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Vorwort Und Danksagung S 1 STALINS FILMPOLITIK Die Reorganisation der sowjetischen Filmindustrie 1929-38 Von liberaler Marktökonomie und kreativer Vielfalt zur zentral und monopolistisch gesteuerten Propagandamaschinerie Inaugural-Dissertation zur Erlangung der Doktorwürde der Philosophischen Fakultät der Rheinischen Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität zu Bonn vorgelegt von Eberhard Nembach aus Erpen jetzt Dissen Bonn 2001 2 Gedruckt mit Genehmigung der Philosophischen Fakultät der Rheinischen Friedrich- Wilhelms-Universität Bonn 1. Berichterstatter: Prof. Dr. Dittmar Dahlmann 2. Berichterstatter: Prof. Dr. Winfried Pothoff Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 14.2.2001 3 Für Astrid 4 5 Inhalt Vorwort und Danksagung S. 9 I. EINLEITUNG S. 11 I.1. Die wichtigste der Künste – Die Bol’ševiki und der Film S. 12 I.2. Ziel der Arbeit S. 14 I.3. Forschungsstand S. 16 I.4. Quellen S. 19 II. POLITISCHE WEICHENSTELLUNGEN S. 20 II.1. Die erste Parteikonferenz zu Kinofragen vom 15.-21.3.1928 S. 20 II.1.1. Die Planung der Veranstaltung S. 21 II.1.2. Das Kino vor dem Gericht der Arbeiter – die Kino-Versammlung und ihre Diskussionen S. 24 II.1.3. Die Ergebnisse der Kino-Versammlung S. 29 II.2. Erste Schritte zum Umbau der Filmindustrie S. 34 II.2.1. Der erste Fünfjahresplan der sowjetischen Filmindustrie S. 34 II.2.2. Die Maßnahmen des CK S. 37 II.2.3. Zensur S. 39 II.2.4. Das erste Kino-Komitee S. 42 II.2.5. Die Gründung der SOJUZKINO S. 42 II.2.6. Die "Säuberung" der ARRK und und die Auseinandersetzung mit dem "Formalismus" S. 44 II.2.7. Die nationalen Kino-Organsiationen S. 46 II.2.8. Erste Versuche mit mäßigem Erfolg – Ergebnisse der Sowjetischen Kinopolitik vor 1933 S. 49 6 II.3. Die Gründung der GUKF S. 49 II.3.1. Die Kino-Kommission beim OB des CK S. 49 II.3.2. Die Vorbereitung der GUKF-Gründung S. 54 II.3.3. Die Gründung der GUKF S. 56 II.3.4. Die Praxis der GUKF S. 62 II.3.5. Das Kino-Netz S. 65 II.4. Kinematografie für Millionen – Maßnahmen und Initiativen der GUKF und ihres Leiters, Boris Zacharovič Šumjackij S. 68 II.4.1. Neue Filme für die neue Gesellschaft S. 68 II.4.2. Die Wochenschau als "Bühne der Nation" S. 72 II.4.3. Der Kinozug als "Wanderbühne der Nation" S. 79 II.4.4. Die Arbeit des wolgadeutschen Wochenschau-Studios S. 81 II.5. Das Jahr 1935 S. 82 II.5.1. Die 15-Jahr-Feier der sowjetischen Kinematografie S. 82 II.5.2. Das Moskauer Internationale Filmfestival 1935 S. 86 II.5.3. Eine ernsthafte Lektion – die große Reise nach Westen S. 87 II.5.4. Neue Impulse S. 92 II.5.5. Die Kinostadt - Das sowjetische Hollywood S. 94 II.6. Kritik und verschärfte Kontrolle S. 95 II.6.1. Der erste Schritt: die Liquidation der MEŽRABPOM-FIL'M S. 95 II.6.2. Ein neuer Wind: Kritik und Selbstkritik in der Filmindustrie S. 99 II.6.3. Ein Exempel wird statuiert: Ėjzenštejn und Die Bežin-Wiese S.104 I I.6.4. Terrormaßnahmen - Das Ende der GUKF S.109 I I.6.5. Eine Bilanz der Arbeit der GUKF und ihres Leiters Šumjackij S.120 II.7. Eine neue Ära beginnt – Das Kino-Komitee beim Rat der Volkskommissare S.125 7 III. UNTERHALTUNG UND PROPAGANDA: DIE FILME S.129 III.1. Filmkomödien: Das Lachen ist eine außerordentlich scharfe Waffe S.129 III.2. Historienfilme: Mythische Überhöhung der Gegenwart durch Umdeutung der Vergangenheit S.144 III.3. Propagandafilme: „Erziehung zum Neuen Menschen“ und „Entlarvung von Feinden“ S.151 IV. FILME MACHEN UND FILME SEHEN: DIE REGISSEURE UND DAS PUBLIKUM S.166 IV.1. Zwischen Anpassung, Selbstverleugnung und Trotz: Die Regisseure S.166 Der Fall der Regisseurin Margarita Barskaja S.171 IV.2. Zwischen Sentimentalität und formalistischem Experiment: Regiestile S.174 IV.3. Tempel für die Feier der neuen Helden: Die Filmtheater und ihre Besucher S.179 IV.4. Die peredvižka kommt! - Das Kino auf dem Dorf S.183 V. FAZIT S.187 Quellen und Literatur S.193 Abkürzungen S.201 Anmerkungen S.203 8 9 Vorwort und Danksagung Ohne die großzügige finanzielle Unterstützung durch die Stiftung Volkswagen- werk wären die Recherchen für diese Arbeit nicht möglich geworden. Für die unbürokratische und hilfsbereite Betreuung danke ich insbesondere Herrn Dr. Wolfgang Levermann. Meinen Eltern danke ich für einen Zuschuss zu den Druckkosten. Für die Betreuung der Arbeit danke ich Professor Dr. Dittmar Dahlmann. Mit seiner Begeisterung für alte Sowjet-Filme hat mich Julian Graffy von der School of Slavonic and East European Studies in London angesteckt. Für die exzellente Betreuung während des Archivaufenthalts in Moskau danke ich dem Center for the Study of Russia and the Soviet Union unter der Ägide von J. Arch Getty. Besonders die tatkräftige Hilfe von Leonid Vaintraub hat mir die Arbeit in den Moskauer Archiven erheblich erleichtert. Alle Übersetzungen stammen, soweit nicht ausdrücklich anders vermerkt, von mir. Besonderen Dank schulde ich meiner Frau Astrid für ihre Inspiration, Geduld und unermüdliche kritische Begleitung. Ohne sie wäre diese Arbeit wohl kaum zum Abschluss gekommen. Ihr möchte ich sie deshalb auch widmen. Frankfurt am Main im April 2001 E.N. 10 11 I. EINLEITUNG I.1. Die wichtigste der Künste – Die Bol’ševiki und der Film Kein Medium ist so aufwendig, schwerfällig und teuer wie der Film. Kein ande- res Medium kann sich aber auch mit der Prägnanz und Authentizität des Films messen, dessen bewegte fotografische Bilder die höchste Realitätsnähe der Dar- stellung ermöglichen. Wer einen Film sieht, kann sich der Sogwirkung des Dar- gestellten nur schwer entziehen und braucht einige medienkritische Erfahrung, um es nicht für abgebildete „Realität“ zu halten. Deshalb eignet sich das Kino hervorragend für die breitenwirksame Vermittlung von Inhalten aller Art: von historischen, gesellschaftlichen oder politischen Sachverhalten über abstrakte ideologische Inhalte bis hin zu Gefühlen oder Verhaltensnormen und deren Wertungen. Das Medium Film verkörperte in der ersten Hälfte des zwanzigsten Jahrhunderts außerdem eine gewisse Modernität, was dem technizistischen Pa- thos vieler Intellektueller der zwanziger und dreißiger Jahre entgegenkam. Die Begeisterung, die gerade sie für das Medium Film aufbrachten, war daher in Mitteleuropa, den USA und im sowjetischen Russland gleichermaßen groß. Die massenwirksame Macht des Mediums Film nutzten auch die Bol’ševiki, um nach ihrer Machtübernahme per Handstreich im Petersburger Winterpalast das russische Riesenreich geistig-moralisch zu erobern und in eine von „Sowjet- menschen“ bevölkerte „sozialistische Gesellschaft“ umzuschmieden. Das jeden- falls behaupteten die Führer der kommunistischen Staatspartei und ihre Histo- riographen später. In Wirklichkeit ist nicht einmal erwiesen, ob jener Lenin-Ausspruch authentisch ist, den zu zitieren Jahrzehnte lang im gesamten sowjetischen Einflussbereich für alle obligatorisch wurde, die sich mit Filmen befassten. Das Zitat geht zu- rück auf den Volksbildungskommissar Lunačarskij, der sich an ein Gespräch mit Lenin erinnerte:Darauf fügte Vladimir Il’ič lächelnd hinzu: „Da Sie ja bei uns als Beschützer der Kunst gelten, denken Sie immer daran, dass von allen Künsten die für uns wichtigste das Kino ist.“1 Die Anfänge der eigenen, spezifisch sowjetischen und von der Partei gesteuer- ten Filmindustrie waren in Wahrheit erklärtermaßen äußerst bescheiden. Volks- bildungskommissar Lunačarskij hatte selbst 1918 öffentlich den filmpolitischen Anspruch der neuen Führung bewusst vorsichtig formuliert: Die Sowjetmacht sieht die Verstaatlichung der gesamten Filmindustrie in Russland als nicht zweckmäßig an. […] Ich gebe zu, dass die Verstaatlichung der gesamten [privaten] Filmindustrie absolut nicht notwendig ist, und sogar, wenn Sie so wollen, für die neue, sich überhaupt erst organisierende staatliche [Filmindustrie] schädlich ist. 12 Kennern der Filmbranche, zu denen auch der Volksbildungskommissar gehörte, war klar, dass das betriebswirtschaftliche, technische und künstlerische Know- how der privaten Filmunternehmer zunächst unersetzlich sein würde. Ein neuer staatlicher Filmsektor war zunächst auch materiell kaum auf eigene Füße zu stellen. Um das Medium Film durch einen landesweiten radikalen Kahlschlag nicht in seinem Bestand zu gefährden, duldeten die Bol’ševiki daher zunächst bewusst die Dominanz des privaten Sektors und reklamierten selbst nur eine bescheidene staatliche Nische, wie Lunačarskij zugab: Das einzige, was wir für den größtmöglichen Erfolg unserer [staatlichen] Unternehmen und unserer [staatlich produzierten] Filme tun, ist, dass wir, wenn unsere Produktion in Gang kommt, in jeder Stadt ein Filmtheater verstaatlichen, um dort unsere Fil- me zu zeigen und eventuell die Besitzer von [privaten] Filmtheatern verpflich- ten, an einem Tag in der Woche unsere Filme zu zeigen. Der Volksbildungskommissar machte sich keine Illusionen darüber, wie viele Anstrengungen und wie viel Zeit nötig sein würden, um eine eigenständige, vom Ausland und von privaten Investoren unabhängige staatliche sowjetische Filmwirtschaft aufzubauen, deren industrielle Ressourcen - etwa für die Roh- film-Produktion - überhaupt erst zu schaffen waren: Es ist ja auch geradezu lä- cherlich beschämend für ein Land, in dem das Filmwesen so verbreitet ist, aus- ländisches Material zu verarbeiten und keine eigene Produktion zu haben, um so mehr, da ja alle erforderlichen Rohstoffe in Russland vorhanden sind.2 Die laxe „Neue Ökonomische Politik“ der zwanziger Jahre bot vielen Kinobe- treibern und Produktionsfirmen reichlich Freiheiten, um ihre eigenen Ziele und Ideen zu verfolgen. Auch unter dem Dach verschiedener staatlicher Institutio- nen wurden Filmprojekte verwirklicht, deren künstlerischer Anspruch hoch und deren Produktionskosten
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