Topics of Interest-

A Thistle Planted in America

Zachary Friedenberg, MD

The Scottish Thistle – National Emblem of Morgan, like most of the American Scotland which adorns the John Morgan Building students, had some medical training as an on the Campus of the University of Pennsylvania. apprentice before he left America.4 After attending Dr. Finley’s Academy; he completed his JOHN MORGAN AND THE NEW SCHOOL OF classical education at the College of , MEDICINE established by Franklin in 1749, and already one of the most prestigious schools in America. He then Abstract: served an apprenticeship with Dr. John Redman and, with the outbreak of the war in North The early history of the medical school at the America between Britain and France, he joined the University of Pennsylvania was born as an idea army as a lieutenant in the medical department in Edinburgh, Scotland, transmitted to the with the British forces before sailing for west, molded by rebellion and forged in the fire Edinburgh.5 of a war for independence. Its central actor, William Shippin, Jr. also had John Morgan was in turn, a hero, a scapegoat, considerable medical experience before his arrival and then forsaken. at the Edinburgh school. He had been an apprentice with his father and he had studied Each week, the American medical anatomy with the celebrated John Hunter, whom students in Edinburgh met to discuss their studies, he later accompanied on rounds in the London compare letters from home, -- and to criticize the hospitals in a clinical rotation.6 Before practice of medicine in America, where any matriculating at Edinburgh, Morgan and Shippen “uneducated fool” could call himself a doctor, had a common background, both were from prescribe treatment and deceive the public.1,2 In Philadelphia, both had served an apprenticeship, Britain, by contrast, doctors were now licensed the both were interested in medical education, and Royal Academy and had to meet prescribed between 1760 and 1762, both were students in standards. 3 The Virginia students, in particular, Edinburgh. Both saw the need of a medical school were very vociferous and went so far as to draft a in America, and discussed courses to be given, series of complaints to the House of Burgess, requirements for entry and degrees to be demanding medical training as a pre-requisite for conferred.7 the title of Doctor.3 John Morgan, newly arrived Shippen returned to Philadelphia, in 1762 in Edinburgh in 1760, went even further. He said, and showed his interest in teaching by giving a there should be an examining body that licensed series of lectures in anatomy and midwifery in all doctors in America.2,3 1762 and 1763, which were so popular that 250 Address for Correspondence: students attended the course in 1763.8 Zachary Friedenberg, M.D. Department of Orthopaedic Surgery The Americans from the Colonies Penn Presbyterian Medical Center impressed the teaching staff at Edinburgh with 51 North 39th Street , Philadelphia, PA 19104 Phone: 1-215-662-3340 their studious, no nonsense attitude. They banded Fax: 1-215-662-5978 Email: [email protected] together to form the “American Club” for study and leisure. Classes began at eight in the morning Dr. Friedenberg is a Professor of Orthopaedic surgery at the Children’s and continued until seven in the evening. In Hospital of Philadelphia addition, time must also be allocated for clinical teaching in the Infirmary where for the first time, bedside teaching was part of the medical course.

University of Pennsylvania Orthopaedic Journal Volume 19 A Thistle Planted in America Z. Friedenberg

Socially, they were in great demand by the Maine and Georgia, and extending westward townspeople who invited them to their homes to several hundred miles.9 Three-thousand “doctors” learn about the opportunities in America and or healers served this population of which 117 American life. Tales of the wide open land doctors graduated from Edinburgh and perhaps expanses, the small towns, and the remote farms another hundred took courses but never graduated. were a breath of fresh air to those crowded in the There were also doctors who had taken courses or squalid cities of Britain. earned degrees in Paris, Leyden, Bonn and Vienna. The medical school at Edinburgh was There were others who served an apprenticeship preferred for education as courses were no longer but most doctors in America had no training; they taught in Latin, although a thesis and its defense assumed the title after having “cured” someone in were still demanded in Latin to get the M.D. their community after which others sought their degree. The staff was world famous; Cullen in advice.10 medicine, three generations of the Monro family The Independent Reflector, a newspaper taught anatomy and surgery, Benjamin Bell had in New York, complained, “Few physicians just written his multi-volume textbook of surgery amongst us are eminent for their skill. Quacks which was reprinted and the standard text in abound like locusts in Egypt. The profession is surgery, Joseph Black, chemist and discoverer of under no kind of regulation. We have no laws carbon dioxide lectured in chemistry.8 protecting the King’s subjects from malpractice of In the more established, older universities the pretender.”2 such as Oxford and Cambridge, admission for the study of medicine required seven years of classical ******************************* education, including courses in Greek, Latin and After finishing his medical school at Hebrew, and the attainment of a Master of Arts Edinburgh, Morgan made the grand tour of degree. When a student overcame these admission Europe. His many friends in Britain provided him requirements, he was taught medieval medicine with letters of introduction to some of the most following the dictates of Galen and Paracelsus. important people on the continent. In Padua he There was no surgical training, at such schools, visited Giambattista Morgagni, the pathologist, surgery was to be done by the barber surgeons. who linked the pre-mortem symptoms of a patient Empiricism and research could not penetrate the with the post-mortem pathological findings. hallowed halls of these institutions. Morgagni received Morgan warmly, claiming By contrast, entrance requirements to kinship to him by virtue of the similarity of their Edinburgh were modernized. Courses of natural names. His route included visiting medical centers history and botany were required but an entrance in Paris, Geneva and Leyden, as well as Padua.11 examination could be taken even if no formal A letter of introduction addressed to courses were taken. Once matriculated, three-year Voltaire allowed him to visit the Philosopher at the courses were prescribed with lectures in anatomy, Chateau de Ferney in Geneva. Morgan’s journal chemistry, pharmacy, and the theory and practice recounted the visit. “As our coach drove into the of physics; during this training at least one year courtyard, M. Voltaire, himself, received us on the must be spent in the infirmary. Three months steps and addressed Morgan and Powell (his before the final medical examination, the student American Companion) in English.” Voltaire must pass an examination on literary knowledge scolded them for not staying for dinner, saying, and medical preparedness. Then the examination “You know, gentleman, that sitting together at a for the Baccalaureate in Medicine was given after table opens ye heart and makes one more sprightly three years of training. To get an M.D. degree, the and sociable.” Voltaire talked about the soul student must then present a thesis and defend it. (“does a dog have a soul?”) and admired English John Morgan’s thesis was on “pus” and he showed Authors. “The English have some fine authors and it to be derived from blood.4 they are, I swear, by God himself, the first nation After graduation, many students did not in Europe… They are not satisfied with mere directly make the transatlantic voyage home but appearance, they love investigation and truth and “walked the wards” of St. Thomas, St. despise superstition. I commend you gentlemen – Bartholomew’s and Guys Hospitals in London or go on, love truth and search diligently after it. journeyed to the Hotel Dieu in Paris or hospitals in Hate hypocrisy, hate masses, and above all hate Rheims or Leyden as a sort of internship. 4 the priests.11 At the outbreak of the Revolutionary War As the carriage sped down the road, a there were three million people in America, thinly sign on the roadside at the entrance of an inn read: spread over a thousand miles of coastline between

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“Deo Erexit Voltaire those charged by others. He would not deal with Behold the Pious Work of Vain Voltaire patients who demanded a cheaper fee. “Si Who never knew a God or said a Prayer” Populus vult decipi decipiatur. If people chose to be deceived, let them be deceived.” He would His European tour over, Morgan set sail give free advice to friends and their families, and for America having been showered with honors. their servants. Having studied medicine for fifteen He had been elected a Fellow of the Royal Society years (apprenticeship, military service, medical of London, a Fellow of the College of Physicians school), “under the most celebrated masters in in Edinburgh, a licentiate of the Royal College of every branch of medicine, such fees are deserved.” Physicians in London, correspondent to the Also, I must conserve my time for preparing a Academie Royale de Chirugeons in Paris, and a course of lectures, leisure time and an undisturbed member of the Bells Lettres of Rome. When he mind.14 finished his courses in Edinburgh, his thoughts He decided to confine his efforts to the again dwelt on a new medical school in practice of medicine and do no surgery, nor would Philadelphia and he recalled his discussions with he engage in pharmacy.7 He made one exception, Shippen and the famous English physicians in that he would inoculate to prevent smallpox. Fothergill, Hunter, Cullen and Watson. Inoculation consisted of transferring smallpox He met with Thomas Penn, a patron of matter from a victim to a well person for the the College of Philadelphia, who was in London at prevention of the disease and was regarded as a the moment and who gave full approbation to the surgical procedure. Vaccination with cowpox had idea of establishing a medical faculty at the not yet been discovered. Interestingly, Morgan College of Philadelphia. Penn, in turn, wrote to expressed his willingness to diagnose and treat and the board of trustees of the College urging them to charge patients he never saw, if he was presented approve of Morgan’s plan and even suggested that with a good case history. Such were his Morgan be appointed first professor of Physic.12 ruminations on the way to America.14 It would appear that Morgan decided to His achievements since he left the go it alone and in a sense deserted Shippen. colonies were impressive. He had a medical was a witness to the fact that degree from the leading medical school, his friends Morgan and Shippen were to launch this project as included the best known physicians in Europe, he a partnership. Rush writing of Morgan states, he had been assured that he would be supported in concerted with Dr. Shippen the plan of starting a new medical school in Philadelphia, and establishing a medical school in the city.13 that he would be appointed the first professor of Additional evidence that discussions of medicine. Morgan was now at the crest of his establishing a medical school in Philadelphia took career. It is at this juncture that we become aware place is recorded in a letter from John Fothergill, of some personality traits which contributed to his who regarded both Morgan and Shippen as his downfall later. He excluded Shippen from sharing protégés. In a letter to John Pemberton of the honor of establishing the first medical school. Philadelphia on 7 April 1762, Fothergill suggested Why did he proceed without Shippen after they that Shippen, upon returning, would teach courses had discussed such a joint venture? Later, as in anatomy while awaiting the return of Morgan.7 Director-General of the Continental Army, Later, in his letter of acceptance of the Morgan unsuccessfully attempted to dominate professorship of anatomy and surgery, Shippen those doctors under his command and failed to stated, “I would long ago sought the patronage of show a spirit of compromise. In his military career the Trustees of the College, but waited to be joined he was often tactless and self-serving. by Dr. Morgan to whom I first communicated my Soon after he arrived in Philadelphia, plan in England and who promised to unite with Morgan met with the board of trustees of the me in every scheme he might think necessary for College of Philadelphia, and overpowered them the execution of so important a point.”7 with his many honors, his letters from the leading Morgan was so confident that his idea doctors in Europe, his well organized plan for the would be embraced by the College of Philadelphia medical school, and his enthusiasm for the project. that he wrote his commencement speech, “A He was returning to his native country showered Discourse Upon the Institution of a Medical with worldly accolades. The board of trustees of School” while still in Paris. He saw himself as the College held a special meeting and approved professor of medicine and he recorded his thoughts the medical faculty on May 3, 1765, the first about the type of practice he would pursue. He medical school in America. In the minutes of the decided his fees would be moderate, equivalent to meeting of the board, it is stated, “entertaining a

University of Pennsylvania Orthopaedic Journal Volume 19 A Thistle Planted in America Z. Friedenberg high sense of Dr. Morgan’s abilities and the high contains all the wisdom of modern honors paid him by different learned societies” the literature. It is the vehicle of board approved the medical school to be part of knowledge in which the learned men the College of Philadelphia. They took the extra of every nation in Europe choose to step and appointed Morgan the first professor of convey their sentiments…and the Theory and Practice of Medicine.13 acquaintance with mathematics and On May 30 and 31, 1765, Morgan natural philosophy.” delivered his commencement address.10 (The weather in Philadelphia was so hot that the talk Apprenticeship: “Medical apprenticeship fails was interrupted and completed on the morning of because it depends on the person the 31st of May.) In the audience were many of the you are working with, and it lacks important people in Philadelphia, including communication with other doctors Benjamin Franklin, the trustees of the College, and students.” including Thomas Penn and Thomas Bond, physician to the Pennsylvania Hospital, John Why Redman for whom Morgan had been an apprentice Philadelphia?: “The hospital (Pennsylvania and Dr. Thomas Cadwalader, both later presidents Hospital) is already in place in of the College of Physicians in Philadelphia. Dr. Philadelphia and will provide William Shippen, was also in the audience crushed teachers and allow students to by Morgan’s initiative to take full honors and not increase their knowledge.” on the platform beside him where he felt he It is the largest city, centrally located belonged.8 In Edinburgh, in his many discussions in the Colonies. A library is with Morgan about founding a school, he established in Philadelphia. envisaged himself as co-founder. Now Morgan, Graduates should be asked to basking in his many conquests, was going it alone. contribute to this library.

******************************* Shippen: Morgan addressed himself to Shippen Morgan addressed his audience: sitting in the audience. “It is with the highest satisfaction that I am Introduction: “What I am about to Propose is a informed from Dr. Shippen, Jr. that scheme for Transplanting Medical in an address to the public as Science into the seminary.” “The introductory to his first anatomical Various branches of medicine which lecture, he proposed some hints of a compose the science of medicine plan for giving medical lectures are; Anatomy, Materia Medica, amongst us. But I do not learn that Botany, Chymistry, The Theory and he recommended at all a collegiate Practice of Medicine. undertaking of this kind. What lead The order which I would me to it…was the desire I have of recommend in the study of medicine presenting…a full and enlarged plan is to begin with Anatomy, then… for the institution of medicine in all Materia Medica and Botany; its branches. …should the trustees Chymistry should follow, the establish a professorship in Institutes come next; and the Study Anatomy, Dr. Shippen…teaching and Practice should complete the that branch of medical science is work.” favourable to our wishes.”

Premedical Separation of Education: “…that young men ought to come Medicine and well prepared for the study of Surgery: Medicine by Having their mindsPharmac “If Physic, Surgery and Pharmacy were enriched with all the aids they can in different hands, practitioners receive from languages and the would enjoy more satisfaction…be liberal Arts…Latin and Greek are less burdened.” necessary…the latter contains the rich original treasures of the ancient Future of the medical science…the former

University of Pennsylvania Orthopaedic Journal Volume 19 A Thistle Planted in America Z. Friedenberg

School: “Perhaps this Medical Institution, the first The manner of granting degrees was also of its kind in America, though small modeled after that of Edinburgh. A Baccalaureate in the beginning, may receive a in Medicine was granted after three years at the constant increase of strength and Medical School, an apprenticeship to some annually exert new vigour. It may practitioner for a variable period, and attendance at collect a number of young persons the Pennsylvania Hospital for one year for clinical of more than ordinary abilities and instruction was also required. The M.D. degree so improve their knowledge as to was gained by presenting and defending a thesis in spread its reputation to distant Latin three years or more after the B.M. degree. parts.”10 The first class of ten graduates received their B.M. degrees in 1768, so that hospital attendance and As Morgan delivered his address, an clinical lectures must have been accomplished uncomfortable Shippen heard him speak simultaneously. Most students had an condescendingly about his efforts to found a apprenticeship before entering school.4,15 school, and deny that it was a joint effort. The In 1767, Morgan wrote to his friend evidence is clear that Morgan and Shippen did William Hewson in London, “I have twenty pupils discuss the project on several occasions. this year at about five guineas each. Next year we The seeds of discontent were sown in this shall confer the Degree of Bachelor in Physic upon talk, witnessed by the notables of Philadelphia, and several of them and that of Doctor in three years a chagrined Shippen became an implacable foe after. New York (Kings College, later the College bent on destroying Morgan, which he finally did. of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University) Morgan spent the last years of his life trying to has six professors, three of whom you know, to wit vindicate himself. As we shall see, this young Bard, Professor of Physic, Tennant Midwifery, and graduate returning from Europe loaded with Smith in Chemistry; besides whom are Dr. Jones honors, who swept into Philadelphia as a hero, of Surgery, Middleton Physiology, and Clossy of died forlorn and friendless. Anatomy.” Referring to the rivalry of the schools The Pennsylvania Gazette of September and the fact that Kings College would grant the 26, 1765, informed the public of a new faculty and first M.D. degree in America, although the school described the lectures to be given. These were in Philadelphia was older he said, “Time will show triumphant days for Morgan. In 1766, John in what light we are to consider this rivalship; for Sargent, a merchant of London, offered a prize of a my part, I do not seem under great apprehension.”6 gold medal for an essay on, “The Reciprocal The first M.D. degree in America was granted in Advantages of a Perpetual Union between Great 1769, not in Philadelphia but in New York, by Britain and the American Colonies.” Morgan’s Kings College which did not require a thesis for essay was selected as winner, and further honors this degree. The medical faculty of Kings College accrued to him. was chartered in 1767.9.14 The faculty of the new school was In the first graduating class of the College quickly rounded out. In 1765, Shippen wrote the of Philadelphia was Jonathan Plott, who was trustees for a position as Professor of Anatomy and awarded by the the first Surgery, which was granted. In his request, congressional commendation to a physician for his Shippen reiterated that he had long considered a treatment of casualties at the Battle of Saratoga. medical school and had discussed it with Morgan. Also, in the same class was James Tilton, later to He also told how he had mentioned the formation become Director General of the Medical of a school during his anatomical lectures in Department after the War, who wrote on military Philadelphia. Shippen also had an interest in sanitation and hospital construction. midwifery and gave lectures on this subject.6 Adam Kuhn was made professor of Botany and ******************************* Materia Medica. Before Benjamin Rush returned COLLEGE OF PHILADELPHIA to America and had been assured by Morgan that the position of Professor of Chemistry would be The Pennsylvania Gazette, June 28, 1771 held open for him, and he was given the chair as soon as he returned. Thomas Bond continued his This being the day appointed for the clinical teaching at Pennsylvania Hospital, but did Anniversary Commencement of the not seek, nor was he offered a professorship. Each College, the trustees at Half an Hour past of these physicians had attended the medical Nine o’clock proceeded from the school at Edinburgh. Apparatus Room followed by the provost,

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Vice Provost and Professors with the The first Director General of the Medical different candidates in the Gown, the Department of the Army, Benjamin Church, was Band of Music by the Royal North-British court-martialed for spying, and John Morgan was Fuzileers playing during the whole appointed Director General of the Medical procession. ….An English Forensic Department by appointment of the Continental Dispute – “whether the Preeminence in Congress on October 6, 1775.15 Works of Genius and Useful Arts is to be American regimental commanders in ascribed to the Ancients or Moderns. Cambridge held sway controlling their fiefdoms with a jealous hand. Regimental surgeons Doctor of Medicines was granted to Jonathan appointed and supported by their commanders Elmer, Jonathan Plotts, and James Tilton and acted independently and scorned the Continental Nicolas Way. Hospital set up by Morgan. They kept their own medical supplies and refused to send the sick and wounded to the hospital, or cooperate in any way ******************************* with the new Director General. With energy, Morgan tackled his first At this time Rush was twenty-six years priority which was to secure supplies. He old, Kuhn thirty, Shippen thirty-five and Morgan appropriated drugs from loyalist apothecaries, and thirty-six. Bond was fifty-two years old. The received donations from privateers returning to medical school in Philadelphia was the legitimate port with their prizes, as well as contributions from offspring of the Edinburgh School, which itself, the populace. was modeled after the school at Leyden. His second task was to organize the The College of Philadelphia and its Medical Department. On his arrival in Cambridge medical faculty prospered during the pre-war he demanded of each regimental surgeon an years, but with the advent of hostilities, the inventory of their supplies, enacted regulations College was on the defensive. Student enrollment regarding sending very sick patients to the dropped, inflation sapped its finances, worthless Continental Hospital, and insisting that all medical paper money and depreciation of investments equipment needed in the regimental hospitals be struck hard. The final blow came from the draw from a central storehouse under his provincial assembly in 1777. command. They refused to comply. The patriots of America looked with He then retaliated and tried to control the distrust on the School. The provost was born in rations of each hospitalized patient to force the England and was said to show British partiality. regimental surgeons to conform to his orders. The trustees who formerly had pledged to the king Again, they resisted. Morgan again was were looked upon as traitorous. Some were vowed demonstrating his lack of tact, diplomacy and Tories. The assembly revoked the charter of the compromise. The struggle intensified in widening school and appropriated the lands of many of the circles. Commanders complained to Washington trustees which were sold to support the American and directly to Congress. The Medical board of military forces. Franklin was in Europe and it is the Continental Congress was besieged with doubtful that this action would have been taken, if complaints of the autocratic behavior of the new he had been present to defend the school he had Director General.12 Shippen in Philadelphia with organized. his friends in Congress added to the clamor. Throughout this trying period, Washington ******************************* continued his support of Morgan. Summer was turning to Fall in 1775; The army in Cambridge partially trained American Militias assembled at Cambridge were by Washington now moved to Brooklyn, Long threatening Boston, held by the British when Island for an upcoming battle with the British who Washington arrived to take command. There was occupied Manhattan. In their defensive position, little resemblance to any army; it was more like a 6500 of the 17,000-man American force were mob. Men followed orders when they wanted to, listed as disabled, many for trivial causes.15 sanitation was non-existent and smallpox and The defeat and rout of the Americans at dysentery were taking their toll. Washington, the the battle of Long Island saw them scattered in new Commander-in-Chief, looked on this northern Manhattan, some crossed into New Jersey ragamuffin army in dismay, and decided it was and some arrived in White Plains. If the army was back to basics in order to mold an army from such disorganized, the Medical Department was even material.15 more disorganized.16 Terrified militia regiments

University of Pennsylvania Orthopaedic Journal Volume 19 A Thistle Planted in America Z. Friedenberg seized medical supplies, wagons and food as they refused to take his seat until the College of deserted. Three-thousand patients were in Philadelphia was again established. The trustees hospitals in Newark, Hackensack, Fishkill, and of the new university had their first meeting in Peekskill. Morgan lost control of the department December 1779 and there were two competing as his contentious surgeons refused to obey medical schools in Philadelphia. orders.15 Congress dismissed Morgan summarily Although the trustees of the College may without charges in January 1775.16 He was a have had a dim view of the revolution, the medical scapegoat for a defeated army but he had never faculty wholeheartedly supported the war effort. obtained the loyalties of those under him. Morgan and Shippen were Director Generals, Following the dismissal of Morgan, Rush was made chief surgeon of the middle Shippen’s friends in Philadelphia convinced hospital department and was a signer of the Congress to appoint Shippen as Director General. Declaration of Independence as well as a member It was not much later that Morgan began his of Congress. The school’s graduates served in the attacks on Shippen. In this, he was supported by medical department of the armed forces in the field Benjamin Rush, who, himself, was for a brief and in hospitals. period a member of the Congress. Morgan With the peace treaty with Britain signed spearheaded an attack on Shippen which was in 1782, cooler heads prevailed, and the College of joined by others and he was charged with Philadelphia and it’s medical faculty were dereliction of duties during the Battle of reinstated in 1789, due mostly to the influence of Brandywine, remaining comfortably Franklin. If Franklin had not been in Europe, it is accommodated in Bethlehem, while some of the doubtful that its charter would have been revoked wounded lay on the battlefield unattended for three in the first place. The decision of the court that days, and then had to be transported in wagons heard the evidence for the revocation of it’s charter over rut carved roads to the overcrowded hospital described the revocation verdict as in Bethlehem nearly a hundred miles away. He “reprehensible”. was accused of conduct unbecoming an officer, In 1789, with the reopening of the selling of government hospital supplies for his own College, Shippen, Kuhn and Rush were profit, overstocking hospital supplies and reappointed and Morgan was also invited to accept falsifying the number of patients admitted to the his old position as Professor of Physic, but he did hospital. He was court-martialed and acquitted, not respond, brooding over the events of his but Congress in reviewing the verdict, military career. Caspar Wistar in Chemistry, characterized his conduct as “reprehensible”. Samuel Griffits in Materia Medica, and William Shippen remained Director General of the Medical Barton in Botany, joined the faculty.13 Department until 1778 when he resigned. The two schools now coexisted, Morgan repeatedly petitioned Congress competing for the few students and for faculty for an honorable discharge. Finally, on June 12, some of whom taught at both schools. Medical 1779, Congress passed a resolution fully Students often attended some lectures at one exonerating Morgan from any wrongdoing. He school, and others at the rival school.9 The returned to Philadelphia his spirit broken by his University of Pennsylvania did not grant a B.M. long ordeal, his practice had dwindled in his degree, granting only an M.D. degree, and the absence, he rarely attended meetings and his College followed suit, as few of its students ever friends no longer sought his company; his medical returned to get the M.D. degree. The faculty of the school was closed.13,16 In 1785, after his wife died, College regarded the new school as a usurper and he became a recluse, completely withdrawn from medical education in Philadelphia bordered on society. chaos. To fill the void left by the closing of the On September 30, 1791, the College of Philadelphia, a new school was Commonwealth, after receiving petitions from organized by the Provincial Assembly and given both schools, united the two schools. It stipulated the name of the University of Pennsylvania. The that the name should be the University of school was funded with land and investments Pennsylvania, that it would be located in expropriated from the Tories.9,17 The board of the Philadelphia, and that all professors would be new university consisted of members of the reappointed. The Professor of the Theory and Assembly, senior ministers from the six religions Practice of Medicine was Adam Kuhn, Rush was in Pennsylvania, as well as other persons in the appointed Professor of the Institute of Medicine Commonwealth who had been supportive of the and Clinical Medicine, Shippen professor of revolution.17 Franklin was asked to be a trustee but Anatomy, Surgery and Midwifery, Caspar Wistar

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Professor of Theory and Practice of Medicine, 7. Gelfand, T., The Origins of a Modern Concept Samuel Griffits was Professor of Materia Medica of Medical Specialization: John Morgan’s and Pharmacy, and Benjamin Barton Professor of Discourse of 1765, Bulletin of the History of Botany. John Hutchinson, the last faculty member Medicine 50, pp.511-5353, 1976 arrived from Edinburgh during the war and was 8. Norwood, W., Medicine in the Era of the appointed in Chemistry.18 American Revolution, Inst. Record of Medicine, Hutchinson had been studying in V171, July 1958, pp.391-405 Edinburgh when the British-American crisis 9. Davis, N., Contributions to Medical Education developed, and anxious to get back to America, and Medical Institutions in the United States 1776- fearing he would be trapped in Britain for the 1876, Government Printing Office, Washington, duration of the war, he fled to France. Before D.C., 1877 sailing for Philadelphia he was entrusted by 10. Morgan, J., Discourse Upon Medical Schools Franklin to deliver important state papers to in Philadelphia, printed by William Bradford, Congress. As his ship approached the American Philadelphia, 1765 coast, it was fired upon and chased by a British 11. DeBeer, G., John Morgan’s Visit to Voltaire, vessel. Fearful that his dispatches would fall into Royal Society of London, V10, April 1953 the hands of the British, he departed his ship in a 12. Toner, J., Contributions to the Annals of small open boat and rowed to shore under heavy Medical Progress Before and During the War, fire. After he left his ship, it was captured by the Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., British Man-of-War. 1874 13. Carson, J., History of the Medical Department ******************************* of the University of Pennsylvania, V-2, Lindsay On October 15, 1789, Rush went to and Blakeston, Philadelphia, 1809 Morgan’s house and found him dead. Rush, now 14. Miller, G., Medical Education in Colonial Professor of Medicine in Morgan’s place, opened America, CIBA Symposium, Summit, New Jersey, his series of lectures with an eulogy of Morgan on 1947 November 2, 1789, which was delivered to the 15. Blanco, R., Medicine in the Continental Army assembled students of the College of 1775-1781, Bulletin New York Academy of Philadelphia.5,19 Medicine, V51, 1981, pp.667-704 Very simply, he recapitulated Morgan’s 16. Block, H., John Morgan and W. Hammond, successes here and abroad and glossed over the Ingredients of Their Downfall, Military Medicine, latter part of his life, so tragic and bitter.5 140, p.798-80, 1975 The THISTLE struggled to survive and 17. Wood, G., Early History of the University of in the future it was to flower. Pennsylvania, Lippincott, Philadelphia, 1896 18. Wilson, J., The Influence of Edinburgh on Referemces American Medical Education in the 18th Century. Proc. Intl, Med., V7-8, 1928-31 1. Packard, F., The Care of the Sick and Wounded 19. Norris, G., Early Medicine in Philadelphia, in the War of the Revolution, an address reprinted Philadelphia Publishers, Philadelphia, 1846 from N. Carolina Medical Society, Charlotte, North Carolina, January 8, 1899 2. Rush, B., An Account of the late John Morgan. Delivered before the students and Trustees of the College of Philadelphia on November 2, 1789, College of Physicians manuscript. 3. Bell, W., Medical Practice in Colonial America, Bulletin History of Medicine, 31, 1957, pp.442- 453 4. Bell, W., Medical Students and Their Examiners in 18th Century America, an address given at College of Physicians, June 29, 1953 5. Postell, W., Medical Education and Medical Students in Colonial America, Intl. Record of Medicine, V171, 1958, pp.364-70 6. Corner, B., William Shippen, Jr., American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, 1951

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