JOHN MORGAN, FATHER OF MEDICAL EDUCATION IN NORTH AMERICA* By W ILLIAM SHAINLINE MIDDLETON, M.D.

MADISON, WISCONSIN

The historian who shall hereafter relate the progress of medical science in America will be deficient in candour and justice if he does not connect the name of Dr. Morgan with that auspicious era in which medicine was first taught, and studied as a science, in this country. (Benjamin Rush.) ■"I ARLY American medical history delphia. The older Morgan, in addition to affords few more striking or illus­ his commercial activities, was a man of Htrious characters than John Mor- affairs, being a member of the Board of gan. Of brilliant intellect and Managers of Pennsylvania Hospital for charming personality, he shines forth two separate terms, a warden of Christ among a most learned group of Philadelphia Church for many years and a member of physicians of the ante-RevoIutionary days. the Pennsylvania Legislature for several Honored by virtue of his eminent qualifica­ years. Evan Morgan was a personal friend tions by his Alma Mater and later by the and neighbor of Benjamin Franklin, a Continental Congress, we find the unfor­ heritage which later served John Morgan tunate conniving hand of conspiracy raised to well. We find the elder Morgan charac­ snatch his merited high offices. Then come terized as “virtuous, sober, sensible, good.” years of vain efforts for vindication, which, Joanna Biles Morgan was descended from finally won, fails to bring the anticipated the most prominent Quaker families of comfort to the prematurely aged master­ Pennsylvania. Her father, William Biles, idealist. settled in Bucks County in 1679, before John Morgan was born in Philadelphia Penn’s arrival, and there surrounded him­ in 1735 of Evan and Joanna, or Joan, Biles self with rich estates and considerable Morgan. Of his paternal connections, power. He was a Quaker leader, the first George Morgan, a younger brother of recorded meeting of Friends in this country John, wrote in a family Bible. “George being held in his home near Falls of Nes- Morgan, the son of Evan and grandson of haminy on May 2, 1683. Mrs. Morgan’s David Morgan, gentlemen of Wales, whose mother was a Blackshaw, a family likewise ancestors retired to the mountains rather prominent in Quaker affairs. Her grand­ than be enslaved by William of Normandy, father, Randall Blackshaw, came to America called William the Conquerer.” Indeed with William Penn and was present on their Quaker ancestry is said to date “back the occasion of the consummation of to the days of Alfred” on the father’s side. Penn’s Treaty with the Indians at historic Morgan’s parental grandfather came to Shackamaxon. , America about 1700. Evan Morgan, his Of the early home life in Philadelphia, we father, was a resident of Chester, Pennsyl­ have but little record. The Morgans were vania, for a time. However his wealth and a large family and the quiet Quaker charm position were largely attained in Phila- of the Colonial days seems to have pervaded their lives. The Morgan residence at Second *Read before the Medical History Seminar, and Market Streets was located in the best University of Wisconsin. residential section of that day. Their social Note. Grateful acknowledgement is herewith made for material assistance from Dr. William position was assured by their alHuence, Pepper and Dr. William Snow Miller in the prepara­ church and family connections. John was tion of this sketch. the eldest of this large Morgan family, of whom only two have left descendants. his detachment. Morgan’s signal services At an early age young Morgan was sent at this time attracted the attention and to the renowned Nottingham School, Ches­ commendation of his commanding officer. ter County, Pennsylvania, under the Rever­ General Forbes. Contemporary opinion is end Mr. Finley, a scholar in Greek and preponderantly biased and does not neces­ Latin. John Morgan early distinguished sarily imply later approval. However, the himself by his application and unusual written sentiment of the great Benjamin ability, so that he was able to enter the Rush seems to have been the prevailing Academy and College of Philadelphia in judgment of that period: “So great was his advanced standing. The degree of Bachelor diligence and humanity in attending the of Arts was conferred on him by that sick and wounded who were the subjects institution with the first graduating class of his care, that I well remember to have of 1757. heard it said that if it were possible for Morgan’s medical training dovetailed any man to merit Heaven by his good with his liberal education for several years. works. Dr. Morgan would deserve it for his From 1750 to 1756 he served as apprentice faithful attendance upon his patients.” The experience gained by his military service in these wars stood him in invaluable stead in the War of the Revolution some sixteen years later. Succeeding his resignation from the Army five years of fruitful study were spent under the greatest masters of Europe. The friend­ ship of Benjamin Franklin opened the doors of many exclusive English houses to him and his first year spent in London proved most profitable, medically and socially. From the Hunters he learned the art of making anatomical preparations by corro­ sion, an achievement which in turn paved the way for high honors on the Continent. to Dr. John Redman, a preceptor whose Armed with letters from Franklin to Lord influence was felt for three generations of Kames and Dr. Cullen, John Morgan left Colonial medicine. Redman was a com­ London for Edinburgh in 1761. The great manding figure in the medical world of that number of Americans who completed their day and of a type to mold the brilliant medical training at this institution of apprentice to a lofty conception of the learning during this period is explained by opportunities of his profession. The last the strength of her faculty. That Edinburgh year of this apprenticeship was served as should have attracted Morgan and have so apothecary to the Pennsylvania Hospital. impressed him as to have been his model Morgan was the second to hold this position for a medical school in America gave an and he resigned May i, 1756, “having a impetus to the infant seat of learning, prospect of business more advantageous Pennsylvania, that was felt for a hundred than his present employment.” years. Morgan was graduated in 1763 with His medical education was enlarged by the degree of Doctor of Medicine. His four years’ service in the French and Indian thesis, “De Puopoiesi,” was a masterly Wars. Although commissioned lieutenant contribution and the theory he advanced April I, 1758, in the expedition against therein of the true secretion of pus from the Fort Duquesne, he acted as surgeon to blood vessels in certain inflammatory condi­ tions was revolutionary in thought. As period. He has recorded his impressions expressed in the thesis, his belief was: of the wonderful art of the countries visited “Hoc mea speciale habet, pus nempe in a manner indicative of a working knowl­ neque in sanguine neque extra vasi generari, edge of painting and architecture. Several sed in ipsis vasis inflammatis, ct vasorum amusing incidents related show his human mutationcs ab inflammatione inductas, esse interest. In the Casa Sancta at Loretto, causas efficientes quae virtute quadam his inquisitive nature questioned the validity secretoria, pus a sanguine eliciunt.” Priority of the miraculous butt, from which three over Hunter for this theory was given to wines were produced. The priest refused to John Morgan in 1817 by Curry, a teacher allow him to examine the container. Where­ of anatomy in Guy’s Hospital who had at, commenting on the difference, Morgan made a special study of the question. A records: “In the Col’r they were so, but all century later Cohnheim demonstrated agreed in one Quality, i.e., of being sower; beyond equivocation the truth of Morgan’s w’ch made me think the Madonna not so theory. much anxious of commending the goodness Of Morgan’s graduation, we learn that it of the Wine as the Nature of the Miracle.” was the occasion of “an eclat almost He found the conditions of medical educa­ unknown before.” Surrounded by a circle tion in Italy most deplorable. He inspected of admiring friends, he was clearly the lion hospitals at every opportunity with a view of the hour, and his promise for a brilliant to applying this knowledge in America. future received an incredibly wide circula­ The Alps and the wonderful Italian scenery tion. A valuable and life-long friend in the appealed to his artistic taste. His practical person of Dr. Cullen wielded a powerful bent found much to absorb his attention influence on him both as a student and as in such details as pavements, streets and a practitioner. Morgan’s correspondence the fortifications at various points. Morgan with Cullen bears a note of filial devotion obtained audience with the King of Sardinia, and apparent intimate understanding. Recip­ the Pope, Voltaire and many other celeb­ rocally, we find in a biography of Cullen rities. A diplomatic bout with the Italian (1832) that “Mr. Morgan appears to have customs officer at Buffalora gave rise to fully realized the expectations of his friend the following interesting remark: “A Physi­ Dr. Franklin.” cian who appears before his Patient in a plain Morgan left Edinburgh for Paris late Manner with a common Apparel, in the in 1763. His demonstration of the corrosion eyes of the World must be ignorant of his method of the preparation of tissues before Profession, whilst one with a monstrous the Academic Royale de Chirurgie de Paraphernalia of dress, enormous wig & Paris created a profound impression and grimace, is esteem’d a second Hippocrates.” the comments on his work were very favor­ Two acquaintanceships on this jour­ able. His stay in Paris was largely occupied ney were of more than passing importance. in the study of anatomy under M. Sue, and At Padua, Morgan visited Morgagni, the it was not until later, while in Italy, that celebrated light of Italian medicine of that he learned of his election to a corresponding time. Morgan again demonstrated the cor­ membership in the Academic Royale, July rosion method. Evidently, Morgagni was 5, 1764. From Paris Morgan started on a properly impressed with the personality tour through Switzerland and Italy accom­ of the young American, entertaining panied by his friend, Samuel Powel, of him most hospitably and from the similarity Philadelphia. “The Journal of Dr. John of their names claiming relationship with Morgan, of Philadelphia—Rome to London him. Tradition recounts that the venerable 1764” is a diary of the trip written in Morgagni, then eighty-two years old, was the quaint style and English of the so grateful for the gift of Morgan’s thesis that he reciprocated by giving Morgan his Obviously the source of endemic goiter was recent work, “De Sedibus et Causis Mor- recognized at that time, but the modus borum,” inscribing in his own hand on operandi was unknown. a blank page the following; “AfFini suo, John Morgan, returning to Paris, took medico praeclarissimo Johann Morgan, his seat in the Academic Royale on October donat auctor.” These volumes were placed 4, 1764. While in Paris at this time Morgan in the Library of the College of Physicians corresponded with Shippen and prepared his of Philadelphia by Morgan, and historical memorable “Discourse on the Institution of accuracy exacts a correction of the above Medical Schools in America” under the pretty compliment. On the title page of critical eye of Samuel Powel. In fact, during the first volume is inscribed: “Viro experi- practically the entire fall and later winter, entissimo et humanissimo D. Di Joanni spent in England on account of the heavy Morgan Auctor,” while in the second seas, Morgan was carefully planning each volume; “Viro de Re Anatomico bene step for the realization of his early hope, merito Do. Dr. Joanni Morgan Auctor.” the first medical school in North America, to While kinship is not avowed in the authen­ be founded in Philadelphia. In addition, tic inscriptions, assuredly a higher apprecia­ he was enlisting the support of the most tion of the medical attainments of Morgan influential physiciansand laymen of England is implied than in the conventional legend­ in his project. Dr. John Fothergill, who ary form. had furnished much material in the way of The reception of the American tourists, charts, models, and so forth to Pennsyl­ Morgan and Powel, by Voltaire at Chateau vania Hospital for anatomical study under de Ferney was characteristic of that philos­ William Shippen, Jr., was hearty in his opher’s regard for English-speaking support of Morgan’s plan and probably his people. After a delightful call, on their name, as a prominent Quaker, carried more departure Voltaire called after them: weight in the Colony than did those of “Behold two Amiable Young Men, Lovers Hunter and Watson, who likewise indorsed of Truth & Inquirers into Nature. They are the idea. In a letter to James Pemberton, not satisfy’d with near Appearances, they dated April, 1761, after outlining Shippen’s love investigation & Truth & despise plan for anatomical teaching, Fothergill con­ Superstition—I commend You Gentlemen— tinues that Shippen “will soon be followed go on, love Truth and Search diligently after by an able assistant. Dr. Morgan, both of it. Hate Hypocrisy. Hate Masses & above whom, I apprehend, will not only be useful all hate the Priests.” to the Province in their employments, but A medical annotation, which should more if suitably countenanced by the Legislature, especially interest inhabitants of Wisconsin, will be able to erect a School of Physic embodies the then accepted explanation amongst you, that may draw students from of endemic goiter: ' various parts of America and the West Indies, and at least furnish them with a In this Country [Turin] I could not .but take better idea of the rudiments of their notice of the,, tumidum Guttur Alpinum w’ch Profession than they have at present the Horace mentions. It is said-to, be a Disease means of acquiring on your side of the arising amongst poor people from their drinking water.” Truly this was a prophecy and a snow Water.' It is a sad sight when got to any considerable Degree. Some I saw who had a high estimate of the qualifications of the Swelling on their Throats & Necks as large as men who''planned to undertake the work their Heads, projecting forw’d & some hanging of medical education in America. Thomas down an enormous Weight'or rising up so as’ Penn and two former: ‘ members of the to entirely cover one side of their faces, a most Board of Trustees gave Morgan’s plan their shockingJight.'• bf;; -jJj s; sanction. « ’ In his farewell letter to Dr. Cullen before An attractive personality must have been leaving for America, Morgan wrote: “I a large factor in giving such prestige to so am now preparing for America, to see young a physician as John Morgan. He was whether, after fourteen years’ devotion to described as being charming and polished medicine, I can get my living without in manner and of distinguished bearing. In turning apothecary or practising surgery. addition, he was well dressed and handsome. My scheme of instituting lectures you will It is a well-established tradition in Phila­ hereafter know more of. It is not prudent delphia that he carried the first umbrella in* to broach designs prematurely; and mine America and for some time crowds followed are not yet fully ripe for execution.” Turn­ him on the streets. Morgan’s innovation ing his back to an outlook for a brilliant was widely scouted as an “effeminacy.” future in Europe, Morgan still adhered to However, Dr. ChanccIIer and Parson Duche his well-formulatcd plan. The situation is joined him in a short time in the use of a expressed in a contemporary letter from sun umbrella. Portraits and descriptions Powcl to a Philadelphian: “Pray, use him of that period paint for us a rather dapper, as his merits deserve and don’t force him intellectual, handsome young Colonial from you. For the honor of our country gentleman. make his residence with you agreeable. It I Of his family affairs we learn that Morgan is no small sacrifice he makes in returning, became engaged to Mary, dau'^hter of as fine prospects open upon him here if Thomas and sister of Francis Hopkinson, ' he would stay; but his Amor Patriae main­ just prior to sailing for Europe or during tains the upper hand.” fic arrived in his residence there. An incident of Morgan’s Philadelphia in the spring of 1765. journey in Italy, when he went to the The transplantation of Morgan loaded extreme to save a miniature, “w’ch I with his Continental honors, licentiate of [Morgan] valued above anything else I the Royal Colleges of Physicians at Edin­ had there,” would seem to indicate his burgh and London, Fellow of the Royal engagement prior to the voyage. From this Society, member of the Belles Lettres miniature, Benjamin West painted a por­ Society of Rome and associate of the Acade­ trait, which is still in the possession of the mic Royale de Chirurgie de Paris, to pro­ Hopkinson family in Baltimore. September vincial America is most interesting and 4, 1765, Morgan was wedded to Miss contemporary comment is noteworthy. Hopkinson. Although no issue resulted Writing to Samuel Powcl, George Roberts from their marriage, happiness seems to said: “Morgan comes home flushed with have reigned throughout their life together. honors and is treated by his friends with She was characterized as a woman of extra­ all due respect to his merit. He appears to ordinary charm of character, disposition be the same social friendly man, not assum­ and manner. She was a witty conversation­ ing the solemn badge so accustomed to a alist and a musician of no mean note. son of Aesculapius.” On his return home he She was graceful, unaffected, vivacious was regarded as having some of the “eccen­ and fascinating, in a word, a woman of tricities of genius.” Benjamin Rush writes unusual social attainments. From even a that he was received in open arms. Norris, most superficial consideration she was a a later writer, states that in point of learning remarkable mate for the brilliant, sympa­ and experience Morgan was the best medi­ thetic amiable Morgan. cal man in the Province; that a fine reputa- Immediately on Morgan’s arrival in tation had preceded him and great things America he set out to consummate his plans were expected of him. Indeed, so great was for establishing systematic medical educa­ his fame on his return home that it was tion. William Shippen, Jr., about whom deemed a privilege to say: “ I have seen him.” Fothergill wrote the trustees of Pennsyl­ vania Hospital in regard to the institution were destined to be at first close friends of anatomical teaching, had corresponded but later, bitter rivals. Shippen was a with John Morgan in Europe on this year younger, but graduated from Edin­ subject; but accurate documentary evi­ burgh a year earlier. His training and prep­ dence is available in proof of the difference aration were neither as long nor as exacting in the aims of the two men. Shippen had as John Morgan’s. Shippen is described as from November 25, 1762,^ been giving lec­ calm, cautious, far-seeing and self-possessed, tures in anatomy in Fourth Street, and by qualities that made for leadership, but some this is believed to have been the which were unfortunately at times sub­ beginning of the Medical Department of servient to a crafty designing nature. the University of Pennsylvania. However, Morgan, by way of comparison, was impul-

we find no evidence of a systematic cor­ sive, fervent and positive and combined in related course of complete medical instruc­ his makeup all the highest qualities of a tion in Shippen’s early teaching or plans statesman-like organizer. Time has largely for the same in his writings. The plan of effaced or overlooked the radical differences establishment of a medical school in affilia­ between these men, but unfortunately we tion with the College of Philadelphia was are compelled to chronicle their years of clearfy the product of the fertile construc­ successful cooperation followed by a period tive mind of John Morgan, and its early of suspicion, strife and actual hatred. and assured success was largely dependent Returning to the events leading up to on his personal ability and untiring efforts. the foundation of the medical school, we A moment in passing must be devoted to find Morgan actively engaged in the agita­ a consideration of the essential character tion of his proposition. He located in prac­ of William Shippen, Jr., who played so tice at Second and Spruce Streets and, great a part in Morgan’s life. Having so contrary to the custom of the day, divorced much in common in ambitions and so little surgery and pharmacy from medicine. He in common in personalities, these two men was the first man in America to practice medicine exclusively by choice. The reasons was thus established May 3, 1765. Morgan’s for advancing this plan of procedure were to task was somewhat facilitated by the fact enable the busy practitioner to devote his that, of the twenty-four trustees of the time to practice and research, the different College in 1765, Thomas and Phineas Bond, qualifications for the three divisions of Thomas Cadwalader, William Shippen, Sr., the existing medical practice and the benefit and John Redman were doctors of medicine. to the patient of specialization on the part On May 30, 1765, Dr. John Morgan of the physician. The existing conditions of delivered his memorable Inaugural Address medical practice and the relief to be at the Commencement of the College, gained by his plan of specialization are “A Discourse upon the Institution of detailed in the “Discourse.” To further his Medical Schools in America.” The essay

plan of the separation of medicine from is not only a masterpiece of English litera­ pharmacy, he brought with him from Lon­ ture, but its logic is forceful and its subject don Mr. David Leighton, an accomplished matter indicative of clear insight and fore­ pharmacist and surgeon. Then, too, Morgan sight. Indeed, even though years have instituted the English plan of charging a altered certain phases of medical practice, definite fee at each visit, which failed to yet none of the force of argument has been meet with popular approval. lost by time. It is a production worthy of The response of the Board of Trustees of careful perusal by every medical man, and the College of Philadelphia to Morgan’s Norris writes: appeal for medical instruction in that A remarkable production, and should be school was encouraging: “Entertaining a republished and circulated as an act of justice high sense of Dr. Morgan’s abilities and to his memory. Although the science has the high honors paid to him by different advanced immeasurably since that day, his learned bodies and societies of Europe, enlarged views of what is required of a medical they unanimously elected him Professor of practitioner by preliminary education, his the Theory and Practice of Physic.” The high-toned sentiments regarding its practice, first medical professorship in North America honors and emoluments, his recommendations of clinical teaching and hospital instruction,, his youth shoots wild and unprofitable: but, recital of the years of labor spent by him in directed by art and improved by science, a preparation for his active duties, in addition to natural genius is like a rich soil, the fruit­ its historical value, all make this now very rare ful source of many benefits to a country.” tract worthy of such attention. In the light of subsequent developments, the following extract from his address Morgan clearly presents the advantages of would almost grant Morgan the power of the influx of students from distant parts to prophecy: Philadelphia, then a town of 25,000 and the center of culture of the Colonies. He Perhaps this Medical Institution, the first of demonstrates the necessity to medicine for its kind in America, though small in its begin­ a coalition of able teachers for a regular ning, may receive a constant increase of course of instruction. He shows how even strength and annually exert new vigor. It may at that time students were attracted to collect a number of young persons of more than Philadelphia by the reputation of its ordinary abilities, and so improve their knowl­ physicians and the facilities for hospital edge as to spread its reputation to distant parts. work. By sending these abroad duly qualified, or by Regarding medical education, Morgan exciting an emulation amongst men of parts and makes the following divisions: “Anatomy, literature, it may give birth to other useful institutions of a similar nature, or occasional Materia Medica, Botany, Chy mistry, the rise, by its example, to numerous societies of Theory of Medicine and the Practice.” different kinds calculated to spread the light of Several expressions and quotations are knowledge through the whole American conti­ noteworthy: nent wherever inhabitated.

It is Anatomy that guides the doubtful steps Over the main entrance to the new of the young votary of medicine through an medical laboratories at the University of obscure labyrinth, where a variety of minute Pennsylvania are engraved the names of objects present themselves in such a group as, at the first complete medical faculty grouped first, to perplex his imagination. . . . in this manner: Morgan and Rush, Shippen As a skillful Pilot informs himself of the least bank of sand or shoal where he is to avoid and Kuhn, an arrangement which subse­ navigating his ship; so every follower of medical quent events have rendered most happy. pursuits should be intelligent in the minutiae of William Shippen, Jr., was appointed to Anatomy, if he wishes to practice with ease to the professorship of anatomy and surgery himself, and to the benefit of his patient. . . . in September, 1765, at the earnest solicita­ Anatomy, Materia Medica, Botany, Chymis- tion of Dr. Morgan and on his (Shippen’s) try, and the Institutions, are only the ladder by personal application. It is in this applica­ which we are to mount up to practice. tion that we see Shippen’s cherished plans and learn of his correspondence with Mor­ A man is obviously unable to prepare for gan in England. Morgan and Shippen con­ practice without the assistance of teachers stituted the faculty of the first session of and Dr. Morgan dramatically draws the the young medical school; Kuhn was added picture of an unprepared practitioner, to the faculty in the capacity of professor ignorant, irresolute, interfering with Nature, of materia medica and botany in January, snatching away loved ones: “ Remorseless foe 1768, and Benjamin Rush, a young protege to mankind: actuated by more than savage of Morgan, was elected professor of chem­ cruelty: hold, hold thy exterminating hand.” istry in 1769. A tablet in the main hall of The restraining, ambition-kindling, guiding the medical laboratories at Pennsylvania duties of the teacher are well painted. commemorates the foundation of the “Destitute of culture, the imagination of Medical School: Erected The need for funds, however, constituted a to the real menace to its progress. To meet this Memory issue. Dr. Morgan at his own expense, of bearing the sanction of Richard Penn, John Morgan, m.d., Edin. went to the British West Indies in 1772. William Shippen, m.d.. Edin. By virtue of his appeal 2,000 pounds The First Faculty of This sterling were brought back to Philadelphia. The First Medical School However, his teaching was deferred for in this year. North America The session of 1769-1770 was notable 1765 for the youth of the faculty of the Medical Erected by the Medical Class School. Thomas Bond (Clinical Medicine) of 1907 was the oldest, fifty years of age; John June 19, 1907 Morgan (Theory and Practice of Medicine) was thirty-four; William Shippen, Jr., The first session of the new school opened (Anatomy, Surgery and Midwifery) was on Monday, November 18, 17652 with Dr. thirty-three, Adam Kuhn (Materia Medica Morgan’s lectures on materia mcdica, phar­ and Botany) twenty-eight, and the gifted maceutic chemistry and, time permitting, Benjamin Rush, holding the chair of chem­ “Practical Observations on Diseases, Diet istry, had attained the venerable age of and Medicines.” This course, meeting three twenty-four. The session ending June, 1771, days a week, lasted three or four months marked the granting of the first doctorate and was supposed to be the introductory degree in medicine at the Medical College. course to that of the succeeding year, which Four of the men receiving i their primary included the theory and practice of physic.^ degree of m.b. in 1768: Jonathan Potts, On June 21, 1768, the first medical honors James Tilton, Nicholas Way and Jonathan in North America were conferred on ten Elmer, were thus honored. graduates from the Medical School, the The period between Morgan’s return to degree being m.b. The Medical School of America in 1765 and the Revolutionary King’s College, which has erroneously by War was one of great constructive and certain writers been given priority over organizing activity on his part. In addition Pennsylvania, was not organized until 1768 to his efforts to establish a medical school, and was disbanded during the Revolution­ the first medical society in America was ary period up to 1792, when Columbia founded in 1765 in Philadelphia under his College took the place of the older school. guiding hand. Of this society we have little The support of Dr. Thomas Bond, a record. Morgan helped to establish the famous Philadelphian of the day, was early American Philosophical Society and was and continuously added to the new work, active in its proceedings. Another of his and his clinical lectures in the Pennsylvania favored plans, the College of Physicians Hospital formed an important supplement of Philadelphia, did not materialize until to the work of Morgan and Shippen. In 1787. On a marble slab in the entrance hall of an address, December 3, 1766, Bond stated: the present College of Physicians, we find “The Professor of the Theory and Practice engraved the names of its founders and of Physic has had the best opportunities of with Morgan’s name those of Hutchinson, improvement, joined to genius and applica­ Cadwalader, Redman, Chovet and others of tion, and cannot fail of giving necessary equal fame arc set. and instructive lessons to the pupils.” Dr. Morgan was cultured in the humani­ The young school grew rapidly and was well ties as well as trained in the sciences, and supported in the matter of attendance. his literary ability is attested by the Sargent Prize Medal contest/ which he won over a tages of the union between the American field of notable competitors with an essay Colonies and Great Britain, but the keynote on “The Reciprocal Advantages of a Per­ of warning to the Mother Country is not petual Union between Great Britain and lacking. her American Colonies.” The dissertation, The war cloud, which had been tempo­ which was read at the Commencement of rarily dispelled at the time of the writing the College of Philadelphia, May 20, of the dissertation, again gathered, and in 1766, is extremely well written, and one is 1775 and 1776 the Colonies engaged Eng­ at loss to know whether its brilliancy or land in a revolutionary struggle. With it logic influenced the judges more. At any came first the highest medical honors in rate, the victory was an enviable one for the land to Dr. Morgan, only to terminate in the young professor. His plan of treating the darkest disappointment of his life. The the question is unique, on the basis of fortunes of the Medical Department of the commerce and the advancement of the Continental Army were first intrusted to Protestant religion. Carefully he prepares Dr. Church, who betrayed his trust by the plea of the Colonies and the obligations traitorous correspondence with the British. of the Motherland. With equal care he Dr. John Morgan was appointed by Con­ outlines the dependence of America on gress in October, 1775, to fill the vacancy. England. He shows a deep knowledge of His title was Director-General to the Mili­ the commercial products of the young tary Hospitals and Physician-in-Chief to country and the mutual advantages of their the American Army, and he was the first use to both parties concerned. With clear to be so honored. Of his qualifications there insight Morgan points out the weakness of seems to have been no doubt: “His ability England’s geographical situation and the as a surgeon, his character as a man, his necessity of commerce to her very existence. patriotism, and his influence as a citizen The growth of England’s shipping with the were well known to the public. Therefore establishment of trade with the Colonies is no more fitting appointment of Chief pictured. The Colonies’ part in wars with Medical Officer could have been made.” France and Spain makes them invaluable John Adams in a letter to Abigail Adams, in event of such occurrences in the future. October 20, 1775, commented on the fall of However, he does not underestimate the debt Dr. Church, enlarging on the qualifications of the Colonies to England. But, he states: of his successor. Dr. Morgan. However, Adams scented jealousy, but added that If the superstructure of a government be raised on any other foundation than the “all agree that he is attentive, vigilant and general interest of the whole community, it laborious for the good of his patients in a cannot be durable. Like the image of Daniel’s great degree and he is said to be pious man.” vision, the head whereof was of fine gold, the Leaving an admiring group of followers and belly and thighs of brass, the legs of iron, and a lucrative practice in Philadelphia, Dr, the feet part of iron and part of clay, which Morgan with Mrs. Morgan joined Washing­ cannot cleave together, it must, when smote ton and the Continental Army in Cambridge. upon, be broken to pieces. But the constitution In view of subsequent events, his sacrifice of a country, in which the happiness of a whole was great. Patriotism was the motive in community is regarded, is like a firm oak that his acceptance. Probably in no position withstands the fury of the jarring elements, or undertaking did the wonderful raised up in a storm, fixes its roots deeper in organizing genius of John Morgan show to its native earth and lifts its majestic head to a greater advantage than in the new the skies. medical department of the Army. Morgan The whole essay constitutes an eloquent found the corps disorganized and jealous. appeal for the continued reciprocal advan­ The hospital system was poor and the diffi­ culties in obtaining funds and supplies strife came from Morgan’s confiscation of were almost insurmountable. However, had drugs and supplies in Boston. As nearly as Morgan’s task been confined to the organ­ can be determined, this act brought much ization of the staff and the construction criticism on his head, and in turn led the of an efficient hospital system, no doubt regimental surgeons to expect their supplies another success would have crowned his from the General Hospital, of which Morgan efforts; but his real problem was to combat had immediate supervision. The Director- an invisible force of intrigue working for his General’s efforts to organize the regimental removal from office. The keynote of this medical forces and to correlate the work underhanded campaign is struck in his of the two staffs were misconstrued and “Vindication,” a pamphlet advancing the resisted on alt hands. Handicapped by

details of the controversy which ended in insubordination, improper and inadequate his dismissal: “That a mean and invidious assistance and supplies, Morgan overcame set of men have fooked upon my elevation great difficufties during his short term of to the rank of Director-General and office. In answer to his critics, he offered Physician-in-Chief, with an evif eye, and public explanation and earnestly sought an long been concerting my removal is a audience with Gongress to prove the wis­ matter of which I have too substantiaf dom of his plans. To add to his ignominy proof to doubt.” To enter into the details his colleague, William Shippen, Jr., who of this unfortunate controversy woufd be but a few months before had asked his tedious. The major events as chronicled in advice on the “etiquette” of the service the “Vindication” are matters of historical he was about to enter, loomed up as the importance. head of the political faction seeking Mor­ In the beginning Dr. Morgan’s duties gan’s removal. Gongress went so far as to were ill defined, and at the very onset we elevate Shippen to and even above Morgan’s find friction with Dr. Stringer of the position. Shippen in turn ungraciously Northern Army, who refused to recognize demanded the surrender to his command of Morgan’s superiority of office. The greatest all hospitals and staff west of the Hudson, and was upheld by Congress. Morgan still flying camp. I proposed that if the officer would resented only the shifting of titles without leave him here, I would deliver him up in the the transferenee of the responsibility to morning, but the Doctor chose to go down to the proper shoulders. With the inevitable Adam Reigart’s. So they went away before in sight Morgan refused to resign under eleven. fire. In Congress he was refused a hearing 29. Returned to dinner. In the interim Dr. and found himself held responsible for all Morgan called; said he had been bailed for ten thousand [dollars] by Col. Atlee; thanked my of Shippen’s mismanagement with no credit wife for our civilities with his compliments to for his own services. Returning to his de­ me, he being just going to pursue the cross- graded position, in charge of the medical examination with Dr. Shippen in the sundry corps east of the Hudson River, Doctor different places. At dinner, came Dr. Houston. Morgan received his order of dismissal from By his coming and conversation, I thought he Congress in John Hancock’s writing, Janu­ was conscious that his conduct with Morgan ary 9, 1777. was censurable, which, in conversation, I let “If it would have answered any valuable him know was mine and many others’ judgment purpose; if the sacrifice of my life would have on this occasion, it appearing to them as a saved my Country, I could have cheerfully scheme of Dr. Shippen to prevent his proceed­ offered it up. I shall not say so of my honor.” ings and therefore altered the minds of sundry Then came the period of great disappoint­ of Dr. Shippen’s friends, who were in his favor ment and prolonged travail in Morgan’s and interest before this action, being so glaring and fraught with malice and ill will efforts to clear himself of the dishonor. Investigation revealed no definite charge On the resumption of the work at the and overzealousness seemed in the fast Medical School, John Morgan and Benja­ analysis of the current rumors to have min Rush, who had resigned from director­ been the chief fault expressed. However, ship of the Middle Department to escape not until two years later, June 13, 1779, was the fate of his friend, importuned the Board Morgan entirely exonerated from all blame not to reappoint Shippen. In fact, Febru­ by Congress. It is interesting to note that ary 28, 1781, they refused to act on the no charges were made to the Congressional same faculty. However, all were re-elected committee. Throughout the years of strug­ in the hope of restoring harmony. Morgan gle for honor and justice George Washing­ did not actively serve in the capacity of ton and Benjamin Rush were Morgan’s Professor of Practice, although the position most ardent supporters. was held open until the year before his death. With vindication apparently came the An entry in the Minutes of the Board, desire for retribution. For Morgan sought March 13, 1789, bearing on this point is to incriminate Shippen. The “Remem­ interesting: brancer of Christopher Marshall” bears Dr. John Morgan, Professor of Theory and witness that he waged an unequal quarrel. Practice of Physic, not being at present within For example in January, 1780, Morgan the State, the Trustees consider him re-instated visited Marshall at Lancaster to obtain and entitled to continue in his office until his affadavits relative to Shippen’s conduct return home, when he is to be waited on by the of the sick. Under the dates of April 28 Committee in like manner as the other Profes­ and 29 two important self-explanatory sors have been, in order to know whether it is notes were made: his intention to resume the exercise of his Professorship as heretofore. 28. Just going to bed, past ten, came Dr. John Morgan and the Under Sheriff, who had Another of Dr. Morgan’s ofTicial con­ been after him to Ephrata, having a writ nections was terminated by his resignation against him in the suit of Dr. Houston for from the staff of the Pennsylvania Hospital, slander of him, it’s said, in the time of the May 24, 1783. An action concerning the admission of venereal eases to the hospital city about thirty years ago.” Another on a free basis was resented by Morgan and article supporting inoculation against small­ others, who had not been eonsulted in the pox is little known. His “Discourse upon matter. In the reeords of the Almshouse the Institution of Medical Schools in (Philadelphia General Hospital) it is learned America” and the “Vindication of His that Morgan had been in the habit of trans­ Public Character in the Station of Director- ferring luetic patients to Pennsylvania General of the Military Hospitals” arc Hospital for salivation. In his letter of probably his best productions from a his­ resignation Morgan stated that “to devote torical viewpoint. their time or attention to the Cure of Dr. Morgan died on October 15, 1789, Diseases brought on by Concupiscence, •at fifty-four years of age, and was buried in without fee or reward, tends rather to the St. Peter’s Church, Philadelphia. The con­ growth than diminution of Immorality.” troversy, which ended in his complete In conclusion, Morgan assured the Board of vindication, had prematurely aged him and his continued support. It was characteristic deprived posterity of much of the genius that John Morgan, though in later life of a man who is ranked with Benjamin frequently rcbulfed, never became Rush as the most interesting character in embittered. Philadelphia medicine. John Morgan will The medical literature of that period ever remain to all Pennsylvania men and to shows a surprising paucity of medical all students of medical history, the father writings by Dr. Morgan. The fires at Bor­ of medical education in North America. As dentown and Danbury destroyed all of monuments to his creative genius we see Morgan’s personal effects and with these the College of Physicians of Philadelphia and many of his medical manuscripts, the result the Medical Department of the University of of ten years’ labor. However, the surviving Pennsylvania. “De Puopoiesi” stands forth medical papers show the hand of a master. as a glowing tribute to his original thought. His graduation thesis, “De Puopoiesi,” John Morgan’s life will for all time stand is the best known of his writings and deserv­ out clearly as a career, brilliant in promise edly so for its original thought. His article, and early accomplishment, sacrificed to “Art of Making Anatomical Preparations feed the insatiable Hames of envy and by Corrosion,” describes the steps of the intrigue, which so marred the records of technique of wax impregnation and later our struggle for independence. Pennsylvania corrosion, an art taught him by the Hunters, has been rather frugal in the bestowal of who in turn had learned it from Dr. NicoIIs. honors on her creating genius but every­ One of his most interesting medical writings where in her halls we find tokens of her is found in the Transactions oj the American growing appreciation culminating in the Philosophical Society (ii, 383), being an recent fusion of her large undergraduate account of “a living snake in a horse’s eye, medical societies into the John Morgan and of other unusual productions of ani­ Medical Society. mals.” It constitutes an accurate descrip­ tion of a living filaria in the eye of a horse References on exhibition in Arch Street between Sixth 1. Pennsylvania Gazette, Nov. 25, 1726: “Dr. and Seventh Streets. Morgan docs not Shippen’s Anatomical Lectures will begin to-morrow discuss the possible path of entry. He evening, at six o’clock, at his father’s house in mentions cases of guinea worm (Pilaria Fourth Street. Tickets for the course to be had of the Doctor, at five Pistoles each, and any gentlemen medinensis) at Philadelphia Hospital and who incline to see the subject prepared for the refers to a worm, seen in Dr. William Hun­ lecture and learn the art of Dissecting, Injections, ter’s museum ten years previously, having &c, are to pay live Pistoles more.’’ been “bred in the liver of Mrs. Holt in this 2. Pennsylvania Gazette, Sept. 26, 1765: “A course of Lectures on the Materia Medica, by John Dollar will be required of each student, to matricu­ Morgan, m.d., f.r.s., and Professor of Medicine in late, which will be applied in purchasing Books for the College of Philadelphia. Price, Four Pistoles. a Medical Library in the College for the Benefit of “This Course will commence on Monday, the the Medical Students. 16th day of November, and be given three times a John Morgan. week, at the College, viz., Mondays, Wednesdays P. S. Two convenient lower stores to be let by Dr. and Fridays, at three o’clock in the afternoon, till Morgan, under his dwelling on Water Street, near finished, which will last between three and four Walnut Street, where Mr. Mease lately lived, at a months. very reasonable rate.” “To render these lectures as instructive as possible to ' students of Physic the Doctor proposes, 3. September 25, 1766, Dr. Morgan announced: in the course of them, to give some useful “A Course of Lectures on the Theory and Prac­ Observations on Medicine in general, and the* tice of Physic will be delivered for the benefit of proper manner of conducting the study of Physic. Medical students, with a preparatory course on The authors to be read in the Materia Medica will Botany, Chemistry, and the Materia Medica, being be pointed out. The various Substances made use the substance of a set of lectures delivered to his of in Medicine will be reduced under Classes suited pupils last winter.” to the principal indications in the cure of Diseases. 4. Advertisement appearing in PennsylvaniaGazette: Similar virtues in different Plants, and their com­ “College of Phila., March 6th, 1766. parative powers will be treated of and an Enquiry “Whereas, John Sargent, Esq., Merchant of made into the different Methods which have been London and Member of Parliment, hath presented used in discovering the Qualities of Medicines, the to this College a Gold Medal for the best English virtues of the most efficacious will be particularly Essay on the reciprocal advantages of a perpetual insisted upon; the manner of preparing and com­ union between Great Britain and her American bining them win be shown by some instructive Colonies, notice is hereby given by order of the Lessons upon Pharmaceutic Chemistry. This will Trustees, that the said Medal will be disposed of at open to students a general Idea both of Chemistry the ensuing Commencement, in May, for the best and Pharmacy. To prepare them more effectually Essay that shall be produced on the subject pro­ for understanding the art of prescribing with Ele­ posed, by anyone of those who have received any gance and Propriety, if time allows, it is proposed degree or part of their education in this College; to include in this course some critical Lectures upon and, as the said subject is one of the most important the Chief Preparations contained in the Dispen­ which can at this time employ the pen of the patriot satories of the Royal College of Physicians at Lon­ or scholar, and is thus left open to all those who don and Edinburgh. The whole will be illustrated have had any connection with this College, either with many useful Practical Observations on Dis­ as students or graduates, it is hoped for the honor eases, Diet and Medicines. of the Seminary, as well as their own, they will “No person will be admitted without a Ticket for nobly exert themselves on a subject so truly ani­ the whole course. Those who propose to attend this mating, which may be treated in a manner alike course are desired to apply to the Doctor for Tick­ interesting to good men, both here and in the ets, at least a week before the Lectures begin. A Mother Country.”

[From Boyle: Opera Omnia. Venetiis, 1697]