his orSilk pp.family’sfamily’s a 1985 subconscious26–35;, bloodblood Bond (831–32).(831–32). 1981, part ofp. AmphitryonAmphitryonthexviii. hero’s I agree soul, appealsappealswith see the Papadimitropoulos latter view: Heracles 2008, is p. 134. An- to Zeus to witness what Herato Zeushasto Zeus done to witness to (1127; witness whathere what I Hera follow Hera has Bond’s has done done (1127;second (1127; here suggested herehere I follow II followfollow trans- Bond’s Bond’sBond’s second secondsecond suggested suggestedsuggested trans- trans-trans- p. 17;Theseus or a subconscious urges Heracles part ofto the draw hero’s totostre ZeusZeus soul,ngth toto see from witnesswitness Papadimitropoulos his whatwhatprevious HeraHeraan innocent successes hashas 2008 donedone, other p.victim (1127;and(1127; 134. view to Anotherof herehere view Hera, is IthatI followfollow with Heracles’ Bond’s Bond’sLyssa madness actingsecondsecond as suggestedsuggested is her caused agent). trans-bytrans- externalIris announces factors, that see RileyHera’s 2008, pp. 37– lation, see Bond 1981, p. 353),lation, lation,whilelation, see Hera seeseeBond BondBond is 1981, described 1981,1981, p. 353), p.p. as353),353), whilethe whilewhile one Hera in HeraHera control is described isis describeddescribed (Ἥρα as κρατε the asas thetheone oneone in control inin controlcontrol (Ἥρα ((Ἥρα κρατε κρατε theseview events is that as Heracles’ a grievous madness misfortune is caused lation,lation,to be by suffered seesee external BondBond and 1981,1981, factors, overcome. p.p. wish353),353), see Riley waswhile whileNow to2008 HeraHera38;Heracles stain ,Hartigan pp. isis Heracles’ describeddescribed 37–38; must 1987, hands asas pp. thethe with26–35; oneone hisinin Bond control controlfamily’s 1981, ((Ἥρα blood p. xviii. κρατε (831–32). I agree Amphitryon with the latter appeals view: Heracles is ῖ ῖ ῖ takeHartigan on the 1987 endurance, pp. 26–35; of suffering Bond 1981 as ,a p. “labour xviii.ῖῖ I” agree (1279; with Papadimitropoulos theto latter Zeus view: to witnessan Heracles2008, innocent what p. 137) is Heravictim an. has of done Hera, (1127; with here Lyssa I follow acting Bond’s as her second agent). suggested Iris announces trans- that Hera’s 1253) and the events described1253)1253) as and “Hera’s and the theevents battle” events described ( described as “Hera’s as “Hera’s battle” battle” ( ( Heraclesinnocent ultimately victim of Hera,accepts with this Lyssa challenge acting and1253) as hertakes and agent). onthe psychological events Iris announceslation, described see and Bond that aswishemotional “Hera’s Hera’s 1981, was to p. wishbattle”suf- stain353), (Heracles’while Hera hands is described with his as family’s the one blood in control (831–32). (Ἥρα Amphitryon κρατεῖ appeals

feringwas to as stain his “ Heracles’last labour hands” (τὸν with λοίσθιον...πόνον his family’s blood 1279). (831–32). All of his Amphitryon1253) mythical and the laboursto appeals eventsZeus topale to described witness Zeus in what as “Hera’s Hera has battle” done ( (1127; here I follow Bond’s second suggested trans- Ἥ Ἥ Ἥ comparisonto witness whatto this Hera new has labour done (1411). (1127; Despite hereἭ I follow this, viewing Bond’s the second endurance suggested lation,of suffering translation, see Bond as 1981, p. 353), while Hera is described as the one in control (Ἥρα κρατε α κ ατε asee “labour Bond” 1981 represents, p. 353), a while fitting Hera solution is described to the asproblem the one inof controlwhat Heracles (Ἥ $ $mustῖ 1253) now anddo ρας ὅδ’ ἁγών 1189, 1311–12;ρας forρας ὅδ a’ ὅδdiscussionἁγών’’ ἁγών 1189, 1189,1189, of 1311–12; Hera’s 1311–12;1311–12; motivesfor forfora discussion aa seediscussiondiscussion Silkα of1985,δ Hera’s ofofγ pp.Hera’sHera’sν 2–motives motivesmotives see seeseeSilk SilkSilk 1985, 1985,1985, pp. pp. pp.2– 2–2– (Euripides’the events describedplacing of asthe “Hera’s labours battle” before ( theρας$ madnessς ὅδ’’ ἁγών lends 1189,1189, further 1311–12;1311–12; support forforfor a aa to discussion discussiondiscussion 1253)this read- and of ofof the Hera’sHera’s events motivesmotives described seesee asSilkSilk “Hera’s 1985,1985, pp.pp.battle” 2–2– ( 3, 17). Lyssa acted as an agent3, 17).3, of 17). Lyssa Hera Lyssa actedbut, acted importantly, as anas agentan agent sheof Hera ofwas Hera but,reluctant but, importantly, importantly, to undertake she she was was reluctant reluctant to undertaketo undertake ingHera’s, see England motives see2010, Silk p. 1985 3; Riley, pp. 2–3,2008,3, 17). pp. 17). Lyssa 17 Lyssa–20) acted. acted as anas agentan agent ofρας Hera of ὅδHera but,’ ἁγών but, importantly, 1189,importantly, 1311–12; she for wasa discussion reluctant of to Hera’s undertake motives see Silk 1985, pp. 2– this role (858), citing Heraclthises’thisshe rolegood wasrole (858), reputation reluctant(858), citing citing Heracland to undertakeHeracl goodes’ goodes’deeds good this reputation (849–54). role reputationthisthis (858), rolerole Whenand (858),(858), citing and good Heracles citingcitinggood Heracles’ deeds deedsHeraclHeracl (849–54).3, good 17).(849–54).es’ good reputationLyssa When reputationWhen acted HeraclesἭ and Heraclesas an good and agent good of deedsHera but,(849–54). importantly, When Heracles she was reluctant to undertake awakens, he simply has noawakens, recollectionawakens, he simplyofhe hissimply actions has has no (1122). recollectionno recollection of his of hisactions actions (1122). (1122). 5.deeds Self-Confiden (849–54). Whence Heracles awakens,awakens, he simply he simply has no has recollection nothis recollection role of(858), his actions citingof his Heraclactions (1122).es’ (1122). good reputation and good deeds (849–54). When Heracles Heracles’ anagnorisis, whichHeracles’ isHeracles’ achieved anagnorisis anagnorisisby means, which ,of, which which a detailedis achieved is is achieved achieved question byHeracles’ meansby by and means means anagnorisisofansweranagnorisis a of of detailed a a detaileddetailedawakens,,, whichwhich question questionquestion isis he achievedachieved andsimply andand ραςanswer answeranswerhas bybyὅδ ’means means noἁγών recollection ofof1189, aa detaileddetailed 1311–12; of his questionquestion actionsfor a discussion andand(1122). answeranswer of Hera’s motives see Silk 1985, pp. 2– Self-confidence is said to be an important factor in building, and maintaining, resili- session with Amphitryon, issession painfulsession with yet with Amphitryon,gripping Amphitryon, to witness. is painful isis painful As yet Heracles yetyetgrippingsessionsession gripping strives withwith to witness. toto to Amphitryon,Amphitryon, witness. discern As HeraclesAs Heracles isis painfulpainfulHeracles’ strives strives yetyet3, 17).to anagnorisis grippinggripping discern toLyssa discern totoacted, which witness.witness. as isan achievedAsAs agent HeraclesHeracles of by Hera strivesstrivesmeans but, totoof importantly, discerndiscerna detailed question she was and reluctant answer to undertake ence (Rutter 1987, p. 327). Before Hera’s interference, Heracles was self-confident and de- who was responsible, Amphitryonwhowho was wasis responsible, evasive responsible, and Amphitryon inconsistent, Amphitryon is fearing evasive iswho evasiveevasive that wasand andHeraclesand responsible,inconsistent, inconsistent,inconsistent, will Amphitryon fearingsession fearingfearing that with thatthat Heraclesisthis Amphitryon, evasive HeraclesHeracles role will(858), and willwill inconsistent, isciting painful Heracl yet fearing es’gripping good that reputationto witness.Heracles andAs will Heracles good deeds strives (849–54). to discern When Heracles cisive. As soon as he became aware of the situation in Thebes, he took control and an- react violently. At first, Amphitryonreactreact violently. violently. orders At He first, AtAtracles first,first, Amphitryon to AmphitryonAmphitryon let Hera orders be ordersordersandreactreact He “attend violently.violently. racles HeraclesHeracles toto hislet toAttoAt Heraown letlet first,first, HeraHera beAmphitryonAmphitryonwho and bebe andandwas “attend “attend“attendresponsible, awakens,ordersorders to his toto He He hishisown heraclesraclesAmphitryon own simply toto letlet has HeraHera is no evasive beberecollection andand and “attend“attend inconsistent, of histoto hishis actions ownown fearing (1122). that Heracles will nounced his plan to wipe out the usurper Lycus and his sympathisers in a systematic troubles” (τὴν θεὸν ἐάσαςtroubles” τὰ troubles”σὰ περιστέλλου (τὴν ( τὴντ θεὸνν θεὸν θε ἐάσαςκακάν ἐάσαςσα 1129). τὰς σὰτὰτ Later σὰπεριστέλλουσ περιστέλλουπε he$troubles”ιστtroubles” suggestsλλ κακάoυ κακ(κακά(thatτὴν 1129). θεὸνthere 1129).1129). Later ἐάσαςis Later reacthe τὰ suggests he violently. σὰ suggests περιστέλλου that At that Heracles’there first, there isκακά Amphitryon is anagnorisis 1129).1129). LaterLater orders, which hehe Hesuggestssuggests isracles achieved tothatthat let by therethere Hera means is isbe and of a “attend detailed to question his own and answer killing raid (on the etymological similarities between Lycus and Lyssa see Konstan 2014, shared responsibility betweensharedshared Heracles, responsibility responsibility responsibility his bow between and between between a non-specific Heracles, Heracles, Heracles, hissharedgodshared hisbow his(1135). bow responsibilityresponsibility bowand andFinally, a and non-specific a non-specific a non-specifiche betweenbetween troubles” god god Heracles, Heracles,(1135). god ((1135).τὴνsession (1135). Finally, θεὸν hishis Finally, bowbowwith ἐάσας Finally, he and Amphitryon,he τὰ a non-specificσὰ περιστέλλου is painful god κακά(1135). yet gripping 1129). Finally, Later to he witness. he suggests As Heracles that there strives is to discern p. 6; Mastronarde 2010, p. 70). Heracles’ self-confidence was initially bolstered by his fam- says that Heracles is responsiblesayssayshe that saysfor that Heracles all that Heraclesthe Heracles deeds is responsible is (1139). responsible is responsible According for forall forthallsayssays eto thalldeeds Amphitryon’s ethatthat thedeeds Heracles deedsHeracles(1139). (1139). (1139). According isisac- According responsibleresponsible Accordingshared to Amphitryon’s toresponsibility forfor Amphitryon’s to who allall Amphitryon’s thth wase deeds ac-betweenresponsible, ac- (1139). Heracles, According Amphitryon his bowto Amphitryon’sis and evasive a non-specific and ac-inconsistent, god (1135). fearing Finally, that he Heracles will ily’s pride in him. Heracles’ mortal and aged father, Amphitryon, stridently defends his count, Heracles must take fullcount,count,account, responsibility Heracles Heracles Heracles must for must mustthetake takecrimes. full take full responsibility full responsibility responsibilitycount,count, for HeraclesHeracles forthe for thecrimes. the crimes. mustmust crimes. taketake says fullfull that responsibilityresponsibility Heraclesreact violently. is for forresponsible thethe Atcrimes.crimes. first, for Amphitryon all the deeds orders (1139). He Accordingracles to let to Hera Amphitryon’s be and “attend ac- to his own son’s reputation (170–203). He is hugely relieved by Heracles’ return, describing him as In Heracles’ mind, the onlyIn way Heracles’In Heracles’to Heracles’ atone mind, for mind, mind, these the theonly thecrimes only onlyway wayis to wayto atone topay toatone InwithIn atonefor Heracles’Heracles’ forthese his for these life. crimes these mind,mind, Mo-crimes crimesis the thecount,to is pay onlytoonly is pay Heracleswith to wayway paywith troubles”his toto with hisatonelife.atonemust life. Mo- his take(forforτὴν Mo- life. thesethese fullθεὸν responsibility crimescrimes ἐάσας is isτὰ toto σὰ paypay for περιστέλλου withwith the crimes. hishis life.life. κακά Mo-Mo- 1129). Later he suggests that there is “a light of rescue” ( tivated by grief, fear of dishonour,tivatedtivatedMotivated by and grief,by a grief,by de fear grief,sire fear ofto fear dishonour, avengeof dishonour, of dishonour, his andchildren’s and ativated andtivated de asire de a murder, desiresire bytoby avenge grief,togrief, to avenge he avenge fearfear does his ofofhischildren’s his dishonour,dishonour, children’s children’sIn Heracles’murder, andmurder,and murder,shared aa he dedemind, responsibilitysiredoessirehe does totothe avengeavenge only way between hishis children’stochildren’s atone Heracles, for murder,murder, these his crimesbow hehe does doesand is a to non-specific pay with his god life. (1135). Mo- Finally, he ὦ not pause to consider whethernotnot pause suicide pause to is consider to righ consider t or whether necessary—the whether suicide suicide onlyisnot righ is question pause rightright ort necessary—the or to necessary—the necessary—theisconsider how to whether tivatedonly only question suicide by question grief,says isis fearrighthathow is how toftHeracles tooror dishonour, necessary—thenecessary—the toto is responsible and a onlyonlydesire for questionquestion toall avenge the isisdeeds howhow his children’s (1139).toto According murder, to he Amphitryon’s does ac- φάος μολὼν πατρί 531). Megara is a devoted and loving wife who refers to her hus- go about it. He contemplatesgo aboutgowhether about it. Hetoit. jump He Hecontemplates contemplates contemplates from a cliff, whether whetherthrust whether to ago jumpswordto to about jump jump from into it. from from He ahis cliff, acontemplates abelly, cliff, cliff, thrust thrust thrustnot a swordpause a awhether sword sword intotocount, consider into intoto his jump hisbelly,Heracles his belly, whetherbelly,from musta cliff, suicide take thrust fullis righ aresponsibility swordt or necessary—the into his for belly, the crimes. only question is how to band as “dearest” (φίλτατ’ 490, 514) and compares his role to that of Zeus the Saviour or burn himself in a fire (1146–52).or burnor burn himself In himselfthe himself solitude in ain infire a a fire of fire(1146–52). his (1146–52). (1146–52). implacable In theIn Inor thesolitudegrief theburn solitude solitude(reminiscent himself of hisof of hisinimplacable his a implacableof fire implacable go(1146–52). aboutgrief grief (reminiscent griefit. In He(reminiscent the (reminiscent contemplatesIn solitude Heracles’ of of of his mind,whether implacable the to only jump griefway from (reminiscentto atone a cliff, for thrust these of a crimes sword is into to payhis belly,with his life. Mo- (521–22). The three young boys are so relieved to see their father that they will not let go Ajax’s isolation in Sophocles’Ajax’s tragedy),Ajax’sof Ajax’s isolation isolation we isolation inhave Sophocles’ in noSophocles’ in reason Sophocles’ tragedy), to tragedy), doubt tragedy), we thatAjax’s wehave Heracles have we isolation no have reasonno willreason no in com-to reasonSophocles’ doubt to doubtor to that burn doubt tragedy),that Heracles himself Heracles thattivated we Heracles will in have will acom-by fire com- grief,nowill (1146–52). reason fear ofto Indishonour,doubt the solitudethat Heracles and of a dehis willsire implacable com-com-to avenge grief his (reminiscentchildren’s murder, of he does of him (629–30). The Chorus of Theban elders sing a paean of joy, celebrating Heracles’ mit suicide. Amphitryon’s mitloyalty,mitcommit suicide. suicide. pity suicide.Amphitryon’s and Amphitryon’s love Amphitryon’s give loyalty,Heracles loyalty, loyalty,pity no pity andsuccourmit pityand lovesuicide. andlove (1203–13), give love giveAmphitryon’s Heracles giveHeracles nor Heracles noAjax’s succourno loyalty, succour noisolation succour (1203–13),pitynot (1203–13), andinpause (1203–13),Sophocles’ love nor to nor giveconsider tragedy),Heracles whether weno succourhave suicide no (1203–13),reasonis righ tto or doubt nornecessary—the that Heracles only will question com- is how to returnnor does and the his pity many and triumphs grief shown (687 by–700). the In Chorus turn, (1045–46,Heracles i 1087–88).s willing to risk death to de- does the pity and grief showndoesdoes by the the thepity Chorus pity and and grief (1045–46, grief shown shown 1087–88). by theby theChorus doesChorus (1045–46,the (1045–46, pity and 1087–88). 1087–88).grief shown mit suicide. by the go Amphitryon’sChorus about (1045–46, it. He loyalty, contemplates 1087–88). pity and whether love give to jump Heracles from no a succourcliff, thrust (1203–13), a sword nor into his belly, fend hisYet, family there (577 is another–78), he solutionaffirms his to love the “problem”for his children of what (632– happened36) and he andurges it his involves wife Yet, there is another solutionYet,Yet, tothere the there is“problem” anotheris another solution of solutionwhat tohappened theto the“problem” Yet,“problem” and there it ofinvolves is whatof another what happeneddoes happened solution the andpity to orand itandthe burn involves it grief“problem” involves himself shown in of bya whatfire the (1146–52).Chorus happened (1045–46, In and the itsolitude 1087–88). involves of his implacable grief (reminiscent of torevisiting take courage the question(626). of who is to blame. This occurs with the unexpected arrival of revisiting the question of whorevisiting revisitingis to blame. the thequestion This question occurs of who of with who is tothe isis blame. totounexpected blame.blame.revisitingrevisiting This ThisThis occurs arrival occursoccursthethe withquestionquestion of withwith The- the thethe unexpected ofof whowhounexpectedunexpectedYet, isis toto there arrival blame.blame.Ajax’s arrivalarrival is of ThisThisanother isolation The- ofof occursoccursThe-The- solution in with withSophocles’ the theto unexpectedtheunexpected tragedy), “problem” arrivalarrivalwe ofhave what ofof no The-The- reasonhappened to doubt and itthat involves Heracles will com- TheseusAfter (onHeracles Theseus’ is struck heroic down career by see madness, Papadopoulou he is broken, 2005 ,both pp. 160–61).physically When and psycho- Theseus seus (on Theseus’ heroicHumanities careerseus 2021seus , (on see10, 44(on Theseus’Papado Theseus’poulou heroic heroic 2005,career career pp. see 160–61). seePapado Papadoseusseus Whenpoulou (on(onpoulou Theseus’Theseus’Theseus 2005, 2005, pp. andheroicheroic pp. 160–61). 160–61).revisiting careercareer When seeseeWhen the PapadoPapadoTheseusmit question Theseus suicide.poulou and of and Amphitryon’s who 2005, is topp. blame. 160–61). loyalty,5 of This 13 When occurspity andTheseus with love the andgive unexpected Heracles arrivalno succour of The- (1203–13), nor logically.and Amphityron We see Heracles engage intiedstichomythia to a stone, Amphitryonpillar, lying amidst again assignsthe ruins full of responsibility his house and to Amphityron engage in stichomythiaAmphityronAmphityron, Amphitryon engage engage in againstichomythia in stichomythia assigns, Amphitryonfull,, AmphitryonAmphitryon Amphityronresponsibility again againagain engage toassigns Her- assignsassigns in fullstichomythiastichomythiaseus fullfull responsibility (on responsibilityresponsibility Theseus’,, doesAmphitryonAmphitryon tothe heroic Her- to topity Her-Her- againcareeragainand grief assigns assignssee shown Papado fullfull by responsibilityresponsibilitypoulou the Chorus 2005, pp.(1045–46,toto Her-Her- 160–61). 1087–88). When Theseus and surroundedHeracles for by the corpses deaths ( (1184).for interest However,ing similarities Theseus doeswith notPrometheus accept Amphitryon’s Bound see Papadopou- attribution acles for the deaths (1184).acles However,acles for forthe Theseus thedeaths deaths (1184).does (1184). not However, accept However, Amphitryon’s Theseusacles Theseus for does the does attributionnot deaths not accept accept (1184). Amphitryon’sAmphityron Amphitryon’s However, engageattributionTheseus attributionYet, inthere does stichomythia is not another accept, Amphitryon solutionAmphitryon’s to againthe attribution“problem” assigns full of responsibility what happened to Her- and it involves louof causation2005, pp. 157 (1187).–58; TheseusBurnett 1971, judges p. the 169) matter. This forsituation himself of andhelplessness rightfully is lays unrecognisable the blame on of causation (1187). Theseusof jucausationofdges causation the (1187). matter (1187). Theseus for Theseus himself judges juanddges the rightfully thematterof causationmatter forlays forhimself the (1187). himself blame and Theseus and rightfullyacles rightfully ju fordges thelays revisiting the laysdeaths the matter theblame (1184). blame the for question himself However, ofand who Theseus rightfully is to blame.does lays not Thisthe accept blameoccurs Amphitryon’s with the unexpected attribution arrival of The- toHera: him: he“where says, simplyam hisI that andacts I am plainly,were so involuntary without “this is means Hera’s (Konstan” contest” he asks 2013, ((ποῦ pp.$α ποτ᾿ς 434,δ ὢν430).γ ἀμηχανῶ;ν In1189). modern Heracles 1105). legal terms, one might on Hera:Humanities he says, 2021simply, 10, 44and on plainly,Hera:on Hera: he “this says,he says, is simply Hera’s simply and contest” and plainly, plainly, (Ἥρας “this on“this ὅδ is Hera: Hera’sἁγών is Hera’s he 1189). contest”says, contest” Her-simply (Ἥρας (Ἥρας ofand causation ὅδ plainly, ὅδἁγών ἁγώνseus (1187).“this1189). 1189).1189).(on is Her- TheseusHera’sTheseus’ Her-Her- contest” ju5 heroicofdges 13 (the Ἥραςcareer matter ὅδsee ἁγώνforPapado himself 1189).1189).poulou and Her-Her- 2005, rightfully pp. 160–61). lays the When blame Theseus and Afteris not learning an active that participant sayhe hathats unwittingly Heracles in this discussion lacked killed mental his but, own culpability, presumably, wife and or children, he mens is listening rea he, which is overcome (Meagher absolves him of the crimi- aclesHumanities is not 2021 ,an 10 , 44active participantaclesacles is notisin not thisan anactivediscussion active participant participant but, presumably, in thisinacles this discussion is discussionhe not is anlistening but, active but, presumably, presumably,participanton Hera: he in Amphityronsays,heis this listeningis simply listeningdiscussion5 of andengage13 plainly, but, in stichomythiapresumably, “this is Hera’s, Amphitryon he contest” is listening ( againἭρας assigns ὅδ ἁγών full 1189). responsibility Her- to Her- by2006 shame, p. 59).(1160). For Fearing thenal conduct. first that time, he In will Heracles this pollute sense, hears Heracleshis friend a sympathetic is Theseus, more victim individualhe hides than hisperpetrator. articulate head in the that (Meagher 2006, p. 59). For the(Meagher first(Meagher time, 2006, Heracles 2006, p. 59). p. 59). hearsFor For the a thesympatheticfirst first time, time, Heracles(Meagher(Meagher individual Heracles hears 2006,2006, hears articulate a sympatheticp.p. a 59).59). sympathetic For Foracles thethe individual firstfirstis individual not time,time,acles an articulateHeraclesHeracles active for articulate the participant hears hearsdeaths aa sympathetic sympathetic(1184). in thisHowever, discussion individualindividual Theseus articulatearticulatebut, does presumably, not accept he Amphitryon’s is listening attribution darknessalthough of he his may cloak have (1198). committedTheseus This then is these an proceeds apposite acts, he to didvisual address so unwittinglymetaphor Heracles for. Accordingdi Heracles’rectly. He to innerreminds Konstan’s psy- Heracles of his great that although he may havethat committedthat although although these he may heacts, may have he havedid committed so committed unwittingly thesethatthat these. Accordingacts, althoughalthough acts, he didhe hehe todid so maymayKon- unwittingly so unwittingly havehave(Meagher committedcommitted. According.. AccordingAccording 2006, thesethese p. to 59). Kon- acts, acts,toto For Kon-Kon- hehe the diddid first soso time,unwittingly Heracles.. AccordingAccording hears a sympathetic toto Kon-Kon- individual articulate analysis,his madness acts weredeeds caused involuntary in Heracles the past, (Konstan to including be ignorant 2013, rescuing ofpp. the 434, Theseu particulars 430).s In from modern and, the therefore, Underworldof legal causation terms, his acts (1221–22). (1187).one might Theseus Using jurhe-dges the matter for himself and rightfully lays the blame stan’s analysis, madness causedstan’schologicalstan’s Heraclesanalysis, analysis, state: tomadness be hemadness ignorant is suffering caused caused of Heraclesthe from Heraclesparticulars all- consumingto be to ignorantbeand, ignorantignorant therefore, shame of the of ofand the theparticulars cannot particularsparticulars see and, a wayand,and, therefore, out therefore,therefore, of his hiswere acts involuntary saywere that involuntary Heracles (toricalKonstan questions, lacked(Konstan 2013, mental pp. 2013,he 434,stan’sstan’s prompts culpability, pp. 430). analysis,analysis, 434, In Heracles modern430). or madnessmadness mensIn modernto legal reajothat causedcausedin, terms,which him althoughlegal HeraclesHeraclesin oneabsolves terms, affirmingon might he Hera: may onetoto him say bebe he hismighthave ignorantofignorant thatsays, reputation the committed crimi-simply ofof thethe forand theseparticularsparticulars being plainly, acts, he “this and,and, did istherefore,therefore, so Hera’s unwittingly contest” . According (Ἥρας ὅδ to ἁγώνKon- 1189). Her- his acts were involuntary (Konstanhisdespair. hisacts acts were 2013, were involuntary pp. involuntary 434, 430). (Konstan In(Konstan modern 2013, 2013, legal pp. pp. 434,terms, 434, 430). one 430). In might modernIn modern legal legal terms, terms, one one might might sayHeracles that nalHeracles lacked conduct. mental lackedall-enduring In culpability,this mental sense, (1250) culpability, Heracles or hismens and acts reahis is or were ,more whichrolemens involuntary asvictim rea absolves "mankind’s, which thanstan’s him absolves(Konstanperpetrator. ofgreat analysis, the him criminalbenefactor 2013,acles ofmadness pp. theis conduct. not 434, crimi-and ancaused430). friend" active In Heracles modern ( εὐεργέτηςparticipant tolegal be ignorantterms,in this one discussion of mightthe particulars but, presumably, and, therefore, he is listening nalIn this conduct. sense, TheseusIn Heracles thisβροτο sense, then is more Heraclesproceeds victim isto thanmore address perpetrator. victim Heracles than perpetrator.directly.his Heacts reminds were(Meagher involuntary Heracles 2006, of (Konstan his p. 59).great For 2013, the firstpp. 434, time, 430). Heracles In modern hears alegal sympathetic terms, one individual might articulate Theseusdeeds then in the proceeds past,ῖ including to address rescuing Heracles Theseu di directly.rectly.s from He the remindssay Underworld that Heracles Heraclesthat (1221–22). although of lacked his great Usingmental he may rhe- culpability, have committed or mens these rea, acts,which he absolves did so unwittingly him of the. Accordingcrimi- to Kon- nal conduct.stan’s In this analysis, sense, Heracles madness is caused more victim Heracles than to perpetrator. be ignorant of the particulars and, therefore, deeds in intorical the the past, past, questions, including includingσι καhe rescuing prompts rescuing Theseu Heracles Theseuss from to from jo thein the Underworldhim Underworld in affirming (1221–22). (1221–22). his reputation Using Using rhe- for being toricalrhetorical questions, all-enduring questions, he heprompts(1250)ὶ prompts and Heracles his Heracles role to as tojo "mankind’sin join him him in in affirming affirminggreat benefactor his his reputation reputation andhis acts friend" for for were being ( εὐεργέτηςinvoluntary (Konstan 2013, pp. 434, 430). In modern legal terms, one might all-enduringβροτοῖσι (1250) κα and μέγας his role φ asas “mankind’s"mankind’s great benefactor and friend”friend" (εεὐεργέτηςε$γ της βροτοῖσιβ$oτo σι καὶ κα ὶμέγας µ γας φίλοςϕί λo;ς 1252).; 1252). Theseus’ Theseus’ message message is si ismple: simple: Heracles Heracles has hasovercome overcome tre- mendoustremendous difficulties difficultiesμέγας φίλος inλος the in; the1252).; pa1252).st past and Theseus’ Theseus’ and he hecan canmessage messagedo doso soagain. is again.is simple simple: : Heracles Heracles has has overcome overcome tremendous tremendous difficul- Theseusdifficulties urgesurgesties in HeraclesHeracles thein the past topast to and draw draw and he strength canhe strength can do do fromso fromagain.so hisagain. his previous previous successes successes and toand view to theseview theseevents events as a grievous Theseusas a grievous misfortune urgesTheseus misfortune Heracles urges to be sufferedto Heraclesto draw be suffered andstrength to overcome.draw and from strength overcome. his Now previous from Heracles Now his successesHeraclesprevious must take mustandsuccesses on to view and to view takethe endurance on thesethe endurance events of sufferingthese as of aevents grievoussuffering as a as “labour” a misfortune asgrievous a “lab (1279;our” misfortune toPapadimitropoulos be(1279; suffered Papadimitropoulos to be and suffered overcome. 2008 ,and p. 137). 2008,overcome. Now Heracles p. Heracles 137). Now must Heracles must Heraclesultimatelytake ultimately accepts on thetake thisenduranceaccepts on challenge the this endurance of challenge suffering and takes of and assuffering ona takes “lab psychological our”on as psychologicala (1279; “labour” Papadimitropoulos and (1279; emotional and Papadimitropoulosemotional suffering 2008, suf- p. 137). 2008, p. 137). feringas his as “lastHeracles his labour”“last ultimatelylabour”Heracles (τ ν λ(τὸνo ultimately acceptsσθι λοίσθιονoν ...this acceptsπ ...challengeóπόνοννoν this1279). 1279). andchallenge All takesAll of of hisonand his psychological mythical mythicaltakes on labourspsychologicallabours and pale paleemotional in and emotionalsuf- suf- comparisonfering to to asthis this hisfering new new “last labour as labour labour” his “last(1411). (1411). (τὸν labour” Despite λοίσθιον Despite (τὸν this, this,... λοίσθιονπόνον viewing viewing 1279).... theπόνον the Allendurance endurance of1279). his mythical All of of suffering his suffering labours mythical as pale labours in pale in a “labour”comparison representscomparison to athis fitting new to solutionlabour this new (1411). to labour the Despite problem (1411). this, Despiteof viewingwhat this, Heracles the viewing endurance must the now endurance of suffering do of as suffering as (Euripides’a “labour” placinga representsof“labour” the labours represents a fitting before solution athe fitting madness to solution the lends problem to further the of problem whatsupport Heracles of to what this mustread-Heracles now must do now do ing, see (Euripides’England 2010,(Euripides’ placing p. 3; ofRiley placingthe 2008,labours of pp. the before 17–20). labours the beforemadness the lends madness further lends support further to support this read- to this read- ing, see Englanding, see 2010, England p. 3; 2010,Riley p.2008, 3; Riley pp. 17–20).2008, pp. 17–20). 5. Self-Confidence Self-confidence5. Self-Confidence5. Self-Confidenceis said to be an important factor in building, and maintaining, resili- ence (Rutter 1987,Self-confidence p. 327).Self-confidence Before is said Hera’s to be is inte saidan rference,important to be an Heracles importantfactor in was building, factor self-confident in andbuilding, maintaining, and and de- maintaining, resili- resili- cisive. Asence soon (Rutter as encehe 1987, became (Rutter p. 327). aware1987, Before p. of 327). the Hera’s situationBefore inte Hera’srference, in Thebes, inte Heraclesrference, he took was Heracles control self-confident wasand self-confidentan- and de- and de- nouncedcisive. his plan As cisive.soonto wipe as As heout soon became the as usurper he aware became Ly ofcus theaware and situation ofhis the sympathisers insituation Thebes, in he in Thebes, tooka systematic control he took and control an- and an- killing raidnounced (on the hisnounced etymological plan to his wipe plan similariti out to thewipees usurper betweenout the Ly usurperLycuscus and and Ly his Lyssacus sympathisers and see his Konstan sympathisers in 2014,a systematic in a systematic p. 6; Mastronardekilling raid killing2010, (on thep. raid 70). etymological (onHeracles’ the etymological self-confidence similarities similariti between was initiallyes Lycus between bolsteredand Lycus Lyssa by andsee his KonstanLyssa fam- see 2014, Konstan 2014, ily’s pridep. 6;in Mastronarde him. p.Heracles’ 6; Mastronarde 2010, mortal p. 70). and2010, Heracles’ aged p. 70). father, self-confidenceHeracles’ Amphitryon, self-confidence was stridently initially was bolstered defends initially by hisbolstered his fam- by his fam- son’s reputationily’s pride (170–203). ily’sin him. pride Heracles’ He in ishim. hugely mortalHeracles’ reli andeved mortal aged by Heracles’father,and aged Amphitryon, return, father, describingAmphitryon, stridently him stridentlydefends as his defends his “a light son’sof rescue” reputationson’s (ὦ φάος reputation (170–203). μολὼν (170–203).πατρίHe is 531).hugely He Megara reliis hugelyeved is aby devotedreli Heracles’eved andby return,Heracles’ loving describingwife return, who describing him as him as refers to“a her light husband of “arescue” light as “dearest” of(ὦ rescue” φάος (φίλτατ μολὼν (ὦ φάος’ πατρί490, μολὼν 514) 531). and πατρί Megara compares 531). is Megaraa hisdevoted role is to aand thatdevoted loving of Zeus and wife loving who wife who the Saviourrefers (521–22). to herrefers husband The to three her as husband young “dearest” boys as (“dearest” φίλτατare so relieved’ 490, (φίλτατ 514) to and’see 490, their compares 514) father and hiscompares that role they to hiswillthat role of Zeus to that of Zeus not let gothe of Saviour him (629–30).the (521–22). Saviour The The (521–22). Chorus three youngTheof Theban three boys young eldersare so boys singrelieved are a paean so to relieved see of their joy, to fathercelebrating see their that father they will that they will Heracles’not return let go and notof him hislet go(629–30).many of him triumphs The(629–30). Chorus (687–700). The of ChorusTheban In turn, ofelders Theban He raclessing elders a ispaean willing sing of a joy,topaean riskcelebrating of joy, celebrating death toHeracles’ defend his Heracles’return family and (577–78),return his many and he affirmshistriumphs many his (687–700).triumphs love for his (687–700).In childrenturn, He In (632–36)racles turn, isHe andwillingracles he isto willingrisk to risk urges hisdeath wife toto defendtakedeath courage tohis defend family (626). his(577–78), family he(577–78), affirms he his affirms love for his his love children for his (632–36) children and (632–36) he and he Afterurges Heracles his wifeurges is struck to his take wife down courage to bytake madness,(626). courage he (626). is broken, both physically and psycho- logically. WeAfter see Heracles HeraclesAfter tied is Heracles struck to a stonedown is struck pillar, by madness, down lying by amidst hemadness, is broken, the heruins isboth broken, of physically his house both physically andand psycho- and psycho- surroundedlogically. by corpses Welogically. see (for Heracles interestingWe see tied Heracles similarities to a stone tied towithpillar, a stone Prometheus lying pillar, amidst Boundlying the amidstsee ruins Papadopou- ofthe his ruins house of hisand house and lou 2005,surrounded pp. 157–58;surrounded by Burnett corpses 1971, by (for corpses p. interesting 169). (for This interesting similarities situation ofsimilarities with helplessness Prometheus with is Prometheusunrecognisable Bound see Papadopou-Bound see Papadopou- to him: “wherelou 2005, am pp.lou I that157–58; 2005, I am pp. Burnett so 157–58; without 1971, Burnett means” p. 169). 1971, heThis p.asks situation169). (ποῦ This ποτ of situation helplessness ὢν ἀμηχανῶ of helplessness is unrecognisable; 1105). is unrecognisable After learningto him: that “whereto he him: has am “where unwittingly I that Iam am I sothatkilled without I am his so ownmeans” without wife he andmeans” asks children, (ποῦ he asksποτ he (ὢνisποῦ overcome ἀμηχανῶ ποτ ὢν ;ἀμηχανῶ 1105). ; 1105). by shameAfter (1160). learning FearingAfter that learning that he hehas thatwill unwittingly pollutehe has unwittinglyhis killed friend his Theseus, ownkilled wife his he ownandhides children,wife his headand hechildren, in is the overcome he is overcome darknessby of shame his cloak by(1160). shame(1198). Fearing (1160).This thatis Fearingan he appo will thatsite pollute visualhe will his metaphor pollute friend hisTheseus, for friend Heracles’ he Theseus, hides inner his he psy- head hides in his the head in the chologicaldarkness state: he ofdarkness is his suffering cloak of (1198). his from cloak all-coThis (1198). nsumingis an Thisappo shame issite an visual appo and sitecannotmetaphor visual see metaphorafor way Heracles’ out forof his innerHeracles’ psy- inner psy- despair.chological chologicalstate: he is state: suffering he is from suffering all-co fromnsuming all-co shamensuming and shame cannot and see cannot a way outsee aof way his out of his Howdespair. can Heracles despair. possibly regain his self-confidence after committing such acts of violence? TheHow answer can HeraclesliesHow in can the possibly Heracles reactions regain possibly of those his regainself-c aroundonfidence his him. self-c Despite onfidenceafter committing Heracles’ after committing self-such acts ofsuch acts of accusations,violence? Amphitryon Theviolence? answer has The refusedlies answer in the to liesdisownreactions in the Heracles ofreactions those (1113, around of those 1203), him. around he Despite kneels him. Heracles’before Despite self-Heracles’ self- him as aaccusations, suppliantaccusations, (1206–10) Amphitryon and Amphitryon hehas exhorts refused hashis to sonrefused disown out of toHeracles lovedisown and (1113,Heracles deep 1203),concern (1113, he (1211– kneels1203), hebefore kneels before 13). Theseushim asalso a suppliantoffers positive (1206–10) encouragement and he exhorts and valuablehis son out help. of loveLike anda good deep friend concern (or (1211– therapist),13). Theseus Theseus listens also offers with positivecompassion encouragement and pity, and and he valuableacknowledges help. Like that aHeracles good friend (or has sufferedtherapist), greatly Theseus (1214, 1225,listens 1240). with Atcompassion the same antime,d pity, Theseus and he never acknowledges allows Heracles that Heracles to take thehas entirety suffered of greatly the blame (1214, upon 1225, himsel 1240).f andAt th hee sameurges time,Heracles Theseus not to never surrender allows to Heracles

Humanities 2021, 10, 44 Humanities 2021,, 10,, 4444 5 of 13 5 of 13

Humanities 2021, 10, 44 Humanities 2021, 10, 44 5 of 13 5 of 13

his acts were involuntaryhis aactscts (Konstan were involuntary 2013, pp. (Konstan434, 430). 2013,In modern pp. 434434, legal, 430)430). terms,. In modern one might legal terms, one might his acts were involuntary (Konstan 2013, pp. 434, 430). In modern legalhissay actsterms, that were Heraclesone involuntary might lacked say that (Konstan mental Heracles culpability, 2013, lacked pp. 434, mentalor mens 430). culpability, rea In, modernwhich absolvesor legal mens terms, rea him, which ofone the might absolveabsolves crimi- s him of the crimi- say that Heracles lacked mental culpability, or mens rea, which absolvessaynal thathim conduct. Heraclesof the Incrimi- thislacked nalsense, conduct.mental Heracles culpability, In this is more sense, or victim mensHeracles reathan, which is perpetrator. more absolves victim thanhim ofperpetrator. the crimi- nal conduct. In this sense, Heracles is more victim than perpetrator. nal conduct.Theseus In thenthis sense, proceeds TheseusHeracles to address then is more proceeds Heracles victim to di than addressrectly. perpetrator. He Heracles reminds directly.di Heraclesrectly. He of reminds his great Heracles of his great Humanities Theseus2021, 10, 44 then proceeds to address Heracles directly. He reminds HeraclesdeedsTheseus in of the his then past, great proceeds including deeds into rescuingtheaddress past, HeraclesincludingTheseu4 of 13s fromdi rescuingrectly. the HeUnderworld TheseusTheseu remindss from Heracles (1221–22). the Underworld of Usinghis great rhe- (1221(1221–22).–22). Using rhe- deeds in the past, including rescuing Theseus from the Underworld (1221–22).deedstorical in thequestions, Using past, rhe- including hetorical prompts rescuingquestions, Heracles Theseu he toprompts sjo fromin him theHeracles in Underworld affirming to joinjoin his (1221–22).him reputation in affirmingaffirming Using for rhe- beinghishis reputationreputation forfor beingbeing torical questions, he prompts Heracles to join him in affirming his toricalreputationall-enduring questions, for (1250)being he promptsall all-enduringand-endur his roleingHeracles ((1250)as1250) "mankind’s to and join his him rolegreat in asaffirming benefactor ""mankind’smankind’s his and reputation great friend" benefactor (forεὐεργέτης being and friendfriend"" (εὐεργέτης all-enduring (1250) and his role as "mankind’s great benefactor and friend" (εὐεργέτης βροτο downfall see Wolff 2009, p. 11). The doubtall-enduring aboutβροτο whether (1250) Heracles andβροτο his can role survive as "mankind’s this new great benefactor and friend" (εὐεργέτης βροτο ῖ type of trial is voiced by Lycus who jibes βροτοthat while ῖ Heracles has builtῖ a reputation for ῖ σι κα fighting wild animals, in other respects he is notῖ braveσι κα at all (158). σι κα σι κα ὶ After Heracles’ mad rampage, he awakens σιfromὶ κα his “palliative sleep”ὶ and must come ὶ μέγας φ to terms with the terrible scene before his eyes (1089ff;ὶ μέγας Riley φ 2008, p.μέγας 39). There φ can be no μέγας φ ί doubt in the audience’s mind that “mad Heracles”μέγαςί was φ not himself (931).ί He was a puppet ί λος; 1252). Theseus’ message is simple: Heracles has overcome tremendous difficul- of divine and vengeful forces (one view of Heracles’ί λος ;madness 1252). Theseus’ is thatλος; itmessage is 1252). simply is Theseus’ simple:a mani- Heramessagecles ishas simple: overcome Heracles tremendous has overcome difficul- tremendous difficul- λος; 1252). Theseus’ message is simple: Heracles has overcome tremendous difficul-ties in the past and he can do so again. festation of a pre-existing tendency towardties excessλος in ;the 1252).and past violence, Theseus’ and tieshe cansee inmessage the dovon pastso Wilamowitz- again.is andsimple: he can Hera docles so again.has overcome tremendous difficul- ties in the past and he can do so again. Theseus urges Heracles to draw strength from his previous successes and to view Moellendorf 1895, pp. 562–82; Kamerbeek ties1966, in pp.theTheseus past12–13; andurges Grube he Heraclescan 1961, Theseusdo sop. to again.252; drawurges Silk strength Heracles1985, from to draw his previousstrength successesfrom his previousand to view successes and to view Theseus urges Heracles to draw strength from his previous successes and to view these events as a grievous misfortune to be suffered and overcome. Now Heracles must p. 17; or a subconscious part of the hero’s soul,theseTheseus see events Papadimitropoulos urges as a grievousHeraclesthese events misfortune to2008, draw as p. a 134.strengthgrievous to An-be suffered frommisfortune his and previous overcome.to be suffered successes Now and Heraclesand overcome. to view must Now Heracles must these events as a grievous misfortune to be suffered and overcome. Now Heracles must take on the endurance of suffering as a “labour” (1279; Papadimitropoulos 2008, p. 137). other view is that Heracles’ madness is causedthesetake by events on external the as endurance a factors, grievoustake see of on misfortune sufferingRiley the endurance 2008, as to pp. a be“lab 37– ofsufferedour” suffering (1279; and as overcome.Papadimitropoulos a “labour ”Now (1279; Heracles Papadimitropoulos 2008, p.must 137). 2008, p. 137). take on the endurance of suffering as a “lab our” (1279; Papadimitropoulos 2008, p. 137). Heracles ultimately accepts this challenge and takes on psychological and emotional suf- 38; Hartigan 1987, pp. 26–35; Bond 1981, p.take xviii.Heracles on I the agree ultimatelyendurance with theHeracles accepts of latter suffering view: thisultimately challenge asHeracles a “lab accepts our”and is takesthis(1279; challenge on Papadimitropoulos psychological and takes and on 2008, emotionalpsychological p. 137). suf- and emotional suf- Heracles ultimately accepts this challenge and takes on psychological and emotional suf-fering as his “last labour” (τὸν λοίσθιον...πόνον 1279). All of his mythical labours pale in an innocent victim of Hera, with Lyssa actingHeraclesfering as heras ultimately his agent). “last labour”Irisacceptsfering announces as(thisτὸν his challengeλοίσθιον “ lastthat labour Hera’s ...andπόνον” takes(τὸν 1279). λοίσθιον...πόνονon psychological All of his mythical 1279).and emotional laboursAll of his pale suf- mythical in labours pale in fering as his “last labour” (τὸν λοίσθιον...πόνονArticle 1279). All of his mythical labours pale in comparison to this new labour (1411). Despite this, viewing the endurance of suffering as wish was to stainHumanities Heracles’2021 hands, 10, 44 with hisfering family’scomparison as his blood “last to (831–32). this labour” newcomparison Amphitryon(labourτὸν λοίσθιον (1411).to this appeals ...Despitenewπόνον labour this,1279). (1411). viewing All ofDespite histhe mythical endurance this, viewing labours of suffering the pale endurance in5 as of 12 of suffering as comparison to this new labour (1411). Despite this, viewing the endurance of suffering as a “labour” represents a fitting solution to the problem of what Heracles must now do to Zeus to witnessResilience what Hera has doneHumanitiesand (1127; Euripides’ comparison2021a here ,“labour” 10, 44I follow to represents this Bond’s Heracles newa second“ labourlaboura fitting suggested ”(1411). represents solution Despite trans- to a the fittingthis, problem viewing solution of the whatto endurance the Heracles problem of must sufferingof what now Heraclesas do must now5 of do13 a “labour” represents a fitting solution to the problem of what Heracles must now do (Euripides’ placing of the labours before the madness lends further support to this read- lation, see Bond 1981, p. 353), while Hera isa described“labour”(Euripides’ representsas placing the one (Euripides’ of ina thefittingcontrol labours solution (placingἭρα before κρατε toof thethe madnesslaboursproblem before lendsof what thefurther Heraclesmadness support mustlends to now thisfurther read-do support to this read- (Euripides’ placing of the labours before the madness lends further support to this read-ing, see England 2010, p. 3; Riley 2008, pp. 17–20). ῖ Sonia Pertsinidis (Euripides’ing, see England placing 2010,ofing the, p.s laboursee 3; England Riley before 2008, 2010, thepp. p. madness17–20). 3; Riley lends2008, furtherpp. 17– 20)support. to this read- ing, see England 2010, p. 3; Riley 2008, pp. 17–20). as a “labour” represents a fitting solution to the problem of what Heracles must now do 1253) and the events described as “Hera’sing, seebattle” England ( 2010,his p. acts 3; Rileywere 2008,involuntary pp. 17–20). (Konstan 2013, pp. 434, 430). In modern legal terms, one might (Euripides’ placing5. ofSelf-Confidence the labours before the madness lends further support to this reading, Centre5. Self-Confidence for Classical Studies, Thesay 5. AustralianSelf that-Confiden Heracles National University, celacked mentalCanberra 2602,culpability, Australia; or mens rea, which absolves him of the crimi- 5. Self-Confidence [email protected] England 2010 , p. 3; Riley 2008, pp. 17–20). Ἥ 5. Self-ConfidenceSelf-confidence nal is conduct. saidSelfSelf-confidence to-confidence be In an this important sense, is said Heracles tofactor be an in is important building,more victim andfactor than maintaining, in perpetrator. building, resili- and maintaining, resili- Self-confidence is said to be an important factor in building, and maintaining, resili-ence (Rutter 1987, p. 327). Before Hera’s interference, Heracles was self-confident and de- Abstract:ence5.Self-confidence Self-Confidence(Rutter In the midst 1987, of the p.isence current327).saidTheseus (Rutter toBefore global be an 1987,thenhealth Hera’s important proceeds crisp. 327)inteis, thererference,. factorBefore to is ongoingaddress in Hera’s Heraclesbuilding, discussion Heracles interference, was and about di self-confident maintaining,rectly. the needHeracles He reminds resili-andwas de- self Heracles-confident of his and great de- ence (Rutter 1987, p. 327). Before Hera’s interference, Heracles was self-confident and de-cisive. As soon as he became aware of the situation in Thebes, he took controcontroll and an- ρας ὅδ’ ἁγών 1189, 1311–12; for aHumanities discussiontoence cisive.cultivate 2021(Rutter of , AsSelf-confidence10resilience, Hera’s, 44 soon1987, thatmotivesasp. deeds327).he is, thebecame is Beforesaid seeinability the Silk to aware topast,Hera’s be 1985,su anrvive including importantof intepp. tragicthe rference,2– situationevents, rescuing factor adversity Heracles inin building, TheseuThebes, and was prolongeds from andheself-confident took maintaining, the stress. controlUnderworld and and resilience de- an- (1221–22). Using rhe-4 of 13 cisive. As soon as he became aware of the situation in Thebes, he took control and an-nounced his plan to wipe out the usurper Lycus and his sympathisers in a systematic 3, 17). Lyssa acted as an agent of Hera but,Thiscisive. nouncedimportantly, paper(Rutter As engages soon his1987 sheplaninas, p.a hereadingwas 327).toricaltonounced became wipereluctant Beforeof questions,Euripides’ out awarehis Hera’s the toplan undertake Heraclesofusurper he interference,tothe prompts wipe, asituation bold Ly out cusand Heracles Heraclesthedisturbing andin Thebes,usurper his to sympathiserstragedy was jo heinLycus self-confident him tookin which andin control affirming thein his a andsystematicsympathisersand decisive. hisan- reputation in a systematicfor being nounced his plan to wipethis out role the (858), usurper citing Ly Heraclcus andes’ his good sympathisers reputationeponymousnouncedkillingAs andin soon a raid his herogoodsystematic as plan(onsuffers hedeeds the becameto severalall-enduring killing etymologicalwipe(849–54). striking aware out raid Whenthe ofreversals( (ono(1250) nsimilariti theusurper the Heracles situation ofandetymological fortune. esLy his betweencus in roleAfter Thebes,and asbeingsimilaritiessimilariti hisLycus"mankind’s hevictimizedsympathisers tookandes between controlLyssa bygreat Hera seein and benefactorLycusand aKonstan systematic announced and 2014,andLyssa hisfriend" see Konstan (εὐεργέτης 2014, killing raid (on the etymologicalawakens, similariti he simplyes between has no recollection Lycus and Lyssaof hisunwittinglykillingp. seeactions plan6; MastronardeKonstanraid todestroying (1122). wipe(on the2014, out hisetymological 2010,βροτο p. thefamily, 66;;usurper Mastronardep. Heracles70). Heracles’ similariti Lycus resolv 2010, andes esself-confidence to his betweenp.commit 7070). sympathisers). Heracles’suicide. Lycus was Only and selfself-confidence initiallyin two - aLyssaconfidence systematichundred bolstered see linesKonstan was killing by initially his 2014, raid fam- bolstered (on by his fam- later, he resolves to continue to live.downfall This change see inWolff outlook 2009, is remarkable p. 11). givenThe doubtthe traumatic about events whether Heracles can survive this new p. 6; Mastronarde 2010, p. 70). Heracles’ self-confidenceanagnorisis, which was is initially achieved p.bolstered ily’s6;by theMastronarde means pride etymological by ofinhis ahim. fam- detailed 2010, Heracles’ similaritiesily’s p. ῖ question pride70). Heracles’mortal in between him.and and answer Heracles’self-confidence Lycus aged andfather, mortal Lyssa Amphitryon,was and see initially Konstanaged father, bolstered stridently 2014 Amphitryon,, p. by 6; defends Mastronarde his fam- hisstridently defenddefendss his that he has just suffered. How doestype Heracles of trial find is the voiced strength by to Lycus endure? who What jibesfactors th bringat while about Heracles has built a reputation for ily’s pride in him. Heracles’session mortal with and Amphitryon, aged father, is Amphitryon, painful yet gripping stridentlyily’sson’s 2010pride to reputation , witness.defends p. in 70). him. Heracles’ Ashis Heracles’(170–203). Heracles sson’son’sσι self-confidencereputation κα mortal Hestrives is hugelyand to (170(170–203). discern aged was– reli203). father, eved initially He by iissAmphitryon, hugely bolsteredHeracles’ relievedreli byreturn,eved stridently his by family’s describing Heracles’ defends pride himreturn, his in him.as describing him as this positive change in Heracles’fighting perspective? wild This animals, paper will in draw other on findingsrespects from he modernis not braveresil- at all (158). son’s reputation (170–203).who He wasis hugely responsible, relieved Amphitryon by Heracles’ is evasivereturn,son’s“a describingandHeracles’ light reputation inconsistent, of rescue” him mortal (170–203). as ( fearing““a anda lightὶ aged He thatof isrescurescue” father, Heracleshugelye” Amphitryon,( reli willeved by stridentlyHeracles’ return, defends describing his son’s him reputation as ience research to shed light on Heracles’After decision Heracles’. It will discuss mad the rampage, complex combination he awakens of internalfrom his “palliative sleep” and must come “a light of rescue” ( react violently. At first, Amphitryon orders“a He lightracles(170–203)ὦ of torescue” let. He Hera is( hugelybe andμέγαςὦ relieved“attend φ to by his Heracles’ own return, describing him as “a light of rescue” and external factors that play intoto Heracles’terms with change the of terriblemind. I argue scene that before the processes his eyes that (1089ff;Euripi- Riley 2008, p. 39). There can be no ὦ troubles” (τὴν θεὸν ἐάσας τὰ σὰ περιστέλλου( κακάὦ φάοςϕ o 1129).ς μολὼνµoλ Laterν πατπατρί he$ ίsuggests φάος531). Megaraμολὼν that πατρίthere is aa devoteddevoted is 531). Megara andand loving loving iiss a wifedevoted wife who who and refers refers loving to to her her wife husband hus- who referreferss to her hus- des portrays in his play dramatizeHumanitiesdoubt many 2021 in, of10 thethe, 44 protaudience’sective factors mind that thatare said “mad to promote Heracles” resilience was not himself (931). He was a puppet 4 of 13 φάος μολὼν πατρί 531).shared Megara responsibility is a devoted between and loving Heracles, wife his whoin bow realband refersasφάος life. and “dearest” as toaμολὼν“dearest” non-specific her hus- (ϕ πατρί λτατ (bandφίλτατ 531).god’λος 490,as ;’(1135). Megara““dearest”1252).490, 514)dearest 514) and Finally,Theseus’ is” comparesanda(φίλτατ’(φίλτατ devoted hecompares message ’ 490, hisand role 514)islovinghis simple: to roleand that wife tocomparecompares ofHera that who Zeuscles of referss the Zeus hishas Saviour roletoovercome the her toSaviour hus- (521–22). that tremendous of Zeus the difficul- Saviour of divine and vengeful forces (one view of Heracles’ madness is that it is simply a mani- band as “dearest” (φίλτατsays’ 490, that 514) Heracles and compares is responsible his role for to all that theband ofdeeds(521–22). ZeusThe as (1139). three“dearest”the The Saviour youngAccording three (φίλτατties (521(521–22).young boys in– to2 ’the are2). 490,boysAmphitryon’s Thepast so 514) relievedare threeand soand he relievedyoung compares tocan ac- see do boys to their so see again.hisaarere father their roleso relieved father thatto that they that toof seewill Zeusthey their not willthe letfather Saviournot go let ofthat go him they wwillill nnotot let go festation of a pre-existing tendency toward excess and violence, see von Wilamowitz- (521–22). The three youngcount, boys areHeracles so relieved must totake see full their responsibility father thatKeywords:(521–22). oftheyfor (629–30).him the will resilience;(629–30).Thecrimes. not Thethree let Heracles;Chorus goThe young of Chorushihim Theseus;Theseus ofm boys Theban(629(629–30). ofare trauma;– 30)urgesTheban so elders. Therelieved madness Heracles singeldersChorus ato paean singsee toof draw Thebantheira of paean joy, fatherstrength celebratingelders of thatjoy, fromsising celebratingtheyng Heracles’ahis willpaean previous not Heracles’of return let joy, gosuccesses celebrating and and Heracles’ to view Moellendorf 1895, pp. 562–82;downfall Kamerbeek see Wolff 1966,2009, pp.p. 11). 12–13; The Grube doubt 1961,about p. whether 252; Silk Heracles 1985, can survive this new of him (629–30). The Chorus ofIn Theban Heracles’ elders mind, sing the a only paean way of tojoy, atone celebratingofreturn him forhis these(629–30). many and Heracles’ crimeshis triumphs Themany isthese returnChorus to triumphs (687–700). pay events and withof Thebanhis (6asIn his87–700). manya turn, grievouslife. eldersHeracles Mo-triumphs In turn, singmisfortune is aHeracles(687(6 willing paean87–700).–700). to toof isbe riskIn joy,willing suffered turn, deathcelebrating Heraclesto to andrisk defend overcome.death Heracles’ iiss willing his to family de- Now to risk Heracles death tomust de- p. 17; or a subconscioustype part of of trial the hero’sis voiced soul, by see Lycus Papadimitropoulos who jibes that while 2008, Heraclesp. 134. An- has built a reputation for return and his many triumphstivated (6 87–700).by grief, Infear turn, of dishonour, Heracles is and willing a dereturn siretofend (577–78),risk to andhis avengedeath family his he manyto his affirms (577–78),de- children’stake fendtriumphs his on his he love the affirmsfamilymurder, (6 forendurance87–700). his (577(577–78), his childrenhe love– 7doesIn 8),of turn, for hesuffering (632–36) hisaffirms Heracles children as andhis a is love“lab he(632–36) willing urges our”for his histoand(1279; children risk wife he Papadimitropoulos deathurges to (632(632–36) take tohis– courage3de- wife6) aandnd he urges2008, p.his 137). wife other view is that Heracles’fighting madness wild animals,is caused in by other external respects factors, he issee not Riley brave 2008, at all pp. (158). 37– fend his family (577–78), henot affirms pause his to considerlove for his whether children suicide (632–36) is righ andfendtot (626).heortake his urgesnecessary—the family courage his (577–78), wife (626).Heracles to only take he affirms questioncourage ultimately his (626).is love how accepts for to his this children challenge (632–36) and takes and he on urges psychological his wife and emotional suf- 1. Introduction After Heracles’ mad rampage, he awakens from his “palliative sleep” and must come to take courage (626). After Heracles is38;After struck Hartigan Heracles down 1987, by is madness, struck pp. 26–35; down he Bond is by broken, madness, 1981, both p. hexviii. physically is broken, I agree and bothwith psycho- physicallythe latter view: and psycho- Heracles is go about it. He contemplates whether to jumpto takeEuripides’ from Aftercourage a cliff,Heracles Heracles (626). thrustfering isis notstrucka sword asjust his downa psychologicallyinto“last byhis labour” madness, belly, ( τὸνcompelling he λοίσθιον is broken, dramatization...πόνον both physically 1279). of mad- All and of his psycho- mythical labours pale in After Heracles is struck down by madness, he is broken, both physically and psycho-logically.an innocent We see victim Heracles of Hera, tiedto terms to with a withstone Lyssa the pillar, actingterrible lying as scene heramidst agent).before the hisIrisruins eyesannounces of (1089ff;his house that Riley and Hera’s 2008, p. 39). There can be no or burn himself in a fire (1146–52).Humanities In 2021 the, 10solitudeness;, 44logically. logically.itAfter is alsoof Heracleshis Wea Wethought-provoking implacable see see Heraclesiscomparison Heracleslogically. struck grief downtied tied Weenquiry(reminiscent to to to byseethis a a madness, stone stoneinHeracles newto heroism pillar, labourof hetied (Riley lyingislying (1411). broken,to a2008, amidst amidststone Despite p.both 5;pillar, the the all physically this, ruins translationsruins lying viewing of of hisamidst andhis house thehouse psycho- the endurance and andruins sur- of ofhis suffering6 houseof 13 and as logically. We see Heracles tied to a stone pillar, lying amidst the ruins ofrounded his house by and corpses surroundedwish (for was by to interesting corpses stain Heracles’ ((forfor similaritiesdoubtinterestinteresting hands ining the withsimilarities audience’s with his Prometheusfamily’s with mind Prometheus blood that Bound “mad (831–32). Bound Heracles”see Amphitryon see Papadopou- was not appeals himself (931). He was a puppet Ajax’s isolation inCitation: Sophocles’ Pertsinidis, tragedy),Sonia. 2021. we havearelogically.surrounded my no own; reason We the seeby Greekto corpsesdoubtHeracles atext “labour” that is (for fromtied Heracles interesting Diggletorepresents a stone will1981). similarities com-pillar, aIn fitting classical lying withsolution scholarship, amidst Prometheus to the the the ruins problem reasonsBound of his seefor of housePapadopou- what and Heracles must now do surrounded by corpses (for interesting similarities with Prometheus Bound see Papadopou- lou 2005,to Zeus pp. to 157–58; witness Burnett what ofHera 1971, divine has p. anddone169). vengeful (1127;This situation here forces I follow of (one helplessness Bond’s view of second Heracles’ is unrecognisable suggested madness trans- is that it is simply a mani- mit suicide. Amphitryon’sResilienceHumanities and Euripides’ loyalty, 2021 ,Heracles 10 ,pity 44. andHeracles’surrounded lovelouPapadopoulou 2005, give rejection pp.Heracles by 157–58;corpses of 2005suicide (Euripides’nolou Burnett (for ,succour 2005, pp. and interesting 157–58 pp. his1971, placing(1203–13), heroic157; p.Burnett– similarities5169). 8;decisionof Burnett thenor This 1971 labours to situation ,1971,withlive p. have 169). beforePrometheus p. 169)of been Thishelplessness the. This variously madness situation Bound situation see inter-is lends ofunrecognisable Papadopou- of helplessness helplessness further support6 of is is13 unrecognisable to this read- lation, see Bond 1981, p.festation 353), while of aHera pre-existing is described tendency as the onetoward in control excess ( Ἥραand violence,κρατε see von Wilamowitz- lou 2005, pp. 157–58; Burnettdoes 1971, the pityp. 169). andHumanities This grief situation shown10: 44. https:// byof helplessnessthe Choruspreted.louto (1045–46, is2005, unrecognisablehim: unrecognisable Some pp.“where have 1087–88).157–58; argued amto ing,Burnett toI him:that thathim: see IHeracles “where Englandam“1971,“wherewhere so p. withoutexpresses am am169). 2010, II that thatThis p.means” a new3; II situation am amRiley type sosohe 2008, without withoutofasks of virtue helplessness pp.(ποῦ ( meansmeans” 17–20). ποτ ” ὢν he is unrecognisable ἀμηχανῶasks ( ποῦπo ; ποτ᾿ποτπ1105).oτ ὢν ν ἀμηχανῶ;ἀμηχανῶ; 1105). How can Heraclesῖ possibly regainMoellendorf his self-c 1895,onfidence pp. 562–82; after Kamerbeekcommitting 1966, such pp.acts 12–13; of Grube 1961, p. 252; Silk 1985, to him: “where am I that I am Yet,so without there is doi.org/10.3390/h10010044means” another he solution asks (ποῦ to ποτthe to“problem” ὢνAfter him: ἀμηχανῶἀ µηχαν “wherelearning of ;what 1105).am that I happenedthat Afterhe After has I amlearning learning unwittingly soand without it that involves he killed means” hashas his unwittinglyunwittingly he own asks wife (ποῦ killedkilled and ποτ children, hishis ὢν ownown ἀμηχανῶ wifewifehe is and andovercome; 1105). children, children, he is overcome Humanities 2021, 10, 44 violence? The answer1253) and lies the in events the p.reactions described17; or a ofsubconscious asthose “Hera’s around battle” part him. of ( theDespite hero’s6 of Heracles’ 13soul, see self- Papadimitropoulos 2008, p. 134. An- After learning that he hasrevisiting unwittingly the questionkilled his of own who wife is to and blame. children, ThisAfterby heρετή occurs shamehelearning is ;is overcomeChalk overcomewith (1160). that1962, the byFearinghe unexpected5.pp. by shamehasSelf-Confidence 9–10;shame unwittingly that (1160).James (1160). hearrival will1969, Fearing Fearing killedof pollute p. The- 19); that his othersthathis he own friend willhe have willwife pollute Theseus,argued pollute and his children, that friend hishe it hidesfriend is Theseus, reallyhe his isTheseus, overcomehead he hides in he the hides his his head in the Received: 8 January 2021 Theseus whoHow savesaccusations, canHeracles Heracles (Adkins Amphitryon possibly 1966, p. regain 2has19). refusedSome hisother self-csee toinviewonfidence disownHeracles is that Heraclesa afternewHeracles’ internal- committing (1113, madness 1203), such is he caused acts kneels of by before external factors, see Riley 2008, pp. 37– by shame (1160). Fearing seusthat he(on will Theseus’ pollute heroic his friend career Theseus, see Papado he byhidespouloudarkness shamehead his 2005, inhead(1160). of the hispp. in darkness Fearingcloakthe 160–61). darkness (1198). ofthat When his heofThis cloak will hisTheseus is cloak (1198). pollutean appo and(1198). This hissite friend isThisvisual an appositeis Theseus, metaphoran appositeappo visual hesite for hides visual metaphorHeracles’ his metaphor head forinner in Heracles’ the forpsy- Heracles’ inner psy- Accepted: 2 March 2021 ised “courageviolence? foundedhim The as onanswer a love”suppliantSelf-confidence lies(Arrowsmith in (1206–10) the reactions is195 said and6, p. to he53; ofbe exhorts Riley thosean important 2008 around his, pp. son 41–42), him.factorout of Despite while inlove building, and Heracles’ deep and concern maintaining, self- (1211– resili- darkness of his cloak (1198). This is an apposite visual metaphor for Heracles’inner psychological inner psy-chological state:Ἥ he ststate: isate: suffering he is suffering from38; all-consuming Hartiganfrom allall-co-consuming 1987,nsuming shame pp. 26–35; andshame cannot Bond and seecannot 1981, a way p. see xviii. a way I agree out of with his the latter view: Heracles is Amphityron engagePublished: in 4stichomythia March 2021 , Amphitryonothersdarknesschological seeaccusations, againHow aof newfound hisstate: assigns can13). cloak Heracleshe TheseusAmphitryon ence commitment fullis(1198). suffering responsibility(Rutter possiblyalso This offers tohasfrom1987, is human anregainrefused all-co positive p.appoto 327). soHer- lidarityhisnsumingsite to Beforeencouragement self-c disownvisual oronfidence shametoHera’s metaphor fateHeracles (Papadopoulou and inte afterand cannotrference, for(1113, valuable committingHeracles’ see1203), 2005,Heracles a help.way innerhe such outkneelsLike was psy- ofacts a self-confidenthis goodbefore of friend (or and de- chological state: he is suffering from all-consuming shame and cannot seeout a way of his out despair. of his despair. an innocent victim of Hera, with Lyssa acting as her agent). Iris announces that Hera’s acles for the deaths (1184). However, Theseusp.chological despair.182;violence? does dehim Romilly not state:as Theaaccept therapist),suppliant he2003, answer is cisive. Amphitryon’ssufferingp. 289). Theseus(1206–10)lies As For infromsoon many, the listens andattributionall-coas reactionsit heis he withthensuming became exhorts saving compassion of those awareshamegracehis son aroundof ofand philiaanout thed cannot of pity, (friendship) him.situation love and seeDespite and hea in thatwaydeep acknowledges Thebes, Heracles’ out concern of he his self- took (1211– that control Heracles and an- despair. Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neu- How can Heracles possiblyρας ὅδ’ regainἁγών his1189, self-confidencewish 1311–12; was to for stain a after discussion Heracles’ committing of hands Hera’s such with motives acts his of family’s see Silk blood 1985, (831–32). pp. 2– Amphitryon appeals of causation (1187). Theseus judges the matterisdespair. the corefor himselfmessage andof thenounced rightfully play (Stafford his lays plan 2 012,the to blamep. wipe 92; Gregory out the 2011, usurper pp. 141–49; Lycus Papadimi- and his sympathisers in a systematic tral with regard to jurisdictional accusations,13). Theseushas Amphitryon sufferedalso offers3, 17).greatly haspositive Lyssa refused (1214, acted encouragement 1225,to as disown an 1240).to agent Zeus Heracles Atand toof th witnessHeravaluablee same (1113, but, whattime, help. 1203),importantly, Hera Theseus Like he has akneels good donenever she friend before was(1127; allows reluctant (or here Heracles I follow to undertake Bond’s second suggested trans- on Hera: he says, simply and plainly, “this tropoulosis Hera’sviolence? 2008, contest” p. The 132; (Ἥρας answer Barlow ὅδ lies1996, ἁγών in pp. the 1189).14–1 reactions6; YoshitakeHer- ofthose 1994, pp. around 151–53; him. Padilla Despite 1994, Heracles’ self- claims in published maps and institu- himtherapist), as a suppliantto Theseustakekilling the(1206–10) listensentirety raid (on andwith of the thehe compassion etymologicalexhorts blame uponhis an son d similaritihimsel pity, out ofandf and eslove he between he acknowledgesand urges deep Lycus Heracles concern and that notLyssa (1211– Heracles to surrendersee Konstan to 2014, p. 280;accusations, Silk 1985, p. Amphitryon 2; Bond this1981, role haspp. refusedxxii–xxiii).(858), citing to More disown Heracl lation,recently, Heracleses’ seegood scholars Bond (1113, reputation have1981, 1203), used p. and he353), con- kneels good while beforedeeds Hera him(849–54). is described When as theHeracles one in control (Ἥρα κρατε acles is not an tionalactive affiliations. participant in this discussion but, presumably,p. 6; Mastronarde he is listening 2010, p. 70). Heracles’ self-confidence was initially bolstered by his fam- temporary13).ashas aTheseus suppliant approachessufferedsuffering also (1206–10)greatly offersto mental asawakens, positive(1214,an and illness“ordinary 1225, he he encouragement exhortsto simply 1240).explain man” his hasAt Heracles’ would son thno eand recollection outsameῖ (valuablemadnessἐπιτυχόντος of time, love andTheseusof (Charlierhelp. his deep ἀνθρώπουactionsLike never2003; concern a good (1122). allows 1248). friend (1211–13). Heracles Theseus (or insists Humanities 2021, 10, 44 (Meagher 2006, p. 59). For the first time, Heracles hears5 of a sympathetic13 ily’s pride individual in him. articulate Heracles’ mortal and aged father, Amphitryon, stridently defends his Lópeztherapist),Theseus Sacoto take 2002). also theTheseusupon Some entirety offers Heracles’ view listens positive ofHeracles the Heracles’with goodness blame encouragement ascompassion a war uponanagnorisis even veteran himsel when an andrecoveringd, which fpity,He 1253)and valuableracles and heis and from achievedurges hefails the help. acknowledgescombat to Heraclesevents see by Like trauma itmeans describedin a nothimself. good that ofto asurrender friendHeracles detailedas “Hera’s (or questionto battle” and( answer that although he may have committed these acts, he did so unwittinglyson’s reputation. According (170–203). to Kon- He is hugely relieved by Heracles’ return, describing him as (Konstanhastherapist),suffering suffered 2014, pp. Theseus asgreatly4–6; anEventually, Meagher “ordinary listens(1214,session 2006, with1225, with with man”pp. compassion1240). 50,persistence, Amphitryon, would60). At The th (rangeἐπιτυχόντοςe and supportsame is pity,of painful factors time, andand yetidentifiedTheseusἀνθρώπου heencouragement, gripping acknowledges bynever schol- 1248).to witness.allows Heracles thatTheseus Heracles Heracles As Heraclesregains insists his strives self- to discern stan’s analysis, madness caused Heracles toars be suggests ignorant that of the the situation “aparticulars light is ofcomplex rescue” and, andtherefore, ( ὦthat φάος the identificationμολὼν πατρί of 531).a single Megara definitive is a devoted and loving wife who Copyright: © 2021 by the author. tohas takeupon suffered the Heracles’ entiretybelief. greatly Heracles’goodness of (1214,who the blamewas 1225,speech even responsible, upon 1240).when eventually himsel AtHe theraclesAmphitryonf sameshiftsand failsἭ he time,from tourges seeis Theseusself-blame evasive itHeracles in himself. neverand tonot inconsistent,an allowsto outburst surrender Heracles of fearing angerto thatagainst Heracles will his acts were involuntary (Konstan 2013, pp.reason 434, for 430). Heracles’ In modern rejectionrefers legal ofto suicideherterms, husband isone impossible: might as “dearest” rather, (weφίλτατ should’ 490, perhaps 514) beand ex- compares his role to that of Zeus his acts were involuntary (Konstan 2013, pp. 434,Licensee 430). MDPI, In modernBasel, Switzerland. legal terms,sufferingto one take mightEventually, the asHera. entirety an “ordinary He with of accusesreact the persistence, blameman”violently. her would uponof overturningAt support himselffirst, (ἐπιτυχόντος Amphitryon and and the encouragement, he fore urgesἀνθρώπουmost orders Heracles man He Heracles1248).inracles Greece not Theseusto to regainslet surrender (1306) Hera insists his whobe toself-and is “attendguiltless to his own amining the interplay between different factors. say that Heracles lacked mental culpability, or mensThis article rea is, whichan open access absolves article him ofuponsuffering thebelief. Heracles’crimi- Heracles’ as(οὐδ an goodness “ordinarythe speech Saviourtroubles” even eventually man” (521–22). when(τὴν would θεὸν He Theshiftsracles (ἐάσας threeπιτυχ from fails youngτὰó ραςντself-blame toσὰo ςseeὅδ περιστέλλουboys’νθ itἁγών $in are to himself.π an oso1189,υ relievedoutburst1248). κακά 1311–12; Theseus1129). to of see angerfor Latertheir a insists discussionagainst fatherhe suggests that of they Hera’s that will there motives is see Silk 1985, pp. 2– In light of this, I would like to shift the discussion away from (a) the emphasis on nal conduct. In this sense, Heracles is more victimdistributed than underperpetrator. the terms and Hera.Eventually, He accuses ὲwithnot lether persistence, go of ofoverturning him support(629–30). the and Thefore encouragement, mostChorus man of inTheban Greece Heracles elders (1306) regains sing who a paeanhisis guiltless self- of joy, celebrating Heracles’upon madness Heracles’ and goodness (b) attemptsshared even responsibilityto argue when in Heracles favour between 3,of fails17).a “definitive Lyssa toHeracles, see itacted factor” in his himself. as bow that an andagentleads a non-specificof Hera but, god importantly, (1135). Finally, she was he reluctant to undertake Theseus then proceeds to address Heraclesconditions directly. of the He Creative reminds Commons Heracles belief. of (hisοὐδ Heracles’great νspeechHeracles’ eventually return and shifts his from many self-blame triumphs to (687–700). an outburst In ofturn, anger He againstracles is willing to risk Attribution (CC BY) license to Heracles’Eventually, rejection of suicide, withsays persistence, in thatfavour Heracles of supportexamining is responsible and thethis range encouragement, role of(858), for factors all citing ththate Heracles deeds contributeHeracl (1139).es’ regains good According reputation his self- to andAmphitryon’s good deeds ac- (849–54). When Heracles death to defend his family (577–78), he affirms his love for his children (632–36) and he deeds in the past, including rescuing Theseus from(http://creativecommons.org/licenses the Underworld (1221–22).to resilienceHera.belief. Using He accordingHeracles’ὲrhe- accuses ὄto speechher studies count,of eventuallyoverturning from Heracles modern shifts mustthepsychology. fore from takeawakens,most self-blamefull I argue man responsibility he thatin simply toGreece resilience an outburst has for(1306) studies nothe recollection who ofcrimes. anger is guiltless against of his actions (1122). torical questions, he prompts Heracles to join him/by/4.0/). in affirming his reputation(Hera.οὐδ for being Heν accuses νταςurges her α ofhis overturning Inwife Heracles’ to take thecouragemind, foremost the (626). onlyHeracles’ man way in to Greeceanagnorisis atone (1306) for, thesewhich who crimes is is achieved guiltless is to pay by meanswith his of life. a detailed Mo- question and answer all-enduring (1250) and his role as "mankind’s great benefactor and friend" (o(εὐεργέτηςδὲν ὄ ντα ς αἰ τ oυtivatedAfterς 1310). Heracles by In grief, this is defiant, fear struck of session dishonour,bitterdown andby with madness, cathartic and Amphitryon, a de he outburst,sire is tobroken, is avenge painful we both see his yet a physicallychildren’s ray gripping of andtomurder, witness. psycho- he As does Heracles strives to discern βροτοῖσι καὶ μέγας φίλος; 1252). Theseus’ message is simple: Heracles has overcomehopeν for ντας tre- Heracles’ αἰτίουςτίουςlogically. future 1310).not 1310). pause resilienceWe In In thissee tothis defiant,considerHeracles (ondefiant, the bitter vigourwhethertied whobitter andto was ofanda suicidecastone Heracles’ responsible, tharticcathartic pillar, is outburst,righ language outburst,lying tAmphitryon or necessary—the amidstwe in wesee this aseethe scene isray evasivearuins ofray see onlyhope ofof and hopehisquestion inconsistent,house for is and how fearingto that Heracles will mendous difficulties in the past and he can do so again. Grubeforὄ Heracles’ 1961Heracles’, p. 259).futuresurrounded Thegofuture resilience about recognition resilience by it. corpses (on He the thatcontemplates (on vigour(for he the interesting isreact notvigour of Heracles’violently. personallywhether of similarities Heracles’ languageAtto at jumpfirst, fault languagewith Amphitryonfrom marksin thisPrometheus a thescene cliff,in beginningthis thrustorders see Boundscene Grube aHe swordseeseeracles Papadopou-Grube into to let his Hera belly, be and “attend to his own Humanities 2021, 10, 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/h10010044 www.mdpi.com/journal/humanities Theseus urges Heracles to draw strength from his previous successes andof1961, reclaiming toντας view p. αἰτίους 1961,259). his louThep. sense1310). 259). 2005, orrecognition of burnIn The pp. self-worth, this himself157–58;recognition defiant, that Burnettin reframinghe bitter a isfirethat notroubles” and1971,(1146–52). the thepersonally cais p. tharticeventsno 169). (tτὴν Inpersonally outburst,asThistheθεὸνat Hera’sfault solitude situation ἐάσας marks atwe doing, fault τὰofsee of hisσὰthe helplessnessa andmarks ray περιστέλλουimplacablebeginning asserting of thehope beginning is ofgrief unrecognisable κακά (reminiscent 1129).of Later of he suggests that there is these events as a grievous misfortune to be suffered and overcome. Now Heraclesforhis reclaimingHeracles’ right must toreclaiming live. future histo sense him:resilienceAjax’s his of “where self-worth,sense isolation (on of am the self-worth, I invigour reframingthat Sophocles’ I am ofshared reframing Heracles’ soth e withouttragedy), events responsibility thlanguage easmeans” eventswe Hera’s have betweenin ashe doing, thisno Hera’sasks reason scene (andHeracles,ποῦ doing, seetoasserting ποτ doubt Grube and hisὢν thatasserting bow hisἀμηχανῶ Heracles and hisa ;non-specific 1105). will com- god (1135). Finally, he take on the endurance of suffering as a “labour” (1279; Papadimitropoulos 2008,1961,right p. p. 137). to259). live.right The toAfter recognition live.mit learning suicide. that that Amphitryon’s he he ishas no unwittinglyt sayspersonally loyalty, that Heracles killedpityat fault and his is marks loveresponsibleown give wifethe Heracles beginningand for children,all thno eof succourdeeds he is (1139). overcome(1203–13), According nor to Amphitryon’s ac- 6. Finding Meaning in Life Heracles ultimately accepts this challenge and takes on psychological and emotionalreclaiming suf- his senseby shameofdoes self-worth, the(1160). pity Fearingreframingand grief that showncount,th ehe events will Heraclesby pollutethe as Hera’sChorus must his doing, friend (1045–46,take full andTheseus, responsibility 1087–88).asserting he hides his for his the head crimes. in the fering as his “last labour” (τὸν λοίσθιον...πόνον 1279). All of his mythical laboursright paleTraumaticto live. in eventsdarkness may Yet,of test his there spiritualcloak is (1198). another identification This solutionIn is Heracles’ an or, appo to conversely, thesite mind, “problem” visual the they metaphor only may of waywhat strengthen forto happened atone Heracles’ for theseand inner it crimes psy-involves is to pay with his life. Mo- comparison to this new labour (1411). Despite this, viewing the endurance of sufferingit by giving as individualschologicalrevisiting a sense state: the of he hopefulness question is suffering oftivated who and from appreciationis by all-co to grief, blame.nsuming fear This for of life shameoccursdishonour, (Greene andwith cannot et andthe al. unexpecteda2004 deseesire, a way to avenge arrivalout of hishisof The- children’s murder, he does a “labour” represents a fitting solution to the problem of what Heracles mustp. 82).now Prior do to hisdespair. madness,seus (on Heracles Theseus’ is heroic shownnot career to pause bepious see to Papado consider and respectfulpoulou whether 2005, toward suicide pp. the 160–61). is gods right Whenor necessary—the Theseus and only question is how to (Euripides’ placing of the labours before the madness lends further support to(Halleran this read- 1988, p. 84).AmphityronHow He can is an Heracles initiate engage possibly of in the gostichomythia Eleusinianabout regain it. ,hisHe Amphitryon Mysteries self-ccontemplatesonfidence (613), again whether heafter assigns prioritises committing to full jump responsibility from such a actscliff, toof thrust Her- a sword into his belly, ing, see England 2010, p. 3; Riley 2008, pp. 17–20). violence?acles forThe the answer deaths lies (1184). inor the burn However, reactions himself Theseus of in thosea fire does around(1146–52). not him.accept In Despitethe Amphitryon’s solitude Heracles’ of his attribution self-implacable grief (reminiscent of accusations,of causation Amphitryon (1187). Theseus hasAjax’s refused ju isolationdges to thedisown in matter Sophocles’ Heracles for himself tragedy), (1113, and 1203), we rightfully have he nokneels reasonlays before the to blame doubt that Heracles will com- 5. Self-Confidence on Hera: he says, simplymit and suicide. plainly, Amphitryon’s “this is Hera’s loyalty, contest” pity (Ἥρας and love ὅδ ἁγών give Heracles 1189). Her- no succour (1203–13), nor Self-confidence is said to be an important factor in building, and maintaining, resili- acles is not an active doesparticipant the pity in and this grief discussion shown by but, the presumably,Chorus (1045–46, he is 1087–88). listening ence (Rutter 1987, p. 327). Before Hera’s interference, Heracles was self-confident and de- (Meagher 2006, p. 59). For theYet, first there time, isHeracles another hears solution a sympathetic to the “problem” individual of articulatewhat happened and it involves cisive. As soon as he became aware of the situation in Thebes, he took control and an- that although he may haverevisiting committed the question these acts, of whohe did is soto blame.unwittingly This. occursAccording with to the Kon- unexpected arrival of The- nounced his plan to wipe out the usurper Lycus and his sympathisers in a systematic stan’s analysis, madnessseus caused (on Theseus’Heracles heroicto be ignorant career see of thePapado particularspoulou and,2005, therefore, pp. 160–61). When Theseus and killing raid (on the etymological similarities between Lycus and Lyssa see Konstan 2014, his acts were involuntaryAmphityron (Konstan 2013, engage pp. in 434, stichomythia 430). In modern, Amphitryon legal terms, again oneassigns might full responsibility to Her- p. 6; Mastronarde 2010, p. 70). Heracles’ self-confidence was initially bolstered by his fam- acles for the deaths (1184). However, Theseus does not accept Amphitryon’s attribution ily’s pride in him. Heracles’ mortal and aged father, Amphitryon, stridently defends his of causation (1187). Theseus judges the matter for himself and rightfully lays the blame son’s reputation (170–203). He is hugely relieved by Heracles’ return, describing him as on Hera: he says, simply and plainly, “this is Hera’s contest” (Ἥρας ὅδ ἁγών 1189). Her- “a light of rescue” (ὦ φάος μολὼν πατρί 531). Megara is a devoted and loving wife who acles is not an active participant in this discussion but, presumably, he is listening refers to her husband as “dearest” (φίλτατ’ 490, 514) and compares his role to that of Zeus (Meagher 2006, p. 59). For the first time, Heracles hears a sympathetic individual articulate the Saviour (521–22). The three young boys are so relieved to see their father that they will that although he may have committed these acts, he did so unwittingly. According to Kon- not let go of him (629–30). The Chorus of Theban elders sing a paean of joy, celebrating stan’s analysis, madness caused Heracles to be ignorant of the particulars and, therefore, Heracles’ return and his many triumphs (687–700). In turn, Heracles is willing to risk his acts were involuntary (Konstan 2013, pp. 434, 430). In modern legal terms, one might death to defend his family (577–78), he affirms his love for his children (632–36) and he urges his wife to take courage (626). After Heracles is struck down by madness, he is broken, both physically and psycho- logically. We see Heracles tied to a stone pillar, lying amidst the ruins of his house and surrounded by corpses (for interesting similarities with Prometheus Bound see Papadopou- lou 2005, pp. 157–58; Burnett 1971, p. 169). This situation of helplessness is unrecognisable to him: “where am I that I am so without means” he asks (ποῦ ποτ ὢν ἀμηχανῶ; 1105). After learning that he has unwittingly killed his own wife and children, he is overcome by shame (1160). Fearing that he will pollute his friend Theseus, he hides his head in the darkness of his cloak (1198). This is an apposite visual metaphor for Heracles’ inner psy- chological state: he is suffering from all-consuming shame and cannot see a way out of his despair. How can Heracles possibly regain his self-confidence after committing such acts of violence? The answer lies in the reactions of those around him. Despite Heracles’ self- accusations, Amphitryon has refused to disown Heracles (1113, 1203), he kneels before him as a suppliant (1206–10) and he exhorts his son out of love and deep concern (1211– 13). Theseus also offers positive encouragement and valuable help. Like a good friend (or therapist), Theseus listens with compassion and pity, and he acknowledges that Heracles has suffered greatly (1214, 1225, 1240). At the same time, Theseus never allows Heracles to take the entirety of the blame upon himself and he urges Heracles not to surrender to

HumanitiesHumanities 2021, 10, 44 2021 , 10, 44 5 of 13 5 of 13

his acts werehis acts involuntary were involuntary (Konstan (Konstan 2013, pp. 2013, 434, pp.430). 434 In, modern430). In modernlegal terms, legal one terms, might one might say that sayHeracles that Heracles lacked mental lacked culpability,mental culpability, or mens orrea mens, which rea absolves, which absolve him ofs the him crimi- of the crimi- nal conduct.nal conduct. In this sense, In this Heracles sense, Heracles is more victimis more than victim perpetrator. than perpetrator. TheseusTheseus then proceeds then proceeds to address to addressHeracles Heracles directly. directly. He reminds He reminds Heracles Heracles of his great of his great deeds indeeds the past, in the including past, including rescuing rescuing Theseus Theseus from the from Underworld the Underworld (1221–22). (1221 Using–22). rhe- Using rhe- torical questions,torical questions, he prompts he prompts Heracles Heracles to join him to join in affirminghim in affirming his reputation his reputation for being for being all-enduringall-endur (1250)ing and (1250) his androle hisas "mankind’srole as "mankind’s great benefactor great benefactor and friend" and (friendεὐεργέτης" (εὐεργέτης βροτο βροτο ῖ ῖ σι κα σι κα ὶ ὶ μέγας φμέγας φ ί ί λος; 1252).λος; Theseus’ 1252). Theseus’ message message is simple: is Herasimple:cles Heracles has overcome has overcome tremendous tremendous difficul- difficul- ties in theties past in theand past he can and do he so can again. do so again. Humanities 2021Theseus, 10, 44 urges Heracles to draw strength from his previous successes and to view 4 of 13 Theseus urges Heracles to draw strength from his previous successes and to view these eventsthese as events a grievous as a grievous misfortune misfortune to be suffered to be suffered and overcome. and overcome. Now Heracles Now Heracles must must take on takethe endurance on the endurance of suffering of suffering as a “lab asour” a “ labour(1279; ”Papadimitropoulos (1279; Papadimitropoulos 2008, p. 2008,137). p. 137). HeraclesHeracles ultimately ultimately acceptsdownfall thisaccepts challenge see this Wolff challenge and 2009, takes p. and 11). on takes psychologicalThe doubton psychological about and whether emotional and emotionalHeracles suf- can suf- survive this new fering asfering his “last as his labour” “lasttype labour(τὸν of λοίσθιον trial” (τὸν is λοίσθιον...πόνονvoiced...πόνον by 1279).Lycus All who 1279). of hisjibes All mythical thofat his while mythical labours Heracles palelabours inhas pale built in a reputation for comparisoncomparison to this new to this fightinglabour new (1411). labourwild animals, Despite (1411). Despitethis,in other viewing this,respects viewing the heendurance is the not endurance brave of suffering at all of (158). suffering as as a “labour”a “ labourrepresents” represents a fittingAfter a solution fitting Heracles’ solution to the mad problem torampage, the problem of hewhat awakens ofHeracles what from Heracles must his “palliative now must do now sleep” do and must come (Euripides’(Euripides’ placing ofplacing theto laboursterms of the with laboursbefore the theterrible before madness thescene madness lends before further hislends eyes supportfurther (1089ff; supportto Rileythis read- 2008,to this p. read- 39). There can be no ing, see ingEngland, see England 2010, p.doubt 2010,3; Riley in p. the 3;2008, Rileyaudience’s pp. 2008, 17–20). mindpp. 17 that–20) “mad. Heracles” was not himself (931). He was a puppet Humanities 2021, 10, 44 7 of 13 of divine and vengeful forces (one view of Heracles’ madness is that it is simply a mani- 5. Self-Confidence5. Self-Confiden festationce of a pre-existing tendency toward excess and violence, see von Wilamowitz- Humanities 2021, 10, 44 7 of 13 Self-confidenceSelf-confidence is saidMoellendorf to is be said an toimportant 1895, be an pp. important 562–82;factor in Kamerbeekfactor building, in building, and 1966, maintaining, pp. and 12–13; maintaining, resili-Grube 1961, resili- p. 252; Silk 1985, ence (Rutterence 1987,(Rutter p. 1987,327).p. Before17;p. 327) or a.Hera’s Beforesubconscious inte Hera’srference, interference,part Heraclesof the hero’s Heracles was soul,self-confident was 6.see Finding self Papadimitropoulos-confident and Meaning de- and in de- Life2008, p. 134. An- Humanities 2021, 10, 44 7 of 13 cisive. Ascisive. soon HumanitiesAs as soonhe became other2021as he, 10 viewbecameaware, 44 is thatof aware the Heracles’ situation of the madnesssituation in Thebes, isin caused Thebes,he took by hecontrol external tookTraumatic andcontro factors, an- l eventsand see an-Riley may 2008, test pp. spiritual 37– identification4 of 13or, conversely, they may Humanities 2021, 10, 44 7 of 13 nouncednounced his plan his to planwipe38; toHartiganout wipe the outusurper 1987, the pp. usurperLy cus26–35; and Lycus Bond his and sympathisers1981, his p. 6. sympathisersxviii. Findingstrengthen Iin agree a Meaningsystematic within ita bythesystematic in givinglatter Life view: individuals Heracles a issens e of hopefulness and appreciation for life killing raidkilling (on raidthe etymological(on thean innocentetymological similariti victim similaritieses of between Hera, withbetween Lycus Lyssa and Lycus actingLyssa and seeas(GreeneTraumatic Lyssa herKonstan agent). see et al.Konstan 2014,events 2004,Iris announces p. 2014,may 82). Priortest that tospiritual hisHera’s madne identificationss, Heracles isor, shown conversely, to be pious they and may respect- p. 6; Mastronardep. 6; Mastronarde 2010, wishp. 2010,70). was Heracles’ p. to70 stain). Heracles’ self-confidence Heracles’downfall self -handsconfidence see was Wolff with initially6. washis 2009,Finding strengthenfamily’s initiallybolstered p.ful 11). Meaning toward blood bolsteredThe byit hisdoubtby (831–32). inthe fam-giving Lifeby godsabout his Amphitryon fam-individuals(Halleran whether 1988,Heracles appealsa sens p. 84).e can of Hesurvivehopefulness is an thisinitiate newand of appreciationthe Eleusinian for Mysteries life ily’s pride6.ily’s Finding in pridehim. Meaning Heracles’in him.to Zeus Heracles’in mortal Life to witness and mortal aged what andtype father, Hera aged of trial hasAmphitryon, father, doneis voiced Amphitryon, (1127; bystridentlyTraumatic(Greene here Lycus(613), I follow stridentlyet who defendsal.heevents 2004,prioritises Bond’sjibes defend hisp. mayth 82). secondat greetingwhile sPriortest his suggested tospiritualHeracles thehis godsmadne trans- hasidentification ofss, hisbuilt Heracles own a reputation house isor, shown (608–9),conversely, for to behe piousis describedthey and may respect- as encour- son’s reputationson’sTraumatic reputation (170–203). eventslation, (170 He– 203). seemayis hugely Bond Hetest i s1981, relihugelyspiritualfightingeved p. 353), relieved by identification wild Heracles’while animals,by Hera Heracles’strengthen return, is fulinor,described other toward describingreturn,agingconversely, it respectsby aspiety thedescribing givingthe himgods amongheonethey asis individuals (Halleranin not him maycontrol humankind brave as 1988,( Ἥραata allsens p. (852–53) (158).κρατε e84). of Hehopefulness and, is an afte initiater killing and of appreciation theLycus, Eleusinian he seeks for Mysteries tolife purify the Humanities 2021, 10, 44 6 of 12 “a lightstrengthen of“a rescue”light of itrescu( by egiving” ( ῖ individuals a sensAftere of Heracles’ hopefulness(Greene mad(613), andrampage, ethouse al.he appreciation 2004,prioritises by he p.performing awakens 82). greeting Priorfor fromlife tothe thehis appropriatehis godsmadne “palliative ofss, his Heraclesrituals own sleep” house (922–30). andis shown (608–9), must to come behe piousis described and respect- as encour- ὦ(Greene ὦ et al. 2004, p. 82).1253) Prior and to the his events madneto terms describedss, Heracleswith the as terriblefulis“Hera’s shown towardaging scene battle” to piety thebe before Thus, pious gods( among afterhisand(Halleran eyes humankindrespect- his (1089ff;madness, 1988, p.Riley(852–53) 84).a critical 2008, He and, is p.issue an 39).afte initiate forThere killingr Heracles ofcan theLycus, be Eleusinian isno how he seeks to reconcile Mysteries to purify his the former φάοςful toward μολὼνφάος theπατρί μολὼν gods 531). πατρί (Halleran Megara 531). 1988,Megarais a devoted p.doubt i84).s a devoted Heandin the is loving anaudience’s and initiate wife(613), loving whohouseof mindhe wifethe prioritises respectrefers bythatEleusinian who performing to“mad forrefer her greeting the Heracles”hus-s Mysteries togods theher the with appropriatehus- godswas the not of terrible his himself rituals own deeds house(931). (922–30). th Heat(608–9), Hera was ahas he puppet isforced described him to as commit. encour- Theseus’s greetingband the as(613), gods band“dearest” he of as hisprioritises “dearest own(φίλτατ house” greeting ’(φίλτατ’ 490,Ἥ (608–9), 514) the 490, andgods he 514) is compares describedofof andhis divine own compare his and ashouse role encouraging vengefuls his(608–9),toaging thatrole forces piety of tohe piety ZeusanswerThus, thatis among(onedescribed among ofthe after viewZeusis Saviour thathumankind his asofthe the madness,encour-Heracles’ Saviour gods (852–53) are amadness criticalimperfect and, issueis aftethat and for it killingrth isHeraclesat simply mortals Lycus, isa mani-andhow he seeksgods to reconcile aliketo purify suffer his the formermisfortune humankind(521–22).aging (852–53)(521 The –piety 2three2). and, The among young after three killing humankindboys young are Lycus, boys so relieved(852–53) heare seeks sofestation relieved toand, to see purify aftetheirof to ra see the killingfatherpre-existing their househouse thatLycus, fatherrespect byby they performingtendencyperformingbut, hethat forwill seeksthis theythe not argument godstowardto w letthe illpurify go withnappropriateot excess is let the summarily go terrible and rituals violence, deeds dismissed (922–30). th seeat Hera byvon Heracles hasWilamowitz- forced as (a) him totally to commit. unpersuasive Theseus’s and (b) Humanities 2021, 10, 44 5 of 13 the appropriateof himhouse (629–30).of ritualshi mby (629performing The (922–30).–30) Chorus. The theρας Chorusof appropriateTheban ὅδ’ ἁγών of Thebanelders 1189, ritualsMoellendorf sing elders1311–12; (922–30). a paean si ng 1895,for a of apaean discussionpp.joy, Thus,answer 562–82;celebrating of joy,untrue after of is Kamerbeekcelebrating Hera’sthat his (1340–46;Heracles’ themadness, motives gods 1966,Heracles’ Halleran are a seepp. critical imperfect Silk 12–13; 1986, 1985, issue p.Grube and 175;pp. fo r th2– part1961,Heraclesat mortals of p. Theseus’ 252; is andhow Silk godsspeech to1985, reconcile alike is missing suffer his former misfortune(see Bond 1981, Thus,return after andreturn hisThus,his madness,andmany after his triumphs hismany3, a 17). criticalmadness, triumphs Lyssa (687–700). issue aacted critical (687 for In as Heracles– p.700).turn, anissue 17; agent InHeraclesor fo isturn,ar howofsubconsciousHeracles HeraHeracles is to willingrespect reconcilebut, is but,how iimportantly,s part toforwilling this pp.riskto his the of reconcile argument392–93) former thedeathgods to riskhero’s she with to buthis death wasde-is soul,the summarilytheformer reluctant terribleto thrustsee de- Papadimitropoulos deedsof dismissedto the undertake thargumentat Hera by Heracles has is2008, self-evident:forced asp. (a)134. him totally An- to see commit. unpersuasivede Romilly Theseus’s 2003, and (b)p. 287). respectfend for his therespect fendfamily gods his for with (577–78), family the the gods terrible(577this he with –affirmsrole78), deeds the (858),he terrible hisaffirms that citinglove Hera deeds hisfor otherHeracl lovehis has th childrenview forcedates’for Hera goodhis is himthatchildren (632–36)has reputation toanswerHeracles’ forced commit. untrue(632 and himis –and Heracleshemadness3that Theseus’s6) (1340–46;to urges gooda commit.ndthe he gods respondshis deedsis urges caused Halleranwife Theseus’s are (849–54). his imperfectwith by wife 1986, external a Whenstrong p. and 175; factors, Heracles statementth partat mortals ofsee Theseus’ ofRiley be andlief 2008, godsspeech in thepp. alike essential 37–is missing suffer na misfortune(seeture Bond of divinities: 1981, “a his acts were involuntary (Konstan 2013, pp. 434, 430). In modern legal terms,answerto one istake thatmightanswer courageto the take gods is courage(626). that are the imperfect awakens,(626). gods are and he imperfect simply that mortals has38;and Hartiganno th and recollectionat mortals gods 1987, alike andbut, ofpp. sufferhis thisgods pp.26–35; actions argument392–93) misfortunegod,alike Bond if(1122). suffer hebut 1981, is is summarily thetrulymisfortune p. thrust xviii. a god, ofIdismissed agreeneeds the argument with nothing” by the Heracles latter is (δεῖται self-evident: view: as γὰρ (a) Heracles totally ὁ θεός see unpersuasive,de εis Romilly 2003, and (b)p. 287). say that Heracles lacked mental culpability, or mens rea, which absolves himbut, of this the argument Aftercrimi-but, HeraclesthisAfter is argument summarily Heracles is struck is summarilyis dismisseddownHeracles’ struck by down madness, anagnorisis bydismissed Heracles byan madness, innocenthe ,by whichis as Heraclesbroken, (a) he isvictim totally isachieved broken,both asuntrue (a)of unpersuasive physically Hera,Heraclestotally by both(1340–46; means with physicallyunpersuasive respondsἴand Lyssa of andHalleran psycho-a detailed andacting with and 1986,psycho- a question as(b)strong p.her 175; agent). statement andpart answer ofIris Theseus’ ofannounces be lief speech in the that essential is Hera’smissing na (seeture Bond of divinities: 1981, “a nal conduct. In this sense, Heracles is more victim than perpetrator. (b) untruelogically. (1340–46;untruelogically. We (1340–46;see Halleran HeraclesWe see Halleransession 1986 Heracles tied, p. withto 1986, 175; a tied stoneAmphitryon, partp. to 175; pillar,a of stonewish Theseus’part lying wasisofpillar, painfulTheseus’ to speechamidst lyingstain yet speechpp. istheHeracles’amidst gripping missing ruins392–93)god, is the missing ifof handsto (see he ruins buthiswitness. περis Bond house thetrulywith (seeof thrusthis As Bond hisaand god, houseHeracles family’s of 1981, needsthe and strivesargument blood nothing” to(831–32). discern is (δεῖται self-evident: Amphitryon γὰρ ὁ θεός see ,appealsde ε Romilly 2003, p. 287). Theseus then proceeds to address Heracles directly. He reminds Heracles1981, ofsurrounded pp. his 392–93) greatpp.surrounded 392–93) by but corpses the but by thrust the(forcorpseswho thrust interesting ofwas the(f orofresponsible, argumentinterest the similarities argumentingto isAmphitryon similaritiesZeus self-evident: withis to self-evident: witness Prometheus with is evasive seeHeracles what Prometheus de seeBound Hera Romillyandde respondsἴ seeRomilly has inconsistent,Bound Papadopou-ἔ done 2003 seewith 2003, ,(1127; Papadopou- a fearing p.strong here 287). I statement that follow Heracles Bond’s of be will secondlief in the suggested essential trans- nature of divinities: “a deeds in the past, including rescuing Theseus from the Underworld (1221–22).p. 287). louUsing Heracles2005, Heraclesrhe-lou pp. 2005, 157–58; responds responds pp. Burnett157 withreact– with58;a Burnett1971,violently. a strong strong p. 1971,169). statement statementAt first, Thisp.lation, 169) situationAmphitryon of of. This beliefseebelief Bondsituation of inin helplessness ordersthe 1981,god, essential essentialof p. helplessnessHeif 353),heracles isπερis na natureunrecognisable trulywhileture to στ᾿ let is a ofHera of god,unrecognisableHera divinities: isneeds be described and nothing”“a “attend as the to(δεῖται hisone own in γὰρ control ὁ θεός (Ἥρα, ε κρατε torical questions, he prompts Heracles to join him in affirming his reputationdivinities:to for him: “abeinggod, god,“whereto him: if if he he am“iswhere is truly trulyI that troubles”ama a Igod, god, am I that soneeds withoutI( τὴνam nothing” θεὸνso withoutmeans” ἐάσας ((δεδεῖταιῖ meansταιhe τὰ asks γὰρσὰ γ ” $περιστέλλου (heὁποῦ θεόςθε asksó ποτς, ε(ποῦἴ πε ὢν $κακά ποτ᾿ἔἀμηχανῶστ ὀὢν1129). $θ ἀμηχανῶ;;ς 1105).Later he 1105). suggests that there is all-enduring (1250) and his role as "mankind’s great benefactor and friend"θεóς /o(Afterεὐεργέτηςδεν learningóςAfter1345–46). ἴ learning that Accordinghe hasthatshared unwittingly he to haresponsibility Heracles,s unwittingly killed true betweenhis gods killed 1253)own do hisHeracles,wife existand own theand but wife events theyhischildren, περbowand are described imperviousστ᾿children,and he ὀρθῶς aρθῶςis non-specific overcome as he θεός “Hera’s is overcome/οὐδενός god battle” (1135). 1345–46).1345–46). ( Finally, AccordingAccording he toto Heracles,Heracles, truetrue gods gods do do exist exist but but they they are βροτοῖσι καὶ μέγας φίλος; 1252). Theseus’ message is simple: Heracles hasto needs,overcomeby shame desires tre-by (1160). περshame and weaknesses. Fearing (1160).says Fearingthat that Heracles he willHeraclesthat pollutehe has will notis responsible hispollute lost friend his his piety—he Theseus, friendfor all thTheseus, ishee expressing ἔare deeds hides imperviousimpervious he (1139).his hides head piety According his toin to headtheneeds, needs, in todesires thedesires Amphitryon’s and and weaknesse weaknesses. ac- s. Heracles Heracles has has not not lost lost his his piety—he piety—he is is ex- mendous difficulties in the past and he can do so again. towarddarkness a differentdarkness ofἔ his vision cloak of ofhis (1198). the count,cloak divine. This (1198). Heracles is an This appo must is ansite take apposite visualἭ full responsibility metaphor visual metaphor forστ᾿expressing forHeracles’ ὀρθῶς pressingthe for crimes. Heracles’ θεός pietyinner piety/ οὐδενός towardpsy- towardinner 1345–46).a psy- diff a diffeerentrent According vision vision of ofthe to theHeracles, divine. divine. true gods do exist but they Theseus urges Heracles to draw strength from his previous successes andThischological to radically viewchological state: στ᾿ different he st isate: suffering view he is ofIn suffering divinity fromHeracles’ all-co has from mind,nsuming been all- muchconsumingthe shameonly discussed way and shame to arecannot (foratone imperviousand a summarysee forcannotThis athese way Thisradically seeto crimesseeout needs,aradically way of differenthisis out desiresto different payof his viewwithand view weaknesseofhis divinity life. of divinity Mo- s.has Heracles been has beenmuch has much discussednot lostdiscussed his (for piety—he a (for summary a summary is see see these events as a grievous misfortune to be suffered and overcome. NowHalleran Heraclesdespair. 1986 must, despair. pp. ὀ 171–73; fortivated a detailed by discussiongrief, fear seeof dishonour, Papadopoulouρας ὅδ’ ἁγών andexpressing a20051189, deHalleransire, pp.1311–12; Halleranto 178–79;piety avenge 1986, for toward on1986, ahispp. discussion children’s171–73; app. diff 171–73;erent for of murder, Hera’savision fordetailed a detailed ofmotiveshe the doesdiscussion divine. discussionsee Silk see 1985, Papadopoulou see pp. Papadopoulou 2– 2005, 2005, pp. 178 pp.–79; 178 –79; take on the endurance of suffering as a “labour” (1279; Papadimitropoulosforcing 2008, the p. audience137). ρθῶς to θεός “confront/οὐδενόςnot apause contradiction 1345–46). to consider According in3, the whether 17). classical Lyssa to Heracles,suicide conceptionacted is as truerigh anThison of tgodsagent forcingor divinity” onradically necessary—the doforcing of the existHera see differentaudience the but but, audience they importantly,only viewto are “confront question toof “confrontdivinity she ais contradi how washas a contradi beentoreluctant ction muchction in tothe discussed undertakein classical the classical (for conception a conceptionsummary of divinity” see of divinity” Heracles ultimately accepts this challenge and takes on psychological andKonstan emotional 1999impervious suf-, pp. 83–84). to It needs, isgo a viewabout desires that it. He hasand contemplates enduringweaknesses.this role consequences—for (858),whetherHeracles citing Halleran tohas jumpHeracl seenot the Konstan fromlost1986,seees’ Olympian goodKonstanhis a pp. cliff, piety—he1999, reputation171–73; thrust 1999, pp. 83–84). for ispp.a swordandex- a 83–84). detailed goodIt isinto aIt deedsview isdiscussionhis a belly,view th (849–54).at has th seeat enduring has WhenPapadopoulou enduring Heracles conseq consequences—for 2005,uences—for pp. 178 the–79; Olym- the Olym- fering as his “last labour” (τὸν λοίσθιον...πόνον 1279). All of his mythicalgods labours and forpalepressing Heracles in piety himself. towardor According burn a diffe himselfrent to this visionin a view, awakens,fire of (1146–52).the Hera, divine. he who simply In is theon motivated has forcingsolitudepian no pianrecollectiongods the by of audiencehatredgods hisand implacable forand of toHeracles hisfor “confront actionsHeracles grief himself. (reminiscent(1122). a contradihimself. Accordin ctionAccordin of gin to the thisg classicalto view,this view, conceptionHera, Hera, who ofwhois divinity”motivated is motivated by by comparison to this new labour (1411). Despite this, viewing the enduranceand of revenge,suffering quiteas This clearly radically cannotAjax’s different beisolation characterised view inof Sophocles’divinity asHeracles’ ahas “truetragedy), been god”.anagnorisis much seewe ToKonstanhavediscussedhatred this, whichnohatred end, andreason1999, (for is revenge,andit achievedapp. istosummary revenge, doubt83–84). quite by that It seemeansquite clearlyis Heracles a view clearly of cannot a thwilldetailed atcannot com-has be charenduring question be acterisedcharacterised conseqand as answer auences—for “trueas a “true god”. god”.the To Olym-this To end,this end,it it a “labour” represents a fitting solution to the problem of what Heraclesimportant must now toHalleran notedo that 1986, Heracles pp.mit 171–73; has suicide. already for Amphitryon’s a gonedetailed somesession discussion way loyalty, with toward Amphitryon, seepity pian underminingPapadopoulou and isgods love important isis painfulgiveand important Hera’s forHeracles2005, to yetHeracles note pp. grippingto notethatno 178 succourhimself. Heracles–79;that to witness.Heracles (1203–13),Accordin has alreadyAs has Heracles galreadynor to gone this strivesgone someview, some waytoHera, discern towardway who toward isundermining motivated undermining by Hera’s Hera’s (Euripides’ placing of the labours before the madness lends further supportstatus to asthis a goddess.read-on forcing He the has audience representeddoes the to “confrontpity her asand a childishgrief a contradiwho shown was andction vengefulresponsible,by the in the Chorushatred figure,classical Amphitryonstatus (1045–46,and dancingstatus conception asrevenge, a as withgoddess.1087–88). is a evasive quitegoddess. of divinity” He clearly and has He inconsistent, representedcannothas represented be char fearingheracterised asher thata aschildish Heraclesaas childish a “true and will god”.vengefuland vengeful To thisfigure, end,figure, dancing it dancing ing, see England 2010, p. 3; Riley 2008, pp. 17–20). delight in hersee victory Konstan over 1999, Heracles pp. 83–84).Yet, (1303–4), there It is heis a anotherview hasreact questioned th atviolently.solution has enduring why toAt theis anyfirst, important conseq“problem” manwith Amphitryon wouldwithdelightuences—for to delightnoteof pray in whatorders thather in the victoryHeracles happenedher He Olym- victoryracles over has toand overHeracles alreadylet itHera Heracles involves gone (1be303–4), and (1some 303–4), “attend he way has he totoward question has his questionown undermininged whyed whyany Hera’sman any manwould would to such a goddesspian gods (1308) and and for herevisiting Heracles has presented the himself. question her Accordintroubles” as of a who victimg is(toτὴν ofto this blame. herθεὸν view,status own ἐάσας Thispray ill-willHera, as occurs τὰ aprayto goddess. who σὰ towardssuch to withπεριστέλλου is sucha motivated goddesstheHe a unexpected hasgoddess representedκακά(1308) by (1308) 1129). andarrival he andLaterher ofhas heasThe- he presentedahas suggestschildish presented herandthat as hervengefulthere a asvictim is a victimfigure, of her of dancing ownher ownill-will ill-will 5. Self-Confidence Zeus (1309).hatred In this and way, revenge, Heraclesseus quite recasts (on Theseus’clearly Hera cannot as heroic depraved,shared be career char responsibility unjustacterised see Papado andwith as un-godlike between towardspouloudelighta “truetowards inHeracles,2005,god”. Zeus (on her theZeuspp. victoryTo(1309). thishis160–61). (1309). bow Inoverend, this and InWhenHeraclesit way,this a non-specific Theseusway, Heracles (1303–4), Heracles and recasts god he recastshas (1135). Hera question Hera Finally,as depraved, edas whydepraved,he any unjust man unjust and would un-god-and un-god- annihilation of Hera as an Olympian goddess and the conflation of Hera with Tyche see Self-confidence is said to be an important factor in building, and maintaining, resili-is important to noteAmphityron that Heracles engage has already saysin stichomythia that gone Heracles some, Amphitryon prayway is responsible liketowardto such (onlike again undermining the a(on forgoddess annihilation assignsthe all annihilation th e (1308)full deeds Hera’s responsibilityof andHera (1139). of heHera as has Accordingan as Olympiantopresented an Her- Olympian to Amphitryon’sgoddessher asgoddess a andvictim theand ac- ofconflation the her conflation own of ill-will Hera of Hera with with Arrowsmith 1956, p. 55). ence (Rutter 1987, p. 327). Before Hera’s interference, Heracles was self-confident andstatus de- as a goddess.acles He for has the represented deaths (1184).count, her HeraclesHowever, as a childish must Theseustowards andtakeTyche vengeful doesfullZeusTyche see responsibility not(1309). Arrowsmith see figure,accept Arrowsmith In thisAmphitryon’sdancing for 1956,way, the 1956, p.Heraclescrimes. 55). p. attribution 55). recasts Hera as depraved, unjust and un-god- For Heracles himself as a demi-god, this revised outlook on divinity also has rami- cisive. As soon as he became aware of the situation in Thebes, he took control andwith an- delight in herof victory causation over (1187). Heracles Theseus (1303–4),In Heracles’ judges he has the mind,like question matter (on the the for edForonly annihilation whyhimself Heracles Forway any Heracles to and man atonehimself of rightfully wouldHera himself for as theseas a andemi-god,aslays crimes Olympiana demi-god,the blameis this to goddess pay rethisvised with re visedand outlook his the life.outlook conflation onMo- divinity on divinity of alsoHera hasalso with ramifi- has ramifi- fications. Heracles quite clearly needs love, friendship, compassion, help, support and nounced his plan to wipe out the usurper Lycus and his sympathisers in a systematicpray to such a goddesson Hera: (1308) he says, and simply hetivated has and presented by plainly, grief, herfear“thisTyche as of is cations.a dishonour, Hera’sseevictimcations. Arrowsmith Heracles contest”of her andHeracles own a ( Ἥραςquite1956,de sireill-will quite p. clearly ὅδto 55). avengeἁγώνclearly needs 1189). his needs lovechildren’s Her- ,love friendship,, friendship,murder, compassion, he compassion,does help, help, support support and and recognition. Thus, he is much less divine than he thought, and perhaps not divine at all killing raid (on the etymological similarities between Lycus and Lyssa see Konstan 2014,towards Zeus (1309).acles In is this not way, an Heraclesactivenot participant pause recasts to Hera consider in asthis depraved, whetherForrecognition.discussion Heraclesrecognition. suicideunjust but,Thus, himself and is presumably,Thus, righhe un-god- as ist heaormuch demi-god, isnecessary—the much lesshe is divineless thislistening divine re thonlyvisedan th hequestion outlookan thought, he thought, onis how anddivinity perhapsandto alsoperhaps nothas divine ramifi-not divine at all at all (Papadimitropoulos 2008, p. 135; Barlow 1996, p. xiv). In light of these needs, Heracles p. 6; Mastronarde 2010, p. 70). Heracles’ self-confidence was initially bolstered by his fam-like (on the annihilation(Meagher of Hera 2006, as p. an59). Olympiango For about the first it. goddess He time, contemplatescations. Heracles and(Papadimitropoulos the Heracles (Papadimitropoulos conflationhears whether a sympatheticquite of to Hera jumpclearly 2008, with from individual2008, p.needs 135; a p.cliff, loveBarlow135; articulate thrust , Barlowfriendship, 1996, a sword 1996, p. xiv). compassion, intop. xiv).In his light Inbelly, lightof help, these of supportthese needs, needs, Heraclesand Heracles must reorient himself away from divinity and toward humanity, fully accepting and em- ily’s pride in him. Heracles’ mortal and aged father, Amphitryon, stridently defendsTyche his see Arrowsmiththat although 1956, p. 55).he may or have burn committed himself in theserecognition. a firemust acts, (1146–52).must reorienthe Thus, did reorient soIn hehimself unwittinglythe is himselfsolitudemuch away less. awayAccording fromof divinehis from divinity implacable th todivinityan Kon- andhe thought, grief towardand (reminiscenttoward humanity,and humanity,perhaps of fully not fullyaccepting divine accepting at and all em-and em- bracing his human attributes and frailties (Walker 1995, p. 131). This emphasis on Heracles’ son’s reputation (170–203). He is hugely relieved by Heracles’ return, describing him as For Heraclesstan’s himself analysis, as a demi-god, madnessAjax’s this caused isolation revised Heracles outlookin (PapadimitropoulosSophocles’ tobracing onbe ignorantdivinitybracing tragedy), his human alsohisof the2008,wehuman has attributeshaveparticulars ramifi-p. attributes 135;no reason Barlowand and, frailtiesand to therefore, 1996,doubt frailties (Walker p. that xiv). (Walker Heracles 1995,In light 1995, p. will 131).of com- p.these 131).This needs, Thisemphasis emphasis Heracles on Hera- on Hera- humanity is evident in the second half of the play: Theseus repeatedly refers to Heracles as cations. Heracles hisquite acts clearly were involuntary needs mitlove suicide. ,(Konstan friendship, Amphitryon’s 2013, mustcompassion, pp.cles’ reorient 434, loyalty,cles’humanity 430). himselfhelp,humanity In pity modernissupport andawayevident is loveevident legalfrom and in give the terms,divinity in Heraclessecond the one second and halfmight no toward ofsuccourhalf the of humanity,play the (1203–13), :play Theseus: Theseusfully nor repeatedly accepting repeatedly refersand em-refers to Her- to Her- “a light of rescue” (ὦ φάος μολὼν πατρί 531). Megara is a devoted and aloving mortal wife man who (at 1195, 1232, 1248 and 1320) as does Amphitryon (1197) and even Heracles recognition. Thus, he is much less divinedoes th thean pityhe thought, and bracinggrief and aclesshown hisperhapsacles as human bya mortalas the not a Chorusmortalattributes divine man man (at(1045–46, at and 1195,all (at frailties 1195, 1232, 1087–88). 1232, 1248 (Walker 1248 and 1320)1995,and 1320) p.as 131).does as doesThisAmphitryon Amphitryonemphasis (1197) on (1197)Hera- and evenand even refers to her husband as “dearest” (φίλτατ’ 490, 514) and compares his rolehimself to that (1306; of Zeus Silk 1985, p. 14). (Papadimitropoulos 2008, p. 135; Barlow 1996,Yet, therep. xiv). is cles’Inanother light Heracleshumanity ofsolutionHeracles these himself is needs,evidentto himself the (1306; Heracles“problem” in (1306; theSilk second 1985, Silk of 1985, p. whathalf 14). p.of happened 14).the play: Theseusand it involves repeatedly refers to Her- the Saviour (521–22). The three young boys are so relieved to see their father thatParadoxically, they will by fully embracing his human frailty and weakness, Heracles can must reorient himself away from divinityrevisiting and toward the question humanity,acles ofas whoa fullyParadoxically,mortal is Paradoxically,toaccepting manblame. (at This andby1195, fully occursem-by 1232, fully embracing with1248 embracing theand unexpected his1320) human his as humandoes arrivalfrailty Amphitryon frailty ofand The- weakness,and (1197) weakness, and Heracles even Heracles can can not let go of him (629–30). The Chorus of Theban elders sing a paean ofachieve joy, celebrating several positive outcomes. Rather than foolishly trying to punish the gods for his bracing his human attributes and frailtiesseus (Walker (on Theseus’ 1995,Heracles heroicp. 131).achieve career Thishimselfachieve several emphasissee (1306;severalPapado positive Silkon positivepoulou Hera- 1985, outcomes. 2005,p.outcomes. 14). pp. Rather 160–61). Rather than thanWhenfoolishly foolishly Theseus trying trying and to punish to punish the gods the gods for his for his Heracles’ return and his many triumphs (687–700). In turn, Heracles ismisfortune willing to (1242), risk he can tap into a wellspring of human kindness (342). Secondly, Heracles cles’ humanity is evident in the secondAmphityron half of the play engage: Theseus inParadoxically,misfortune stichomythia repeatedlymisfortune (1242),, Amphitryon refersby (1242), fullyhe to can he Her-embracing tap canagain into tap assigns ainto wellshis a human wellsfullpring responsibilitypring offrailty human of humanand kindness toweakness, Her- kindness (342). Heracles (342). Secondly, Secondly, can Hera- Hera- death to defend his family (577–78), he affirms his love for his children can(632–36) tap into and his he own distinctively human source of strength, namely, the capacity for resilience. acles as a mortal man (at 1195, 1232, 1248acles and for 1320) the deaths as doesachieve (1184). Amphitryoncles several can clesHowever, tap can positiveinto (1197)tap Theseushisinto ownandoutcomes. his evendistinctively owndoes distinctively notRather accept human than humanAmphitryon’s foolishlysource sour of strength,cetrying of attribution strength, to namely,punish namely, the capacitygods the capacity for for his resili- for resili- urges his wife to take courage (626). Heracles comes to accept that to live a human life is to live a life of suffering and endurance Heracles himself (1306; Silk 1985, p. 14). After Heracles is struck down by madness, he is broken, both physically(1357). and To psycho- this end, Heracles’ apotheosis is no longerof appropriatecausation (1187). andmisfortune Euripides Theseusence. ence.Heracles abandonsju(1242),dges Heracles thehe comes can matter comes tap to acceptintofor to himselfaccepta wellsthat pringthattoand live torightfully of alive humanhuman a human lays kindnesslife the is life toblame is(342).live to alive Secondly,life a of life suffering of Hera- suffering and and logically. We see Heracles tied to a stone pillar, lying amidst the ruins ofit (hisSilk house 1985, p.and 16). Paradoxically, Heracles will by suffer fully and embracing endureon and, hisHera: afterhuman he his says, death,frailty simplycles hecanandendurance will and tap weakness,endurance journey intoplainly, his(1357). toown “thisHeracles (1357). Todistinctively is thisHera’s To can end,this contest” humanend,Heracles’ Heracles’ sour(Ἥρας apotheosisce of ὅδapotheosis strength, ἁγών is no 1189).namely, is longer no Her- longer the appropriate capacity appropriate for and resili- Euripi-and Euripi- surrounded by corpses (for interesting similarities with Prometheus BoundHades see Papadopou- alongachieve with other several mortal positive shades outcomes. (1331–33). Ratheracles than is notfoolishly an activeence. trying des Heraclesparticipant to abandons despunish abandons comes thein it (Silkthisgodsto itaccept (Silkdiscussion 1985,for his 1985, thatp. 16). to p.but, Heracleslive16). presumably, Heraclesa human will suffer wilife llhe sufferis and tois livelistening endureand a endurelife and, of sufferingand,after afterhis death,and his death, he he lou 2005, pp. 157–58; Burnett 1971, p. 169). This situation of helplessness is unrecognisablemisfortune (1242), he can tap into a wells(Meagherpring of 2006, human p. endurance59). kindness Forwill the journeywill (1357). (342).first journey time, Secondly,to To Hades Heracles thisto Hades end, alongHera- hearsHeracles’ along with a withsympatheticother apotheosis other mortal mortal individual shades is no shades longer (1331–33) articulate (1331–33) appropriate. . and Euripi- to him: “where am I that I am so without means” he asks (ποῦ ποτ ὢν ἀμηχανῶ7. Taking; Control1105).cles can tap into his own distinctively humanthat althoughsource of strength,he maydes haveabandons namely, committed the it capacity(Silk these 1985, for acts, p.resili- 16). he Heraclesdid so unwittingly will suffer. According and endure to and,Kon- after his death, he After learning that he has unwittingly killed his own wife and children, he isIt overcome is saidence. that Heracles while individuals comes to accept cannot that control tostan’s live traumatic a analysis, human or lifemadness adversewill is to journey7. live Takingcaused events, a tolife HeraclesControlHades theyof suffering along to be with andignorant other of mortal the particulars shades (1331–33) and, therefore,. by shame (1160). Fearing that he will pollute his friend Theseus, he hidescan his control head in theirendurance the reactions (1357). to those To this events. end, Heracles’ To this his end, apotheosisacts resilience were involuntary is researchers no longer (Konstan appropriate advise that 2013, and pp. Euripi- 434, 430). In modern legal terms, one might darkness of his cloak (1198). This is an apposite visual metaphor for Heracles’it is important inner despsy- toabandons look beyond it (Silk present 1985, p. problems,16). Heracles to makewill suffer goals and and7. Takingendure to take and,Control decisive after his death, he chological state: he is suffering from all-consuming shame and cannot seeaction. a way out Prior ofwill his to beingjourney afflicted to Hades with along madness, with other Heracles mortal was shades supremely (1331–33) rational. and he despair. demonstrated intelligence, foresight and good planning. The madness inflicted by Lyssa How can Heracles possibly regain his self-confidence after committingrepresented such acts a of complete (albeit temporary) loss of physical and psychological control. violence? The answer lies in the reactions of those around him. DespiteHeracles’ Heracles’ grip self- on reality was so distorted that he mistook Thebes for Mycenae (943) and his accusations, Amphitryon has refused to disown Heracles (1113, 1203), heown kneels family before for that of Eurystheus (967–71). He was just about to commit patricide when him as a suppliant (1206–10) and he exhorts his son out of love and deep concern (1211– 13). Theseus also offers positive encouragement and valuable help. Like a good friend (or therapist), Theseus listens with compassion and pity, and he acknowledges that Heracles has suffered greatly (1214, 1225, 1240). At the same time, Theseus never allows Heracles to take the entirety of the blame upon himself and he urges Heracles not to surrender to

Article Resilience and Euripides’ Heracles Humanities 2021, 10, 44 4 of 13

Humanities 2021, 10, 44 Sonia Pertsinidis 4 of 13

downfall see Wolff 2009, Centrep. 11). for The Classical doubt Studies, about The whether Australian Heracles National University,can survive Canberra this new 2602, Australia; downfall see Wolff 2009,type ofp. trial11). Theis voiced doubt by about [email protected] whether who jibes Heracles that whilecan survive Heracles this has new built a reputation for type of trial is voicedfighting by Lycus wild who animals, jibes inth atother while respects Heracles he is has not built brave a atreputation all (158). for Abstract: In the midst of the current global health crisis, there is ongoing discussion about the need fighting wild animals, in Afterother Heracles’ respects hemad is notrampage, brave athe all awakens (158). from his “palliative sleep” and must come Humanities 2021, 10, 44 to cultivate resilience, that is, the ability to4 suofrvive 13 tragic events, adversity and prolonged stress. After Heracles’ tomad terms rampage, with the he terrible awakens scene from before his “palliative his eyes (1089ff;sleep” and Riley must 2008, come p. 39). There can be no This paper engages in a reading of Euripides’ Heracles, a bold and disturbing tragedy in which the to terms with the terribledoubt scene in the before audience’s his eyes mind (1089ff; that “mad Riley Heracles” 2008, p. 39). was There not himself can be (931).no He was a puppet doubt in the audience’sof divine mind thatand “madvengeful Heracles” forceseponymous (onewas notview hero himself ofsuffers Heracles’ (931). several He madness striking was a puppet reversalsis that it ofis fortune.simply aAfter mani- being victimized by Hera and Humanities 2021, 10, 44 ofdownfall divine and see vengefulWolfffestation 2009, forces p. 11).of (one a The pre-existing view doubt of Heracles’ aboutunwittingly tendency whether madness destroyingtoward Heracles is thatexcess his can itfamily, is andsurvive simply violence,Heracles thisa mani- newresolv see7 of vones 12 to Wilamowitz-commit suicide. Only two hundred lines festationtype of trialof a ispre-existing voicedMoellendorf by Lycustendency 1895,who toward jibespp. 562–82; th later,excessat while he Kamerbeek resolvesand Heracles violence, to continue1966, has see builtpp. tovon 12–13;live. a reputationWilamowitz- This Grube change 1961,for in outlook p. 252; is Silkremarkable 1985, given the traumatic events Moellendorffighting wild 1895, animals, pp.p. 17;562–82; in otheror a subconsciousKamerbeek respects he 1966,is partthat not pp. heofbrave hasthe 12–13; justathero’s all suffered.Grube (158). soul, 1961, Howsee Papadimitropoulos p.does 252; Heracles Silk 1985, find the 2008, strength p. 134. to endure? An- What factors bring about p. 17; Afteror a subconscious Heracles’other mad part viewrampage, of is the that hehero’s Heracles’ awakens soul,this madnessfromsee positive Papadimitropoulos his change “palliativeis caused in Heracles’ by sleep” external 2008, andperspective? p. factors,must 134. come An- seeThis Riley paper 2008, will draw pp. 37– on findings from modern resil- Athena intervened—hurling a boulder at Heracles’ chest, knocking the weapons from his otherto terms view with is that the Heracles’terrible scene madness before is hiscaused eyesience by (1089ff; researchexternal Riley to factors, shed 2008, light see p. on39). Riley Heracles’ There 2008, can decision pp. be 37– no. It will discuss the complex combination of internal hands and putting38; Hartigan a stop to the1987, violence pp. 26–35; (1001–8). Bond As1981, an p. embodiment xviii. I agree of withmetis the, this latter direct view: Heracles is Humanities 2021, 10, 44 Humanities38;doubt 2021Hartigan ,in 10 the, 44 audience’s1987, pp.an innocent26–35; mind Bondthat victim “mad 1981, of Heracles” p.Hera, 5xviii. andof 13 withexternal I wasagree Lyssa not factorswith himself acting the that latter (931).playas her intoview: He agent). Heracles’ was Heracles a Iris puppet change announces is of mind. that I argue Hera’s 4that of 13the processes that Euripi- intervention by Athena symbolises what Shay calls “a return to safety and sobriety” (2002, of divine and vengeful forces (one view of Heracles’des portrays madness in his play is that dramatize it is simply many ofa mani-the protective factors that are said to promote resilience an innocentpp. 168–69). victim Athena’s ofwish Hera, was actions with to stain Lyssa bring Heracles’ acting Heracles ashands her back agent).with to hishis Iris rightfamily’s announces mind blood and that (831–32). save Hera’s him Amphitryon from appeals wishfestation was toof staina pre-existing Heracles’to ZeusHumanities totendencyhands witness 2021 with, 10 ,towardwhat 44 his family’sHerain excess real has life. blood doneand violence,(1127;(831–32). here seeAmphitryon I follow von Wilamowitz- Bond’s appeals second suggested trans- 5 of 13 committingHumanities further 2021 , acts10, 44 of bloodguilt (on Athena’s mercy see Burnett 1971, p. 172). The 7 of 13 Moellendorf 1895, pp. 562–82;downfall Kamerbeek see Wolff 2009,1966, p.pp. 11). 12–13; The Grubedoubt about1961, p.whether 252; Silk Heracles 1985, can survive this new his acts were involuntary (Konstan 2013,to Zeuspp.appearance 434, to witness 430). In of what Athenamodernlation, Hera see also legal has Bond foreshadows terms,done 1981, (1127; one p. mightAthens’ 353),here Iwhile follow role Hera as Bond’s the is promised described second suggested refuge as the for one Heraclestrans- in control at (Ἥρα κρατε p. 17; or a subconscioustype part of of trial the ishero’s voiced soul,Keywords: by seeLycus Papadimitropoulos resilience; who jibes Heracles; that while 2008, Theseus; Heracles p. 134. trauma; An- has madness built a reputation for say that Heracles lacked mental culpability,lation, theor see mens end Bond ofrea the ,1981, which play p. (theabsolves353),ῖ boulder while him Hera was of the displayedis describedcrimi- as as a sacredthe one relic in control in a sanctuary (Ἥρα κρατε of Heracles other view is that Heracles’fighting madness wild animals, is caused in by other external respects factors, he is see not Riley brave 2008, at all pp. (158). 37– nal conduct. In this sense, Heracles is more victimῖat Thebes: than see perpetrator. Wolff1253) 2009 , and p. 17; the also events Gregory described 2011his, acts pp.as “Hera’s 139–40).were involuntary battle” ( (Konstan 2013, pp. 434, 430). In modern legal terms, one might 38; Hartigan 1987, pp. 26–35;After Bond Heracles’ 1981,6. p. Finding mad xviii. rampage, I agreeMeaning with he awakensin the Life latter from view: his Heracles “palliative is sleep” and must come Theseus then proceeds to address Heracles1253) diIn andrectly. addition the He events toreminds receiving described Heracles this as external “Hera’sof his great help, battle” Heraclessay ( that must Heracles find alacked way to mental distance culpability, himself or mens rea, which absolves him of the crimi- an innocent victim of Hera, with Lyssa acting as her agent). Iris announces that Hera’s deeds in the past, including rescuing Theseu froms from his the past Underworld actions,toἭ terms orient (1221–22). with himself the Using terrible towards Traumaticrhe- scene thenal future,beforeconduct. events his and In eyesmay makethis (1089ff; sense,test realistic spiritual Heracles Riley plans. 2008, identificationis This morep. 39). victim There thanor, can conversely, beperpetrator. no they may wish was to stain Heracles’ hands with his family’s1. Introduction blood (831–32). Amphitryon appeals torical questions, he prompts Heracles to joἭoccursin him in in stages. affirming Indoubt the his first reputation in stage, the audience’s as weforstrengthen havebeing mind seen, itthat HeraclesbyTheseus “mad giving constructsHeracles” then individuals proceeds was a personal nota to sens himselfaddress narrativee of (931).Heracleshopefulness He wasdirectly. aand puppet Heappreciation reminds Heracles for life of his great all-enduring (1250) and his role as "mankind’sto Zeus about to great witness his difficultbenefactor what lifeof Heraρας divineand since ὅδ has friend"’ birthἁγώνand done vengeful (1258ff). (1189,(1127;εὐεργέτης(Greene 1311–12; here Thisforces etEuripides’ I followdeedsal. narrative (onefor 2004, a inBond’s viewdiscussion p.theHeracles is 82). necessarilyofpast, second PriorHeracles’ is includingof notto Hera’ssuggested his past-orientedjust madness madne rescuingmotivesa psychologically trans-ss, is Heracles thatseeTheseu and Silk it iss 1985, issimplyfrom compelling shown pp.the a 2–toUnderworldmani- be dramatization pious and (1221–22). respect- of mad- Using rhe- βροτο lation,ραςself-oriented. see ὅδ Bond’ ἁγών 1981, It1189,3, is 17). p. afestation therapeutic 1311–12;353), Lyssa while actedof for a exerciseHera apre-existing asdiscussion fulan is describedtowardagentness; that enables it oftendencyoftorical is theHera’s Hera alsoas gods the him questions,abut, motives thought-provokingtowardone to(Halleran importantly, give in control see excess somehe 1988,Silkprompts order (Ἥραand 1985,she p. enquiry 84).violence, and wasκρατε Heraclespp. He sense reluctant2– inis seeto an to heroism joinitiatevon toin undertake himWilamowitz- (Rileyof in the affirming 2008, Eleusinian p. his5; all reputationMysteries translations for being ῖ Moellendorf 1895,(613), pp. 562–82; he prioritises Kamerbeek greeting 1966, the pp. gods 12–13; of his Grube own house1961, p.(608–9), 252; Silk he is1985, described as encour- ῖ 3, 17).his Lyssa traumatic actedCitation: lifeasthis anPertsinidis, (Shay role agent (858),1994 Sonia. of ,Hera p.citing 2021. 188; but, Heracl Shay importantly,are 2002es’ my goodall-enduring, own; p. 174).reputation she the Crucially, wasGreek (1250) reluctant and text thisandgood is from narrativetohis deeds undertake role Diggle (849–54). as is heard"mankind’s19 81). 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Theseus’s λος; 1252). Theseus’ message is simple:who signswas ραςHera responsible,ὅδ thatcles’ ἁγών HeracleshasReceived: overcome react1189, Amphitryon8 Januarywish is violently.1311–12; taking was tremendous2021 stepsto for Atis stain evasivefirst,a toward discussionanswer Heracles’difficul- Amphitryon and a moreis inconsistent, ofthathands Hera’s resilient theordersμέγας with gods motives outlook. Hefearingφhis areracles family’s imperfectsee that Atto Silk let line Heraclesblood 1985,Hera 1351,and (831–32). be pp.th Heracleswill Yet,andat 2– mortals “attendTheseus’ Amphitryon and to love hisgods ownappealsand alike concern suffer for misfortune Heracles is not in and of itself sufficient to help ties in the past and he can do so again. react3, 17).explicitly violently. 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Hera gratitude289). be For and many, for “attend your it gifts”is to the his (savingε ownἶ µι δ ’ graceς of philia (friendship) that is the core comparison to this new labour (1411).fighting Despitetivated wild animals, this,by grief, viewing in fear othernot ofthe respectsdishonour,pause endurance to he consider isand of not suffering a bravede whethersire at asto all avengesuicideHeracles (158). hisis righultimately children’st or necessary—the acceptsmurder, this he challengedoes only question and takes is how on to psychological and emotional suf- troubles”πóλιν ( ττὴνν θεὸν σ ν, χἐάσας$ιν τετὰρας µυ σὰ $ὅδ περιστέλλουαν’ ἁγών δ $ων 1189,messageἔχω κακά 1311–12;1351–52). 1129).of the for Later The playa discussion decisiveness he(Stafford suggests of 2012, Hera’s ofthat this p. there 92; statementmotivesμι Gregory isγ see Silk2011, 1985, pp. 141–49;pp. 2– Papadimitropoulos a “labour” represents a fitting solutionAfternot to Heracles’ pausethe problem to madconsider rampage,ofgo what whether about Heracles he it. awakens suicide He contemplatesmust is from righ now hist ordo “palliative necessary—thewhether fering asto sleep” hisjump “last only and from labour” questionmust a cliff, come (τὸν isthrust how λοίσθιον a to sword ...πόνον into his 1279). belly, All of his mythical labours pale in sharedindicates responsibility that Heracles between3, 17). is regainingLyssa Heracles, acted controlhis as bow 2008,anστ᾿ over agent andὀρθῶς p. his132;a ofnon-specific future.θεός HeraBarlow/οὐδενός but, 1996, godimportantly, 1345–46).pp. (1135). 14–16; Finally, According sheYoshitake wasῆ he reluctant to 1994, Heracles, pp. to 151–53;undertake true gods Padilla do exist 1994, but p. 280;they Silk (Euripides’ placing of the laboursto terms beforego with the about madnessthe it.terrible He lendscontemplates sceneor further burn before himself supportwhether his eyes in to toa(1089ff; thisfire jump (1146–52).read- Rileyfromcomparison a2008, cliff,In the p. thrust 39). solitude to There athis sword ofnew can his intobelabour implacable no his (1411).belly, grief Despite (reminiscent this, viewing of the endurance of suffering as orsays burn that himself TheHeracles third in a isAjax’s stage fire responsiblethis (1146–52). involvesisolation role (858), for grievingInin all Sophocles’theciting thare solitudee fordeedsHeraclimpervious1985, the tragedy), of(1139).p.es’ deada his2;“labour” good Bond implacableto and Accordingwe needs,reputation have making1981, represents desiresno pp.grief to reason arrangements and Amphitryon’sxxii–xxiii). (reminiscent aand goodfitting to weaknessedoubt deeds solutionMore forς thatac- of (849–54). their recently,s. Heracles Heraclesto the When problemscholarswill has com-Heracles not haveof lost what usedhis Heraclespiety—he contemporary must is now do ing, see England 2010, p. 3; Rileydoubt 2008, in pp.the 17–20).audience’s Copyright:mind that © “mad2021 by Heracles” the author. was not himself (931). 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Self-Confidence festationmit of suicide.a pre-existing Amphitryon’sThis articletendencydoes is the an loyalty, open pitytoward access and pity article excessgrief and shown loveand giveviolence, bying, the Heracles see Chorus see England novon (1045–46, succour Wilamowitz- 2010, 1087–88).(1203–13),p. 3; Riley nor2008, pp. 17–20). tivatedof grievingby grief, hasfear begun.ofsession dishonour, It with is also and Amphitryon, a a touchingHalleran desire2014, to is 1986, farewellpp.avenge painful 4–6; pp. his Meagher thatyet171–73; children’s gripping evokes for2006, a theto murder,detailed pp.witness. familial 50,“unliveable” he60).discussion As caredoes TheHeracles and range see (ἀβίωτον strives ofPapadopoulou factors to 1257). discern identified 2005, by pp. scholars 178–79; sug- Self-confidence is said to beMoellendorf an importantdoes the1895, factor pity pp. and in 562–82;distributed building, grief Kamerbeekshown underYet, and there theby maintaining, theterms 1966,is Chorus anotherand pp. resili-12–13;(1045–46, solution Grube 1087–88).to the1961, “problem” p. 252; Silk of 1985,what happened and it involves not pauseYet,love there that to consider we conditionsis sawanotherrevisiting in whetherofwho Heraclesthe solution Creative was the suicide responsible,question Commons prior to the is toon righ “problem”of his forcing gestswho Amphitryont madness.Humanities or is necessary—thethat the5.to ofSelf-Confidence blame. theaudience2021 Finally,what situation,is 10 evasive ,This happened44 his to only occurs“confront promiseis and complex question andwithinconsistent, toa it thecontradi return andisinvolves unexpectedhow thatHowever, to ctionfearingto the bury identificationin arrivalthatthe when classical Heracles of Theseus’ The- of conception awill single concern definitive of fordivinity” Heracles reason is backed up by a practical4 of offer13 of ence (Rutter 1987, p. 327). Beforep. Hera’s17; or ainte subconsciousrference, Heracles part of was the self-confidenthero’s soul, see and Papadimitropoulos de- 2008, p. 134. An- go aboutAmphitryon it. HeAttribution contemplates when react he(CC dies violently. whetherBY) (1419–21) license Attosee signalsfirst,jump Konstanfor Amphitryon fromHeracles’ a future a1999, cliff, commitment rejection pp. ordersthrust 83–84). Hea of sword racles tosuicideIt is return a into toview islet tohisimpossible:care Herath Thebes. belly,at and hasbe andsupport, enduring rather, “attend it we conseqcarries to should hisuences—for ownfar perhapsgreater pers thebe examiningOlym-uasive weight. First and foremost, Theseus of- cisive. As soon as he became awareother viewofrevisiting the is situation that theHeracles’ question in Thebes, seusmadness of (on whohe Theseus’ tookis is caused to controlblame. heroic by Thisandexternal career occursan- factors, see with PapadoSelf-confidence seethe Rileyunexpectedpoulou 2008, 2005, is pp. arrivalsaid pp. 37– to 160–61). ofbe The-an important When Theseus factor andin building, and maintaining, resili- seusor burn (on Theseus’himself(http://creativecommons.org/licenses in heroic aAmphityron firetroubles” career(1146–52). see engage (τὴν PapadoIn θεὸνthe inpian solitudestichomythiapoulou ἐάσαςthe gods interplay τὰ2005, ofand σὰhis, Amphitryon for pp. περιστέλλουimplacable between Heracles 160–61). different griefagainhimself.When κακά (reminiscent assignsfactors. Theseus1129). Accordinfers Laterfull andto responsibilitygofpurify heto suggeststhis Heracles view, that to Hera, ofHer- there co ntaminationwho is is motivated through by a process of ritual cleansing (1324). This nounced his plan to wipe out 38;the Hartigan usurper 8. Ly1987, Acceptingcus pp.and 26–35; his Help sympathisers Bond 1981, p. in xviii. a systematic I agree with ence the (Rutter latter view:1987, p.Heracles 327). Before is Hera’s interference, Heracles was self-confident and de- Ajax’s isolation/by/4.0/). in Sophocles’ shared tragedy), responsibility wehatred have between noand reason revenge, Heracles, to doubt quite his that bowclearly Heracles and cannot a non-specific willis besignificant. com- characterised god One(1135). asof theaFinally, “true most god”.he important To this stages end, itof recovery for any victim of war trauma killing raid (on the etymologicalan similariti innocentAmphityrones victim between of engage Hera,Lycusacles in withand stichomythia for LyssaLyssa the seedeathsacting, KonstanAmphitryon as(1184). her 2014, agent).However, again cisive. Iris assigns Theseus announcesAs soon full does responsibilityas that he not becameHera’s downfallaccept toaware Amphitryon’s Her- see ofWolff the 2009,situation attribution p. 11). in Thebes,The doubt he abouttook controlwhether and Heracles an- can survive this new mit suicide.Maintaining Amphitryon’s asays sense loyalty, that of Heracles openness pity andis is important toresponsiblelove loving give to Heracles and note for trusted allthat thno Heraclese succourdeeds individuals (1139). has (1203–13), already isisAccording said norgone to to be besome to a processAmphitryon’s way toward of cleansing underminingac- and purification, Hera’s at a physical, psychological and spir- p. 6; Mastronarde 2010, p. 70). Heracles’wish wasacles self-confidence to stainfor the Heracles’ deaths was ofhands(1184). initially causation withHowever, bolstered his(1187). family’s Theseus by Theseus his blood fam- does ju (831–32).dges nouncednot theaccept matterAmphitryon his Amphitryon’s plan for tohimself wipeappealstype attribution outand of therightfullytrial usurper is voiced lays Ly bycusthe Lycus blameand his who sympathisers jibes that while in a Heraclessystematic has built a reputation for doesresilience-enabling the pity and grief count,shown (Shay Heracles2002by the, pp. Chorus must 175–76).status take(1045–46, as There fulla goddess. responsibility is1087–88). no doubt He has that for represented forthe Heracles,crimes.itual her Theseus levelas a childish(Shay 2002, and pp. vengeful 152–53, figure, 244–45). dancing Earlier, Heracles had attempted purification ily’s pride in him. Heracles’ mortalto Zeus and ofto aged witnesscausation father, what (1187). Amphitryon, Hera onTheseus has Hera: done stridently heju (1127;dges says, the heresimply defends matter I follow and hisfor plainly, Bond’s himselfkilling “thissecond raidand is (onrightfully Hera’ssuggested the etymologicalcontest” lays trans-fighting the (Ἥρας blame wildsimilariti ὅδ animals, ἁγώνes between 1189). in other Her- Lycus respects and he Lyssa is not see brave Konstan at all 2014, (158). provesYet, there to beis aanother true “friend solutionIn Heracles’ and to relative”the mind,with “problem” delight the (1154). only in of Heherway what isvictory to determined happenedatone over for Heracles theseand to repay itcrimes forinvolves (1303–4), the Heracles’ is killingto hepay has ofwith questionLycus his life.buted theMo- why ceremony any man wa woulds interrupted by his fit of madness (936–37). son’s reputation (170–203). He lation,is hugely seeon reli BondHera:eved 1981,he by says, p.Heracles’ 353), simplyacles while return, andis Heranot plainly, describingan is describedactive “this ishimparticipant Hera’s as as the p.contest” one 6; in Mastronardein this control (Ἥρας discussion ( Ἥραὅδ 2010, ἁγών κρατε but, p. 1189).70). presumably,After Heracles’ Her- Heracles’ self-confidence he mad is listening rampage, was he initially awakens bolstered from his by “palliative his fam- sleep” and must come revisitingeuergesia the inquestionHumanities rescuing oftivated 2021 himwho, 10 from ,is by44. to https://doi.org/10.3390/h10010044grief, blame. the Underworld fearpray This of to dishonour,occurs such (on witha reciprocitygoddess and the unexpecteda de(1308)sire see to Johnsonand avenge arrival he has2002When hisof presented The-,children’s p. he 116). later hertalked murder, as aof victim www.mdpi.com/journal/humanitiesbeinghe does polluted,of her own Theseu ill-wills rejected the notion of pollution (1232) or “a light of rescue” ( ῖ acles is not an active(Meagher participant 2006, p.in 59).this For discussion the firstily’s time, but, pride Heracles presumably, in him. hears Heracles’ hea sympatheticto is terms listeningmortal with and individual the aged terrible father, articulate scene Amphitryon, before his eyes stridently (1089ff; defends Riley 2008, his p. 39). There can be no seusWhen (on Theseus’ he learns heroic of thenot career horrificpause see to events Papadoconsidertowards thatpoulou whether have Zeus taken2005, suicide(1309). placepp. 160–61). Inis in righthis Heracles’ tway, Whenor necessary—the Heracles home, Theseusthe he recastsidea declaresand only that Hera questionmiasma as depraved, can is how be transmitted tounjust and un-god-between friends (1234; Papadopoulou 2005, p. ὦ 1253)(Meagher and the 2006, events p. 59).describedthat For although the as first “Hera’s hetime, may battle”Heracles have (committed hearsson’s a sympathetic reputation these acts, individualhe(170–203). did sodoubt unwittingly articulateHe in is the hugely audience’s . According relieved mind toby Kon- Heracles’that “mad return, Heracles” describing was not himhimself as (931). He was a puppet Amphityronthat he is engage not afraid in gostichomythia of about contamination it. ,He Amphitryon contemplateslike (1234) (on the again and annihilationwhether heassigns expresses to full jumpof Heraresponsibility his from willingnessas ana cliff, Olympian163). to thrust Her- to In sharemaking goddessa sword this andinto offer thehis of conflationbelly, purification, of Hera Thes witheus finally recognises that it is not his view- φάος μολὼν πατρί 531). Megara isthat a devoted although and he loving maystan’s have wife analysis, committed who refers madness these to her acts, caused hus- he did“aHeracles light so unwittingly of to rescue” be ignorant. According(ὦ φάος ofof divinethe μολὼν to particulars Kon- and πατρί vengeful 531).and, Megaratherefore,forces (one is a viewdevoted of Heracles’ and loving madness wife who is that it is simply a mani- aclesin for Heracles’ the deaths misfortunes (1184).or burn However, (1202, himself 1220). Theseus inTyche a It fire is Theseusdoessee (1146–52). Arrowsmith not whoaccept In exhortsthe Amphitryon’s1956, solitude Amphitryonp. 55). of his attribution implacablepoint to uncover that matters grief (reminiscent most—it is ofthat of his friend. Even if Heracles may not be at fault, he band as “dearest” (φίλτατ’ 490, 514)Ἥ and stan’s compares analysis, his madness rolehis to acts causedthat were of HeraclesZeus involuntary the toSaviour be (Konstan ignorant refers 2013, of to the her pp. particulars husband 434, 430). as and, In festation“dearest” modern therefore, of (legalφίλτατ a pre-existing terms,’ 490, one 514) mighttendency and compares toward his excess role to andthat violence,of Zeus see von Wilamowitz- of causationHeracles’ (1187). head (1202), TheseusAjax’s then ju isolation begsdges Heraclesthe in matter Sophocles’ toFor dofor Heracles sohimself tragedy), (1226), himself and and we rightfully finally,have as a nodemi-god, does reasonlays it himselfthe stillto this blamedoubt feels re (1231;vised thata need Heraclesoutlook for purification on will divinity com- (a also useful has ramifi-comparison is Dodds’ analysis of Oedipus as (521–22). The three young boys are so relievedhis acts wereto see involuntary their father (Konstanthat they 2013,will not pp. let 434, go 430). the InSaviour modern (521–22). legal terms, TheMoellendorf three one mightyoung 1895, boys pp.are so562–82; relieved Kamerbeek to see their 1966, father pp. that 12–13; they Grube will 1961, p. 252; Silk 1985, on Hera:Furley he 1986 says,, p. simply 110).mit Inand suicide. the plainly, conversation Amphitryon’s “thiscations. is that Hera’s follows,Heracles loyalty, contest” Theseus pityquite (Ἥρας and clearly expresses love ὅδ ἁγώνgiveneeds pity Heracles 1189). love formorally his, Her-friendship, no friend innocent succour compassion, (1203–13),but still feeling nor help, the support need for and purification: see Dodds 1983, pp. 183–84). of himHumanities (629–30). 2021, 10The, 44 Chorus of Thebanρας ὅδelders’ ἁγών sing 1189, a paean 1311–12; of joy, for celebrating a discussion Heracles’ of Hera’s not motives let go see of Silkhim 1985,(629–30). pp.p.9 of 17;2–The 13 or Chorus a subconscious of Theban part elders of the sing hero’s a paean soul, of see joy, Papadimitropoulos celebrating 2008, p. 134. An- acles(1236), is not he an weeps active for doesparticipant Heracles the pity (1238)in and this recognition.grief and discussion shown he recognises Thus,by but, the he Choruspresumably, the is much enormity (1045–46, less he ofdivine is his1087–88). Theseuslistening misfortune than he recognises thought, thisand needperhaps and not promises divine toat addressall it. return and his many triumphs 3,(6 87–700).17). Lyssa In actedturn, asHeracles an agent is willingof Hera to but, risk importantly, death to de- sheHeracles’ was reluctant return to and undertake hisother many view triumphs is that Heracles’(687–700). madness In turn, isHe causedracles byis externalwilling tofactors, risk see Riley 2008, pp. 37– (Meagher(1240). 2006, Theseus p. 59). undoubtedly For theYet, first there time, has is anHeracles (Papadimitropoulosanother important hears solution role a sympathetic toto play 2008,the “problem” as p. aindividual 135; supportive Barlow of articulatewhat friend1996, Aparthappened p. and xiv).from Inand offering light it involves of purification, these needs, Theseus Heracles offers support that addresses Heracles’ fend his family (577–78), he affirms this hisrole love (858), forlistener. citing his children Heracl es’(632–36) good reputationand he urges and his good wife deeds death (849–54). to defend When his familyHeracles38; Hartigan(577–78), he1987, affirms pp. 26–35; his love Bond for 1981,his children p. xviii. (632–36) I agree with and thehe latter view: Heracles is that although he may haverevisiting committed the question thesemust acts, ofreorient who he did is himself toso blame. unwittingly away This from .occurs According divinity withpractical to theand Kon- unexpected toward needs. humanity, Theseus arrival offerof fully The- Heracles accepting a homeand em- and a share of his wealth, as well as a share to take courage (626). awakens,Yet, he Theseus’ simplyYet, haslove Theseus’ no and recollection concern love and for of concern hisHeracles actions for is (1122). Heraclesnot inurges and is of nothis itself wifein andsufficient to oftake itself courage toansufficient help innocent (626). to victim help of Hera, with Lyssa acting as her agent). Iris announces that Hera’s stan’s analysis, madnessseus caused (on Theseus’Heraclesbracing heroicto be ignorant careerhis human see of Papadothe attributes particularspoulou and 2005,and,frailties therefore, pp.of gifts(Walker 160–61). and 1995,plots When p.of Theseus131).land (1324–29).This and emphasis This ison a Hera-generous offer (Braden 1993, p. 248). In terms After Heracles is struck downHeracles byHeracles’ madness, overcomeHeracles anagnorisis he is his broken, overcome grief, which both(on his is friends physicallyachieved grief (on as he friendsby andlpless, means psycho- as unreliable, helpless,of a detailed unreliable, Afterand question absent Heracles and see and is absent lines struckanswerwish 305– see down was lines to by 305–6, stain madness, Heracles’ he is hands broken, with both his physically family’s bloodand psycho- (831–32). Amphitryon appeals his acts were involuntaryAmphityron (Konstan 2013,engagecles’ pp. in humanity434, stichomythia 430). Inis evidentmodern, Amphitryon inlegal the terms, secondagain assignsone halfof Ungar’smight of fullthe playresponsibility definition: Theseus of resilience repeatedlyto Her- (discussed refers to Her-above), the resources that Theseus offers en- logically. We see Heracles tied sessionto6, a559 stone withand pillar, 559561;Amphitryon, and discussionlying 561; amidst discussion is painfulin theWolff ruins inyet 2009,Wolff gripping of 2009p.his 16; house, to p.Mastronarde witness. 16; and Mastronarde logically.As Heracles2010, 2010 Wep. strives70)., p.see 70). DespiteHeracles to Despite discernto all Zeustied allof of toto Theseus’ witnessa stone pillar,what Hera lying has amidst done the(1127; ruins here of I hisfollow house Bond’s and second suggested trans- acles for the deathsacles (1184). as a mortalHowever, man Theseus (at 1195, does 1232, not 1248 acceptcompass and Amphitryon’s1320) the as psychological, does Amphitryon attribution social, (1197) cultural and and even physical resources that Heracles needs to surrounded by corpses (for interestingwhoTheseus’ was similarities responsible, love,love, pity pity with and Amphitryon and Prometheus support, support, Heracles Boundis Heracles evasive see threethree Papadopou-and times timesinconsistent, reaffirmsreaffirmssurrounded hisfearing his intention intention that by corpses Heracles to to commit commit (forlation, will interestingsu- suicide see Bond when similarities 1981, p. 353), with while Prometheus Hera is Bound described see Papadopou- as the one in control (Ἥρα κρατε of causation (1187).Heracles Theseus himself judges (1306; the matter Silk 1985, for p.himself 14). sustain and rightfully his wellbeing. lays the The blame terms of Theseus’ offer of help are also practical, timely and lou 2005, pp. 157–58; Burnett 1971,reacticide p. violently. 169). when This he Atsays situation first, that Amphitryon he of has hashelplessness prepared prepared orders ishimself unrecognisable Heracles to die die to (let (παρεσκευάσμεθπα Hera$louεσκευ 2005,be andσµεθ pp. “attend ’157–58; ὥστεστε to κατθανεῖν κατθανε Burnett his own ῖ1971, ν 1241), p. 169). that This situation of helplessness is unrecognisable on Hera: he says, simplyParadoxically, and plainly, “thisby fully is Hera’s embracing contest”generous his ( Ἥραςhuman enough ὅδ frailty ἁγών to and be1189). meaningful weakness, Her- andHeracles appropriate can to Heracles’ former status as a hero. to him: “where am I that I am sotroubles”1241), without that ( τὴνmeans” hehe θεὸνcannot cannot he ἐάσας asksbear bear (τὰanyποῦ any σὰ more ποτ more περιστέλλου (ὢν (γέμωγ ἀμηχανῶµω κακῶν κακ κακάν; 1245)1105). 1245)1129). and andLaterto him:that that he he “where hesuggests intends intends am thatto toI diethat diethere and I and am is to1253) toso returnwithout and the to means” events describedhe asks (ποῦ as “Hera’s ποτ ὢν battle” ἀμηχανῶ ( ; 1105). acles is not an activeachieve participant several positive in this outcomes. discussion Rather but, thanpresumably,In foolishlyshort, the hetrying offer is listeningofto realpunish and the practical gods for support his from Theseus helps Heracles to ex- After learning that he has unwittinglysharedreturn responsibility tokilled the Underworldhis own between wife ( εand Heracles, children, his he bow is overcomeand a non-specific After learning god (1135). that Finally,he has unwittinglyhe killed his own wife and children, he is overcome (Meagher 2006, p.misfortune 59). For the (1242),first time, he canHeracles tap into hears a wells a sympatheticpresspring a resilientof human individual outlook. kindness articulate We (342). can see Secondly, how the Hera- offer is culturally appropriate and in accord- by shame (1160). Fearing that hesays will that ἶpollute Heracles his friend is responsible Theseus, for he allhides the hisdeeds head (1139). in the According by shame to (1160). Amphitryon’s Fearing that ac-Ἥ he will pollute his friend Theseus, he hides his head in the that although he maycles canhave tap committed into his own these distinctively acts, he did human soance unwittingly sour withce of the strength,. According ancient namely, Greek to Kon- viewthe capacity of friendsh for resili-ip, which implies more than just emotional darkness of his cloak (1198). Thiscount, is anμι Heracles appo γ site must visual take metaphor full responsibility for Heracles’ for innerthe crimes. psy- darkness of his cloak (1198). This is an apposite visual metaphor for Heracles’ inner psy- stan’s analysis, madnessence. Heracles caused comesHeracles to toaccept be ignorant that to ofliveattachment the a particularshuman and life requires and,is to therefore,live an a exchangelife of suffering of benefits and and mutual reciprocity (Adkins 1966, chological state: he is suffering from Inall-coῆ Heracles’ nsuming mind, shame the and only cannot way to see atone a way for out these of hiscrimes chological is to pay state: with he his is life. suffering Mo-ρας from ὅδ’ all-co ἁγώνnsuming 1189, 1311–12; shame andfor a cannot discussion see a ofway Hera’s out of motives his see Silk 1985, pp. 2– his acts were involuntaryendurance (Konstan (1357). 2013,To this pp. end, 434, Heracles’ 430). Inp. modernapotheosis 215; Johnson legal is terms,no 2002). longer one Theseus’ appropriate might offer and to helpEuripi- Heracles is a fair exchange for Heracles’ despair. tivatedς by grief, fear of dishonour, and a desire to avenge hisdespair. children’s murder, he 3,does 17). Lyssa acted as an agent of Hera but, importantly, she was reluctant to undertake des abandons it (Silk 1985, p. 16). Heraclesextraordinary will suffer andhelp endure in retrievi and,ng after him his from death, the Underworld.he Heracles considers Theseus’ not pauseὕ to consider whether suicide is right or necessary—theHow only canquestion Heracles is how possiblythis to role (858),regain citing his self-c Heraclonfidencees’ good after reputation committing and good such deedsacts of (849–54). When Heracles will journey to Hades along with other mortaloffer, which shades addresses (1331–33) many. of his most pressing needs, and accepts it. Heracles’ “infi- go aboutπο it.1247). He contemplatesHe persists in whether his view to that jump suicide from ais cliff,the onlyviolence?thrust option a sword The and answer into that his his lies belly,awakens, life in is the reactionshe simply of has those no recollection around him. of Despitehis actions Heracles’ (1122). self- nite gratitude” (χάριν τε μυρίαν 1352) counterbalances the “countless labours” (πόνων or“unliveable” burn himself (ἀβίωτον in a fire 1257).(1146–52). In the solitude of his implacableaccusations, grief Amphitryon (reminiscent has ofHeracles’ refused toanagnorisis disown ,Heracles which is (1113,achieved 1203), by meanshe kneels of a before detailed question and answer 7. Taking Control δὴ μυρίων 1354) that he has suffered. In this way, Theseus’ generous offer of help is Ajax’s However, isolation in when Sophocles’ Theseus’ tragedy), concern we for have Heracles no reason is backed to doubt up that by Heraclesa practical will offer sessioncom- of with Amphitryon, is painful yet gripping to witness. As Heracles strives to discern appropriate to, and commensurate with, the extent of Heracles’ adversity (Johnson 2002, mitcare suicide. and support, Amphitryon’s it carries loyalty, far greater pity andpers uasivelove give weight. Heracles First no and succour foremost, (1203–13), Theseuswho nor of- was responsible, Amphitryon is evasive and inconsistent, fearing that Heracles will p. 123). doesfers theto purify pity and Heracles grief shown of contamination by the Chorus through (1045–46, a process 1087–88). of ritual cleansing (1324).react This violently. At first, Amphitryon orders Heracles to let Hera be and “attend to his own is significant.Yet, there Oneis another of the mostsolution important to the “problem”stages of recovery of what for happened any victim and of itwar involves traumatroubles” (τὴν θεὸν ἐάσας τὰ σὰ περιστέλλου κακά 1129). Later he suggests that there is 9. A Sense of Belonging revisitingis said to the be questiona process of of who cleansing is to blame. and purification, This occurs at with a physical, the unexpected psychological arrival and ofshared The- spir- responsibility between Heracles, his bow and a non-specific god (1135). Finally, he seusitual (on level Theseus’ (Shay heroic2002, pp. career 152–53, see Papado 244–45).poulou Earlier, 2005, Heracles pp. 160–61). had attempted When Theseus purificationsays and that HeraclesA core factor is responsible for resilience for all and the fordeeds recovery (1139). from According trauma to is Amphitryon’s social connectedness ac- Amphityronfor the killing engage of Lycus in stichomythia but the ceremony, Amphitryon was interrupted again assigns by hisfull fit responsibility of madness (936–37).tocount, Her-(Shean Heracles 2015, must p. 27). take One full of responsibility Heracles’ greatest for the fears crimes. and concerns is that no community on aclesWhen for he the later deaths talked (1184). of being However, polluted, Theseus Theseu doess rejected not accept the notion Amphitryon’s of pollution attribution (1232) orInearth Heracles’ will accept mind, him the (1281–84). only way Thisto atone is not for an these imaginary crimes fear is to (modern pay with victims his life. of Mo- war and ofthe causation idea that (1187). miasma Theseus can be ju transmitteddges the matter between for himself friends and(1234; rightfully Papadopoulou lays the 2005,blametivated p.trauma by grief, do not fear always of dishonour, find acceptance and a de insire a community. to avenge his They children’s may be murder, subjected he to does rejection on163). Hera: In hemaking says, thissimply offer and of plainly,purification, “this Thes is Hera’seus finally contest” recognises (Ἥρας ὅδ that ἁγών it is not 1189). hisnot Her-view- pauseand abuse: to consider see Shay whether 2002, p.suicide 245). Viewingis right or himself necessary—the as a wretched only criminal,question Heraclesis how to antic- aclespoint is that not matters an active most—it participant is that inof thishis frienddiscussion. Even but,if Heracles presumably, may not he be is atlistening fault,go about heipates it. thatHe contemplateshe will be rejected whether by everyone to jump frombefore a cliff,being thrust rejected a sword by the into earth his itself belly, (1295– (Meagherstill feels 2006, a need p. 59).for purificationFor the first time,(a useful Heracles comparison hears a sympatheticis Dodds’ analysis individual of Oedipus articulateor burn as himself in a fire (1146–52). In the solitude of his implacable grief (reminiscent of thatmorally although innocent he may but have still committedfeeling the theseneed acts,for purification: he did so unwittingly see Dodds. According 1983, pp. to183–84). Ajax’sKon- isolation in Sophocles’ tragedy), we have no reason to doubt that Heracles will com- stan’sTheseus analysis, recognises madness this causedneed and Heracles promises to beto ignorantaddress it. of the particulars and, therefore,mit suicide. Amphitryon’s loyalty, pity and love give Heracles no succour (1203–13), nor his actsApart were frominvoluntary offering (Konstan purification, 2013, Theseuspp. 434, 430).offers In support modern that legal addresses terms, one Heracles’ mightdoes the pity and grief shown by the Chorus (1045–46, 1087–88). practical needs. Theseus offer Heracles a home and a share of his wealth, as well as a shareYet, there is another solution to the “problem” of what happened and it involves of gifts and plots of land (1324–29). This is a generous offer (Braden 1993, p. 248). Inrevisiting terms the question of who is to blame. This occurs with the unexpected arrival of The- of Ungar’s definition of resilience (discussed above), the resources that Theseus offersseus en- (on Theseus’ heroic career see Papadopoulou 2005, pp. 160–61). When Theseus and compass the psychological, social, cultural and physical resources that Heracles needsAmphityron to engage in stichomythia, Amphitryon again assigns full responsibility to Her- sustain his wellbeing. The terms of Theseus’ offer of help are also practical, timelyacles and for the deaths (1184). However, Theseus does not accept Amphitryon’s attribution generous enough to be meaningful and appropriate to Heracles’ former status as aof hero. causation (1187). Theseus judges the matter for himself and rightfully lays the blame In short, the offer of real and practical support from Theseus helps Heracleson to Hera:ex- he says, simply and plainly, “this is Hera’s contest” (Ἥρας ὅδ ἁγών 1189). Her- press a resilient outlook. We can see how the offer is culturally appropriate and in accord-acles is not an active participant in this discussion but, presumably, he is listening ance with the ancient Greek view of friendship, which implies more than just emotional(Meagher 2006, p. 59). For the first time, Heracles hears a sympathetic individual articulate attachment and requires an exchange of benefits and mutual reciprocity (Adkinsthat 1966, although he may have committed these acts, he did so unwittingly. According to Kon- p. 215; Johnson 2002). Theseus’ offer to help Heracles is a fair exchange for Heracles’stan’s analysis, madness caused Heracles to be ignorant of the particulars and, therefore, extraordinary help in retrieving him from the Underworld. Heracles considers Theseus’his acts were involuntary (Konstan 2013, pp. 434, 430). In modern legal terms, one might offer, which addresses many of his most pressing needs, and accepts it. Heracles’ “infi- nite gratitude” (χάριν τε μυρίαν 1352) counterbalances the “countless labours” (πόνων δὴ μυρίων 1354) that he has suffered. In this way, Theseus’ generous offer of help is appropriate to, and commensurate with, the extent of Heracles’ adversity (Johnson 2002, p. 123).

9. A Sense of Belonging A core factor for resilience and for recovery from trauma is social connectedness (Shean 2015, p. 27). One of Heracles’ greatest fears and concerns is that no community on earth will accept him (1281–84). This is not an imaginary fear (modern victims of war and trauma do not always find acceptance in a community. They may be subjected to rejection and abuse: see Shay 2002, p. 245). Viewing himself as a wretched criminal, Heracles antic- ipates that he will be rejected by everyone before being rejected by the earth itself (1295–

Article Resilience and Euripides’ Heracles

Sonia Pertsinidis

Centre for Classical Studies, The Australian National University, Canberra 2602, Australia; [email protected]

Abstract: In the midst of the current global health crisis, there is ongoing discussion about the need to cultivate resilience, that is, the ability to survive tragic events, adversity and prolonged stress. This paper engages in a reading of Euripides’ Heracles, a bold and disturbing tragedy in which the eponymous hero suffers several striking reversals of fortune. After being victimized by Hera and unwittingly destroying his family, Heracles resolves to commit suicide. Only two hundred lines later, he resolves to continue to live. This change in outlook is remarkable given the traumatic events Humanities Humanities2021, 10, 44 2021 , 10, 44 that he has just suffered. How does Heracles find the strength to endure? What factors bring about9 of 13 5 of 13

this positive change in Heracles’ perspective? This paper will draw on findings from modern resil- Humanities 2021, 10, 44 ience research to shed light on Heracles’ decision. It will discuss the complex combination of internal9 of 13 and external factors that play into Heracles’ change of mind. I argue that the processes that Euripi- Yet,des his Theseus’portrays acts inwere hislove play involuntary and dramatize concern many (Konstan for of theHeracles prot 2013,ective pp.is factors not 434, in that 430). and are ofInsaid itselfmodern to promote sufficient legal resilience terms, to help one might Humanities 2021, 10, 44 9 of 13 Heraclesin real sayovercome life. that Heracles his grief lacked (on friends mental as culpability, helpless, unreliable, or mens rea and, which absent absolves see lines him 305– of the crimi- 6, Yet,559 Theseus’andnal 561; conduct. lovediscussion and In this concern in sense, Wolff for Heracles 2009, Heracles p. is16; more is Mastronarde not victim in and than of 2010, itself perpetrator. p.sufficient 70). Despite to help all of HeraclesTheseus’ overcomeKeywords: love,Theseus pity resilience; his and grief then support,Heracles; (on proceeds friends Theseus; Heracles toas trauma;address he threelpless, madness times Heracles unreliable, reaffirms directly. and his absentHeintention reminds see to lines Heraclescommit 305– su- of his great Yet,6, 559icide Theseus’ and when 561;deeds lovehe discussion says in and the that concern past, he in has includingWolff for prepared Heracles2009, rescuing p.himself 16;is not MastronardeTheseu to in die and s(παρεσκευάσμεθ from of itself 2010, the sufficientUnderworld p. 70).’ Despiteὥστε to help(1221–22). κατθανεῖν all of Using rhe- HeraclesTheseus’1241), overcome love,thattorical he pityhis cannot grief questions,and support, (onbear friends anyhe Heracles promptsmore as he (γέμωlpless, threeHeracles κακῶν timesunreliable, to reaffirms 1245) join and himand his absent inthat intention affirming he see intends lines to his commit 305–to reputation die andsu- to for being 6, 559icide andreturn when 561; to discussionhe all-enduringthe says Underworld that in he Wolff(1250) has ( preparedε 2009,and hisp. himself 16;role Mastronarde as to"mankind’s die (παρεσκευάσμεθ 2010, great p. 70).benefactor Despite’ ὥστε and κατθανεῖν all offriend" (εὐεργέτης 1. Introduction Theseus’1241), love, thatἶ pity heβροτο cannotand support, bear any Heracles more ( γέμωthree times κακῶν reaffirms 1245) and his intentionthat he intends to commit to die su- and to Humanities 2021, 10, 44 Euripides’ Heracles is not just a psychologically compelling8 of dramatization 12 of mad- Humanities 2021icide, 10, 44 returnwhen he toμι saysthe γ Underworld thatῖ he has prepared (ε himself to die (παρεσκευάσμεθ’ ὥστε κατθανεῖν 4 of 13 ness; it is also a thought-provoking enquiry into heroism (Riley 2008, p. 5; all translations 1241), thatHumanitiesἶ heῆ cannot 2021, bear10σι, 44κα any more (γέμω κακῶν 1245) and that he intends to die and to 4 of 13 Citation: Pertsinidis, Sonia. 2021. are my own; the Greek text is from Diggle 1981). In classical scholarship, the reasons for return to theμι γ ςUnderworld ὶ (ε Resilience and Euripides’ Heracles. Heracles’ rejection of suicide and his heroic decision to live have been variously inter- εἶ µι γῆ ὕπ μέγας φ theHumanities Underworld 10: 44. https:// ( ς preted.odownfall 1247). Some He seehave persists Wolff argued in 2009, histhat view Heraclesp. 11). that The expresses suicide doubt is a aboutthenew only type whether optionof virtue Heracles ( can survive this new doi.org/10.3390/h10010044 ς πο 1247).ἀ βί ωτHe persistsν in his view that suicide is the only option and that his life is and that his life isμι “unliveable” γ type ( of trialo 1257).is voiceddownfall by Lycus see who Wolff jibes 2009, that p. while 11). The Heracles doubt hasabout built whether a reputation Heracles for can survive this new However, when Theseus’ὕ concernρετήλος; Chalk for; 1252). Heracles 1962, Theseus’ pp. is 9–10; backed message James up 1969, by is asimple: practicalp. 19); othersHera offercles have of has care argued overcome that it tremendousis really difficul- ῆ “unliveable”fighting (ἀβίωτον wild animals, 1257). type in otherof trial respects is voiced he isby not Lycus brave who at all jibes (158). that while Heracles has built a reputation for andReceived: support, 8 January it 2021 carries ς farπο However, greater1247).Theseusties He persuasivein who thewhenpersists savespast Theseus’ andinHeracles weight. his he view canconcern (Adkins First do that andso 1966,for suicideagain. foremost, Heracles p. 2 19).is the Some Theseusis onlybacked see option in offers Heraclesup byand a a thatpractical new hisinternal- life offer is of Accepted: 2 March 2021 After Heracles’ madfighting rampage, wild animals, he awakens in other from respects his “palliative he is not sleep” brave and at allmust (158). come to purify Heraclesὕ“unliveable” of care contamination andised support, (“courageἀβίωτονTheseus through it founded carries1257). urges a process faron Heracles love”greater of (Arrowsmith ritual topers drawuasive cleansing strength 195 weight.6, (1324).p. 53;from First Riley This his and 2008 isprevious foremost,, pp. 41–42), successes Theseus while and of- to view Published: 4 March 2021 othersto terms see a newfoundwith the terrible commitment Afterscene to Heracles’before human his so madlidarity eyes rampage, (1089ff; or to fate Riley he (Papadopoulou awakens 2008, p. from 39). 2005, Therehis “palliative can be no sleep” and must come significant. One ofπο the fers1247). mostHowever, to importantpurifyHethese persists when Heracles events stages Theseus’in hisas of ofa viewco grievous recovery ntaminationconcern that suicidemisfortune forfor any throughHeracles is victim the to a onlyisbe ofprocess backed suffered war option trauma of up ritual andand by is overcome. thatacleansing practical his life (1324). Nowoffer is Heraclesof This must p. 182;doubt de inRomilly the audience’s 2003, p.to 289). terms mind For withthatmany, “mad the it is terrible the Heracles” saving scene grace was before ofnot philia himself his (friendship) eyes (931). (1089ff; Hethat Rileywas a 2008,puppet p. 39). There can be no saidPublisher’s to be Note: a process MDPI stayscare of neu- cleansing and support,take and on purification,it thecarries endurance far atgreater a physical,of suffering persuasive psychological as weight.a “labour” andFirst (1279; spiritual and foremost,Papadimitropoulos Theseus of- 2008, p. 137). “unliveable”is significant. (ἀβίωτονis theof divinecore One 1257). message andof the vengeful of most the doubtplay important forces (Stafford in the (one stages audience’s2012, view p. of 92;of recovery Heracles’Gregory mind that for2011, madness “madany pp. victim 141–49; Heracles” is that of Papadimi- war it was is trauma simply not himself a mani- (931). He was a puppet leveltral with (Shay regard 2002 to ,jurisdictional pp.fers 152–53, to purify 244–45).Heracles Heracles Earlier, ultimately of co Heraclesntamination accepts had thisthrough attempted challenge a process purification and takesof ritual foron thecleansingpsychological (1324). and This emotional suf- However,is said tropoulos towhenfestation be a Theseus’process 2008, of p.a of 132;pre-existingconcern cleansing Barlowof divinefor 1996, and Heraclestendency andpp.purification, 14–1 vengeful is toward6; backed Yoshitake at forces excessa up physical, 1994, by(one anda pp. practicalview psychological violence,151–53; of Heracles’ offerPadilla see of vonand1994, madness spir-Wilamowitz- is that it is simply a mani- killingclaims inof published Lycuscare maps but andandis theinstitu-significant.itual support, ceremony levelp. 280;fering itOne(Shay carries Silk was asof 1985,2002, interruptedhisthe far “lastmostp. greaterpp. 2; Bond labour” 152–53,important bypers 1981, his uasive(244–45).τὸν fitpp. stages of λοίσθιονxxii–xxiii). weight. madness Earlier, of recovery... FirstMoreπόνον (936–37).Heracles andrecently, for 1279). foremost, any Whenhad scholars Allvictim attempted of Theseus his haveof mythicalwar used purification of-trauma con- labours pale in tional affiliations. Moellendorf 1895, pp.festation 562–82; of Kamerbeek a pre-existing 1966, tendency pp. 12–13; toward Grube excess1961, p.and 252; violence, Silk 1985, see von Wilamowitz- he later talked of beingis saidfor polluted, theto betemporary killing comparisona process Theseus of approachesLycus of tocleansing rejected butthis thetonew mentalthe ceremonyand labour notion purification, illness (1411). ofwa to pollutions explaininterrupted Despite at a physical,Heracles’ (1232) this, by viewing orhis psychologicalmadness the fit of the madness(Charlier endurance and (936–37).2003; spir- of suffering as fers to purify Heraclesp. 17; ofor coa subconsciousntaminationMoellendorf through part of thea 1895,process hero’s pp. of soul,562–82; ritual see cleansing Kamerbeek Papadimitropoulos (1324). 1966, This pp. 2008, 12–13; p. Grube134. An- 1961, p. 252; Silk 1985, idea that miasma canitual be level transmittedLópez (Shaya “labour” Saco 2002, between 2002). pp.represents Some 152–53, friends view a244–45). (1234; Heraclesfitting Papadopoulou solution Earlier,as a war Heraclesveteranto the 2005 problemrecovering had, p. 163).attempted of from what combat purificationHeracles trauma must now do is significant.When One heother later of the viewtalked most is of thatimportant being Heracles’p. polluted, 17; stages or madness a ofTheseusubconscious recovery iss causedrejected for part anyby the ofexternal victim notion the hero’s of factors,of war pollution soul, trauma see see Riley (1232) Papadimitropoulos 2008, or pp. 37– 2008, p. 134. An- In making this is offersaidfor to of thethe be purification, ideakillinga process(Konstan (Euripides’that of miasmaLycusof Theseus 2014, cleansing pp.butplacing can finally4–6; the be and Meagher ceremony oftransmitted recognises purification,the labours2006, wa pp. thatbetweens before interrupted 50,at it a60). isphysical, not theThefriends hisrangemadness by viewpointpsychological his(1234; of factorsfit lends ofPapadopoulou madnessidentified further and spir- by(936–37).support schol- 2005, to p. this read- ars38; suggests Hartigan that the1987, situation pp.other 26–35; is viewcomplex Bond is thatand 1981, thatHeracles’ p. the xviii. identification madness I agree with isof causeda single the latter definitiveby external view: Heracles factors, seeis Riley 2008, pp. 37– thatCopyright: matters © 2021 most—ititual by the Whenlevel author.163). is (Shay thathe In later making of ing,2002, his talked see friend.pp. this England of152–53, offer being Even of 2010, 244–45).polluted, ifpurification, Heracles p. 3; Earlier, TheseuRiley may Thes 2008, sHeracles not rejectedeus pp. be finally at17–20). hadthe fault, recognises notionattempted he still of pollutionthat purification it is not (1232) his view-or reasonan innocent for Heracles’ victim rejection of38; Hera, Hartiganof suicide with is1987,Lyssa impossible: pp. acting 26–35; rather, as herBond we agent). should1981, Iris p.perhaps xviii. announces Ibe agree ex- thatwith Hera’sthe latter view: Heracles is feelsLicensee a need MDPI,for Basel,for purification theSwitzerland.the killingpoint idea (a thatof useful Lycus mattersmiasma comparison but canmost—it the beceremony transmitted is is Dodds’ that wa ofs analysis hisinterruptedbetween friend of .friendsOedipus Even by his if (1234; Heracles asfit morallyof Papadopouloumadness may not (936–37). be 2005,at fault, p. he This article is an open access article aminingwish wasthe interplay to stain between Heracles’an innocent different hands factors.victim with hisof Hera,family’s with blood Lyssa (831–32). acting Amphitryonas her agent). appeals Iris announces that Hera’s innocent but stillWhen feeling163). hestill later In the feelsmaking talked need5. a Self-Confidenceneed forthisof being purification: foroffer purification polluted,of purification, see Theseu (aDodds useful Thess 1983rejected euscomparison, pp.finally the 183–84). notion recognises is Dodds’ Theseusof pollution that analysis it is (1232) not of hisOedipus or view- as distributed under the terms and to InZeus light to of witness this, I would whatwish likeHera was to has shiftto donestain the discussion (1127;Heracles’ here away hands I follow from with Bond’s(a) his the family’semphasis second suggestedblood on (831–32). trans- Amphitryon appeals recognises this needpoint and that promises matters to addressmost—it it. is that of his friend. Even if Heracles may not be at fault, he conditions of the Creativethe idea Commonsmorally that miasmaHeracles’ innocentlation, canSelf-confidence madnesssee butbe Bond transmitted still and 1981, feeling (b) tois attemptsp. saidZeus 353),betweenthe to toneed whiletobe witness argue an friendsfor Heraimportant purification:in what favour is(1234; described Hera offactor Papadopouloua has “definitivesee in doneas Dodds building, the (1127; onefactor” 1983, 2005,in hereand controlthat pp. maintaining,p.I leads follow183–84). (Ἥρα Bond’s κρατε resili- second suggested trans- AttributionApart (CC from BY) offering stilllicense feels purification, toa needHeracles’ for purificationrejection Theseus of offerssuicide, (a useful support in favour comparison thatof examining addresses is Dodds’the range Heracles’ analysis of factors ofthat Oedipus contribute as 163). In makingTheseus this recognisesence offer ῖ(Rutter of thispurification, 1987, need p. lation,and327). Thes promises Before seeeus Bond finallyHera’s to 1981,address recognises inte p.rference, 353),it. whilethat Heracles it Herais not is washis described view- self-confident as the oneand in de- control (Ἥρα κρατε practical(http://creativecommons.org/licenses needs. Theseus offerto resilience Heracles according a home to and studies a share from modern of his wealth, psychology. as well I argue as that a resilience studies pointmorally that matters Apartinnocentcisive. most—itfrom but As offering still soonis that feeling as purification,of he his thebecame friend ῖneed aware. Theseus forEven purification: ofif Heraclesoffersthe situation support see may Dodds innot that Thebes, be 1983, addresses at fault, hepp. took 183–84). he Heracles’ control and an- share/by/4.0/). of gifts and plots of land (1324–29).1253) and This the is events a generous described offer as (Braden “Hera’s 1993 battle”, p. 248).( still feelsTheseuspractical a need recognises fornouncedneeds. purification Theseus this his need plan offer(a and touseful Heracles wipepromises comparison out a thetohome address usurper andis Dodds’ ait. shareLy cus analysis of and his wealth,his of sympathisers Oedipus as well as as ain share a systematic In terms of Ungar’s definition of resilience (discussed above),1253) and the the resources events thatdescribed Theseus as “Hera’s battle” ( morally ofinnocentApart gifts and fromkilling but plots stilloffering raid of feeling land (on purification, the(1324–29). the etymological need forThis Theseus purification: is similaritia generous offerses seesupport betweenoffer Dodds (Braden that Lycus1983, addresses 1993, pp.and 183–84).p. Lyssa 248). Heracles’ see In termsKonstan 2014, offers encompass the psychological,Ἥ social, cultural and physical resources that Heracles Theseuspracticalof recognises Ungar’s needs.p. definition 6;this Theseus Mastronarde need andofoffer resilience promises Heracles2010, p. (discussed 70). toa home address Heracles’ and above), it. a self-confidence share the of resources his wealth, was that initiallyas Theseus well as bolstered a offers share en- by his fam- needs to sustain his wellbeing. The terms of Theseus’ offerἭ of help are also practical, timely Humanities 2021, 10, 44.Apart ofhttps://doi.org/10.3390/h10010044 giftscompass from and plotsily’stheoffering psychological, prideof land purification, in (1324–29). him. Heracles’social, Theseus This cultural ismortal a offersgenerous and and supportphysical aged offer father, (Bradenthat resources www.mdpi.com/journal/humanities addresses Amphitryon, 1993, that p. HeraclesHeracles’ 248). stridently In termsneeds defends to his and generous enough to be meaningfulρας ὅδ and’ ἁγών appropriate 1189, 1311–12; to Heracles’ for a discussion former status of Hera’s as a motives see Silk 1985, pp. 2– practicalof Ungar’ssustain needs. Theseushisdefinitionson’s wellbeing. reputation offer of resilience Heracles The (170–203). terms (discusseda home of Theseus’He and is above), hugelya share offer the reliof of hisresources evedhelp wealth, byare Heracles’ thatalso as well Theseuspractical, as return, a share offers timely describing en- and him as hero. 3, 17). Lyssa acted as an agentρας ὅδ of’ ἁγώνHera but,1189, importantly, 1311–12; for shea discussion was reluctant of Hera’s to undertake motives see Silk 1985, pp. 2– of giftscompass andgenerous plots the of enoughpsychological, land (1324–29). to be meaningful social, This culturalis a andgenerous appropriateand physical offer (Braden to resources Heracles’ 1993, that formerp. 248). Heracles statusIn terms needs as a hero. to In short, the offer of real andthis“a practicallight role of(858), rescue” support citing ( fromὦ 3,Heracl φάος 17). Theseus Lyssaes’μολὼν good helps acted πατρί reputation Heracles as 531). an agent Megara toand express ofgood Hera is aadeeds devoted but, (849–54).importantly, and loving When she wife Heracles was who reluctant to undertake of Ungar’ssustain definition hisIn short, wellbeing. of the resilience offer The of terms (discussedreal andof Theseus’ practical above), of supportthefer resourcesof help from are thatTheseus also Theseus practical, helps offers Heracles timely en- and to ex- resilient outlook. We can see howawakens,refers the to offer her he is husbandsimply culturally hasthis as appropriate “dearest”norole recollection (858), ( φίλτατciting and of in Heraclhis’ accordance 490, actions 514)es’ good and (1122). with comparesreputation his and role good to that deeds of Zeus (849–54). When Heracles compassgenerouspress the psychological, a enough resilient to outlook. be social,meaningful We cultural can andsee and how appropriate physical the offer resources to is Heracles’culturally that former appropriate Heracles status needs and as a toin hero. accord- the ancient Greek view of friendship,the SaviourHeracles’ which (521–22). impliesanagnorisisawakens, The more ,three which than he young just issimply achieved emotional boys has are noby so attachmentrecollectionmeans relieved of a to detailed of see his their actions question father (1122). that and they answer will sustain hisanceIn wellbeing. short, with thethe ancient Theoffer terms of Greek real of and Theseus’view practical of friendsh offer support ofip, help which from are impliesalsoTheseus practical, more helps thantimely Heracles just and emotional to ex- and requires an exchange of benefitssessionnot let and gowith mutualof Amphitryon,him (629–30). reciprocityHeracles’ is The painful (Adkins Chorus anagnorisis yet 1966 grippingof, Theban p. 215;, which to Johnson elderswitness. is achieved sing As a Heracles paean by means of strives joy, of celebratinga to detailed discern question and answer generouspressattachment enough a resilient to and beoutlook. meaningful requires We canan and exchange see appropriate how the of obeffer nefitsto Heracles’is culturally and mutual former appropriate reciprocity status as and a (Adkinshero. in accord- 1966, 2002). Theseus’ offer to help HeracleswhoHeracles’ was is a responsible,return fair exchange andsession hisAmphitryon for many Heracles’with triumphs Amphitryon, is extraordinaryevasive (687–700). and is painful inconsistent, help In inyetturn, gripping He fearingracles to that witness.is willing Heracles As to Heracles willrisk strives to discern Inance short,p. with215; the theJohnson offer ancient of 2002). real Greek and Theseus’ view practical of offerfriendsh support to helpip, fromwhich Heracles Theseus implies is a helpsmore fair exchange Heraclesthan just toemotionalfor ex- Heracles’ retrieving him from the Underworld.reactdeath violently. to Heracles defend At his considers first, familywho Amphitryon was Theseus’(577–78), responsible, offer,orders he affirms which AmphitryonHeracles his addresses love to let isfor Heraevasive his bechildren and “attendinconsistent, (632–36) to his and fearingown he that Heracles will pressattachment a resilientextraordinary outlook. and requires help We in can retrievian see exchange howng himthe of o fromffer benefits is the culturally Underworld. and mutual appropriate reciprocityHeracles and considers in (Adkins accord- Theseus’1966, many of his most pressing needs,troubles”urges and his accepts wife(τὴν toθεὸν it. take Heracles’ ἐάσαςreact courage violently. τὰ “infinite σὰ(626). περιστέλλου At gratitude” first, Amphitryon κακά (χ $1129).ιν τε orders Later He heracles suggests to let that Hera there be andis “attend to his own p. 215; Johnson 2002). Theseus’ offer to help Heracles is a fair exchange for Heracles’ µυ$ αν 1352)ance counterbalances withoffer, the ancientwhich theshared “countless addresses AfterGreek responsibility Heracles view labours” many of friendshistroubles” of betweenstruck ( πhisóνων most ip,down Heracles,( δτὴνwhich pressingµυ byθεὸν$ madness,impliesων his ἐάσας needs,1354) bow more τὰhe thatand and σὰis hethanabroken, accepts περιστέλλουnon-specific has just both emotionalit. Heracles’ physically godκακά (1135). 1129). “infi- and Finally, Later psycho- he he suggests that there is extraordinary help in retrieving him from the Underworld. Heracles considers Theseus’ suffered. In thisattachment way, Theseus’nite andgratitude” requiressayslogically. generous that (χάριν an Heracles offerWe exchange seeτε of μυρίαν helpHeracles is sharedresponsible isofappropriate be1352) tiednefits responsibility counterbalances to forand a stone to,all mutual andth ebetweenpillar, deeds commensurate reciprocity the lying (1139). Heracles, “countless amidst According(Adkins his thelabours” bow ruins1966, toand Amphitryon’s of( πόνωνa hisnon-specific house and ac- god (1135). Finally, he offer,δὴ whichμυρίων addresses 1354) that many he has of his suffered. most pressing In this way,needs, Theseus’ and accepts generous it. Heracles’ offer of “infi- help is with, the extentp. of215; Heracles’ Johnson adversity 2002).count,surrounded Theseus’Heracles (Johnson by corpses mustoffer 2002says take,to p.(for help that 123).full interesting Heraclesresponsibility similarities isis responsiblea fair for theexchange with crimes. for Prometheus all for th eHeracles’ deeds Bound (1139). see Papadopou- According to Amphitryon’s ac- nite gratitude” (χάριν τε μυρίαν 1352) counterbalances the “countless labours” (πόνων extraordinaryappropriate helplou in 2005,to,In retrievi and Heracles’ pp. commensurate ng157–58; him mind, fromcount,Burnett the the with, Heraclesonly 1971, Underworld. theway p. exmust 169).totent atone takeThis of Heracles Heracles’ for fullsituation these responsibility considers adversitycrimes of helplessness isTheseus’ to for(Johnson pay the iswith crimes. unrecognisable 2002, his life. Mo- δὴ μυρίων 1354) that he has suffered. In this way, Theseus’ generous offer of help is 9. A Sense ofoffer, Belonging whichp. 123). addresses tivatedto him: many by“where grief, of hisam fear mostI thatof dishonour, pressingInI am Heracles’ so without needs, and mind, a andde means”sire the accepts toonly heavenge way asksit. Heracles’ to(hisποῦ atone children’s ποτ “infi-for ὢν these ἀμηχανῶmurder, crimes he; 1105).is does to pay with his life. Mo- appropriate to, and commensurate with, the extent of Heracles’ adversity (Johnson 2002, A core factornite gratitude” for resilience (χάρινnotAfter and pause learningτε for μυρίαν to recovery consider that 1352) hetivated from whether hascounterbalances traumaunwittingly by suicidegrief, is fear social is killedthe righof “countlessconnectednessdishonour, this or ownnecessary—the wifelabours” and anda de (children,sire πόνωνonly to question avenge he is his overcomeis how children’s to murder, he does p. 123).9. A Sense of Belonging (Shean 2015, p.δὴ 27) μυρίων. One of1354) Heracles’goby that aboutshame he greatest hasit. (1160). He suffered. fearscontemplates Fearing andnot In pause concerns thatthis whether he way,to willconsider is thatTheseus’ pollute to nojump whether community his generous from friend suicide a cliff, Theseus, onoffer isthrust righof helphe ta or hidessword necessary—theis his into head his inbelly, onlythe question is how to earth will acceptappropriate him (1281–84). to,A coreandordarkness This burn commensuratefactor is himself not offor his an resilience imaginarycloakin with,a gofire (1198). about theand(1146–52). fear ex Thisfor it.tent (modern Herecovery is ofIn ancontemplates Heracles’ the appo victims solitudefromsite adversity ofvisualtrauma warwhetherof his andmetaphor is implacable(Johnson socialto jump forconnectedness 2002, from griefHeracles’ a(reminiscent cliff, inner thrust psy- ofa sword into his belly, 9. A Sense of Belonging trauma do notp. always 123). (Shean find acceptance 2015,Ajax’schological p. isolation27). in astate:One community. ofin he Sophocles’Heracles’ isor suffering burn They greatest himselftragedy), may from be all-cofearsin subjected we a fire nsumingandhave (1146–52). concerns no to rejectionreason shame isIn to that andthe doubt nocannotsolitude community that see Heraclesof ahis way implacableon outwill ofcom- his grief (reminiscent of and abuse: see Shay earth2002A core, will p. mitdespair.factor 245).accept suicide. Viewingfor him resilience Amphitryon’s(1281–84). himselfAjax’s and This as for loyalty,isolation ais wretched recoverynot an pity in imaginary Sophocles’ from criminal,and love trauma fear give Heraclestragedy), (modern isHeracles social we victims connectedness haveno succour no of reason war (1203–13), and to doubt nor that Heracles will com- 9. A Sense of Belonging anticipates that he(Shean willtrauma be 2015, rejected dodoes p. not 27). Howthe byalways One everyonepity can of findand HeraclesHeracles’ griefacceptance beforemit shown possibly suicide.greatest being in by a rejected Amphitryon’s regaincommunity.fearsthe Chorus and his by concerns theself-c (1045–46, They loyalty, earthonfidence may is itself that1087–88). pity be subjectednoafter and community lovecommitting togive rejection onHeracles such acts no ofsuccour (1203–13), nor (1295–98; Johnson 2002Aearth coreand, p.will abuse:factor 119). acceptviolence? He forsee cannotYet,him Shayresilience there(1281–84).The 2002, remain answeris and p. another in245). This doesfor Thebes, lies Viewingrecoveryis the solution innot hepitythe an cannot himselfreactionsimaginaryandfrom to thegrief gotrauma as“problem” to shownof afear Argos, wretchedthose is (modern bysocial andaround ofthe criminal, he what connectednessChorus victims him. happened Heracles (1045–46, Despiteof war andand antic-Heracles’ 1087–88). it involves self- fears that everywhere(Sheantrauma 2015,ipates he turns, dop. that 27).notrevisitingaccusations, he healwaysOne will will of be betheHeracles’find ridiculed rejectedAmphitryon question acceptance greatest andby of everyone whoYet, cast inhas fearsa outthereiscommunity.refused to asandbefore blame. is a bearerconcernsanotherto beingdisown This They of occurs solutionrejected bloodis may Heraclesthat be guiltwithno by tosubjected community thethe(1113, earthunexpected“problem” 1203),to itselfrejection on he (1295– ofarrival kneels what of beforehappened The- and it involves (1281–90). Toearth someand will these abuse: accept lines see seushim indicate Shay (1281–84).(on 2002,Theseus’ Heracles’ p. This 245). heroic concernisrevisiting Viewingnot career an with imaginary thehimself see his question Papado loss as fear a of wretchedpoulouof heroic(modern who is honour2005, criminal, tovictims blame. pp. 160–61).of HeraclesThis war occurs and When antic- with Theseus the unexpected and arrival of The- and reputationtrauma (Wolffipates do 2009 not that, p.always he 15;Amphityron will Garrison find be rejectedacceptance 1995engage, by p. seus 71).ineveryonein stichomythiaa However,community.(on Theseus’ before, at Amphitryon thisTheybeing heroic point may rejected career Heraclesbe again subjected seeby assigns thePapado is earth to fullrejectionpoulou itself responsibility (1295– 2005, pp. 160–61).to Her- When Theseus and also concernedand with abuse: the sensesee Shay ofacles social 2002, for belongingp.the 245). deaths Viewing that (1184).Amphityron is crucialhimself However, to asengage an a wretched individual’sTheseus in stichomythia does criminal, sense not , acceptof AmphitryonHeracles Amphitryon’s antic- again assigns attribution full responsibility to Her- emotional andipates psychological that he will wellbeing.of be causation rejected (1187).by everyone Theseusacles beforefor juthedges beingdeaths the rejected matter(1184). byforHowever, thehimself earth Theseusand itself rightfully (1295– does not lays accept the blame Amphitryon’s attribution Heracles’ initial concernson about Hera: being he says, reabsorbed simplyof causation and into plainly, a community (1187). “this Theseus is alsoHera’s illustrateju dgescontest” the (matterἭρας forὅδ himselfἁγών 1189). and Her-rightfully lays the blame the extent to which his socialacles trust hasis not been an damaged. activeon Hera:participant Shay he defines says, in simplythis social discussion and trust plainly, as “thebut, “this presumably, is Hera’s contest” he is listening (Ἥρας ὅδ ἁγών 1189). Her- expectation that power will be(Meagher used in accordance 2006, p. 59). withacles For “what’s theis notfirst right”” antime, active Heracles (Shay participant 2002 hears, p. 151).a sympatheticin this discussion individual but, articulate presumably, he is listening We recall that at this point, Heracles’ former view of the gods has been overturned—he no that although he may(Meagher have committed 2006, p. these59). For acts, the he first did time, so unwittingly Heracles hears. According a sympathetic to Kon- individual articulate longer views Zeus and Hera as agents of “what’s right”. To some extent, Heracles’ trust in stan’s analysis, madnessthat althoughcaused Heracles he may tohave be ignorantcommitted of thesethe particulars acts, he did and, so unwittinglytherefore, . According to Kon- human society has also been damaged—he expected Lycus to be constrained by shame his acts were involuntarystan’s (Konstan analysis, 2013,madness pp. 434,caused 430). Heracles In modern to be legal ignorant terms, of one the mightparticulars and, therefore, his acts were involuntary (Konstan 2013, pp. 434, 430). In modern legal terms, one might

Humanities 2021, 10, 44 9 of 12

but Lycus was shameless (556); he expected his friends to help his family but no help was forthcoming (558); he expected to be repaid for his good deeds in battling the Minyans but there was no repayment (560). Theseus’ offer to adopt Heracles into the Athenian community represents an attempt to rebuild Heracles’ social trust. Theseus promises that Heracles will have a new home in Athens and that he will be recognised and accepted into a collective Greek identity (1334–35; Gregory 2011, p. 146). Theseus is in a position to make this offer because he is the King of Athens and therefore a representative of Greece itself (Barlow 1996, p. 3; Meagher 2006, p. 61; Theseus plays a similar role in Euripides’ Suppliants and Sophocles’ Oedipus at Colonus). While the Athenians are proclaiming their faith in Heracles’ innocence and goodness, Heracles’ acceptance of the offer shows his willingness to trust in Athenian society (on the importance of civilian displays of gratitude to those who have performed military service see Sherman 2014, p. 215). For some, Theseus’ offer is a propagandistic device to make Athens look good: a pleasing take-home message for the Greek audience and an aetiology of Athenian worship of Heracles (Wolff 2009, p. 14; Stafford 2012, p. 92; Papadopoulou 2004, pp. 267–68). Yet, the play stands for more than just a story about Heracles’ heroic relationship with Athens: Heracles was, after all, a panhellenic hero (Gregory 2011, p. 121). It is a profound Humanities 2021, 10, 44 Humanitiesillustration 2021, 10, 44 of community help and support in any crisis situation (Papadopoulou4 of 13 2004, 4 of 13

p. 268; Meagher 2006, p. 61; duBois quoted in Nussbaum 2008, p. 151). In other words, while the Athenian community may be the saviour in this play, Euripides may also be making a broader observation about how community can be an individual’s saviour in life. downfall see Wolff 2009, p. 11). The downfalldoubt about see Wolffwhether 2009, Heracles p. 11). canThe survive doubt about this new whether Heracles can survive this new type of trial is voiced by Lycus who jibes that while Heracles has built a reputation for type of trial 10.is voiced Signs ofby Resilience?Lycus who jibes that while Heracles has built a reputation for fighting wild animals, in other respectsfighting he is wildnot brave animals, at all in (158). other respects he is not brave at all (158). In the final scene of the play, the Heracles who limps off stage has lost all traces of After Heracles’ mad rampage, he awakensAfter Heracles’ from his “palliativemad rampage, sleep” he andawakens must fromcome his “palliative sleep” and must come divinity. He is not cured of his grief, he is in tears (1394), his joints are stiff (1395) and to terms with the terrible scene beforeto histerms eyes with (1089ff; the terrible Riley 2008, scene p. before 39). There his eyes can (1089ff;be no Riley 2008, p. 39). There can be no he is physically supported by Theseus (1424; Worman reads this physical bond between doubt in the audience’s mind that “maddoubt Heracles” in the audience’s was not himself mind that (931). “mad He wasHeracles” a puppet was not himself (931). He was a puppet Heracles and Theseus as symbolic of the “citizen bond” (Worman 1999, pp. 94, 102); also of divine and vengeful forces (one viewof divine of Heracles’ and vengeful madness forces is that (one it viewis simply of Heracles’ a mani- madness is that it is simply a mani- see Padilla 1994, p. 297). He is both pitiable and self-pitying and has been utterly brought festation of a pre-existing tendencyfestation toward excessof a pre-existing and violence, tendency see von toward Wilamowitz- excess and violence, see von Wilamowitz- low by misfortune. It is a sorry picture and one could be forgiven for asking whether Moellendorf 1895, pp. 562–82; KamerbeekMoellendorf 1966, pp.1895, 12–13; pp. 562–82;Grube 1961,Kamerbeek p. 252; 1966,Silk 1985, pp. 12–13; Grube 1961, p. 252; Silk 1985, Heracles really is resilient. It is crucial to recognise, however, just how far Heracles has p. 17; or a subconscious part of the hero’sp. 17; orsoul, a subconscious see Papadimitropoulos part of the 2008,hero’s p. soul, 134. see An- Papadimitropoulos 2008, p. 134. An- come in terms of his psychological outlook. From a state of despair in which he could other view is that Heracles’ madnessother is caused view byis thatexternal Heracles’ factors, madness see Riley is caused2008, pp. by 37– external factors, see Riley 2008, pp. 37– imagine no alternative but suicide, he has now committed to enduring life. 38; Hartigan 1987, pp. 26–35; Bond 1981, p. xviii. I agree with the latter view: Heracles is 38; Hartigan 1987,As pp. we 26–35; noted Bond earlier, 1981, the pathp. xviii. to resilience I agree with is not the the latter same view: as “bouncing Heracles back”—it is more an innocent victim of Hera, with Lyssa acting as her agent). Iris announces that Hera’s an innocent oftenvictim involves of Hera, a with long andLyssa arduous acting emotionalas her agent). journey Iris throughannouncesdistress. that Hera’s Euripides conveys wish was to stain Heracles’ hands with his family’s blood (831–32). Amphitryon appeals wish was to thisstain in Heracles’ dramatic hands form with by showing his family’s Heracles’ blood emotional (831–32). Amphitryon and physical appeals frailty (1398–1404). to Zeus to witnessHeracles’ what weeping Hera has is done anto important Zeus(1127; to here witness expression I follow what Bond’s ofHera his secondhas inner done state. suggested (1127; Although here trans- I follow Theseus Bond’s tells second suggested trans- lation, see Bondhim 1981, that he p. has353), wept while enough Heralation, (1394),is see described Bond Heracles 1981, as the cannot p. one353), stopin while control (1354–56, Hera (Ἥρα is 1395) described κρατε just as as the the elderly one in control (Ἥρα κρατε ῖ Thebans cannot stop weepingῖ (449–50). Weeping is a sign of Heracles’ humanity (for a 1253) anddiscussion the events of described “excessive” as “Hera’s weeping1253) andbattle” see the Papadopoulou ( events described 2005 as, pp. “Hera’s 186–87. battle” I would ( argue that Heracles’ weeping is not excessive since weeping is a healthy outlet for distress and a Ἥ natural consequence of sufferingἭ loss). As Shay observes, forgetting combat trauma is not a legitimate goal of treatment. ρας ὅδ’ Rather,ἁγών 1189, the goal1311–12; is to for remember a discussionρας ὅδ and’ ἁγών toof grieve,Hera’s 1189, motives not1311–12; only see for Silk a external discussion 1985, lossespp. of2– Hera’s but also motives for see Silk 1985, pp. 2– 3, 17). Lyssa internalacted as losses an agent such of as Hera lost3, 17). innocencebut, Lyssa importantly, acted (Shay as 1994 shean, agent p.was 192). reluctant of InHera this but,to sense, undertake importantly, Heracles’ decisionshe was reluctant to undertake this role (858),to citing keep hisHeracl weaponses’ good may thisreputation indicate role (858), and a consciousciting good Heracl deeds decision es’(849–54). good to rememberreputation When Heracles and good to grieve deeds his (849–54). When Heracles awakens, he traumaticsimply has past no (1376–77;recollection awakens,Papadopoulou of his actionshe simply 2005 (1122). ,has p. 179;no recollection Riley 2008, p.of 43;his onactions the psychological (1122). Heracles’risks anagnorisis of denial, which see Zautra is achieved et al.Heracles’ 2010 by, means p. anagnorisis 7). Heracles of a detailed, which asserts question is that achieved he and will by answer not means let the of weapons a detailed question and answer session with goAmphitryon, (1385) but is will painful treat themyetsession gripping as with potent toAmphitryon, witness. reminders As is ofHeracles painful the loss strivesyet of gripping his to family discern toand witness. his divine As Heracles strives to discern who was responsible,honour (1380–82). Amphitryon iswho evasive was responsible,and inconsistent, Amphitryon fearing thatis evasive Heracles and will inconsistent, fearing that Heracles will react violently. AtFinally, first, Amphitryon Heracles insists reactorders that violently. He Theseusracles At to accompany first, let Hera Amphitryon be him and to “attend fetchorders the to He doghisracles own Cerberus to let Hera so that be and “attend to his own troubles” (τὴνhe θεὸν may ἐάσας not suffer τὰ σὰ in beingπεριστέλλουtroubles” alone ((µ τὴνκακάπ θεὸνθω 1129). µἐάσαςoν Lateroυ´µεν τὰ he σὰo ςsuggests 1388).περιστέλλου One that possible there κακά is 1129). implication Later he suggests that there is shared responsibilityis that Heracles between may Heracles, stillshared be his liable responsibilitybow to and fall a into non-specific despairbetween and Heracles,god commit (1135). his suicideFinally, bow and (on he a this non-specific request god (1135). Finally, he says that Heraclesas a sign is responsible of Heracles’ for physicalsays all th thate weaknessdeeds Heracles (1139). see is responsibleAccordingvon Wilamowitz-Moellendorf to for Amphitryon’s all the deeds ac-(1139). 1895 ,According p. 109; to Amphitryon’s ac- count, Heracles must take full responsibilitycount, Heracles for the crimes.must take full responsibility for the crimes. In Heracles’ mind, the only way to atoneIn Heracles’ for these mind, crimes the is only to pay way with to atone his life. for Mo- these crimes is to pay with his life. Mo- tivated by grief, fear of dishonour, andtivated a de bysire grief, to avenge fear of his dishonour, children’s and murder, a desire he todoes avenge his children’s murder, he does not pause to consider whether suicidenot is pause right toor considernecessary—the whether only suicide question is righ is thow or necessary—the to only question is how to go about it. He contemplates whethergo toabout jump it. from He contemplates a cliff, thrust whethera sword tointo jump his belly,from a cliff, thrust a sword into his belly, or burn himself in a fire (1146–52). Inor the burn solitude himself of in his a fireimplacable (1146–52). grief In (reminiscentthe solitude of his implacable grief (reminiscent of Ajax’s isolation in Sophocles’ tragedy),Ajax’s we have isolation no reason in Sophocles’ to doubt tragedy), that Heracles we have will nocom- reason to doubt that Heracles will com- mit suicide. Amphitryon’s loyalty, pitymit andsuicide. love Amphitryon’s give Heracles loyalty,no succour pity (1203–13), and love givenor Heracles no succour (1203–13), nor does the pity and grief shown by thedoes Chorus the pity(1045–46, and grief 1087–88). shown by the Chorus (1045–46, 1087–88). Yet, there is another solution to theYet, “problem” there is ofanother what happenedsolution to and the it“problem” involves of what happened and it involves revisiting the question of who is to blame.revisiting This the occurs question with ofthe who unexpected is to blame. arrival This of occurs The- with the unexpected arrival of The- seus (on Theseus’ heroic career see Papadoseus (onpoulou Theseus’ 2005, heroic pp. 160–61).career see When Papado Theseuspoulou and 2005, pp. 160–61). When Theseus and Amphityron engage in stichomythia, AmphityronAmphitryon engageagain assigns in stichomythia full responsibility, Amphitryon to Her- again assigns full responsibility to Her- acles for the deaths (1184). However,acles Theseus for the does deaths not accept(1184). Amphitryon’sHowever, Theseus attribution does not accept Amphitryon’s attribution of causation (1187). Theseus judges ofthe causation matter for (1187). himself Theseus and rightfully judges the lays matter the blame for himself and rightfully lays the blame on Hera: he says, simply and plainly,on “this Hera: is Hera’she says, contest” simply (andἭρας plainly, ὅδ ἁγών “this 1189). is Hera’s Her- contest” (Ἥρας ὅδ ἁγών 1189). Her- acles is not an active participant inacles this is discussion not an active but, participantpresumably, in hethis is discussionlistening but, presumably, he is listening (Meagher 2006, p. 59). For the first time,(Meagher Heracles 2006, hears p. 59).a sympathetic For the first individual time, Heracles articulate hears a sympathetic individual articulate that although he may have committedthat these although acts, he he did may so have unwittingly committed. According these acts, to Kon- he did so unwittingly. According to Kon- stan’s analysis, madness caused Heraclesstan’s to analysis, be ignorant madness of the caused particulars Heracles and, to therefore, be ignorant of the particulars and, therefore, his acts were involuntary (Konstan 2013,his acts pp. were 434, involuntary430). In modern (Konstan legal terms,2013, pp. one 434, might 430). In modern legal terms, one might

Humanities 2021, 10, 44 10 of 12

on Heracles’ willingness to undertake heroic labour once again and the concept of a “joint task” see Johnson 2002, p. 124). Heracles’ request may not seem the mark of a resilient man, but the recognition of his own vulnerability shows a high level of self-awareness and self-regard. Theseus will act as a guard against Heracles committing self-harm. Theseus and Heracles are now bound together literally/physically, metaphorically/spiritually and in an emotional/familial sense, since Heracles adopts Theseus as a replacement son (1401). Importantly, the image of Heracles leaning upon Theseus also mirrors the proven resilience of the aged members of the chorus: weary war veterans who physically and emotionally lean upon each other as they make their way through life (126–30).

11. Conclusions Euripides was, first and foremost, a dramatist whose primary concern was the creation of memorable (and successful) theatre (Riley 2008, p. 31). That being said, great drama is not necessarily distant from the psychological realities of human suffering and survival. In Euripides’ play, Heracles endures one of the greatest tragedies imaginable and, in doing so, he emerges as a remarkable example of human fortitude. Heracles demonstrates that it is more heroic to endure human suffering and to continue with life than to be consumed by suffering. He finds a way through his despair by drawing on his emotional and psychological strengths, regaining his self-belief, taking responsibility for his future, finding meaning in life, and accepting help offered by loved ones and a broader community. Although Heracles may be fragile at the end of the play, he is alive (Gregory 2011, p. 148). While it may be argued that the play illustrates a solution that is particular to Heracles, the play can also be viewed from a broader perspective, with Heracles as a Panhellenic hero and a hero of humankind. Viewed in this way, Euripides’ drama illustrates a complex set of protective factors that are recognised to be of assistance to individuals recovering from trauma. Euripides dramatizes events that can stretch human resilience to its limits but he also dramatizes the protective factors that can help to bring an individual back from the brink. In short, Euripides gives us a highly sophisticated and masterfully dramatic representation of how an individual can successfully transition from personal crisis to resilience.

Funding: This research received no external funding. Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

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