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Kgalagadi National Park

PARK MANAGEMENT PLAN

October 2006

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AUTHORISATION

This management plan is hereby internally accepted and authorised as the legal requirement for managing Kgalagadi National Park as stated in the Protected Areas Act.

______Date: ______Paul Daphne Executive Director Parks, SANParks

______Date: ______Sydney Soundy Chief Operating Officer, SANParks

______Date: ______Dr David Mabunda Chief Executive, SANParks

Recommended to SANParks Board

______Date: ______Ms Cheryl Carolus Chairperson, SANParks Board

Recommended to Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism

______Date: ______Mr Marthinus van Schalkwyk Minister: Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT)

Kgalagadi National Park Park Management Plan Version 1 (31 October 2006) Formatted: Font: (Default) Arial, 9 pt Formatted: Normal EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The South African side of the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (hereafter referred to as the Kgalagadi National Park) is an integral part of the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park which together with the neighbouring wild life management areas in Botswana forms one of the largest contiguous conservation areas in the world. Its major biodiversity characteristics are a large herbivore migratory and nomadic arid ecosystem which supports a fully functional large carnivore predator/prey system and an important refuge for a large raptor community. It is also an important cultural heritage area for the Khomani-San people. The area is characterized by a striking landscape of wide vistas, attractive red sand dunes, large camelthorn trees and a dessert bloom.

The Kgalagadi National Park is situated in the Northern Cape Province, between Namibia and Botswana in an area characterized by sparse populations of people and long distances for infrastructural lines of support. There is a high level of poverty in the surrounding area, with the main income-generating activities being small-stock herding, craft manufacturing and cultural performances.

The desired state of the Park is based on a mission, vital attributes, objectives and acceptable endpoints all specified in this plan. It is primarily set around the conservation of the unique biodiversity characteristics of the area, with the large herbivore movements and attendant large carnivores as the central components. The use of the provision of water as a management strategy is the most contentious biodiversity issue that needs to be addressed and balanced between biodiversity and tourism interests. The apparent decline in the nomadic species such as springbok and red hartebeest is a concern and needs to be investigated as a matter of urgency. The Kgalagadi National Park is the traditional home of the Khomani San people. The implementation of the cultural heritage plan is therefore also a high priority. Here the joint management as a protected area of the land successfully claimed by the Khomani San and Mier Communities within the park in conjunction with SANParks and the unpacking and implementation of the Ae!Hai Kalahari Heritage Agreement are the central themes. Tourism is well developed in the Kgalagadi National Park and it will continue to ensure that this park remains a flagship product which is financially sustainable and to offer tourists a quality experience. With regard to building cooperation the objectives seek to develop and nurture relationships between Park Management and stakeholders that promote the long-term social sustainability of the park. Collaborating with neighboring communities in the management of problem causing animals which move out of the park is possibly the priority here. Important objectives to ensure effective park management include addressing the situation regarding drinking water at the rest camps and developing the research and inventory and monitoring program to provide information relevant to park management. A preliminary suite of thresholds is presented, for monitoring performance relative to the desired state, but these need to be developed further.

A set of appropriate programs have been set up to achieve the desired state. The strongest emphasis falls on biodiversity and cultural heritage management. However, the tourism program, programs to build cooperation with stakeholders, including environmental education, and to enhance affective park management of which the problem animal program and certain infrastructural development programs are important, as well as programs to enhance corporate support, are presented and discussed.

Finally, generic guidelines for the all-important learning pathways, represented by the various feedbacks in the adaptive management cycle, are presented. These need to be made more explicit for the likely scenarios which could unfold as SANParks manages the Kgalagadi National Park. Formatted: Font: 9 pt

Ref. 16/1/5/1/5/11/1 Kgalagadi National Park Park Management Plan Version 1 (31 October 2006) Formatted: Font: (Default) Arial, 9 pt Formatted: Normal TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 BACKGROUND TO AND FORMULATION OF THE PARK DESIRED STATE 1 1.1 The fundamental decision-making environment ...... 1 1.1.1 Mission ...... 1 1.1.2 Context ...... 1 1.1.2.1 Location and Boundaries...... 1 1.1.2.2 History ...... 3 1.1.2.3 Physical environment and land use ...... 4 1.1.2.4 Biological environment ...... 5 1.1.2.5 Social, economic and political context...... 7 1.1.2.6 International and national context ...... 7 1.1.3 Values and Operating Principles ...... 7 1.2 Vital attributes underpinning the value proposition of the Park...... 8 1.3 Setting the details of the desired state for Kgalagadi National Park ...... 9 1.3.1 An objectives hierarchy for Kgalagadi National Park...... 9 1.3.2 Thresholds of concern and other exact conservation targets...... 12 1.3.3 Conservation Development Framework...... 13 2 PROGRAMS TO ACHIEVE THE DESIRED STATE ...... 14 2.1 Biodiversity and Heritage Conservation ...... 14 2.1.1 Zonation Program...... 14 2.1.2 Park Expansion Program ...... 15 2.1.3 Land Restitution Program...... 16 2.1.4 Transfrontier Conservation Area Program ...... 16 2.1.5 Cultural Resource Program ...... 17 2.1.6 River, Wetland and Groundwater Program...... 18 2.1.6.1 Human Use ...... 18 2.1.6.2 Animal Use...... 18 2.1.7 Invasive Biota Program ...... 19 2.1.8 Disease Management Program ...... 19 2.1.9 Rehabilitation Program...... 20 2.1.10 Fire Program...... 20 2.1.11 Threatened Species Program...... 20 2.2 Sustainable Tourism ...... 20 2.2.1 Sustainable Tourism Program ...... 20 2.3 Building co-operation...... 21 2.3.1 Co-operative Governance and Community Participation Program...... 21 2.3.2 Environmental Education and Interpretation Program...... 21 2.3.3 Constituency Building Program...... 22 2.3.4 Communications Program...... 22 2.4 Effective Park Management ...... 22 2.4.1 Environmental Management Program...... 22 2.4.2 Infrastructure Development Program ...... 23 2.4.3 Safety and Security Program...... 23 2.4.4 Problem or Damage Causing Animal Program...... 23 2.4.5 Staff Capacity Building Program: ...... 24 2.4.6 Financial Sustainability Program: ...... 24 2.5 Corporate Support ...... 25 2.5.1 Research Support Program ...... 25 2.5.2 Institutional Development and Administration Program ...... 25 2.5.3 HIV/AIDS...... 25 2.5.4 Risk management Program...... 25 Formatted: Font: 9 pt

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3 ADAPTIVE AND INTEGRATIVE STRATEGIES TO SUSTAIN THE DESIRED STATE...... 26 3.1 Key prioritization, integration and sequencing issues...... 26 3.2 Steps to Operationalisation...... 27 3.3 Key Ongoing Adaptive Management and Evaluation Interventions...... 27

1 BACKGROUND TO AND FORMULATION OF THE PARK DESIRED STATE

This section deals with the setting of a park desired state from the general to the specific through the adaptive planning process (Rogers 2003), focusing on unique attributes of the South African side of the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park hereafter referred to as the Kgalagadi National Park. Although now entrenched in the literature, the “state” in desired state in no way implies a static state, but rather refers to a “desired set of varying conditions”– in fact SANParks biodiversity values (SANParks 2006) accept that change in a system is ongoing.

1.1 The fundamental decision-making environment

The three pillars of the decision-making environment are the mission statement, the context and the values and operating principles. As the Kgalagadi National Park is an integral part of the much larger Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park and has in ecological terms been so for over 50 years, the process through which the mission has been developed and much of the supporting material which helped form it captured under other headings further down in the document are nested in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park management plan (SANParks & DWNP 2003). Certain in-house revisions were subsequently made to the detail of biodiversity objectives, in the light of the recent appearance of biodiversity values in SANParks and full biodiversity custodianship framework (SANParks 2006). These will be presented as part of an integrated proposal of the management plan at a public meeting held in terms of the Protected Areas Act on 17 August 2006.

1.1.1 Mission The Kgalagadi National Park, as an integral part of the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, will be managed by SANParks to maintain and/or recreate the ecological processes, faunal and floral assemblages, landscape characteristics and cultural resources representative of the area, to foster international co-operation through a transfrontier conservation area, and offer long-term benefit to the people of the area.

The explicit inclusion of the fact that the Kgalagadi National Park is an integral part of the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park signifies the central importance of this relationship and underlies the predominant value of the park. However, there are also unique and important cultural heritage attributes with the Khomani-San and Mier Community that need concerted attention. These should not oppose the biodiversity attributes, so that the cornerstones of the mission statement (namely maintenance of ecological and cultural attributes, transfrontier co-operation, and human benefits) can be effectively supported in an integrated way.

1.1.2 Context 1.1.2.1 Location and Boundaries The Kgalagadi National Park is situated in the Northern Cape Province from approximately 22° 10” east, 20° 0” west, 24° 6” north and 26° 28” south. The western border is the international boundary with Namibia and the eastern border along the Nossob River is the international border with Botswana, where it adjoins the Botswana section of the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (Figure 1). Formatted: Position: Horizontal: Right, Relative to: Margin

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Figure 1: Location and boundaries of the Kgalagadi National Park within the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park.

The headquarters of the Kgalagadi National Park are at Twee Rivieren at the southern entrance. The closest town is Askham (72 km from Twee Rivieren), but Upington (260 km from Twee Rivieren) is the real source of goods and services for the park. The Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park has been de facto in existence since 1948 through a verbal agreement between the South African and Botswana conservation authorities. In recognition of the arrangement no barrier to wildlife movement existed along the international boundary separating the 9 591 km² Kalahari Gemsbok National Park in the Republic of South Africa from the 28 400 km² Gemsbok National Park in Botswana. The park manager and some of the rangers of the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park have been ex officio honorary game wardens in Botswana since 1964. The area, which measures 37256km2, represents a large ecosystem relatively free of human influence – an increasingly rare phenomenon in the world.

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1.1.2.2 History Before White settlements or exploitation, the area now included in the Kgalagadi National Park was part of the San people’s domain for hunting and gathering food. For years, no government claimed the land and the San were the only people residing here. Eventually the land became attached to the Cape Colony. The government, from 1897, began to survey the land and subdividing it into farms for White settlers. However, the White settlers were slow to take advantage of the newly surveyed farms and the Cape Government decided to give them to Coloured (“Basters”) farmers instead.

With the outbreak of World War 1 in 1914, the Union of South Africa Government drilled a series of boreholes along the Auob River bed in case of an invasion of South West Africa. Guards were recruited from the local community to protect and maintain the boreholes. They were permitted to settle next to the holes with their families and livestock. This corridor was never used to invade South West Africa and the borehole guards stayed on, largely forgotten by the authorities. Instead, the Government appointed a land surveyor to survey the area and divide it into farms. About this time the Government decided that Coloured people should rather settle the region. The British Government, then already in control of Bechuanaland, had already settled Couloured people on the east bank of the Nossob between Rooiputs and its confluence with the Auob River.

Biltong hunters penetrated the area and by the late 1920s game numbers had deteriorated. Accordingly in 1931 the area between the Nossob and Auob rivers and the SWA Border was proclaimed a national park. Land was purchased south of the Park to resettle “Coloured” people and the borehole structures were abandoned.

The first warden of the park with one assistant became involved in the protection of wildlife in the area. In 1934 they both died from malaria after the park experienced an exceptional rainy season, His successor, Joep le Riche, stayed in the post for 36 years. He re-commissioned the old boreholes in the river beds in order to “persuade” the animals to remain in the Park instead of leaving the unfenced boundaries where they were poached.

In 1938 the British Government proclaimed a new game reserve across the Nossob in Bechuanaland (Botswana). After World War II, game fences were erected along the Kalahari Gemsbok Park’s western and southern boundaries. The eastern boundary remained unfenced leaving this border open to animals that needed to migrate from east to west. In Botswana Mabuasehube Game Reserve was added in 1971 and was incorporated into Gembok National Park in 1992.

On 7 April 1999 the respective presidents signed a treaty that would link the Gemsbok National Park and the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park under one unifying name – The Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park. It was officially opened on 12 May 2000 as the first formally declared transfrontier park in Africa. The Kalahari Gemsbok National Park was subsequently named the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park.

In March 1999, the Khomani San community of some 300 people won a land claim over 25 000ha of the Kgalagadi National Park with the proviso that joint management, between the Khomani San and SANParks, of a continuing protected area would occur. The Khomani intend using this restitution to recapture their language and culture and reconstruct their identity. The Mier Community's land claim of land adjacent to the Khomani San land claim, was also successfully claimed in 1999 and settled with the same proviso of joint management as a protected area. A joint Management Board with representation by the Mier community (3-5 members), Khomani San (3-5 members) and

SANParks (3-5 members) oversee the implementation of the Management Plan for the Formatted: Position: Horizontal: relevant area. Right, Relative to: Margin

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1.1.2.3 Physical environment and land use The Kalahari is a large sand filled basin in the west of the southern African sub- continent, covering nearly one third of the area and forming what is probably the largest sand-veld area in the world. It stretches from 1°S in Zaire to the Orange River in the south (29°C) and from 14°E in Angola to 28°E in Zimbabwe. The Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park is situated in the arid to semi-arid southern Kalahari region. The annual rainfall increases from 150 mm in the south-west of the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park to 350 - 400 mm in the north-east. Annual rainfall has a high co-efficient of variation and the rain often falls as short–duration, high-intensity, thunderstorms. The relative humidity is low and the annual evaporation rate is high. Summer air temperatures are high (over 35°C) although, in winter it often falls to below freezing at night.

The sands are predominantly of aeolian origin, emanating from within the basin itself. In the drier south-west the sands are piled into vegetated linear or seif dunes. They break down into a more gentle undulating terrain about 40 km east of the Nossob River. Immediately beneath the sand lies a vast sheet of calcareous or silicified sand or sandstone which contains grits and minor conglomerates. The soils can be divided into sandy and fine soils. The sandy soils can be subdivided into red, pink and white sands and the fine soils into alluvial, river and pan soils. The red soils are notably infertile with low levels of phosphate, magnesium, potassium, sodium and carbon, and when less than 2 m deep an incapacity to hold water. The yellow soils of the pans and river beds have higher clay components, and are less permeable to water. The variability in fertility and water holding capacity between the two major soil types has a direct effect on the vegetation and hence animal utilization.

The southern Kalahari lies at about 900 m above sea level with a gentle south westerly slope. The area is drained by the Nossob, Auob, Molopo and Kuruman Rivers. Both the Nossob and Auob Rivers have their sources in the Anas Mountains near Windhoek, Namibia. They flow south east joining 6 km north of Twee Rivieren and continue on as the Nossob to the Molopo and Kuruman Rivers outside the park 60 km to the south, which flow in from the east. There they become the Molopo River continuing to flow south towards the Orange River. At Noenieput sand dunes have blocked its course for at least the last 1000 years. The rivers are predominantly dry, only flowing for short periods after abnormally high rainfall.

The Auob and Nossob rivers differ in that the Auob cuts a steep sided, narrow valley (100-500 m wide) through the calcrete along its entire course, while the Nossob flows in a shallow, sandy trough until it cuts trough the calcrete near Kameelsleep windmill south of which it continues in a similar form to the Auob. A characteristic of the Kalahari is the number of large shallow depressions or pans which hold water periodically during the wet season. The river beds have many features in common with the pan ecosystems, but their differences are significant enough for them to be placed in separate habitat categories. The most important and fundamental difference between rivers and the pans is that the rivers have open drainage as opposed to the endorheic drainage of the pans. Although the pans and rivers are normally dry they have many features not found in the sandveld, and so form important subsystems in the overall ecosystem.

Within the predominantly sandy southern Kalahari the availability of natural supplies of drinking water is strictly seasonal, being restricted to the harder bottomed pans and fossil river beds for short periods during the rainy season. In historical times the region was generally devoid of water in the dry season. The indigenous wildlife had to either move to permanent sources of drinking water or use alternative sources such as underground storage organs or melons. Increasing human settlement around the Formatted: Position: Horizontal: periphery of the park interferes with the natural movement patterns of wild life. It was Right, Relative to: Margin

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believed that this interference prevented access to permanent natural water sources and, to compensate, artificial water points, fed from boreholes, were introduced. To date 88 boreholes have been erected within the Kgalagadi National Park predominantly along the river beds.

1.1.2.4 Biological environment The whole area of the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park is fairly homogenous and can broadly be classified as a bioregion characterized by Acacia erioloba, Rhigozum trichotomum and Schmidtia kalihariensis. However, the area can be divided into dunes, sandy plains and valleys on red to pinkish sand with Stipagrostis amabilis, Centropodia glauca and Acanthosicyos naudinianus the diagnostic species, and rivers and pans (including terraces and calcrete outcrops) on whitish, compact calcareous sand and clay, with Leucosphaeria bainesii, Enneapogon desvauxii, Eragrostis truncata and Chloris virgata the diagnostic species.

The dunes, sandy plains and valleys are divided into the Gemsbok National Park (Botswana) side characterised by Acacia luederitzii and Cadaba aphylla and the Kgalagadi National Park (South Africa) side characterized by Acacia haematoxylon and Ipomoea hackeliana. Although the broad habitat types of the two parks are basically the same, the species characteristic for the Gemsbok National Park and those characteristic for the Kgalagadi National Park, separate the dune veld of the two parks. The difference in the floristic composition is probably the result of the less pronounced dunes and extensive plains of the Gemsbok National Park and the sharp increase in the rainfall gradient to the north-east.

The rivers and pans are divided into rivers characterized by Panicum coloratum and Eragrostis rotifer, and pans with Sporobolus rangei and Salsola etoshensis the diagnostic species. Although the dune veld of the Kgalagadi National Park differs floristically and structurally from the Gemsbok National Park, there are more similarities between the communities of rivers and pans on both sides.

The Kgalagadi is an important refuge for large raptors and bustards. The introduction of the permanent water supplies within the Kgalagadi National Park has probably also artificially increased the number and species composition of water dependent bird species, such as doves and sandgrouse species.

Sixty mammal species have been recorded from the Kgalagadi National Park with Rodentia (27%) and Carnivora (33%) the largest families. Ecological conditions dictate that the large herbivores need to be highly mobile giving rise to a nomadic existence for many species. Of the larger herbivorous animals gemsbok, blue wildebeest and ostrich are the more sedentary, whereas springbok, red hartebeest and eland numbers fluctuate widely within the Kgalagadi National Park as they move between it and the Gemsbok National Park. Herbivores tend to concentrate along the river beds during the wet season and disperse in the dry season. It is essential for the continued existence of these herbivore populations and their unique ecological relationships with the system for the Kgalagadi National Park to maintain its ecological relationship with the Gemsbok National Park through the joint management of the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park.

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Figure 2: Vegetation zones of the Kgalagadi National Park

Mammalian carnivores are well represented in the Kgalagadi National Park. Because of its size, habitat and pristine status the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park is one of the few areas where these species can exist under near natural conditions and exhibit their full range of behavioural and ecological evolutionary adaptations in the purest form of biodiversity conservation. Here again through its incorporation into the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, the Kgalagadi National Park, plays crucial role in maintaining a natural predator-prey system. Two threatened species, lion and cheetah, and a unique gemsbok hunting spotted hyaena population are important components of this system.

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Alien plant threats are generally low but need to be monitored. Although not part of a priority biodiversity area in the recent classification by the South African National Biodiversity Institute, the unique arid region system dynamics which still exist need to be conserved. A major reason for this is the large size of the area. In spite of this human pressures and fences have already disturbed the system and may still be having an insidious impact on populations of nomadic species like springbok and red hartebeest. In an attempt to counter these impacts a campaign of water provision through boreholes in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park has been implemented since its inception. Permanent standing water is not a feature of this ecosystem and the impacts of the provision of water need to be better established as do the factors involved in the apparent steady decline of nomadic species.

1.1.2.5 Social, economic and political context The area around the Kgalagadi National Park is characterized by sparse populations of people, and long distances for infrastructural lines of support. The nearest large town is Upington. The Khomani San and the Mier are two of communities bordering the park. The Khomani represent the last indigenous South African San. There is a high level of poverty within the group. Their recent history is one of dispossession in terms of land and access to natural resources, and of disempowerment resulting in the loss of language and culture. Main income-generating activities are small-stock herding for farmers of the Mier community, craft manufacture and cultural performances.

The Mier community consists of six communities of which Rietfontein is the largest. Major employers of the Mier are the government, the local council, local commercial farmers and SANParks. Subsistence livestock farming is also practised. Along the Namibian border and further to the South in South Africa are a number of commercial stock farmers.

1.1.2.6 International and national context As part of the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park and extending into neighboring wild life management areas in Botswana, the Kgalagadi National Park part of one of the largest conservation areas in the world of approximately 80 000 km2 . The name “Kalahari” is also well known internationally, not least because of its association with the San (Bushmen) people. International tourists make up 27% of the park’s visitors, showing that the park is important for both international and local tourists. As in all parks, a wide range of national legislation SANParks 2006) is relevant to the Kgalagadi National Park.

1.1.3 Values and Operating Principles These primarily follow the generic list of SANParks values (Rogers 2003; SANParks 2006). The SANParks overarching biodiversity values are provided here to stress their relevance: ƒ We adopt a complex systems view of the world while striving to ensure the natural functioning and long term persistence of the ecosystems under our care. ƒ Recognising that ecosystems and biodiversity are complex, and that we will seldom have all the information we want to make decisions, we adopt a “learning by doing” approach to their management ƒ We aim at persistent achievement of biodiversity representivity and complementarity to promote resilience and ensure ecosystem integrity. ƒ We can intervene in ecosystems responsibly and sustainably, but we focus management on complementing natural processes under a "minimum interference" philosophy. ƒ We accept with humility the mandate of custodianship of biodiversity for future generations while recognising that both natural and social systems change over time. Formatted: Position: Horizontal: Right, Relative to: Margin

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ƒ We have mutual respect for cultural, economic and environmental differences within the partnership. ƒ We have a culture of honesty, cooperative sharing of expertise, and of empowerment and advancement of all parties. ƒ Clear definition of each stakeholder group’s expectations, and how we balance the distribution of costs and benefits, helps us avoid conflict. ƒ We keep our expectations and the distribution of costs and benefits within the partnership explicit, transparent and within biodiversity constraints.

1.2 Vital attributes underpinning the value proposition of the Park

The following vital attributes have been identified as making this park unique, or at least very special in its class. Each is discussed along with important factors determining/strengthening or threatening/eroding these attributes. Using this information helps focus the exact formulation of park objectives, which must strengthen positive determinants and weaken or remove negative ones, so that objectives are appropriate to the uniqueness and special nature of this national park. In this way the management plan is customized in its fullest local extent, without detracting from some of its more generic functions along with certain other parks. These vital attributes help us develop the real value proposition of the park.

• An intrinsic part of one of the largest contiguous conservation areas in the world that allows for a fully functioning large predator-prey system The Kgalagadi National Park, as part of the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park and including the neighbouring wild life management areas in Botswana, (the Greater Kgalagadi Conservation Area) is an intrinsic part of one of the largest contiguous conservation areas in the world and is one of the last ecosystems in South Africa that is partially open. As a result it provides a template for a functioning arid region, large herbivore nomadic ecosystem system, once a feature of the vast arid regions of southern Africa and today almost completely non existent. The associated large carnivore community in this area allows for a fully functioning large predator-prey system to exhibit its full range of ecological, behavioural and evolutionary attributes, including a unique gemsbok hunting spotted hyaena population.

These vital attributes are determined by the particular geographical location of the area. The fact that they are still relevant today is a function of the fact that the area has a low population density because of its remoteness. However, human activity has damaged the system, initially through over hunting, and latterly, through the erection of fences and the sinking of boreholes to accommodate domestic livestock farming. The establishment of the Kgalagadi National Park is obviously a vital key to the partial preservation of theses ecological systems. The optimum use of artificially provided drinking water for wild life, especially in the Kgalagadi National Park where the program is most intense, and the development of management strategies to limit conflict between wild life and an increasing number of herders and livestock in surrounding areas are the keys to maintaining and even improving these attributes. Ideally, the removal of fences would increase the size of the area and even possibly open up some important habitats to wildlife, but this needs to be balanced with the needs of stock farmers and could only be realized if there was a change in land use policy for areas presently outside the Greater Kgalagadi Conservation Area.

ƒ Cultural heritage for the Khomani San people The Kgalagadi National Park is the traditional home of the Khomani San people. In March 1999, the Khomani San community of some 300 people won a land claim over 25 000ha of the Kgalagadi National Park with the proviso that joint management, Formatted: Position: Horizontal: Right, Relative to: Margin

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between the Khomani San and SANParks, of a continuing protected area would occur. The Khomani intend using this restitution to recapture their language and culture and reconstruct their identity. The Mier Community's land claim of land adjacent to the Khomani San land claim, was also successfully claimed in 1999 and settled with the same proviso of joint management as a protected area. The agreement whereby the land restitution claims of the two communities were finalized was reached in 2002 (Anon 2002). A joint Management Board with representation by the Mier community (3-5 members), Khomani San (3-5 members) and SANParks (3- 5 members) oversee the implementation of the Management Plan for the relevant area.

ƒ The above attributes in turn create another key attribute of this park, namely a major opportunity for appreciation and learning This is determined by the presence of the landscape and associated wildlife, as well as the cultural attributes, to a potentially willing or receptive audience, some of whom are prepared to visit the park, and by the appropriate ambience and infrastructure we can provide to facilitate this; by attractiveness of and access to the localities or general area; societal attitudes; and by appropriate resourcing to develop facilities. Special stakeholder subgroups are ecological researchers, - whose activities both enhance our ability to mange the area and also, through articles and other publications, to add to the value of the experience of visitors and the public at large by enhancing their understanding of the natural phenomena they experience, and photographers, - as the area provides exceptional opportunities for wildlife photography and filming.

ƒ Aesthetics/scenery This is a major draw card to the area and constitutes a large part of the “macro- ambience” upon which we can build the biodiversity and cultural attractions. It is determined by a strong wilderness component with wide vistas, attractive red sand dunes, large camelthorn trees and dessert bloom after rain and should not be easily threatened, although the wilderness component must be preserved. We should market the mystique and beauty of the landscape.

ƒ Remoteness from main centres This is a key attribute which needs recognition in that we need to manage both the positive (‘wide open spaces far from anywhere’ appeal) and negative (ensure reasonable access and market special attractions) aspects of this factor.

1.3 Setting the details of the desired state for Kgalagadi National Park

Using the above mission, context and values, and bearing in mind particularly the vital attributes above, the following set of park objectives has been determined.

1.3.1 An objectives hierarchy for Kgalagadi National Park These objectives have been taken to the next level and sub-objectives for each of the five objectives have been developed. Although considerable progress in achieving the sub-objectives has been made, the process of further developing and formalizing these objectives is ongoing.

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The Kgalagadi National Park, as an integral part of the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, will be managed by SANParks to maintain and/or recreate the ecological processes, faunal and floral assemblages, landscape characteristics and cultural resources representative of the area, to foster international co- operation through a transfrontier conservation area, and offer long-term benefit to the people of the area. In order to achieve this, as the managing authority, SANParks must establish and maintain a management system that will conserve and promote the natural and cultural values of the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park by:

As part of the, rediscovering, realising developing ensuring that southern rehabilitating economic and nurturing park planning Kgalagadi and nurturing returns from relationships and development contributing to heritage tourism while between park enables the the resources, safeguarding management protection and maintenance especially the ecological and enhancement of and/or the where these integrity and stakeholders the ecological, restoration of have been pristine that promote cultural, and this arid region suppressed wilderness the long-term scenic resources ecosystem and neglected. quality of the social of the park. Kgalagadi sustainability Transfrontier of the park. Park

Sub-objective - biodiversity

as an integral part of the southern Kgalagadi, contributing to the maintenance and/or the restoration of this arid region

To maintain and restore those ecological processes which characterise the Kalahari ecosystem; the large scale, rainfall induced fluctuations in the vegetation; the migratory and nomadic movements of large herbivores; predator/prey interactions; occasional widespread fires; and abiotic aspects such as the typical landscapes of dunes with dune streets and the wilderness atmosphere.

To preserve the diversity of organisms indigenous to the southern Kalahari as functional elements of the ecosystem, with predators receiving priority.

To evaluate the impact of artificial water points on the functioning of the ecosystem and to balance the impacts with the needs of tourism

To provide facilities and opportunities for research and monitoring on the functioning and management of the physical and biological processes of the southern Kalahari ecosystem.

To mitigate all impacts of existing and potential land-use conflicts within the park (roads, camps, waterholes) and between the Kalahari Transfrontier Park and neighbouring communities.

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Sub-objective – cultural heritage

rediscovering, rehabilitating and nurturing heritage resources, especially where these have been suppressed and

To consider the expression and celebration of the diverse cultures and spiritual significance associated with the park

To ensure that the permitted managed use of biological resources occurs on a sustainable basis.

To facilitate the recognition of the cultural linkages of the park with surrounding communities.

To conserve and restore natural and cultural landscapes and scenic resources of the park.

Deleted:

Sub-objective – sustainable tourism

realising economic returns from tourism while safeguarding the ecological integrity and pristine wilderness quality of the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park

To provide a unique experience and world-class service and facilities to visitors and users of the park.

To manage visitor access on an equitable basis within the accepted carrying capacity of the park and its facilities.

To manage visitor activities in order that there is no or minimal impact on the visitor experience, ecological, heritage or scenic resources of the park

To create effective mechanisms for ongoing marketing and communications of the park.

To manage concessionaires and commercial tourism operators in the park to ensure that ecological, cultural and scenic resources and visitor experience are maintained and enhanced.

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Sub-objective – building cooperation

developing and nurturing relationships between Park Management and stakeholders that promote the long-term social sustainability of the park

To realize opportunities for, and equitable distribution of, benefits to surrounding communities.

To develop an awareness among visitors, staff, contractors, private landowners and other users of the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park about the park and its policies and plans.

To provide educational and interpretative programs for visitors aimed at fostering a better understanding and appreciation of the Kalahari ecosystem.

To institutionalize a mechanism of representative and accountable participation in advisory structures for the park.

To seek to ensure that local and provincial authorities and all stakeholders share, and contribute to the attainment of, the vision and goals for the park.

To plan proactively and strategically, in collaboration with relevant local, provincial and national authorities and stakeholders, for any potential development within, or affecting, the park.

To collaborate with neighboring communities in the management of problem causing animals which move out of the park.

Sub-objective – effective park management

ensuring that park planning and development enables the protection and enhancement of the ecological, cultural, and scenic resources of the park.

To follow the Integrated Environmental Management Principles and Procedures for all development and planning in order to optimize benefits and prevent or minimize negative impacts. Improving the quality of drinking water at the rest camps and the upgrading of staff housing are priorities.

To ensure that a research and inventory and monitoring program is designed and implemented to provide

To strive to diversify the park’s income base and cost-effectiveness of its operations.

To implement relevant training programs for Park Management staff, contractors and volunteers to give effect to the policies and plans for the park.

1.3.2 Thresholds of concern and other exact conservation targets In the adaptive management of ongoing change in ecological systems, thresholds of concern (TPC’S), are the upper and/or lower limits of flux allowed, literally specifying the boundaries of the desired state. If monitoring (or better still monitoring in combination with predictive modeling) indicates certain or very likely exceedances beyond these limits, then mandatory management options of the adaptive cycle are prompted for evaluation and consideration. TPC’s have not been specified in any detail yet in the Kgalagadi National Park, but will be established over the next five years as a priority. Aspects that will receive attention will include the following:

(a) Herbivore numbers and herbivory: In attempting to maintain or even reconstruct the nomadic large herbivore movement patterns of the southern Kgalagadi it is Formatted: Position: Horizontal: inconceivable under the conditions applying today for herbivore numbers to ever Right, Relative to: Margin

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become “too high”, except for the possible increase in the resident wildebeest population along the river beds through the provision of artificial water. This species is the most likely large herbivore to take advantage of this management strategy and should a large resident population establish itself it could affect the vegetation along the river beds. On the other hand low numbers of nomadic species may well become a factor as already appears to be the case for springbok and red hartebeest.

(b) Large carnivore numbers: As predators are highlighted in a high level objective, large carnivores in particular are most sensitive to unnatural disturbances especially with regard to conflict with stock farmers. Low numbers are more likely to become an issue than high numbers, except that the establishment of resident populations of large herbivores, in particular wildebeest, might favour lions to the detriment of cheetahs and brown hyaenas.

(c) Fire. Although fire is recognized as an unusual but natural event, increasing human pressures around the park may cause the timing and even frequency of fires to impact negatively on the vegetation. The large camelthorn trees in the river beds have an aesthetic value to many people and the impact of fire on these trees needs to be evaluated and balanced with the natural impacts of removing old and dying tress, recruitment of younger tress and specific habitats that dead, burnt tress provide.

(d) Alien biota. TPC’s for alien biota should be applied as per perceived risk. This includes TPCs for any new invasions, as well as for spread and densification of already present species, especially those that are classified as aggressive invaders.

(e) Water provision. A balance must be achieved between the ecological effects of water provision for wildlife and the requirements of tourism. This in addition the rate of rain recharge in relation to the rate of exploitation, should determine the number of water points to be utilized for both human and animal use through setting a TPC.

1.3.3 Conservation Development Framework A full Conservation Development Framework for the Kgalagadi National Park has not been set. Based on the biophysical, cultural heritage, socio-economic and land use context of the park, park management will refine and update the current land use plan, zoning categories and zoning policies to align with the corporate Conservation Development Framework (CDF) format. The wilderness concept needs to be given careful consideration, especially with regard to including an area of riverbed. The CDF will then provide an updated overarching spatial planning framework for the Kgalagadi National Park comprising use zones, with management guidelines and broad conservation and tourism infrastructural requirements (e.g. camps, fences, roads) designated for each use zone. The development nodes, services and facilities identified in the CDF will undergo detailed local area planning prior to development. In the meantime a practical intermediary joint zoning plan (Figure 3) is available and in use to guide development.

The zoning of Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park was a joint exercise between the South Africa and Botswana, with the assistance of the Peace Parks Foundation, and forms part of an Integrated Tourism Plan. The zoning was based on an analysis and mapping of the sensitivity and value of a park’s biophysical, heritage and scenic resources; an assessment of the regional context; and an assessment of the park’s current and planned infrastructure and tourist products; all interpreted in the context of park objectives (Figure 3).

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Figure 3: Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park joint zoning plan.

2 PROGRAMS TO ACHIEVE THE DESIRED STATE

This section deals with all the discrete, but often interlinked, programs which make up the approaches to issues, and lead to the actions on the ground. Together they are the Park’s best attempt to achieve the desired state specified in Part 1 above. Each subsection in this management plan is a summary of the particular program, invariably supported by details in what are called lower-level plans, referred to in appendices but not included here.

The various programs are classified into the five “real-world” activity groupings as reflected in the SANParks biodiversity custodianship framework (SANParks 2006), namely Biodiversity and Heritage Conservation, Sustainable Tourism, Building Co- operation, Effective Park Management, and Corporate Support. Corporate SANParks policies provide the guiding principles for most of the subsections, and will not be repeated here, except as references and occasionally key extracts. Not all plans for the Kgalagadi National Park have been developed to the same degree and nearly all, like most plans, need to be refined and expanded on during the next five years.

2.1 Biodiversity and Heritage Conservation

2.1.1 Zonation Program The rational for and standard zonation criteria are contained in the SANParks zonation policy. Ideally the zonation should be based on a full Conservation Development Framework, not yet available for Kgalagadi National Park. In the meantime, the best Formatted: Position: Horizontal: Right, Relative to: Margin

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available relevant information shaping the zonation was based on an analysis and mapping of the sensitivity and value of the biophysical, heritage and scenic resources of the park as shown in Figure 3. Full details of the use zones, the zoning process, and the underlying landscape analyses are included in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park Zoning Document. As the park is jointly managed, the SANParks zoning scheme used elsewhere in SANParks could not be applied directly to the Kgalagadi.

The following zoning categories were recognized: 1. Wilderness Experience: The experience is of complete solitude with no facilities and access is only on foot.

2. Primitive: The prime characteristic of the zone is the experience of wilderness qualities with access controlled in terms of numbers, frequency and size of groups. No facilities or only very basic facilities are provided and access roads are restricted to only those visitors with bookings. The numbers of vehicles and visitors are kept to a minimum.

3. Comfortable: An experience of solitude is provided in small self-catering camps with access roads only open to visitors with bookings for the facilities. Facilities are fully equipped and visitors only need to provide and prepare their own food.

4. Developed: Access is by sedan vehicles with larger camps providing self-catering accommodation. Additional facilities such as shops, restaurants and fuel are available.

Special management overlays which designate specific areas of the park that require special management interventions were identified. Three areas were designated:

1. Community Use: Community owned areas in the south-west, included within the park, are zoned to allow controlled community use.

2. Special Conservation Areas – River and riverine habitats: These sensitive habitat types were identified for special protection in order to reduce any potential loss and to prioritize rehabilitation work in these areas. Special Conservation Areas – Pans: This sensitive habitat type was identified for special protection in order to reduce any potential disturbance especially by motorized access.

3. Rehabilitation Areas: The sensitive river bed and riparian habitat areas, where much of the tourism activity and vehicle traffic is currently concentrated, were identified as rehabilitation areas. Detailed investigations of road re-alignment and rehabilitation requirements have been initiated.

2.1.2 Park Expansion Program Although there are still a few limited opportunities for the ongoing expansion of the Kgalagadi National Park (e.g. co-management or contractual agreements with game farms between Twee Ndabas and Lorette in the Mier Settlement) park management will however direct it’s capacity and resources to strengthening the newly developed and evolving institutional and management arrangements to support collaborative management between SANParks, the Khomani San community, the Mier community and the Botswana DW&NP. In addition some thought should be given to the feasibility of expanding the extent of areas available to the nomadic herbivores, if not to the expansion of the park per se. Formatted: Position: Horizontal: Right, Relative to: Margin

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2.1.3 Land Restitution Program An important priority for the immediate future is the implementation of the Ae!Hai Kalahari Heritage Agreement (Anon 2002), which is the tri-lateral agreement drawn up at the finalization of the joint land claims.

The agreement, signed by the Minister for Land Affairs, the Minister for Environment and Tourism, and the duly nominated representatives of the Mier and Khomani San Communities, commits the parties to the establishment and development of the Contractual Park. The spirit and letter of the agreement contribute towards the fulfillment of several obligations, including current legislation (NEMA: Protected Areas Act 57 of 2003; The Restitution of Land Rights Act 22 of 1994), relevant SANParks policies; and South Africa’s formal endorsement of international instruments including the IUCN Durban Accord on the promotion of Community Conserved Areas and the co- management of Protected Areas, as well as the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples

The First Edition of the Joint Management Plan was prepared in March 2002 and appended to the Contractual Agreement. This provides the basis for the lower-level, operational plan required to ensure effective co-management of the Contractual Park, in line with the above statutory requirements.

The Joint Management Plan contains the Vision for the Contractual Park; objectives; functions of the Joint Management Board; conservation principles resonant with the rights and obligations of the parties and emphasizing sustainability; tourism development guidelines including codes of conduct for tourism operators and visitors alike; community development objectives and priorities; personnel, infrastructure and security arrangements; and research protocols (a key consideration given the importance of indigenous knowledge systems and intellectual property rights of the San and Mier people).

2.1.4 Transfrontier Conservation Area Program A management plan for the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park was drawn up in 1997 and revised in 2003. The management plan sets out the framework for joint management of the area as a single ecological unit by the Department of Wildlife and National Parks of Botswana, and SANParks. It provides a basis for promoting co-operative tourism ventures, although each country provides and maintains its own tourism facilities and infrastructure. The Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park has been de facto in existence since 1948 through a verbal agreement between the South African and Botswana conservation authorities, sufficient to maintain the area as a single ecological unit. Since June 1992 a transfrontier management committee, with representatives from the conservation authorities of both countries, has been addressing the formalization of the agreement. In formalizing this agreement, the two countries stand to benefit through:

1. Guaranteeing essential long term conservation of the wildlife resources in the southern Kalahari

2. Pooling of expertise and experience on a good neighbourly basis between the conservation authorities of the two countries.

3. Increasing the international profile of this important conservation area, thereby greatly enhancing its potential as a tourist destination. Formatted: Position: Horizontal: Right, Relative to: Margin

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4. Full realization of the economic potential of the Transfrontier Park and surrounding areas which will bring economic benefits to both countries, especially to the local communities adjacent to the park.

5. The co-operative development of promotional campaigns that stimulate a two-way flow of tourists, thereby increasing the potential of both countries.

The agreement requires only that the governments of Botswana and South Africa establish a joint border control facility in the park to ensure the smooth flow of tourists from one country to the other through the Transfrontier Park.

2.1.5 Cultural Resource Program This program is advised by SANParks policy on cultural resource management (SANParks 2006). The successful land claims by both the Mier and Khomani San Communities necessitated the preparation of, and credible responsibility for, an excellent set of principles and plans around the cultural resources of the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park and the Ae!Hai Kalahari Heritage Contractual Parks. As can be read in these overall principles, authenticity, integrity and effective protection, preservation and sustainable utilization of the resources are cornerstones. Efforts are also being made to nominate the area as a potential World Heritage Site

The Kgalagadi Cultural Resource Program highlights the necessity for acquisition of adequate funding, consolidation of appropriate resource databases, site and resource management, rehabilitation, oral history and indigenous knowledge, and ongoing monitoring to check compliance with the desired state. In addition, interactions with stakeholder interests have highlighted appropriate tourism plans, and maintenance of appropriate ambience to sustain the all-important sense of place. Further details of activities can be accessed via the low-level plan for cultural resources for Kgalagadi.

As stated earlier an important goal for the Kgalagadi National Park in the next five years will be the unpacking and implementation of the Ae!Hai Kalahari Heritage Agreement (Anon 2002). Issues of ecotourism, cultural and symbolic rights i.e. traditional hunting and medicinal resource use will be addressed. Each issue will contain a statement of significance, site information, sensitivities and threats, details of existing site management, as well as management objectives and monitoring measures.

The current plan requires revision and refinement and this will be addressed by the Joint Management Board as a priority, together with the development of an operational or implementation plan. Instances where general Kgalagadi National Park and Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park Regulations do not harmonise with the rights of the Contractual Park land owners as entrenched in the trilateral agreement will be addressed (i.e. including traditional hunting and other sustainable resource use). NB In the case of the Khomani San, rights of symbolic and cultural use of resources exist in the defined “V” (Voorkeur) and “S” (Symbolic Use) Zones in addition to those rights existing in their section of the Contractual Park, and provision will be made for the exercising of these rights.

In addition, responsibilities and timeframes will be made explicit. Additional to the contractual Park issues, the Kgalagadi National Park aims to map all known sites of cultural significance, draw up management plans for these sites and develop cultural exhibits at various information centers.

To this end assessment of historic buildings and structures on old farmsteads located along the Auob River has already been done by the National Cultural History Museum as part of a DANCED sponsored project. The study included the history of the farms on Formatted: Position: Horizontal: which the buildings are located, provided an inventory of assessed sites and their Right, Relative to: Margin

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associated cultural resources projected on maps and suggested a restoration plan for buildings that have the potential to be used for tourism. Cultural mapping has also been done by the South African San Institute (SASI) on cultural sites related to the Khomani San. The documentation received to date consists of a map of indigenous place names within the park.

2.1.6 River, Wetland and Groundwater Program 2.1.6.1 Human Use Water is currently needed for use at nine rest camps and four picnic places. Of the camps five are small wilderness camps with only eight beds each. The largest consumption of water is therefore at the larger rest camps. Apart from problems of delivery there is also the very important issue of water quality as the water at the three camps is unfit for human consumption. This is especially relevant for staff that utilise the water for long periods (Meyer & Casey undated). This issue requires urgent attention (see Infrastructure Development Program).

2.1.6.2 Animal Use The reason for only exploiting underground water for whatever purpose in the KNP is that no dams or rivers exists in this dry environment for use in the extraction of water.

Motivation for the erection of permanent waterholes in the Kgalagadi National Park arose from the apparent hindrance to the nomadic/migratory movements of the indigenous ungulates by increased human activities to the south and west of the park and the later fencing of the South African/Namibian and Botswana/Namibian borders, as well as the erroneous perception that the wildlife needed drinking water. Since the 1930s a total of 88 waterholes (fed with borehole water) and a number of excavation dams on pans have been constructed within the Kgalagadi National Park. The provision of water is one of the most intensive and controversial management inputs in the park, and its potential effects on ecosystem function and usefulness have been questioned. The impact of water provision for animals on the ecosystem needs to be carefully evaluated and balanced with the fact that the quality of the tourist experience while visiting the Kgalagadi National Park may be enhanced as animals tend to concentrate in the vicinity of the water points. In addition the rate of rain recharge in relation to the rate of exploitation, as well as the interrelationships between these factors and water quality, needs further investigation.

Pending a better understanding of the effects of the provision of water for wildlife the following general principles are recommended: 1. It will not be necessary to establish more artificial water points. Should an additional water point be needed for tourism purposes, it should replace an existing waterhole, not be an additional one. 2. Bore holes that dry up in the dune veldt should not be replaced. 3. Pan surfaces should not be artificially altered to hold rain water on a more permanent basis. 4. All artificial excavations on pans designed to hold rain water should be leveled 5. All solar pumps must have reservoirs to ensure a constant supply of water. 6. The water at saline water-holes should be either directly pumped into larger shallow drinking troughs or sealed reservoirs. Where troughs are fed with reservoir water the overflow from the reservoir should be directed into the trough in order to help reduce the salt concentration. 7. The appearance of reservoirs and water troughs should be improved so that they are aesthetically appealing and less obtrusive. Formatted: Position: Horizontal: Right, Relative to: Margin

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2.1.7 Invasive Biota Program The principles concerning invasives are well-established in SANParks (2006) and Working for Water, whose co-operation plays a critical role in the control of alien plants. Alien plants do not constitute as serious a threat to Kgalagadi National Park as to many other national parks, but the situation needs careful surveillance and the formal establishment of TPC’s. Nine alien plant species have been recorded in the Kgalagadi National Park. Of these Prosopis glandulosa (mesquite), Schinus molle (pepper tree), Argemone ochroleuca (Mexican poppy) and Salsola kali (Russian tumbleweed) are considered to be aggressive invaders of indigenous vegetation. Mesquite and pepper trees as well two species of tree indigenous to South Africa but alien to the southern Kalahari (Rhus pendulina and Euclea pseudebenus), have been planted in the camps for shade purposes because they are fast growers and frost resistant. The following principles should be applied: 1. All plants alien to the southern Kgalagadi growing within the Kgalagadi National Park, outside or inside camps, should be destroyed using appropriate methods. Exceptions may be made in the case of alien trees that provide useful shade within rest camps. These should nevertheless be gradually replaced with trees that are indigenous to the region. Biological control is an option in the case of Prosopis spp. 2. The use of certain non-invasive aliens will be permitted in private gardens within the Kgalagadi National Park (a list of species not permitted is supplied in the management plan). 3. Indigenous tree species suitable for planting in rest camps should be identified and a planting program should be started.

Two indigenous plants have been listed as potential opportunistic invaders, namely Rhigozum trichotomum (driedoring) and Galinia africana (kraalbos). Both these are noted as potential invaders along road vergers and areas of disturbance. A monitoring program of these species needs to be established and consideration given to formalizing TPC’s on their spread.

The potential for the domestic cat to become an aggressive invader has been noted because of this species’ ability to hybridize with the indigenous African wild cat. The threat of domestic and/or feral cats on the periphery of the park is cause for concern and all such cats encountered should be killed. A research study on the conservation genetics of the African wild cat is presently being conducted in order to evaluate the extent of the problem. Rules regarding the keeping of certain domestic species as pets by staff members have been formulated.

2.1.8 Disease Management Program In the Kgalagadi National Park sarcoptic mange, anthrax, rabies and canine distemper are the most visible wild life diseases. Mange and anthrax are indigenous diseases as is rabies (although it might be enhanced by domestic animals), but canine distemper is alien. Anthrax, rabies and canine distemper are inherently fatal, although with the possible exception of rabies in spotted hyenas, none has been found to be important in limiting populations. No specific disease management program has yet been developed for the park, but the corporate policy on animal disease management provides SANParks with guiding principles to:

1. maintain the natural fluxes of indigenous diseases as a component of biodiversity 2. where possible avoid the introduction and/or limit the impact of alien diseases 3. minimize the spread of disease from National Parks to neighbouring communities Formatted: English (South Africa) and commercial agriculture. Formatted: Position: Horizontal: Right, Relative to: Margin

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2.1.9 Rehabilitation Program A lower level plan has not yet been drawn up. An aspect that needs particular attention is the identification and rehabilitation of borrow pits used in road making and maintenance. A preliminary list of sites has been drawn up and includes sites at Dikbaardskolk, Urikaruus, Marie se Draai, 14th Borehole and Haagner’s.

In addition during the grading of tourist roads regular outlets should be provided to minimise erosion of road shoulders and the damming up of water. Tire grading will be used an alternative to machine grading when needed for certain roads as a more economic way of improving road surfaces.

2.1.10 Fire Program Fire is a rare but quite natural phenomenon in the southern Kalahari, occurring predominantly in above average rainfall years after sufficient fuel loads have accumulated. The estimated rate of occurrence is approximately every 11 years. Natural fires occur during the summer months in association with electric storms. Outside of this period they are normally started by man. Man-induced fires have in all probability also played an important role since prehistoric times. However, as the human population around the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park increases, permitting all anthropogenic fires to penetrate the KTP could lead to an excessive frequency of burning, so some fire control might be necessary. As a general rule of thumb it is recommended that all fires that occur out of the rainy season, and which are not associated with electric storms, should be controlled as far as possible. The impact of fires on large camelthorn trees Acacia erioloba in the river beds is contentious and needs to be assessed. For some stakeholders, this affects the aesthetic appeal of the river beds, hence the policy recommends that all fires in these habitats will be controlled. This needs to be reevaluated in line with biodiversity principles as well.

Fires that leave the Kgalagadi National Park into neighbouring human occupied areas may represent a threat to surrounding people. It is therefore recommended that outgoing fires be controlled where the circumstances warrant it.

2.1.11 Threatened Species Program Wild dogs are the only globally endangered mammal to occur in the Kgalagadi National Park, but the area is marginal for this species and they are vagrants, so no specific management program is needed. Lion and cheetah are vulnerable. A study of lions has been completed with management recommendations which are followed. A similar cheetah project has been initiated in 2006. The conservation status of other taxonomic groups needs to be assessed before management programs are initiated.

2.2 Sustainable Tourism

This section cross-links to the Zonation Program provided in 2.1.1, as well as to the CDF, once completed.

2.2.1 Sustainable Tourism Program Visitor management is a process of balancing nature conservation and visitor satisfaction. Park managers have to protect fauna and flora for the future and still meet the needs and experiences of tourists today without losing sight of their future needs.

Tourism is well developed in the Kgalagadi National Park with three fully equipped and Formatted: Position: Horizontal: fenced rest camps and six wilderness camps. One of the main objectives is to ensure Right, Relative to: Margin

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that this park remains a flagship product which is financially sustainable and to further develop the tourism brand in order to offer tourists a quality experience.

A SWOT analysis identifies as the major strengths of the Kgalagadi National Park the fact that it is part of the first transfrontier park in Africa and is politically well accepted, its biodiversity and wilderness features, a very informative park brochure, the variety of products and facilities offered, and the tourism training programs for local communities. Weaknesses are lack of finances with regard to tourism funding, resulting in poor maintenance of infrastructure, especially the roads in the park, and lack of trained staff, especially from the local communities. Opportunities include expanding cultural tourism as a result of the rich history and culture of the community, improving marketing especially in untapped markets and expanding the economic side of the parks activities. The major threats are the slow pace at which the contractual land development with the local community is moving, the very hot summers, the scarcity of fresh water and high petrol prices which will have an effect on visitor numbers.

The specific objectives, nested in the sub-objectives in Section 1.3.1, listed in the tourism plan for the Kgalagadi National Park are: • To market the park effectively in order to increase unit occupancy rate to over 75%. Here the establishment of a regional tourism route to link the Arid Cluster (Richtersveld, National Park, Namaqua National Park, Augrabies National Park as well as the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park) would be an important component. • To upgrade and expand infrastructure/facilities, including the re-opening of the Mata Mata gate into Namibia. • To expand and develop more tourism activities and to attract more tourists to partake in the latter • To enhance the quality of service by means of training • To attract a concessionaire for Klein Skrij community lodge.

2.3 Building co-operation

2.3.1 Co-operative Governance and Community Participation Program A key objective is to develop a co-operate governance system for the park with the focus on improving relationships with government/governing bodies in compliance with legislation and to be totally inclusive. Park Forums and Joint Management Board (JMB) meetings are held quarterly. Marketing and promotion of the park, takes place through the Siyanda Municipality’s The Green Kalahari Tourism Committee. Liaisons take place with the Northern Cape Tourism Authority in terms of exhibitions at National and International level.

2.3.2 Environmental Education and Interpretation Program The EIE program within the Park involves developing an understanding of the unique environment and its issues, developing values, skills and a passion that will help learners to contribute to the protection and improvement of the environment. The program includes slide and video shows, guided tours, overnight educational visits by local schools, educational visits to schools by People and Conservation staff, and the celebration of environmental calendar days such as Water Week, Earth Day, Arbour Day, and Heritage Day, both throughout the Park and at local schools.

An Environmental Centre was developed in 2005 that accommodates overnight school Formatted: English (South Africa) groups/interest groups. The Kids in Parks program is an important part of the EIE program. EIE program material has been developed for each grade (Grades 1-7), focusing on specific windows/themes for each grade.

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Environmental interpretation is also provided to visitors to the park through three environmental interpretation centres at the three main camps. Twee Rivieren, Mata Formatted: English (South Africa) Mata and Nossob.

Other forms of environmental education in the Kgalagadi National Park include night- drives, guided day walks and a guided three-night 4x4 trail. These are conducted by field guides.

The Imbewu program or a similar program will be initiated when funding is available to ensure that age-old skills such as story-telling/tracking, medicinal plant knowledge and cultures are instilled and maintained by present and future generations. Camps for youths will be held within the !Ai!Hai Kalahari Heritage Park, led by wise elders from the Mier and Khomani San communities.

2.3.3 Constituency Building Program The purpose of this program is to establish and maintain meaningful and beneficial relationships with identified/interested stakeholders. The Park Forum, which was officially established in 2004 to facilitate constructive interaction between the Park and surrounding communities/stakeholders and act as a vehicle towards developing strategic partnerships with stakeholders, meets once every four months. The Park Forum is represented by Department of Wildlife and National Parks(DWNP) Botswana, South African Police Service - Twee Rivieren and Witdraai, Dept. Home Affairs and Immigration, Directorate of Environment and Conservation, Mier Municipality, Community/Communal Property Association (CPA), Khomani San, Mier, Mier Farmers Union, Siyanda District Municipality, Green Kalahari Tourism and local representatives from each of the seven towns. The Joint Management Board (JMB) for the !Aa!Hai Kalahari Heritage Land (Contractual Parks of Khomani San and Mier), was established in 2003 and meets every two months. The JMB governs the land that consists of three stakeholders, Khomani San, Mier and SANParks. The three stakeholder groups are represented on the JMB. All issues pertaining to the !Ai!Hai Kalahari Heritage Park are discussed at the JMB. Through the JMB, training will be provided to improve the understanding of the !Ai!Hai Kalahari Heritage Park Bundle by each stakeholder.

2.3.4 Communications Program The Park Manager has monthly staff meetings at Twee Rivieren involving the senior staff from all camps and quarterly meetings at all three rest camps involving all levels of staff. This is also captured in the Balanced Scorecard (BSC). All department heads follow the same procedure. Furthermore, there is ongoing communication with staff via telephone or e-mail on a daily basis as well as with the regional manager. A telephone conference is held with Head Office in Pretoria every Monday morning, involving senior management and including the COO, CEO and other directors. Regional meetings and Park Managers Meetings are held once a quarter with all other PM’s and senior directors. Monthly meetings with Botswana colleagues and Transfrontier Park Bi-lateral meetings are held two or three times per annum.

2.4 Effective Park Management

2.4.1 Environmental Management Program The KTP is fortunately placed with respect to having no peripheral industrial development and pollution. The greatest threat comes from internal pollution generated within the rest camps and picnic spots. 1. All sources of pollution will be limited as far as possible. 2. Visitors and staff will be expected to adhere to acceptable practices of waste disposal in the KTP. 3. A comprehensive pollution monitoring program will be instituted. Formatted: Position: Horizontal: Right, Relative to: Margin

Ref. 16/1/5/1/5/11/1 22

4. An education program will be instituted to inform visitors and staff of acceptable practices. Recycling should be encouraged and where feasible immediate separation of certain articles, eg cans and glass should also be encouraged The use of plastic packaging at tourist camps should be halted 5. The necessity for waste water treatment in rest camps and the prevention of contamination of ground water reserves should be investigated, eg, the correct placement of sewerage soak ways in or close to river beds

2.4.2 Infrastructure Development Program An infrastructure development program for the period 2005 – 2010 has been drawn up. Improving the quality of the drinking water at the three main camps, which at present constitutes a health hazard, particularly to staff, is the priority. In addition, up grading of tourism facilities and especially staff accommodation is planned, as is the building of the main entrance gate into the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park at Twee Rivieren, the construction of three overland camping facilities, three overnight bush camp sites, a wilderness camp at Sewe Panne, additional picnic/ablution facilities and a new 40 km stretch of road next to the Auob River.

2.4.3 Safety and Security Program The safety and security plan for the Kgalagadi National Park is set within the framework set out by the SANParks Security Plan. The remoteness of the area has been a deterrent to any would-be law breaker. Serious crimes are almost unheard of, although small scale rule breaking does take place and measures are needed to combat this activity while proactive and reactive measures of safety and security need to be in place to ensure that we deliver on our mandate.

The strategic intent of the safety and security plan is to: • ensure that effective visitor safety measures are in place, • ensure the safety and security of SANParks employees and concessionaires, • ensure that tourist perceptions are managed in order to protect the brand and reputation of SANParks and SA Tourism at large.

The plan is informed by analysis of the following aspects: • The identification of high risk/use areas. • Associated crime statistics for each identified area. • The associated risks and criminal behaviour for each area.

A SWOT analysis revealed the remoteness of the area and long travel distances as both a strength and a weakness, the police presence at Twee Rivieren and the small infrastructure as strengths, the size of the area and difficulties in covering it, and the fact that few patrols are carried out with poor infrastructure and budget as weaknesses. Major opportunities were seen as improving relationships with surrounding communities and staff capacity building and the main threats as increased incidents of environmental crime, insufficient or lack of training, corruption and intimidation of staff, storage and transportation of money, poor socio-economic groups outside the Park and along the boundary and predator transgressions in neighbouring communities and countries. The program is supported by operational plans for each of the three rangers’ sections.

2.4.4 Damage Causing Animal Program. The existing program includes: • The provision and maintenance of effective boundary fences along all the park boundaries in the medium to long term where they are already in place or where Formatted: Position: Horizontal: Right, Relative to: Margin

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they still need to be put into place. The ideal is to monitor boundary fences on at least a weekly basis, although a shortage of vehicles and staff makes this very difficult to accomplish. • To relocate damage causing animals that have left the park, especially the threatened species, lion and cheetah, back into the park as soon as possible, either on information received from neighbouring communities or observations made during staff patrolling the park boundary fences. • To destroy animals identified as habitual problem animals or to remove them from the system by translocating them elsewhere. • To have regular communication with local communities regarding damage causing animals. • To encourage and facilitate local communities to modify their stock raising and herding management practices to lessen conflict • Not to compensate losses incurred by local communities

2.4.5 Staff Capacity Building Program: The objective of this program is to attract and retain the human capital, meeting the required skills required in all the disciplines of the park, through the implementation of structured remuneration packages and relevant training programs for Park Management staff, contractors and volunteers. Training needs of all staff are continually assessed to ensure that those responsible for implementation of the park objectives possess the necessary skills to do so. Training needs of SMMEs and Poverty Relief workers are also assessed in order to affect capacity building through the Poverty Relief Program.

A Work Place skills Development Plan is also produced for the park every year as required by legislation. This is coordinated at head office level, with input from the park and the Employment Equity Forum. Most of the staff is involved and encouraged to make inputs into the plan.

2.4.6 Financial Sustainability Program: Table 1 provides an estimation of the costs involved in striving towards the desired state for Kgalagadi National Park over the next 5-year period through all of the objectives and associated program detailed in this management plan. The allocated costs account for Infrastructure Development Plans, Extended Public Works Program and the Kgalagadi National Park operational budgets. It is significant to note that there is shortfall of approximately R154 million over the next five years.

Table 1: – Estimated costs (in Rands) of reaching the desired state for Kgalagadi National Park

2006/2007 2007/2008 2008/2009 2009/2010 2010/2011 Formatted Table Park acquisition & Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow rehab R 0 R 1,600,000 R 1,500,000 R 500,000 R 250,000 Park development R 0 R 119,860,698 R 68,077,000 R 68,575,000 R 44,575,000 Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow Total operating Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow costs R 12,762,894 R 22,413,081 R 19,748,243 R 19,154,420 R 20,246,281 Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow Total costs R 12,762,894 R 143,873,779 R 89,325,243 R 88,229,420 R 65,071,281 Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow Total secured R 12,762,894 R 87,167,000 R 57,252,000 R 49,750,000 R 38,500,000 Formatted: Position: Horizontal: Right, Relative to: Margin

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annual costs Total unsecured Formatted: Font: Arial Narrow annual costs R 0 R 56,706,779 R 32,073,243 R 38,479,420 R 26,571,281

2.5 Corporate Support

2.5.1 Research Support Program The Arid Ecosystems Research Unit maintains the existing inventory of baseline information for the park, but there is a need to develop the monitoring program to evaluate the parks performance and impacts using key performance indicators and thresholds of potential concern, and commission focused research projects to complement the baseline inventory, knowledge base for the park and monitoring requirements. This cannot be achieved without explicit commitment around the supporting environment, for instance researcher accommodation to help attract visiting researchers at reasonable project cost - the erection of a research house and office facilities at Twee Rivieren in 2006 through a private donation is a good start in this direction. Equally, liaison with research and biodiversity partners in the region, as well as nationally and internationally should be improved.

2.5.2 Institutional Development and Administration Program The Kgalagadi National Park is fully aligned to the corporate policy, guidelines and protocol on institutional development programmes and actions. This is communicated to the park from time to time by corporate HQ in Pretoria. Administration and is also based on accepted norms and standards as set out in various sets of legislation pertaining to administrative procedures.

2.5.3 HIV/AIDS HIV & AIDS requires special attention because it is also spreading within SANParks. Whilst it is an integral component of the EAP (Employee Assistance Programme), it is accorded priority within the SANParks programming. In the most severely affected settings, there is mounting evidence that HIV/AIDS is eroding human security and capacity, undermining economic development and threatening social cohesion. Inevitably, this situation has serious impacts on business. South Africa’s hospitality and tourism industry, of which the organization is a key role player, allows for job creation throughout the country, including rural areas, where HIV prevalence is often high. It impacts on all businesses, both directly and indirectly, resulting in increased costs and reduced productivity. Against this backdrop and because SANParks values its human capital, it has now introduced a comprehensive HIV & AIDS Programme which includes Developing an HIV & AIDS Policy; Education and Awareness; Anonymous and Unlinked Prevalence Surveys; Know-Your-Status Campaigns; Lifestyle Management; Care, Treatment & Support as well as Scientific Impact Analyses. The purpose of a HIV & AIDS program will be to enable SANParks and its adjacent communities to maintain a healthy and productive workforce. The park will inform and educate the children and communities of lifestyle management, prevention, care and treatment and support of those who are infected. SANParks could play a pivotal role in sending a positive message in this regard.

2.5.4 Risk management Program Risk awareness and management within Kgalagadi National Park is adhered to on an ongoing basis. This entails the implementation of corporate policies, procedures and protocol. Formatted: Position: Horizontal: Right, Relative to: Margin

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The purpose of corporate risk management is to ensure that strategic, business and operational objectives are met and that continued, sustained growth and biodiversity management takes p-lace. This is achieved by proactively identifying and understanding the factors and events that may impact the achievement of the set objectives, then managing, monitoring and reporting on these risks. The process for the identification of risk is an objective driven process which assesses the impact that risks would have on the viability of the objectives. Senior executives and line management within divisions, down to each business unit are accountable for risk. Section 51 (1) (a) (i) of the PFMA requires of the Accounting Authority of a Public Entity to establish and maintain effective, efficient and transparent systems of financial and risk management and internal control. Reporting on Risk Management occurs monthly at EXCO. Currently the existing corporate risk registers (per division) are being aligned with the divisional scorecard objective-setting. The process to integrate park level scorecards with that of the Director: Parks is currently in progress.

3 ADAPTIVE AND INTEGRATIVE STRATEGIES TO SUSTAIN THE DESIRED STATE

Section 1 has dealt with the desired state for the Kgalagadi National Park and Section 2 with the specific programs which are believed necessary to achieve it. However, as with any management plan the desired state cannot be effectively maintained without explicit attention being given to prioritization, integration, operationalisation, and above all, reflection and adaptation according to the principles in the biodiversity custodianship framework (SANParks 2006). This is the challenge for the Kgalagdi National Park in the next five years.

3.1 Key prioritization, integration and sequencing issues Deleted: ¶ The desired state for the Kgalagadi National Park needs to be refined in a more focused way and agreement reached on certain important biodiversity issues such as the provision of water, as well as the application of the cultural heritage plan. Although the priorities are well understood the objectives need to be unpacked so that more focus on addressing priorities can be achieved and the tasks to be tackled by staff and support institutions can be better defined. The question surrounding the reduction in nomadic species such as springbok and red hartebeest needs to be addressed as a priority. With regard to effective park management the infrastructural needs of staff, especially with regard to the provision of acceptable drinking water and improved housing are priorities.

Although most objectives should be able to be addressed in the next 5 year management cycle, or at least initial steps taken to lay the foundation towards addressing them, the further rehabilitation of the large scale migratory and nomadic movements of the large herbivores, is long-term in scope and would require collaboration and cooperation from all stakeholders in the public and private sectors as well as internationally. In this context expansion of the protected area network and looking towards improving co-existence between wild life and people on a sustainable utilization basis into the Central Kalahari in Botswana might be possible. More challenging would be expansion west into Namibia and south into South Africa. Including the dry river systems of the Molopo and Kuuruman in some form of cooperative management system with the protected areas system might be hugely beneficial for the nomadic species as well as for the local inhabitants in the form of sustainable tourism and consumptive use. However, the issues are large as, apart from anything else, it would entail the removal of a number of fences. A balance must be struck between the Formatted: Position: Horizontal: Right, Relative to: Margin

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energy needed to deal with immediate threats and issues, and the necessity of laying the all-important groundwork for longer-term strategic success in improving ecosystem functioning. It will never be possible to completely restore the southern Kgalagadi ecosystem and a realistic framework of what might be achievable should be developed in the next five years.

The cultural heritage goals for the Kgalagadi National Park must be made compatible with the biodiversity goals and principles. In this regard the questions of traditional hunting and medicinal plant use could be seen as contentious and need to be carefully planned. Visitor expectations need to be tempered accordingly, as SANParks will need to keep the moral high ground in convincing the public that these issues are key cultural priorities.

3.2 Steps to Operationalisation

Given the desired state and the objectives hierarchy to achieve it, park management should draw up a detailed plan of action down to annual operational level and wherever necessary down to the level of tasks and duties. The Park Manager must be satisfied that all this serves the desired state. A further cross-check is contained in the Balanced Scorecard system implemented by SANParks, which serves to support the effective implementation of the objectives. This can be achieved by cross-referencing the most important objectives with explicit ways in which these are reinforced by key performance areas in the Balanced Scorecard. In conjunction with this a broad staff and finance costing for the five-year period should be drawn up.

3.3 Key Ongoing Adaptive Management and Evaluation Interventions

Lack of informative and effective feedback, which should stimulate proper reflection by managers, is the commonest underlying cause of failure of adaptive management, and hence of reaching the desired outcomes we set for parks. The hallmark of adaptive management is ongoing learning, and this only results if users apply their minds to the adaptive cycle. This section aims to detail generic procedures, but these need to be more specifically adapted in a way that they are most likely to be used in the Kgalagadi National Park.

• Feedback that the management action as decided upon and specified, is carried out as such:- This responsibility lies with line-function management. • Feedback whenever a TPC specifying the endpoints of any biodiversity objective is violated, or is credibly predicted to be violated in the future:- This requires that a disciplined monitoring program be put in place, that the custodian of the particular program (post specified in low-level TPC plans for each theme in Kgalagadi) duly reports the exceedance to a competent, preferably formally constituted, joint science- management forum, which includes the Park Manager or his duly appointed delegate. This must lead to a documented management response, recognizing that the “do nothing response” may also be a specific justifiable response. The suite of biophysical TPC themes in Kgalagadi is likely to be relatively small (low nomadic herbivore number/high resident herbivore numbers, number of large trees killed by fires in the river beds, groundwater status and aliens) and setting of TPCs and monitoring for as many as possible must be commissioned as soon as possible in order to measure the situation relative to the desired state. It is better to have roughly defined preliminary TPCs for these themes than to wait years for perfect ones to be developed. They can always be refined and improved with time. • Feedback that the predicted outcome of a management intervention, in response to the exceedance of a TPC, is achieved, or what materialized instead in its place:- This Formatted: Position: Horizontal: Right, Relative to: Margin

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is usually directly measurable by checking whether that same TPC returned to within its acceptable limits after management action was initiated. • Feedback to SANParks Head Office of the overall performance of Kgalagadi relative to its stated objectives:- This will be done via an annual report on the state of Kgalagadi National Park as well as other incidental reporting. • Feedback as to whether the monitoring program and list of TPCs is parsimonious and effective:- This is the responsibility of the scientific custodians involved, but overall responsibility for the program as a whole rests with the science-management forum. It is broadly challenged during each 5-yearly revision cycle.

• Feedback as to whether overall park objectives need adjustment in the longer-term:- This is dealt with effectively at the 5-yearly review step. However, in the case of perceived “emergencies” the Park Manager is constrained within the limits of agreement.

• Feedback regarding, or at least latent preparation for, surprises:- By definition these cannot be predicted. It will, however, be an explicit obligation of the Park Manager to take responsibility to stimulate contingency and risk management assessments. From an ecosystem point of view, dealing with such surprises is best dealt with by generating scenarios and we must aim for at least one structured scenario planning session per 5 year cycle. It is suggested that three families of scenarios will significantly assist Kgalagadi’s longer-term chances of success in goal achievement – contemplating scenarios around the willingness of stakeholders to accommodate any expansion of the protected area, or the chances of going into contractual arrangements with neighbours might prove helpful in evaluating the feasibility of further reconstructing the nomadic herbivore system in the future

If these obligatory feedbacks are effectively honoured, it is believed that Kgalagadi Formatted: English (South Africa) National Park will be practicing an effective level of adaptive management, in accordance with SANPark’s overarching values and will have the best chance of achieving the desired state in a sustainable way.

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4. REFERENCES

ROGERS, K. 2003. Biodiversity Custodianship in SANParks. A Protected Area Management Planning Framework. Pretoria, SANParks.

SANParks (2006). Coordinated policy framework governing park management plans. Pretoria, SANParks.

SANParks & DWNP, Botswana (2003). Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park Management Plan. Pretoria and Gabarone, SANParks & DWNP

ANONYMOUS (2002). The Ae!Hai Kalahari Heritage Park Bundle – including the agreement whereby the land claims of the Khomani San Community and the Mier Community are finalized and associated documents.

MEYER, J.A. & N.H. CASEY (undated). Water quality report, Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park. Unpublished Report, Center for Wildlife Management, University of Pretoria.

SANParks would like to thank everyone who participated and had input in the Formatted: Font: 11 pt, Not Bold formulation of this document. Including Dr Gus Mills, Dr Dave Grossman, Dr Mike Formatted: Font: Not Bold, Not Knight, Dr Stefanie Freitag-Ronaldson, Dr Steve Holness, Dr Hugo Bezuidenhout, Nico Italic, Font color: Auto van der Walt, Nardus du Plessis, Christine du Plessis, Owen Wittridge, Clinton Dilgee, Fanie van Tonder and Hannetjie van Tonder

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