UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI
Date:______August 19, 2004
I, ______,Janice Louise Minor hereby submit this work as part of the requirements for the degree of: Doctor of Musical Arts in: Clarinet Performance
It is entitled: "WERE THEY TRULY NEOCLASSIC?" A STUDY OF FRENCH NEOCLASSICISM THROUGH SELECTED CLARINET SONATAS BY "LES SIX" COMPOSERS: ARTHUR HONEGGER, GERMAINE TAILLEFERRE, DARIUS MILHAUD, AND FRANCIS POULENC
This work and its defense approved by:
Chair: ______Ronald de Kant ______Sandra Rivers ______Robert Zierolf ______“WERE THEY TRULY NEOCLASSIC?” A STUDY OF FRENCH NEOCLASSISM THROUGH SELECTED CLARINET SONATAS BY “LES SIX” COMPOSERS: ARTHUR HONEGGER, GERMAINE TAILLEFERRE, DARIUS MILHAUD, AND FRANCIS POULENC
A thesis submitted to the
Division of Research and Advanced Studies of the University of Cincinnati
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS
in the Performance Studies Division of the College-Conservatory of Music
2004
By
Janice L. Minor
B.F.A., State University of New York-College at Purchase, 1986
M.M., Northwestern University, 1988
Artist Diploma, DePaul University, 1995
Committee Chair: Professor Ronald de Kant Abstract
The devastation of World War I had a great effect on the arts. Socio-economic collapse following this war played a major role in the musical transition from nineteenth-century romanticism to twentieth-century “isms. As many artists, particularly in France, sought a return to simplicity, the drama and emotions of romanticism, as well as the luxuriousness of impressionism was rejected. This “new simplicity” emphasized clarity, objectivity, reality, refinement, and concision.
This new period of restraint and balance resulted in the neoclassic movement of the 1920s and remained strong until after 1945. Neoclassicism rejected the programmatic music characteristic of the nineteenth century and looked back to the order and precision in the absolute music of the eighteenth century. As stylistic changes occurred after the war in many European countries, non-western countries and the
United States, Paris became an important center for music, art and literature. In an effort to withdraw from Germanic influences, French composers sought alternative styles that did not refer to the great masters of the Medieval, Renaissance, Baroque, and Classical periods.
In 1917, Jean Cocteau launched composer Erik Satie into prominence after the success of his post-war ballet Parade. Satie’s music rejected the formal designs of the past and infused the sounds of popular music from the Parisian cabaret, circus and music-halls. A group of six young composers working in France after World War I, commonly referred to as Les Six, were influenced by Satie. In general, their music represents a strong reaction against the German romanticism of Richard Wagner and
ii Richard Strauss, as well as the impressionism of Claude Debussy. Although they succeeded in breaking away from the romantic aesthetic of the nineteenth century with lightness, humor, simplicity, and clarity, does this make them truly neoclassic in style?
This thesis will begin with a discussion about French neoclassicism and examine the stylistic traits of this musical movement through selected clarinet solo and chamber music by Arthur Honegger, Germaine Tailleferre, Darius Milhaud, and Francis Poulenc.
A formal analysis of sonatas by each of these composers will demonstrate how they interpreted French neoclassicism in their own unique ways.
iii COPYRIGHT NOTICES AND PERMISSION
SONATINE POUR CLARINET EN LA ET PIANO By Arthur Honegger Copyright © 1925 by Éditions Salabert, Paris International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by Permission.
SONATA FOR CLARINET SOLO By Germaine Tailleferre Copyright © 1959 by Rongwen Music, Inc. New York; 1987 by Rongwen Music a division of Broude International Editions, Inc. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by Permission.
SONATINE POUR CLARINETTE ET PIANO OP.100 By Darius Milhaud © 1957 by Durand Éditions Musicales, Paris International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by Permission.
SONATA FOR CLARINET AND PIANO By Francis Poulenc © 1963 Chester Music Limited, London Revised Edition © Copyright 2000 Chester Music Limited International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by Permission.
iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to express my sincere gratitude to my committee members, Professor
Sandra Rivers and Dr. Robert Zierolf, for their commitment to the quality on this project, and my mentor and advisor, Professor Ronald de Kant, for his guidance, musical expertise and support throughout my clarinet career. I would like to thank my colleagues from James Madison University, Dr. George Johnson and Dr. Charles Dotas, for their scholarship, time, and assistance towards the completion of this document.
Thank you also to my parents, Josephine and Theodore Minor, and my sister, Joyce
Cannon, for always believing in me and for their constant support, understanding, and encouragement of my musical career. Lastly my dearest friends, Carol Antonino and
Peter Lograsso, whose loving support, eternal optimism, rallying spirits, and senses of humor I could not have done without.
v TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES……………………………………………………...2
Chapter
I. FRENCH NEOCLASSICAL MOVEMENT IN THE EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY………………………………………………...5
II. NEOCLASSICAL/NON-NEOCLASSICAL COMPOSITIONAL STYLES OF ARTHUR HONEGGER, GERMAINE TAILLEFERRE, DARIUS MILHAUD, AND FRANCIS POULENC...…………………..13
Arthur Honegger…………………………………………………………13
Germaine Tailleferre……………………………………………………..18
Darius Milhaud………………………………………………………..…23
Francis Poulenc………………………………………………………...... 33
III. COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE NEOCLASSIC/ NON-NEOCLASSIC TRAITS IN SELECTED CLARINET SONATAS BY ARTHUR HONEGGER, GERMAINE TAILLEFERRE, DARIUS MILHAUD, AND FRANCIS POULENC…...……………………….………………………49
Sonatina for Clarinet and Piano by Arthur Honegger…….…..….49
Sonata for Clarinet Solo by Germaine Tailleferre……………….61
Sonatina for Clarinet and Piano op. 100 by Darius Milhaud…….68
Sonata for Clarinet and Piano by Francis Poulenc…………….…80
IV. CONCLUSIONS…………………………………………………….…...99
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………....106
1 MUSICAL EXAMPLES
Example Page
Sonatina for Clarinet and Piano by Arthur Honegger
Ex. 1. Movement I, mm. 1-4……………………………………………50
Ex. 2. Movement I, mm. 9-11…………………………………………..50
Ex. 3. Movement I, mm. 30-33……………………………………..…..51
Ex. 4. Movement I, mm. 38-41…………………………………………51
Ex. 5. Movement I, mm. 44-49……………………………………..…..52
Ex. 6. Movement I, mm. 26-29………………………………………....53
Ex. 7. Movement I, mm. 33-36…………………………………..……..53
Ex. 8. Movement II, mm. 1-2; m. 15……….…………………….……..54
Ex. 9. Movement II, mm. 26-29…………………………….………...... 54
Ex. 10. Movement II, mm. 1-9………………………………………...... 55
Ex. 11. Movement II, m. 1 and m. 33……………………………….…...56
Ex. 12. Movement III, mm. 1-4…………………………………….…....57
Ex. 13. Movement III, mm. 14-16………………………………….…....58
Ex. 14. Movement III, mm. 17-19………………………………….…....59
Ex. 15. Movement III, mm. 28-33………………………………….…....60
Sonata for Clarinet Solo by Germaine Tailleferre
Ex. 1. Movement I, mm. 1-10………………………………………..…62
Ex. 2. Movement I, mm. 11-15………………………………………....63
Ex. 3a. Movement I, mm. 3-4……………………………………….…...64
2 Ex. 3b. Movement I, mm. 37-44………………………………..……..…64
Ex. 4. Movement I, mm. 50-52………………………………….....…...64
Ex. 5. Movement II, mm. 1-9……………………………..………….....65
Ex. 6. Movement II, mm. 31-35………………………..…………….....65
Ex. 7a. Movement III, mm. 1-4; mm. 12-15………..…………………....66
Ex. 7b. Movement III, mm. 5-7…………..……………………….……...66
Ex. 7c. Movement III, mm. 16-19…..…………………………………....66
Ex. 8. Movement III, cadenza..…………………………………..……..67
Sonatina for Clarinet and Piano op. 100 by Darius Milhaud
Ex. 1a. Movement I, mm. 1-2…….…………………………………...…69
Ex. 1b. Movement I, mm. 11-22……...……………………………….…69
Ex. 2. Movement I, mm. 57-58…...…………………………………….70
Ex. 3. Movement I, mm. 59-63…...………………………………….…71
Ex. 4. Movement I, mm. 1-3………...……………………………….…72
Ex. 5. Movement I, mm. 28-30…………...………………………….…72
Ex. 6. Movement I, mm. 53-56……...…………………………….……73
Ex. 7. Movement I, mm. 72-75...………………………………….……74
Ex. 8. Movement II, mm. 1-7…...……………………………………....75
Ex. 9. Movement II, mm. 16-23……………………………………..….76
Ex. 10a. Movement III, mm. 1-2…………………………………..……....77
Ex. 10b. Movement I, m. 1………………………………………………...77
Ex. 11. Movement III, mm. 51-61……………………………..…….…...78
3 Sonata for Clarinet and Piano by Francis Poulenc
Ex. 1. Movement I, mm. 9-18………………………………..…………81
Ex. 2. Movement I, mm. 19-28……………………………………..…..82
Ex. 3. Movement I, mm. 59-66…………………………………………83
Ex. 4a. Movement I, mm. 78-83………………..…………………..……84
Ex. 4b. Movement I, mm. 86-92……………………………..…………..85
Ex. 5. Movement I, mm. 123-133………………………………………86
Ex. 6. Movement II, mm. 1-4..……………………………….….……...87
Ex. 7. Movement II, mm. 11-24…………………..……………..……...88
Ex. 8. Movement II, mm. 31-36………………………………………...89
Ex. 9. Movement II, mm. 71-76………………………………………...90
Ex. 10. Movement III, mm. 1-7…………………………………………..91
Ex. 11a. Movement III, mm. 13-17………………………………………..92
Ex. 11b. Movement I, mm. 40-44………………….………………...……92
Ex. 12a. Movement III, mm. 18-25…………………………….……..…...93
Ex. 12b. Movement II, mm. 1-4…………………………………..…..…...94
Ex. 13. Movement III, mm. 44-59………………………………………..95
Ex. 14. Movement III, mm. 79-86………………………………………..96
Ex. 15. Movement III, mm. 125-128……………………………………..97
4 Chapter I
French Neoclassical Movement in the Early Twentieth Century
The devastation of World War I had a great effect on the arts. Socio-economic collapse following this war played a major role in the musical transition from nineteenth-century romanticism to twentieth-century “isms.” Rejecting the exaggerated, overstated emotions that dominated the Romantic period, many twentieth- century artists wanted to reflect reality and objectivity in their works. Furthermore, the aftermath of World War I limited performing resources, which made it often impossible to engage the large orchestras and extravagant opera companies necessary for romanticism. As many artists, particularly in France, sought a return to simplicity, the drama and emotions of romanticism, as well as the luxuriousness of impressionism was rejected. This “new simplicity” emphasized clarity, objectivity, reality, refinement, and concision.1
This new period of restraint and balance resulted in the neoclassic movement of the 1920s and remained strong until after 1945. Often referred to as the “Back to Bach” movement, neoclassicism rejected the programmatic music characteristic of the nineteenth century and looked back to the order and precision in the absolute music of the eighteenth century.2 During the first two decades of the twentieth century, neoclassicism represented two similar, yet different meanings:
1 Scott Messing, Neoclassicism in Music: From the Genesis of the Concept through the Schoenberg/Stravinsky Polemic, (London: UMI Research Press, 1988.), xiv.
2 Nicolas Slominsky, Music Since 1900, 5th ed. (New York: Schirmer Books, 1994), 1153.
5 1) Neoclassicism: A twentieth-century musical style in which composers utilized styles of the seventeenth and the eighteenth centuries. A work is considered neoclassic if it employs musical means that borrow from, are modeled after, or allude to a work from an earlier era or composer.3 This definition of neoclassicism is commonly associated with Igor Stravinsky’s music.
2) Nouveau Classicisme: A twentieth-century musical style during the period between the two world wars in which some composers’ works were characterized by simplicity, objectivity, purity, refinement, clarity, balance, concision, emotional restraint, and detachment; intolerant of fatiguing prolixities, tediousness, and big effects.4 This aesthetic belief manifested itself in the works of French composers. The definition of neoclassicism gradually changed and eventually synthesized into one term incorporating both innovation and tradition as its definition in the 1920s.
Although the combination of neoclassicism and nouveau classicisme spans a great deal of music, these terms and the music depicting them were distinguished from one another before 1914 and more so during WW I. During the war years music critics accused Germans composers of “destroying the clarity of the eighteenth century” and equated French composers with “the anti-sentimental trend, nouveau classicisme”; characterized by “grace, vivacity, concision, logic, and clarity.”5 As stylistic changes occurred after the war in many European countries, non-western countries, and the
3 Messing, xiv.
4 Ibid., 75.
5 Ibid.
6 United States, Paris became an important center for music, art, and literature. In an effort to withdraw from Germanic influences, French composers sought alternative styles that did not refer to the great masters of the Medieval, Renaissance, Baroque, and
Classical periods. During the first quarter of the twentieth century, Debussy and Ravel were two key figures in France with their new “French” sound, but they did not establish a “French” school.6 They were on occasion referred to as neoclassic, but their reputations suffered from some contemporary criticism. The primary responsibility for shifting approval away from Debussy and Ravel can be attributed to French author Jean
Cocteau.7 Cocteau lobbied for a new kind of “French” music in his pamphlet of aphorisms Le coq et l’ arlequin. He urged French composers to abandon German romanticism and French impressionism in exchange for a lighter, more tuneful, popular
French art, based on the music from café-concert and music halls. Cocteau makes his plea in the following:
Enough of (Debussyian) clouds, waves, aquariums, undines, and perfumes of the night; we need a music with its feet on the ground, a music for daily use.
All music that is to be heard with one’s head in one’s hands is suspect. Wagner is the epitome of that kind of music.8
In 1917 Cocteau launched composer Erik Satie into prominence after the success of his post-war ballet Parade. Before World War I, Satie’s iconoclastic anti-
Romantic style was not taken seriously, but as critical tastes shifted back to concision
6 Ibid., 76.
7 Ibid., 77.
8 Jean Cocteau, Le Coq et l’arlequin, (Paris: La Sirène, 1918), 28, 41.
7 and formal purity, his music was becoming increasingly recognized.9 Satie opposed
German romanticism and French impressionism; he defined his new spirit:
It teaches us to aim at an emotive simplicity and a firmness of utterance enabling sonorities and rhythms to assert themselves clearly, unequivocal in design and accent, and contrived in a spirit of humility and renunciation.10
As Cocteau continued to endorse Satie in Le coq et l’ arlequin, his description of Satie’s music vaguely resembled the music classified as nouveau classicisme before and after
WWI; however, Cocteau set Satie apart from both pre-war trends and national traditions. For Cocteau, Satie alone was the leader of the “classical path” of clarity that did not reach back into the past.11 He replaced nineteenth-century German music and
French impressionism with “new simplicity,” clear, concise and free of pretentiousness.
Satie’s music was considered both “classic” and “modern,” “a French music” that did not recall any other French music. French neoclassicism was now on the rise, creating
“French music for France.”12
The new simplicity that resulted from Satie’s post-war music had an important aesthetic that differentiated it from neoclassicism. It did not reach back to the eighteenth century, nor was it nostalgic for the French tradition of Rameau or Couperin. Satie’s music rejected the formal designs of the past and infused the sounds of popular music from the Parisian cabaret, circus and music-halls with restraint and sardonic humor.
9 Messing, 79.
10 Rollo Hugh Myers, Erik Satie (London: Dennis Dobson Limited, 1948), 130.
11 Messing, 77.
12 Jean Cocteau, “Fragments d’une conférence sur Erik Satie,” La revue musicale, (1 March 1924): 223, quoted in Messing, 77.
8 One aspect of neoclassicism is musical parody, which Satie employed in a great deal of his music. In musical parody, a composer presents humor through traditional practices. A good musical parodist uses humor to impact levity into the piece while retaining the traditional form. Musical parody was understood and utilized by several composers of the past, including Mozart (ex: Magic Flute, A Musical Joke) and
Beethoven (ex: Diabelli Variations), as well as, Satie’s contemporaries Prokofiev
(ex: Classical Symphony) and Stravinsky (ex: Petrushka, Game of Cards). 13
In addition to parody, Satie’s goals were to strip music to its bare essentials, making it pure, simple and logical, an everyday music that interested the average listener. In 1920, Cocteau described the differences between Satie and his French contemporaries in the following:
To an epoch refinement, only one opposition is possible: simplicity. Understand this; not a recollection, not a return to the old simplicities, not a pastiche of the clavecinistes. Satie furnished a new simplicity, upstart of all the refinements, which preceded it. His music is finally a French music. A music so white, so delicate, that in hearing it one thinks of the phrase of Nietszche: “The ideas which change the face of things come like the step of a dove.”14
Cocteau used Parade to continually promote Satie. The music, containing several humorous touches, is heavily influenced by the popular sources of the day. The overall style is concise, brief and unpretentious. The musical score is large but simple in design.
There is nothing brilliant or overpowering in the orchestration, but the music unfolds
13 Peter Yates, Twentieth-Century Music. (New York, New York: Pantheon Books a division of Random House Inc., 1967), 98-99.
14 Cocteau, “Fragments d’une conférence sur Erik Satie,” 223, quoted in Messing, 95.
9 smoothly and steadily.15 Parade symbolized a new direction for French music. It exemplified the true art of everyday life without the drama and mysticism that consumed nineteenth-century music. The first performance of Parade (May 18, 1917) created an upheaval and generated a great deal of publicity for Satie. 16 After nearly thirty years of anonymity, Satie was becoming well known. He gained prominence and notoriety from the public and his musical contemporaries. Stravinsky was quoted saying:
Parade reconfirmed my belief in Satie’s worth and the importance of his role in French music in countering the uncertainty of decaying impressionism with firm, clear language stripped of the embellishment of imagery.17
The success of Parade also made a great impact on a group of six young composers working in France after World War I: George Auric, Louis Durey, Arthur
Honegger, Darius Milhaud, Francis Poulenc, and Germaine Tailleferre, commonly referred to as Les Six. Most of them attended the Paris Conservatoire and met during different stages of their musical development. The label Les Six was given to this group in a music review by French critic Henri Collet in 1920.18 Their spokesman was
Cocteau, and for a short while, Satie was their mentor. In general, their music represents a strong reaction against the German romanticism of works by Richard Wagner and
Richard Strauss, as well as the impressionism of Claude Debussy. They rejected
15 Paul Collaer. A History of Modern Music, trans. Sally Abeles. (New York: The World Publishing Company, 1961), 216.
16 Collaer, 217.
17 Ibid.
18 William W. Austin, Music in the 20th Century from Debussy through Stravinsky (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. 1966), 169.
10 chromaticism and its extension by Schoenberg as well as the intense emotionalism and amplification of form found in late romantic works. The aesthetics of the group can be summarized into three principles: 1) anti-blur, meaning anti-Debussy, 2) anti-German, meaning anti-Wagner, 3) anti-romantic, meaning opposed to losing touch with reality through excessive emotion.19 Les Six were interested in maintaining and building upon the characteristics of the “French” music that Satie had defined several years earlier.
Their compositional influences came from popular sources such as the music-hall, nightclubs, and jazz bands. Their goal was to compose music that depicted everyday life that was attractive to the everyday person. Musical characteristics of Les Six include moderation, logic, classical unity of form, and re-establishment of diatonic harmonies within their own compositional devices. They kept their sense of humor through light- hearted sonorities and use of clarity and precision.20 Although Satie was the designated father figure of Les Six, they did not completely imitate his style. They were neither too mild nor too radical. Les Six, independently, exemplified the trends of their day by adding new compositional techniques to traditional forms and techniques from earlier periods.
Due to the differences between the terms neoclassicism and nouveau classicisme, the music of Les Six can be a challenge to categorize. Although they succeeded in breaking away from the romantic aesthetic of the nineteenth century with lightness, humor, simplicity, and clarity, does this make them truly neoclassic in style?
19 Centre National de Documentation Pédagogigue webstire, http:// www.cndp.fr/htm. accessed 23 April, 2003.
20 Richard B. Bobbitt, “ The Harmonic Idiom in the Works of Les Six” (Ph.D diss., Boston University, 1963), 627-29.
11 Some, but not all of them followed eighteenth-century musical practices in ways neoclassic composers Stravinsky and Hindemith did at the time. Not all of them adamantly opposed romanticism and impressionism. The personal styles of Les Six, neoclassic and non-neoclassic, will be discussed in the following chapters.
Despite their differences, Les Six reaffirmed “French” art by exhibiting stylistic flexibility and practicality in a large number of compositions accessible to the everyday listener and musician. These compositions comprise orchestral music, choral and vocal music, keyboard music, and more importantly, other instrumental music. As the vastness of romantic music yielded to the simplicity of the neoclassical period, the art of musical composition changed drastically. By decreasing the orchestration and length, musical compositions were becoming more concise. Mixed chamber ensembles, featuring piano, strings, winds, and percussion became prominent, and solo instrumental repertoire increased, particularly for woodwinds. The music of Les Six includes a wide variety of solo and chamber music repertoire for woodwind instruments. Unfortunately, much of their music in this genre is often overlooked. The following chapter will discuss and examine selected clarinet solo and chamber works of Les Six with emphasis on each composer’s neoclassical and/or non-neoclassical traits. Arthur Honegger,
Germaine Tailleferre, Darius Milhaud, and Francis Poulenc are the four Les Six members discussed in this study. Although the label Les Six will forever tie these composers together in music history, they interpreted French neoclassicism in their own unique ways.
12 Chapter II
Neoclassical/Non-neoclassical Compositional Styles of Arthur Honegger, Germaine Tailleferre, Darius Milhaud, and Francis Poulenc.
Arthur Honegger (1892-1955)
Honegger was Swiss born but lived in Paris from 1913 until his death. French culture was deeply instilled in Honegger and basically formed and educated him, but his
Germanic background always set him apart from his Les Six colleagues. The German idols of his youth, Richard Wagner and Johannes Brahms, were not held in high regard in Paris at the time. At the age of nineteen, he moved to Paris. Several years after his arrival he was quoted saying:
I’d been brought up on the Classics and the Romantics and I was mad about Richard Strauss and Max Reger. The latter was completely unknown in Paris. In exchange I found, not the school, but the flowering of Debussy’s influence. I was introduced to d’Indy and Fauré. I took a long time to get through to the personality of Fauré, whom I considered for some time as a salon composer. Once I’d passed through that stage I gave myself up with pleasure to his example. So far as my own aesthetic and sensibility are concerned, Debussy and Fauré acted as a very useful counterbalance to the Classics and Wagner.21
Honegger had met Satie through Parisian artistic circles, but was included in Les Six mainly because of friendships with the other composers. Although he belonged to the group and certainly benefited from its publicity, he did not subscribe to the anti- impressionistic, anti-romantic ideals of his colleagues. Honegger claimed that Strauss,
Reger, Debussy, Ravel, Fauré, Stravinsky, Schoenberg, and Milhaud had the greatest influence on his compositional style. Honegger’s admiration for Wagner and his music
21 James Harding, The Ox on the Roof: Scenes from the Musical Life in Paris in the Twenties (London: MacDonald, 1972), 49.
13 was strong throughout his life, and he spent many summers at the Bayreuth festival.22
Since Satie was the unofficial father figure of Les Six and detested anything associated with these composers, Satie considered Honegger the rebel of the group. Although
Honegger respected Satie and admired Parade, he never shared Satie’s aesthetic. As this new aesthetic crystallized, Honegger detached himself more and more from the ideals of Les Six, which put a strain on his relationship with Satie. In 1922, Satie deliberately excluded Honegger from Les Six in an article in Les Feuilles libre, and in return, according to Francis Poulenc, “Honegger never liked Satie’s music.”23 Honegger was never devoted to Satie and doubted his talents. Even at the end of his life in a letter written in 1954 to Poulenc, Honegger was quoted saying:
I consider Satie an exceptionally honest spirit, but devoid of all creative ability. “Do what I say, never what I do.”24
As Satie’s and Honegger’s temperaments clashed, Honegger separated from the group, but he continued to have long-lasting friendships with his Les Six colleagues.
Honegger was known for introducing a Germanic strain into French music.
He was not particularly interested in the music-hall movement of his Les Six colleagues, although he did combine French and German romantic traits with influences from jazz and popular music in some of his works. Honegger had the ability to fuse disparate
22 Hans Heinz Stuckenschmidt, Twentieth Century Composers II: Germany and Central Europe (New York: Holt, Rinehart, Winston, 1971), 157.
23 Robert Orledge, Satie the Composer (New York, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 250.
24 Harry Halbreich, Arthur Honegger, trans. Roger Nichols and ed. Reinhard G. Pauly (Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press, 1999), 41.
14 stylistic elements into his own personal style. As the aesthetic of Les Six began to place increasing emphasis on simple forms and melody, and less emphasis on chromaticism and sentiment, Honegger became increasingly interested in more expansive forms and rich chromatic figurations.
I’ve no enthusiasm for fairs or music-halls. On the contrary, I admire chamber music and symphonic music in everything they have that’s most serious and austere.25
Although Honegger is best known for his large-scale dramatic works and major symphonic scores, he did compose a wide array of chamber music. In general, this music is characterized by long lines, moving across large, free diatonic and modal areas, with harmonic structures built on accumulations of thirds and added diatonic tones, with a highly accented but basically regular, even motor rhythm.26 He often employed chromatic harmony with emphasis on canon and fugue, and shared Milhaud’s love of polytonality. His admiration for Bach’s music is evident in his frequent use of contrapuntal textures. His chamber and solo instrumental works include string quartets, sonatas for a variety of instruments, and compositions for mixed chamber ensembles, much of which remains unpublished. With emphasis on his music involving the clarinet,
Honegger’s neoclassic and non-neoclassic style will be discussed.
Honegger’s early music shows the influence of late Debussy’s, particularly in its lean textures and use of whole-tone scales. Honegger was quoted saying the following to his biographer Marcel Delannoy:
25 Harding, 50.
26 Eric Salzman, Twentieth-Century Music: An Introduction, 2nd ed. (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc. 1967), 59.
15 Debussy has always been one of my greatest musical pleasures and I can see objectively that he was a genius. Impressionism dazzled me as in a flash of rare intensity.27
In April 1917 Honegger composed Rhapsody for two flutes, clarinet, and piano. It was first performed the following June in Charles Widor’s class at the Paris Conservatory.
The piece was a success, and his teachers were particularly impressed with how skillfully he treated the wind instruments. The first public performance of this piece was
November 17, 1917 in Paris. Rhapsody was very well received and quickly became one of Honegger’s most frequently performed works. It consists of three sections,
Larghetto-Allegro-Tempo Primo, and lasts a total of nine minutes. The use of whole- tone scales reflects Honegger’s admiration for Debussy.28 Though in its day Rhapsody was one of Honegger’s most frequently played pieces, today it is nearly unknown.
In 1919 Honegger composed a piece for flute, clarinet, trumpet, string quartet, and piano titled Musique d’ameublement, also known as “furniture music.” This style of music, developed by Erik Satie, is a precursor to minimal music. The concept behind “furniture music” was to avoid any distracting sounds. It was to be a sonorous backcloth of music with endlessly repeating short fragments while daily life goes on around it. The music should not be décor, for example a beautiful painting or sculpture, but rather a chair or a stool, everyday furniture that goes unnoticed.29 Honegger’s
Musique d’ameublement was first played on April 5, 1919 at Salle Huyghens in Paris
27 Marcel Delannoy, Arthur Honegger, 2nd ed., (Geneva: Slatkine Editions, 1986), 39.
28 Halbreich, 273.
29 Frederick Goldbeck, Twentieth Century Composers: France, Italy and Spain vol. 4 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson Limited, 1974), 99.
16 during a concert featuring the music of the future Les Six, then known as Les Nouveaux
Jeunes. Honegger’s three tiny miniatures of “furniture music” were endlessly repeated during intervals of the evening’s events in accordance with Satie’s minimalist intent. It was at this performance that Honegger, for the one and only time in his life, made a bow in Satie’s direction.30 In 1920 at the Grand Palais, Honegger’s Musique d’ameublement was used again between the scenes of the marionette ballet Vérité?
Mensonge? by André Hellé.31 These three little orchestral pieces of Musique d’ameublement consist of six, four, and nine measure of infinite music. The tempos and instrumentation are as follows: 1. Vif (without strings); 2. Lent (without trumpet); 3.
Modéré (without second violin or viola).32 This work is unpublished and seems to correspond to a lost work entitled Entrée, Nocturne et Berceuse for piano and small orchestra mentioned in a manuscript catalogue of Honegger’s works ending with the year 1941.33 In the opinion of Harry Halbreich, these three pieces of Musique d’ameublement characteristically fit the titles of the three movements in the piano work rather well and are most likely the three miniatures.34
Like many composers after World War I, Honegger showed an interest in jazz and lighter forms of music. Although considered “the least of Six of Les Six” by Satie
30 Halbreich, 57.
31 Ibid., 475
32 Ibid., 273.
33 Ibid., 641.
34 Ibid., 57.
17 and his followers, Honegger did subscribe to the group’s aesthetic on occasion.35 The light, charming style of Sonatina for Clarinet and Piano (1921-22) was possibly the closest he ever came to the spirit of Les Six. The piece was dedicated to clarinetist
Werner Reinhart and first performed by Louis Cahuzac in 1923.36 Honegger originally intended this composition to be two separate miniatures for the clarinet, not a multi- movement work. He started with the second piece, which was composed in October
1921, followed by the third piece in November 1921. These pieces eventually became the second and third movements. In July 1922 while in Zurich, Honegger composed the first movement, and the three short pieces became a sonatina.37 Although now a three- movement work, the whole piece is only six minutes and thirty seconds long.
Simplicity, brevity, light-heartedness, and playfulness are only a few characteristics of this piece that capture the spirit of French neoclassicism. A detailed analysis of Sonatina for Clarinet and Piano will be discussed in the next chapter.
Germaine Tailleferre (1892-1983)
Tailleferre was the only female and then most overlooked member of Les Six.
Ironically, out of all her Les Six colleagues she earned the most honors and awards at the Paris Conservatoire in harmony, solfège, and counterpoint. She was greatly influenced by Fauré, her mentor Ravel and her contemporaries Milhaud, Stravinsky,
35 Ibid., 60.
36 Ibid., 269.
37 Ibid., 84.
18 and Satie. Satie proclaimed her his “musical daughter” after he heard her perform one of her piano compositions at an informal concert in Paris.38 Tailleferre’s simple and light-hearted approach to composition impressed Satie as well as represented the aesthetic of Les Six. Being the only woman in Les Six set her apart from all her colleagues, which had bearing on her training, her opportunities, and her lifestyle. Her music suffered some contemporary criticism, often being described as “feminine,” negatively implying that it was weak, passive, and frivolous. However, many of her colleagues, such as Milhaud and Auric, defended her style. Tailleferre’s response was the following:
What difference does it make? The essential thing is that it be music. I do not see a reason why I shouldn’t write what I feel. If it gives the impression of being feminine, that is fine. I was never tormented by explanations. I tried to do the best I could, but I never asked myself if it was feminine or not. If it is music, it is music. I find that I place myself more among the little masters of the 17th and 18th centuries. I have always been attracted to simple things like that.39
Her modesty and artistic insecurity prevented her from properly endorsing herself. The thought of self-promotion was unthinkable to her, and she preferred to remain quiet rather than pursue the credit she deserved. Tailleferre often felt overwhelmed by the publicity of Les Six. She was not comfortable capitalizing on her talents, nor was she very skilled at cultivating the musical connections necessary for success. Her principal period of productivity was between 1919 and 1929 during her Les Six period. Due to two unhappy marriages and other hardships, she wrote comparatively little until 1950.
38 Laura Mitgang, “Germaine Tailleferre: Before, During and After Les Six,” The Musical Woman Vol II 1984-1985 ed. Judith Lang Zaimont (Westport Conneticut: Greenwood Press, 1987), 181.
39 Laura Mitgang, “One of Les Six Is Still at Work,” New York Times, 23 May 1982, sec. 2 p. 28.
19 Although Tailleferre composed a wide variety of music, she was not an extremely prolific composer and often resorted to self-borrowing and familiar modes of composition. Due to her financial difficulties later in life, she composed a great deal of music for commission. This resulted in many quickly written and mediocre works, but a great deal of praiseworthy music can be found in Tailleferre’s oeuvre.
Tailleferre was truly the French classicist throughout her career. She was much more conservative than her colleagues and preferred neoclassicism to the more radical experiments of her day. Her music is immediately appealing, reflecting the spirit of
Les Six. She admired the music of Bach, Couperin, Scarlatti, and Mozart, but her compositions represented her own era. Her music is light, simple, elegant, and essentially tonal, although she did experiment with polymodality, pandiatonicism, and serialism. Definite key and tonal centers are constantly apparent, and chromatic diversions are usually limited to tonal embellishments. She avoided the heavy harmonies and drawn out forms of German music. She favored short works and had a secure control over form, often employing melodic repetition and ostinato as unifying devices.40
Tailleferre was a gifted pianist and composed many works for piano. She also composed orchestral and band music, film scores, vocal works, a wide variety of mixed chamber music, and small-scale character pieces. She was not known for her musical progressiveness or individualism. Tailleferre’s music often displays characteristic traits of the composers, mentors, and contemporaries she most admired, perhaps with the
40 Bobbitt, 631.
20 exception of Satie. Although Satie was the patriarchal figure of Les Six, his compositional and musical influence on her was minimal. Like Honegger, Tailleferre admired Satie’s ballet Parade but was not inspired by his attack on impressionism or his desire to invoke a “French” music so richly based on popular sources.41 Although she frequented popular Parisian establishments with her colleagues, she did not share their love of the sarcasm and tongue-in-cheek manner of the music-hall style. Due to her close relationship with Ravel, impressionistic influences are evident in many of her works, which contrasts with the anti-impressionist style of Satie and his followers. Satie was displeased with her frequent visits to Ravel’s home and categorized Tailleferre as a
“pure impressionist who did not completely adhere to the new spirit.”42
Image pour Huit Instruments (1918) shows evidence of Ravel’s impressionistic influences, beginning with its title. The peaceful, serene mood of the piece is reflected in the unique instrumentation. This six-minute piece is scored for flute, clarinet, celeste, piano, and string quartet. Despite the impressionistic tone, its concise length, controlled form, mixed instrumentation, and simplicity all exemplify the French neoclassic style.
An important attribute in impressionist music is tone color. Tailleferre’s choice of clarinet, flute, and celeste, in combination with strings and piano, displays her sensitivity to this attribute. Other impressionistic aspects such as static harmonies, extended tertian sonorities, parallelism, and pentatonic scales combined with the avant- garde techniques of polymodality, polyharmony, tone clusters, and wide tessitura create
41 Nancy Lynn Perloff, Art and the Everyday: Popular Entertainment and the Circle of Erik Satie (New York Oxford: Oxford University Clarendon, 1991), 2.
42 Orledge, 249.
21 an exotic musical palette.43 Tailleferre also arranged Image for two pianos, which was published in 1921. This work displays a light, ethereal elegance of the classical period as it simultaneously incorporates the trends of the early twentieth century.
After many years of non-productivity, Tailleferre composed a number of new works in the 1950s. Although she was uncomfortable with the avant-garde, she experimented with new techniques. In 1955, Tailleferre commented to Hélené Jourdan-
Morhange:
My music doesn’t interest me anymore and twelve-tone music, which attracts me, represents such a task that I no longer have the strength to undertake it. It would almost be like wanting to express myself in Chinese! It is a bit too late to learn.44
Despite her insecurity with serial techniques, Tailleferre composed Sonata for Clarinet
Solo (1957). This multi-movement piece attempts to incorporate contemporary modes of expression, but even then she did not abandon her original classical style. Sonata will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.
Arabesque (1973) for clarinet and piano was composed in the last decade of
Tailleferre’s career. Despite her excursions into new techniques, she never lost her flare for simplistic beauty. Arabesque, a four-minute, single movement character piece, uses material from her opera La Petite Sirène (1960). One main melody utilizing an ostinato rhythmic pattern recurs throughout the piece. A short middle section bridges the opening and closing sections creating tension in a quasi-cadential fashion. Despite the
43 Bobbitt, 451.
44 Hélène Jourdan-Morhange, Mes Amis Musiciens (Paris: Les Editeurs Francais Réunis, 1955): 160, quoted in Laura Mitgang, “Germaine Tailleferre: Before, During and After Les Six,” The Musical Woman Vol II 1984-1985 ed. Judith Lang Zaimont (Westport Conneticut: Greenwood Press, 1987), 205.
22 late date of this work, neoclassic features are still evident. Unifying factors, which include the recurring theme and rhythmic ostinato, demonstrate complete restraint and control of form. A beautiful melody, characterized by concision, balance, and simple refinement comprises the main feature of the work. Although this character piece is tonally based, Tailleferre incorporated occasional contemporary harmonies, making it truly a work of her era.
Tailleferre wrote several mixed chamber works that utilize the clarinet. Some of these works are published, but most are unpublished and unrecorded. During her later years she seemed to have an interest in composing for small chamber ensembles of varying wind instrumentation. Perhaps this interest in wind writing was due to her close relationship and friendship with bandmaster, Désiré Dondeyne. Her style remained as fresh, light and simple as it did in her youth. Tailleferre was at her best during the flourishing years of Les Six and unfortunately never regained the acclaim she had once enjoyed with her musical colleagues
Darius Milhaud (1892-1974)
Milhaud was a violinist before turning to composition. He was extremely prolific and well traveled. Therefore, he is a difficult composer to encapsulate, making an in-depth analysis of his entire oeuvre beyond the scope of this study. He had a great interest in folk music and incorporated a wide variety of different folk elements into his compositions including Brazilian, Latin American, American, French, and English sounds. Milhaud detested Wagner’s music and believed impressionism was becoming
23 overdone by the “Debussyites,” imitators of Debussy.45 Milhaud supported and admired
Satie, whom he credited with advancing beyond the impressionist trend, therefore changing the course of French music. He respected Satie’s genuine melodies, simple expressiveness, and clear luminous forms.46 A strong mentorship and friendship developed between the two composers over the years, thus making Milhaud one of the main members of Les Nouveaux Jeunes, soon to be Les Six. In an article written in
1923, Milhaud welcomed Satie’s re-establishment of musical simplicity and described how “the souvenir of music-halls in Parade creates a new and attractive art.”47 Satie reciprocated this deep affection for Milhaud and was one of the only composers who
Satie stayed close to throughout his life. Satie respected Milhaud’s compositional acumen and believed that he represented the “new spirit,” considering Milhaud and his compositions the present and future of French music.48
Milhaud often stated that the “next phase in the development of our music could only take place if French composers rid themselves of previous phases. Impressionism was a predicament for French composers unable to escape this influence.”49 Milhaud was more affected by composers from the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries than by
45 Perloff, 15.
46 Paul Collaer, Darius Milhaud, trans. and ed. Jane Hohfeld Galante (San Francisco, California: San Francisco Press, 1988), 18.
47 Darius Milhaud, “The Evolution of Modern Music in Paris and Vienna,” North American Review 217 (April 1923): 549.
48 Orledge, 248-49.
49 John Alan Haughton, “Darius Milhaud: A Missionary of the Six.” Musical America 37 (January 1923): 3.
24 impressionism. He often referred to the “real French tradition” of Rameau and to the
“simple clear art” introduced by Mozart and Scarlatti.50 One particular quote by
Milhaud expressed his thoughts on neoclassicism especially well:
In reaction against the impressionism of the post-Debussy composers, musicians wanted a robust art, more clear and more precise, whilst remaining human and sensitive. After all the impressionist mist, wouldn’t this simple, clear art renewing the tradition of Scarlatti and Mozart, be the next phase in the development of our music?51
For Milhaud, however, classical ideals of simplicity, balance, proportion, and restraint were not only associated with Bach, Rameau, and other eighteenth-century composers.
He also found these qualities in the popular music of French and American popular culture. According to Milhaud, popular music became the model of classicism for contemporary composers who wished to incorporate the eighteenth-century ideal.52
American blues, syncopated dance music, and Parisian music-hall songs were among his favorite popular idioms that according to Milhaud utilized elements of neoclassicism. He discovered a close relationship between the textures and rhythmic momentum of baroque music and jazz through the constant use of syncopation in jazz melodies. He compared ragtime and fox-trots to Bach’s works, stating that “syncopated music calls for a rhythm as inexorably regular as that of Bach himself, which has the
50 Ibid.
51 Darius Milhaud, Ma vie heureuse (My Happy Life), trans. Donald Evans and Christopher Palmer (London; New York: Marion Boyars, 1995), 81-82.
52 Perloff, 104-05.
25 same basis.”53 He described a blues singer whom he had heard in the Capitol Club in
New York’s Harlem as “poignant” and that her melodic contour was as “pure as any beautiful classical recitative.”54 Even without specifically making reference to Bach or classicism, Milhaud admired the restraint, discipline, proportional balance, and importance of simple gesture in popular music. For Milhaud, the link between simplicity and classicism to popular idioms was understood.
In some respects, Milhaud’s compositional style was considered more radical than the styles of his Les Six counterparts. Although he was not bound by textbook rules and regulations, Milhaud was not viewed as a musical anarchist. His music is characterized by lyrical melodies, formal clarity, and skillful use of counterpoint, all aspects of the neoclassical style.
Melody was Milhaud’s organizing factor strongly characterized by both shape and rhythm within a contrapuntal base. His interest in melodies started early in his career. In 1911 Milhaud said the following about his harmony class at the Paris
Conservatory; “ the subject bored me.”55 He intently studied counterpoint with André
Gédalge, who emphasized melodic shape and structure as central components of his compositional studies. Gédalge impressed upon Milhaud the importance of making melody the essence of his compositions. Gédalge urged his students to write unaccompanied musical lines until they had succeeded in creating a truly expressive
53 Darius.Milhaud, Notes without Music, An Autobiography, ed. Rollo Myers and Herbert Weinstock, trans. Donald Evans and Arthur Ogden (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1953), 120.
54 Darius Milhaud, Etudes, (Paris: Éditions Claude Aveline, 1927), 59.
55 Milhaud, Notes without Music, 31.
26 melody, only then would he allow them to start studying compositional technique.56
Milhaud expressed his strong belief in the importance of melody in his autobiography
Notes without Music:
The essential part of the music, however, remained the general melodic line. Even when I studied chords containing twelve notes, I used them only to sustain a diatonic melody, remembering Gédalge’s advice: “Just write eight bars that can be sung without accompaniment.”57
In general, Milhaud employed a rich harmonic vocabulary, derived from juxtaposition of thirds and triads, combined with a very simple, flexible melody.58 He greatly admired Stravinsky’s use of modality, pandiatonicism, and bitonality. By the
1920s, he began to employ bitonality and polytonality, which soon became Milhaud’s harmonic trademark. In 1923, Milhaud defined polytonality in the Revue Musicale:
If one accepts the system of twelve definite tonalities, each based on a different degree of the scale, and the possibility of passing from one tonality to another by means of modulation, then it is quite logical to go further and explore ways in which these tonalities can be superimposed and heard simultaneously. Contrapuntal writing should also lead to this conclusion. The day that canons, other than those at the octave, were conceived of, the principle of polytonality was proclaimed.59
This use of polytonality in his compositions differentiated him from Les Six colleagues.
Milhaud used polytonality to simultaneously state and follow two or more different, independent melodic lines often causing these melodies to clash and contradict one another. Milhaud’s phrases typically relay a turbulent surge of notes, rough rhythms,
56 Collaer, Darius Milhaud, 33.
57 Milhaud, Notes without Music, 66.
58 Salzman, 56.
59 Collaer, Darius Milhaud, 41.
27 and dissonances that suddenly untangle melodically, rhythmically, and harmonically, bringing a sense of resolution and clarity to the music.60 Milhaud uses polytonality to state and follow two or more different and independent motives simultaneously. He often employed polytonality in his pieces utilizing many instruments of different timbres. Thus he could superimpose a greater number of melodic lines using the differing timbres of the solo instruments to sustain clarity in his structure.61 When asked about his preference for polytonality Milhaud replied:
It is difficult to explain. When I am in the country at nights, plunged in silence, and I look at the sky, it seems to me that from every point in the firmament and even from the center of the earth, rays and impulses come toward me; each of these impulses carries a different thread of music, and all the infinity of musical lines cross and intersect each other without losing their individual clarity and distinctness. I have always tried to express this emotion, this sensation of a thousand simultaneous lines of music launched toward me.62
The harmonies that Milhaud superimposed in polytonal wrtiting are simple. Rarely does
Milhaud make use of anything other than major or minor keys. He combined these key areas to create an intermediary state, a major-minor duality and an element of uncertainty, while still securing the tonality.63 For Milhaud, polymelody heightened by polytonality introduced harmonic developments into the field of counterpoint, thus increasing the range of melodic expression while keeping the music orderly.
60 Ibid., 26.
61 Paul Collaer A History of Modern Music, trans. Sally Abeles (New York: The World Publishing Company, 1961), 236-37.
62 Collaer, Darius Milhaud, 37.
63 Collaer, A History of Modern Music, 238.
28 Milhaud composed a great deal of music using smaller forms and instrumentation from popular dance, folk, jazz, café, and music-hall influences. He often utilized the vocal and dance patterns as well as the quotes and parodies from this music into his own compositions.64 Due to this interest in popular genres, Milhaud’s music often has an offbeat quality that seems composed with an intentional witticism.
Although he wrote orchestral works with large instrumentation, he favored the smaller chamber setting of seventeenth-century ensembles. An example is La création du monde (1923), which was actually conceived as an orchestra consisting of soloists.65
The instrumentation in a work of this type permitted Milhaud to differentiate the sonorities of the instruments in both a polyphonic and polytonal fashion.
In form, Milhaud used traditional conventions in non-traditional ways. He demonstrated a preference for fugal, sonata-allegro, sonata-rondo, three-part, and sectional forms. His use of sonata form varies, very much the same way Beethoven approached sonata writing with no two pieces following the same pattern. Milhaud’s often used up to seven motives in expositions. Development sections tend to be somewhat brief and recapitulations may not present all of the original melodic material.
It was not unusual to present melodies in a new order or even simultaneously. Codas are typically lengthy and complex. Although he respected the pattern of the classical sonata,
Milhaud’s formal construction depended on and was secondary to what he wanted to express melodically.
64 Salzman, 57.
65 Collaer, Darius Milhaud, 51.
29 Milhaud’s early woodwind music demonstrates an interest in counterpoint with an emphasis on melody rather than on harmony. Ironically, during this decade 1918-29, when a more light-hearted style was in fashion in France, Milhaud’s compositions were more serious by the sheer nature of their dissonance and complexities. Between 1930-
49, Milhaud gravitated toward a more chordal, vertical style that utilized a more consonant harmonic language. In his final years from 1949-70, Milhaud returned to his earlier contrapuntal style with melody assuming primary importance but with a milder, less aggressive approach. Milhaud composed a great deal of music for clarinet, not only as a solo instrument but also as an integral part of a chamber ensemble. Due to the large quantity of Milhaud’s ouevre that includes the clarinet, only those pieces that best illustrate Milhaud’s neoclassic and non-neoclassic compositional techniques will be cited in this study.
Cocktail aux clarinettes op. 69 (1921) for three clarinets (E-flat clarinet, B- flat/A clarinet, bass clarinet) and voice is the second chamber piece composed by
Milhaud. This simple, single-movement work, written in the spirit of Satie’s minimalist style, is not one of Milhaud’s better known pieces but is one of the first compositions in the twentieth century using chance relationships.66 Each player performs a written melodic line choosing his/her own tempo. The performers constantly repeat the unmeasured, independent lines resulting in a free contrapuntal musical kaleidoscope.67
66 John Charles Laughton, “A Comprehensive Performance Project in Clarinet Literature with an Essay on the Woodwind Music of Darius Milhaud (1892-1974)” (D.M.A. thesis, University of Iowa, 1980), 36.
67 Collaer, Darius Milhaud, 43.
30 This continuous “vamping” of musical material is indicative of Milhaud’s interest in jazz. The text for the vocal part is a cocktail recipe. When the recipe is completely recited, the instruments move to the last chord, a C-major triad. Although Milhaud had great admiration for Satie, he did not continue to compose in Satie’s style and instead pursued his own musical voice. Milhaud’s early interest in polyphony and polytonality through simultaneous sounds while maintaining a tonal center is evident in Cocktail.
Milhaud’s first solo work for clarinet, Sonatina for Clarinet and Piano op. 100
(1927), written for French clarinetist Louis Cahuzac, is a product of neoclassicism with an uncompromising use of modality, polytonality, and chromaticism. It is written in a loose sonata form and is both rhythmically and harmonically active without abandoning
Milhaud’s primary focus on melody. Although composed shortly after Milhaud’s Les
Six years, this piece ironically does not exhibit the light-hearted, carefree style one would expect. Sonatina will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.
Originally written for the stage, Suite op. 157b (1936) for clarinet, violin and piano was extracted from the incidental music for Jean Anouilh’s play Le voyageur sans bagages op. 157.68 This eleven-minute and forty-second work is in four movements titled Overture, Divertissement, Jeu, and Introduction et Final. The composition is very light in character exhibiting Milhaud’s grace, wit and charm as a composer. This work utilizes more chordal, vertical structure than his earlier compositions, but contrapuntal writing is still a component of the piece. Devoid of the dissonances and polytonality of
Milhaud’s earlier works, Suite op. 157b can be considered a mixture of Milhaud’s many
68 Laughton, 17.
31 compositional interests and tendencies. He uses syncopated Brazilian rhythmic patterns, traditional ABA forms, ostinati, and pedal tones as unifying devices. Despite excursions into a variety of key centers, it is primarily tonal, based on chords related by fifths.
Concerto for Clarinet and Orchestra op. 230 (1941) was commissioned but never performed by jazz clarinetist Benny Goodman. It is in four movements rather than the traditional three and presents more technical and rhythmic difficulties than his other solo clarinet works. The Concerto is much more harmonically restrained than his earlier works for the clarinet. The dissonant polytonality that occurs in Sonatina op. 100 has been replaced with a lighter, jazz-influenced style. Tonal centers are established with frequent modulations, but the movements usually return to the tonality in which they began. When key changes do occur, they are simple and direct, arrived at via chromatic modulation of transitional material. Milhaud used modified sonata-allegro form in the first and fourth movements, and modified sonata-rondo form in the second. The third movement, a slow ABA form in a blues style, makes use of a canon, one of Milhaud’s favorite compositional procedures. The Concerto employs many neoclassic devices including pedal tones, ostinato figures, canons, and sequences to create a sense of unity.69
Duo Concertante (1956) for clarinet and piano was the last composition
Milhaud composed for solo clarinet and piano. This single movement work, written for the clarinet professor at the Paris Conservatory, M. Ulysse Delécluse, is only seven- minutes and fifteen-seconds in length. Milhaud combined a classical ABA rondo form
69 Robert Louis Petrella, “The Solo and Chamber Music for Clarinet by Darius Milhaud” (D.M.A. thesis, University of Maryland, College Park, 1979), 6-9.
32 with twentieth-century compositional devices. The usual key scheme of a classical rondo is modified enabling modulation through a greater number of key centers. In his usual fashion, Milhaud made use of mild dissonances, chord clusters, and mixed major- minor tonalities, but in a much more subtle manner than his earlier works. Absent from polytonality and complex rhythms, this work captures the spirit of Les Six with its lighter and more playful character more than Sonatina op. 100, written thirty years earlier.
Francis Poulenc (1899-1963)
Poulenc, a Parisian by birth, was the only member of Les Six who did not attend any of the established music schools of the day. With the exception of counterpoint instruction with Charles Koechlin later in his career, Poulenc was largely self-taught, possessing a gift for writing melodies. Poulenc’s mother, who was an accomplished pianist, musically influenced and cultivated his childhood years. Due to this, Mozart,
Chopin, Schubert, Scarlatti, and Couperin were among his early admirations. As a young child growing up in Paris, Poulenc was also exposed to a variety of French popular institutions. Exposure to popular music styles from the Parisian café-concert and music-halls along with his interest in concert music styles inculcated a musical diversity that remained with Poulenc throughout his life. He believed that Parisian popular music, in combination with classical ideals, represented the future of “French” music. Poulenc commented on blending these diverse musical idioms:
33 I’ve often been reproached about my “street music” side. Its genuineness has been suspected, and yet there’s nothing more genuine to me. Our two families ran their business houses in the Marais district, full of lovely old houses, a few yards from the Bastille. From childhood onwards I’ve associated café tunes with the Couperin Suites in a common love without distinguishing between them.70
In addition to popular music, Poulenc was receptive to a wide range of other musical influences. Along with his love for popular French music, he was fond of many French,
Russian, and German composers from the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth centuries. Like his Les Six colleagues, Poulenc shunned Wagner’s heavy, complicated writing because it did not reflect the classical simplicity of “French” music. Poulenc discussed some of the composers who influenced him:
It was without a doubt Debussy who awakened me to music, but it was Stravinsky who later served as my guide. On the harmonic plane I owe much to Ravel, enormously to Satie, but more aesthetically than musically. And Chabrier is my grandfather!71
Emmanuel Chabrier’s impact on French music (1900-30) was considerable, making him the first composer whose style distinctly influenced Poulenc.72 Poulenc’s admiration for
Chabrier was discussed in a conversation with Stéphane Audel:
Ah! Chabrier, I love him as one loves a father! An indulgent father, always merry, his pockets full of tasty tid-bits. Chabrier’s music is a treasure house you can never exhaust; I just could not do without it!73
70 Francis Poulenc, Mois et mes amis (My Friends and Myself), trans. James Harding, (London: Dobson Books Ltd., 1978), 31.
71 Pierre Bernac, Franics Poulenc: The Man and his Songs, trans. Winifred Radford (London: The Camelot Press Ltd., 1977), 35.
72 Keith W. Daniel, Francis Poulenc, His Artistic Development and Musical Style (Ann Arbor Michigan: UMI Research Press, 1982), 3-4.
73 Poulenc, Mois et mes amis, 54.
34 Poulenc was drawn to Chabrier’s witty humor, simple melodic lines, and light, lilting accompaniments.74
Poulenc’s beginning compositional skills were shaped and encouraged by his first important piano teacher, Ricardo Viñes. Viñes was responsible for ushering Poulenc into the artistic world by introducing him to such leading figures as Debussy, Satie,
Cocteau, Auric, and Stravinsky.75 Poulenc discussed his admiration for Viñes:
I owe him the entire beginning of my career, not only for the understanding of the piano that he gave me, but for the effective way in which he supported my first compositional efforts. Everything that I know about the piano I owe to this brilliant master, and it was he who decided what my career would be. Meeting Viñes was a turning point in my life: I owe him everything.76
By 1916, Poulenc decided to become a composer, and with Viñes’ assistance his induction into the Parisian artistic world was ensured. In 1917, Poulenc attended the controversial performance of Satie’s ballet Parade and was deeply influenced by what he saw and heard:
I was conquered! With all the injustice of youth, and although I idolized Debussy, I agreed to disown him a little because I was eager for the new spirit that Satie and Picasso were bringing us.77
Poulenc admired the simplicity and tunefulness of Satie’s music along with his inclusion of jazz and music-hall influences. “All I knew about Satie’s music, and I knew
74 Daniel, 4.
75 Ibid., 9-10.
76 Poulenc, Mois et mes amis, 36.
77 Ibid., 39.
35 everything, seemed to me to be tracing a new path for French music.”78 According to
Poulenc, Satie was the French composer who threw off the influences of Wagnerian romanticism, Russian exoticism, and Debussyian impressionism:79 Although Poulenc was very fond of Debussy and displayed impressionistic qualities in many of his works, he was not convinced of the veracity in the works of Debussy’s followers:
Despite the attack of anti-Debussyism out of self-defense at the time when I came to know Satie, in 1917, Debussy has always remained my favorite composer after Mozart. I could not do without his music. It is my oxygen, Moreover, the reaction of Les Six was directed against the imitators of Debussy, not against Debussy himself.80
Poulenc’s admiration for Parade marked the beginning of Satie’s and Poulenc’s relationship, which later led to his membership in Les Six. Poulenc acknowledged
Satie’s influence on his musical development:
Erik Satie influenced me a great deal, as much spiritually as musically. He saw things so clearly that a young musician could only gain by knowing him. Furthermore, he was marvelously funny.81
Poulenc and Satie’s friendship came to an end seven years later, after Poulenc became friendly with Satie’s critic and arch-enemy Louis Laloy. 82 Despite this fallout, Satie remained an important figure throughout Poulenc’s life. As late as 1954 Poulenc was
78 Ibid., 64.
79 Daniel, 12.
80 Bernac, 24.
81 Francis Poulenc, “Mes maîtres et mes amis,” Conferencia No. 21 (October 15, 1935): 524, quoted in Keith W. Daniel, Francis Poulenc, His Artistic Development and Musical Style (Ann Arbor Michigan: UMI Research Press, 1982), 13.
82 Daniel, 13.
36 quoted, “Satie’s music remains for me one of the most valuable treasures in all of music.”83
Stravinsky was the next composer to make an impact on Poulenc’s career.
Poulenc’s admiration for Stravinsky dates to his childhood when he attended a performance of Le sacre du printemps. Stravinsky remained a primary, life-long influence on Poulenc:
Good Lord! I’m sixty-three now and my admiration for Stravinsky dates from when I was eleven! That’s how old I was when I had the luck to hear some of Stravinsky’s music for the first time. I knew a lot of contemporary music at that time; I worshipped Debussy, who’s always been a religion with me, but the SOUND of Stravinsky’s music was something so new to me that I often asked myself: “Well if Stravinsky had never existed, would I have written music?” Which means to say that I consider myself a son, the type of son he could certainly disown, but in fact a spiritual son of Stravinsky.84
Despite many outside influences, Poulenc forged his own musical identity, which subtly changed and developed throughout his career. Arthur Honegger wrote in
1948:
The influences of Chabrier, Stravinsky, and Satie, which he underwent at the beginning of his career, have been assimilated, as often happens when a true vigor exists, and are now so dissolved in the mixture of his own qualities that it is impossible to detect them, while at each moment a melodic shape or a harmonic progression causes us to say: “That is very Poulenc.”85
As a composer Poulenc was a true Parisian. Gifted with an exceptional melodic sense, his melodies are fresh, original, and simple, but not devoid of expression. He had the ability to compose cleanly drawn musical lines with intense fervor while avoiding
83 Poulenc, Mois et mes amis, 43.
84 Ibid., 135.
85 Arthur Honegger, Incantation aux fossils, (Lausanne: Editions d’Ouchy, 1948), 111.
37 emotional exaggeration.86 Poulenc discovered a way to fuse sentimentality with the qualities of grace, charm, exuberance, and humor representative of the French neoclassic style. In keeping with neoclassic ideals, Poulenc chose traditional genres for his compositions. Spanning a career of almost five decades, his compositions consist of orchestral works, operas, keyboard concerti, choral music and art songs, incidental and film music, and chamber music. He wrote for all of the standard instruments of the late nineteenth century, with considerable attention to wind instruments. Although there are some apparent stylistic similarities in all of Poulenc’s genres, there is little in common between the piano music and operas, and even less in common between the choral works and chamber music.87 Though it is beyond the scope of this document to discuss the totality of Poulenc’s output in detail, it is instructive to mention the neoclassic and non-neoclassic elements of Poulenc’s compositional style as manifested in his instrumental chamber pieces.
Formal structures are quite conservative, reflecting back to the music of the eighteenth century. Poulenc’s instrumental music typically utilizes three movements, the first incorporating a modified ternary ABA´ form. This allowed him to contrast two themes or groups of themes without the use of thematic development.88 Development often consists of a succession of melodies. The title Sonata is used in the eighteenth- century sense more than the definition of sonata in the nineteenth and twentieth
86 Collaer, A History of Modern Music, 266.
87 Daniel, 99.
88 Ibid., 58.
38 centuries. Darius Milhaud commented on Poulenc’s neoclassic aesthetic, “Poulenc has renewed in character the brevity of Scarlatti’s sonatas. The elements are here reduced to their minimum.”89 Poulenc was fond of contrasting tempos and mood changes within a movement. A slow melancholy section replaces the development, and a modified ternary structure allowed him to alter or omit a theme in the return of A´.90 Second movements are often slow, alternating two or three themes or motives. Rondo form is also common in Poulenc’s instrumental music, often employed in the last movement.
Poulenc’s rondo structures tend to be compact, rarely extending beyond ABACA or
ABACABA.91 Also, Poulenc’s final movements often utilize material from previous movements, imparting a sense of cyclic structure and unity.
The textures in the majority of Poulenc’s instrumental works consist of a melody with chordal or arpeggiated accompaniment. Poulenc did not demonstrate a strong aptitude for contrapuntal writing, which was apparent in his compositional studies with
Koechlin:
Having soon sensed that I was more of a harmonist than a contrapuntist, he had me harmonize Bach chorale themes as well as some of the usual counterpoint exercises. This work, which excited me, had a decisive influence on me. It was thanks to this that I acquired a feeling for choral music.92
In Poulenc’s instrumental sonatas, homophony is the dominant texture. The harmonic accompaniment is typically assigned to the piano, while the melodic material is given to
89 Darius Milhaud “The Evolution of Modern Music in Paris and Vienna,” The North American Review 217 (April 1923): 550.
90 Daniel, 102.
91 Ibid., 58.
92 Poulenc, Mois et mes amis, 35.
39 the solo instrument, though Poulenc at times reversed the role of soloist and accompanist. In keeping with a neoclassic aesthetic, the sonatas are not virtuosic. These pieces are characterized by passages in octaves and parallel motion, alternating dialogue between the instruments, and the occasional use of counterpoint; however, one melodic line typically predominates.93
Poulenc’s melodies are extremely lyrical and expansive, evoking emotion through their graceful, rhythmic flow and frequent use of appoggiaturas. Like other neoclassic composers, Poulenc used symmetrical phrase structures in most of his melodies, renewing the strong melodic traditions of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Melody is either scalar or triadic with a predominantly simple conjunct motion. He often added chromatic appoggiaturas or passing tones and mixed major and minor modes for chromatic coloring. Poulenc had the ability to write an abundance of simply structured and pleasing melodies that are easily retained and recapitulated in a ternary structure. Poulenc’s melodic style varies from genre to genre, but it is in his chamber music that he is especially tuneful.
Poulenc’s harmonic tendencies are closely correlated with his melodies. Most of the music is tonal. Harmony is fundamentally diatonic based on dominant-tonic relationships; however, Poulenc did incorporate polymodality with functional-modal interchange.94 For the most part, chromaticism is generally avoided except to embellish
93 Daniel, 102.
94 Bobbitt, 631.
40 diatonic textures.95 Many of Poulenc’s chord structures are tertian. He was not a harmonic innovator, content to use the chord types and progressions handed down from previous generations of composers:
I certainly know that I am not among the musicians who will have been harmonic innovators, like Igor, Ravel or Debussy, but I think there is a place for new music which is happy to use the chords of others. Wasn’t that the case with Mozart and Schubert?96
Because of this, Poulenc’s chordal vocabulary is standard modulating with great fluidity; however, there is something unique in the way harmonies follow one another.
One example is frequently employed seventh chords. Poulenc did not use traditional seventh chords merely on dominant and secondary dominant functions, but often used them on the tonic triad as well.97 Cadential style frequently utilizes dominant harmonies that include ninth and thirteenth chords when cadencing to the tonic.98 Dominant-tonic motion with a 9-8 appoggiatura over the tonic resolution at full cadences is characteristic in his instrumental music.99
Dissonance plays an important role in Poulenc’s largely tonal style and can be categorized as: 1) “wrong-note” dissonance, characteristic of neoclassicism, was used for both playful and momentous effects; 2) harsh dissonance, used later in his compositional style, demonstrates the influence of Stravinsky. This type of dissonance
95 Ibid., 373.
96 Francis Poulenc, Francis Poulenc Correspondance, 1915-1963, ed. Hélène de Wendel (Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1967), 128.
97 Daniel, 75-76.
98 Ibid., 82.
99 Ibid., 82-83.
41 is less flippant and offhanded than “wrong-note” dissonance; 3) Poulenc’s most widely used yet least conspicuous use of dissonance was the inclusion of seventh, ninth, and thirteenth chords.100
Poulenc’s strength as a melodist is apparent in his innovative use of phrasing and meter. Simple compound meter changes occur frequently but theses changes never interfere with the fluidity of the melodic line. Many melodies consist of two-bar or four- bar phrases; however, Poulenc often altered or disrupted the end of a melody by means of a meter change or the insertion of a silence. These meter changes often create phrases of three or five measures as reductions or extensions of two-bar and four-bar phrases.
Poulenc is often considered to use the same approach to phrasing as Mozart and
Schubert.101 His music is characterized by a strong sense of antecedent-consequent structure, but melodies are interspersed with irregular phrases that deviate from the neoclassic expectation.102
Poulenc was not a rhythmic innovator. Maintaining a somewhat conservative approach, his pieces are not rhythmically difficult, but some characteristic traits can be identified. The use of rhythmic ostinati as a unifying factor is prominent in his music, reflecting the neoclassic influence of Satie and Stravinsky. Many of Poulenc’s strong rhythmic influences come from popular music sources, particularly dance styles such as
100 Ibid., 88-90.
101 Ibid., 94.
102 Ibid.
42 waltzes, gallops, polkas, and mazurkas.103 There are fewer indications of American jazz rhythms in his music than those from French café-concert and Parisian music-halls making Poulenc true to his heritage.
Poulenc’s chamber music embodies the aesthetic of Les Six more than any of his other compositional genres. These works are generally tuneful, light-hearted, playful, and full of vitality.104 Poulenc said the following about his chamber music writing:
For me chamber music is an intermittent phenomenon. Sometimes an inner necessity compels me to write, and sometimes a virtuoso simply gives me the opportunity.105
Poulenc’s flair for woodwind writing is exemplified in the duos and trios for wind instruments, the Sextet for piano and winds, and the solo sonatas for flute, oboe, and clarinet. Poulenc’s preference for woodwind writing began early in life:
I have always adored wind instruments, preferring them to strings, and this love developed independent of the tendencies of the era (c. 1915-1925). Of course, L’Histoire du Soldat and Stravinsky’s solo clarinet pieces stimulated my taste for winds, but I had developed the taste as a child.106
With emphasis on the chamber music involving the clarinet, Poulenc’s neoclassic and non-neoclassic “French” style, during various stages of his career will be discussed.
Due to the sporadic output of chamber music, his pieces will be divided into three periods.
103 Ibid., 92.
104 Daniel, 100.
105 Francis Poulenc, Entretiens avec Claude Rostand, Paris: René Julliard, 1954), 118.
106 Ibid.
43 1917-39 can be considered Poulenc’s early period of experimentation and growth. He began as a young, impulsive composer. As a member of Les Six and greatly under the influence of Satie, his compositions from the early part of this period show a witty disposition, mocking and jesting in the manner of his mentor. Sonata for Two
Clarinets (1918) and Sonata for Clarinet and Bassoon (1922) are representative of this early phase of experimentation. Both pieces have three short movements in a fast-slow- fast pattern. Sonata for Two Clarinets is 6’25” in duration, and Sonata for Clarinet and
Bassoon is 8’5”. Due to the short length of these works, they could have been titled
“sonatina” rather than “sonata.” Poulenc commented about his short wind sonatas:
Concerning my first three wind sonatas, their existence is due, without a doubt, exclusively to my instinct. Clearly, they are youthful works, and calling them sonatas might surprise certain people because of their restrained dimensions, but we must not forget that Debussy had just received the tradition of the eighteenth-century French sonata, as a reaction against the post-Franckian sonata. Well-written for winds, these sonatas maintain a certain youthful vitality that links them to Dufy’s early canvasses.107
The movements of these pieces employ either ternary or rondo form and include a great deal of meter changes and motivic repetition. Tonal harmonies are mixed with modal harmonies, and the use of “wrong-note” dissonance is prominent. Impressionistic influences include the use of pentatonic, octatonic, and whole-tone scales. The texture generally consists of parallelisms, passages of imitation, melody with linear accompaniment, and some counterpoint. Although similarities exist between these two early works, the differences between them are noteworthy. Sonata for Two Clarinets is less tonal than Sonata for Clarinet and Bassoon. The tonal/modal centers are defined by
107 Ibid., 119.
44 melodic, cadential areas at the end of a section or movement. A definitive melodic sense is less recognizable in Sonata for Two Clarinets, and many of the phrases comprise short fragments combined in parallel motion and motivic alteration. Poulenc utilized a great deal of repetition, sequences, ostinati, and shifting meters, showing the influence of Satie and Stravinsky. Despite the fact that Sonata for Two Clarinets can seem quite melodically sparse, it still demonstrates the essence of Poulenc’s gift for tuneful writing,
Sonata for Clarinet and Bassoon is a more evolved work. This duo exhibits the influence of Poulenc’s compositional studies with Koechlin, featuring linear counterpoint with the bassoon at times acting as a continuo part. There is more shape to the melodic lines and more melodic material than in Sonata for Two Clarinets. Poulenc used repetitive rhythms but not ostinati. A clearer sense of tonality exists, but Poulenc still employed modal writing and a great deal of “wrong-note” dissonance. In general, this work possesses a more cohesive structure than Sonata for Two Clarinets. Both of these duos are clearly youthful works, influenced by the popular sounds of the music- hall scene, and demonstrating the influence of Satie and Les Six.
From 1923-39, Poulenc’s shifted to the “Stravinsky or neoclassic phase”108
Although Stravinksyian influences are apparent in his earlier and later compositions, the neoclassic style of Stravinsky is more prominent in Poulenc’s works from this second phase. Some of the characteristics common to Stravinsky are references to earlier composers and styles; for Poulenc these references included sixteenth-century chansons,
108 Daniel, 95.
45 Monteverdi, eighteenth-century clavecinistes, Mozart, Chopin, as well as Stravinsky.109
The inclusion of the piano in Poulenc’s chamber music brought out a more mature chamber style. An overall lightness is still maintained, but the addition of the piano creates a fuller sound and more serious mood.110 Although not a work that showcases the clarinet specifically, Sextet for flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, horn and piano (1932-
39) is one of Poulenc’s chamber pieces that constitute a transition into his second period of solo sonata writing. Originally composed in 1932, it was extensively revised in
1939.111 As is the case with Poulenc’s chamber pieces, this is a three-movement work utilizing modified ternary form in each movement. The movements are expanded considerably through addition of themes and lengthening of phrases. In contrast to the duos written several years earlier, the tonal centers in this piece are more firmly established, and key areas within the movements are closely related. Melodies are well developed and tuneful, generally diatonic with occasional chromatic passing-tone embellishments. Harmony is functional, and there is less dissonance than in the earlier works, although Poulenc did supply an occasional discordance. Melody with accompaniment is the predominant texture, and in slower sections Poulenc employed four-measure phrases with a slow harmonic rhythm. Lively and syncopated rhythms with relatively few meter changes are prevalent throughout. Poulenc quoted two of
Stravinsky’s compositions, Pulcinella and Capriccio for piano and orchestra, thus
109 Ibid., 96.
110 Ibid., 110.
111 Pamela Lee Poulin, “Three Stylistic Traits in the Poulenc’s Chamber Music for Wind Instruments” (Ph.D. diss., Eastman School of Music, 1983), 35.
46 demonstrating a neoclassic influence.112 Poulenc’s style had clearly matured in this work, and although he was pulling away from the style of Satie, the influences from the
Parisian café-concert and music-halls are still apparent in Sextet.
During the second phase of this first period, Poulenc was searching for his individual voice, away from Les Six. This stage, marked by uncertainty and experimentation, included Poulenc’s attempt to refine his skills through compositional study with Koechlin. Poulenc’s restrained wit and tunefulness still remained, but his melodic style and lyricism evolved as he added more depth and substance.
The compositions from Poulenc’s second chamber music period (1940-50) can be characterized as taking a more serious, lyrical path. A romantic, more emotionally expressive style was surfacing, making the music seem more “neoromantic” than neoclassical. Poulenc was developing a wider range of expression; however, he did not completely abandon his humorous, simple side or neoclassic ideals.113 Only two chamber pieces, neither for wind instruments, were composed during this period, Sonata for Violin and Piano (1942-43) and Sonata for Cello and Piano (1948). Poulenc did not compose any chamber music from 1948-56.
His final period of chamber music composition began with Sonata for Flute and
Piano (1957) and continued for the last six years of his life. As Poulenc’s mature style continued, his music became more relaxed and his harmony richer.114 In addition to the
112 Ibid., 186.
113 Daniel, 98.
114 Ibid., 98-99.
47 flute sonata, he produced Sonata for Oboe and Piano (1962) and Sonata for Clarinet and
Piano (1962). To complete his cycle of sonatas for woodwinds, Poulenc intended to write a sonata for bassoon but he died before beginning work on it.115 At the time of his death, Poulenc left no unfinished works.116
Sonata for Clarinet and Piano (1962) is Poulenc’s most popular work for the clarinet. Dedicated to Poulenc’s long-time friend and Les Six colleague Arthur
Honegger, it was premiered at Carnegie Hall in 1963 by Benny Goodman and Leonard
Bernstein. Although composed late in Poulenc’s career, the Sonata for Clarinet and
Piano integrates characteristics from all of Poulenc’s stylistic periods. It displays
Poulenc’s mature style but it also stays true to the neoclassic aesthetic of simplicity.
This piece will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.
It should be noted that throughout Poulenc’s career, certain elements of his musical style are apparent in his work. He never completely abandoned the mischievous, playful nature of his early pieces. Poulenc’s compositions are immediately recognizable due to their bright colors, strong, clear rhythms, rich diatonic harmonies, and tuneful melodies. Of all the member of Les Six, Poulenc was the one who remained most faithful to the simplicity of neoclassicism and true to the art of “French” music.
115 Poulin, 37.
116 Ibid., 38.
48 Chapter III
Comparative Study of the Neoclassic/Non-neoclassic Traits in Selected Clarinet Sonatas by Arthur Honegger, Germaine Tailleferre, Darius Milhaud, and Francis Poulenc.
In chapter two of this study, the neoclassic and non-neoclassic styles of Les Six were discussed. This chapter will delve deeper into these traits through selected clarinet sonatas by each composer. Formal, melodic, harmonic, rhythmic, and textural features will be addressed as deemed appropriate.
Arthur Honegger Sonatina for Clarinet and Piano
Composed in 1921-22, Sonatina for Clarinet and Piano is one of the few works that Honegger composed in the French neoclassic style. The title
“sonatina” is appropriate since this three-movement work is only slightly over six minutes in length. Honegger combined traditional forms, harmonies, and compositional devices with his own twentieth-century style.
The first movement employs a ternary form, including an exposition, a contrasting middle section, and a recapitulation. The exposition of this first movement also encompasses its own ternary substructure. The opening phrase, stated in the clarinet part (mm. 1-8) constitutes the first substructure. The second (mm. 9-15) is based on a fragment of the first, and a restatement of the opening clarinet phrase constitutes the third substructure (mm. 16-29). The principal motive of the exposition
49 consists of a three sixteenth-note rhythmic figure, which is also employed in all three substructures (Examples 1 and 2).
Example 1: Honegger, Sonatina Mvt. I, mm. 1-4
Example 2: Honegger, Sonatina Mvt. I, mm. 9-11
The three sixteenth-notes of this principal motive are exchanged between the clarinet and piano, thus creating a strong rhythmic character that acts as a unifying device throughout the movement. With the exception of the middle section, a homophonic texture is predominant.
The contrasting middle section (mm. 30-44) is based on a three-voice fugue.
Being the member of Les Six most devoted to Bach and contrapuntal writing, Honegger displays a “neobaroque” style throughout this section. The three sixteenth-note motive
50 from the exposition is applied in the beginning of the fugal subject, thus creating unity between these two main sections (Example 3).
Example 3: Honegger, Sonatina Mvt. I, mm. 30-33
The subject, beginning in the left hand (m. 30) of the piano, is answered by the right hand (mm. 32-33). It is then restated an octave higher by the piano and answered by the clarinet (m. 36), thus creating the three-voice fugue. Honegger deviated from the
“neobaroque” expectation by basing the subject-answer relationship on a tritone, rather than the dominant. Employing a technique commonly associated with fugal writing, this middle section climaxes with a stretto in all voices before the return of the opening motive (Example 4).
Example 4: Honegger, Sonatina Mvt. I, mm. 38-41
51 The recapitulation (mm. 44-70) is similar to the exposition. One difference between the two sections is that Honegger employed a binary substructure in the recapitulation as opposed to the ternary substructure in the exposition. In general, the texture remains homophonic but is slightly thicker due to more activity in the piano part. In the first substructure of the recapitulation, Honegger fused the fugue subject from the middle section into the piano part while the clarinet plays the exposition melody (Example 5). The fugal subject material is presented in augmentation, a technique often used in contrapuntal writing and remains secondary to the principal motive in the clarinet part. This occurs again in the second substructure, thus unifying these sections (m. 57).
Example 5: Honegger, Sonatina Mvt. I, mm. 44-49
52 This first movement is primarily tonal, following neoclassic principles through the use of frequent tertian harmonies and seventh chords (refer to example 1, piano part). However, in a non-neoclassic sense Honegger did not use traditional harmonic motion and employed some modern-day compositional trend such as whole- tones scale patterns and chromaticism (Examples 6 and 7).
Example 6: Honegger, Sonatina Mvt. I, mm. 26-29
Example 7: Honegger Sonatina Mvt. I, mm. 33-36 (also refer to stretto section in Example 4)
53 The second movement is in a “loose” binary form containing no strong formal structure. The first (mm. 1-14) and second parts (beginning in m. 15) are unified by a motive based on three-quarter notes B, F, A one octave apart (Example 8).
Example 8: Honegger, Sonatina Mvt. II, mm. 1-2 and m. 15
Due to the brevity in phrasing and lack of contrasting themes, the development of a concrete form is minimized. Unity is created through the use of similar thematic material between the instruments (Example 9).
Example 9: Honegger Sonatina Mvt. II, mm. 26-29
54 A brief codetta (mm. 28-33) contains thematic material from both sections. The general structure of the movement unfolds in a continuous manner, making it almost seem through-composed.
As in the first movement, Honegger used a homophonic setting and exploited the wide range of the clarinet with many leaps and registral build-ups. The piano plays a less active role in this movement, mainly providing accompaniment for the clarinet. The rhythm is slow moving and less motivic than it was in the first movement, making the listener focus on the color and timbre of the clarinet’s expansive melodic lines.
This movement is highly chromatic. By the seventh measure of the first phrase, both instruments have utilized all twelve notes of the chromatic scale (Example 10).
Example 10: Honegger, Sonatina Mvt. II, mm. 1-9
55 Whole-tone harmonies are prevalent throughout the movement (Example 11). With the exception of a dominant homophonic texture, this movement is the least neoclassic of the piece.
Example 11: Honegger, Sonatina Mvt. II, m. 1 and m. 33
The third movement, being the liveliest movement of the piece, captures the light-hearted character of Les Six. Honegger incorporated music-hall and jazz elements by glissandi in the clarinet part and lively, accented offbeat and syncopated rhythms.
This movement, tonally centered in D major, is in a ternary form. It is the shortest movement of the piece, consisting of only thirty-seven measures. The first section
(mm. 1-10) consists of a monothematic exposition. Rhythmic perpetual motion begins the movement through syncopated ostinati in both parts with the clarinet line being the dominant voice. The on-going rhythmic quality in the piano part is representative of the motor rhythms common in the Baroque period (Example 12).
56 Example 12: Honegger, Sonatina Mvt. III, mm. 1-4
The contrasting middle section (mm. 11-19) temporarily breaks the ostinato figures, creating a much sparser character. However, the momentum is maintained through the use of syncopated and off-beat rhythms between the instruments. Honegger brought back the opening clarinet melody in the piano part, thus unifying this section with the exposition and recapitulation (Example 13).
57 Example 13: Honegger, Sonatina Mvt. III, mm. 14-16
The contrasting material in this section is primarily in the clarinet part, but energy is maintained through the rhythmic ostinato by the piano. A momentary contrapuntal texture creates more activity through the use of canonic imitation between the instruments, thus bridging this section with the recapitulation (Example 14).
58 Example 14: Honegger, Sonatina Mvt. III, mm. 17-19
The recapitulation (mm. 20-37) is twice as long as the exposition. Homophony returns with the clarinet featuring the beginning melody down an octave. The right hand of the piano doubles this melody, but is off by a sixteenth-note creating a canonic affect; meanwhile, the left hand plays a modified sixteenth-note ostinato figure. A brief exchange of thematic material from the exposition occurs between the clarinet and piano (mm. 28-32); however, the instruments switched parts in this section (Example
15). The recapitulation begins with an exact restatement of the exposition. A repetitious fragment, featuring the exposition’s opening glissando motive in the clarinet part, ends the movement.
59 Example 15: Honegger, Sonatina Mvt. III, mm. 28-33
Summary
In Honegger’s Sonatina, both neoclassic and non-neoclassic elements are present. For Honegger, this is quite possibly the closest he ever came to the aesthetic of
French neoclassicism and Les Six. In comparing the neoclassic and non-neoclassic elements, Honegger incorporated: 1) traditional forms in non-traditional ways, 2) tonality based on tertian harmonies with identifiable key centers without traditional harmonic motion, 3) chromaticism and whole-tone scales based on more current musical influences, 4) compositional techniques from the past such as homophony, ostinato, motivic and thematic development, fugue, stretto, canon, imitation, and
60 repetition, but incorporates these elements with a twentieth-century style, 5) unity even when there is no strong formal structure, 6) brevity, lightness, concision, as well as jazz elements in the spirit of the French café-concert and music-halls.
Unfortunately for the clarinet repertoire, Honegger was drawn to larger, more dramatic works and did not continue to compose in this style or genre. Sonatina is a notable work among Honegger’s oeuvre and a product of the French neoclassic style of its day.
Germaine Tailleferre Sonata for Clarinet Solo
Sonata for Clarinet Solo was composed in 1957, long after Tailleferre’s affiliation with Les Six. Since Tailleferre is considered a “classicist” throughout her compositional career, it is not unusual that she continued to incorporate neoclassic elements in a piece of this late date. In Sonata for Clarinet Solo, Tailleferre experimented with serial techniques, yet she maintained the sensibility and simplicity of
French neoclassicism.
Only five minutes in length, Sonata for Clarinet Solo is short and concise.
The form of the three movements, however, does not resemble the modified “sonata” or
“sonatina” form expected from the title of the work. Perhaps Tailleferre was using the title according to its connotation from the sixteenth century, meaning “sound-piece.”
61 This connotation indicates an instrumental composition containing short sections in contrasting styles.117
The first movement is the longest, creating form through phrase repetition. In the first section of this movement, the phrases are quickly repeated and unified through short motives. These short motives are unified through the use of ascending and descending half-step note groupings. The basic phrase structure consists of two-bar phrases with an antecedent-consequent balance. Throughout the movement, Tailleferre supported the phrase structure with simple meter changes containing simple rhythmic figures (Example 1).
Example 1: Tailleferre, Sonata Mvt. I, mm. 1-10
117 Don Michael Randel, Harvard Concise Dictionary of Music (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1978), 472.
62 Instead of utilizing a tone row, Tailleferre created concise note-sets consisting of chromatic groupings and major thirds. She provided a key signature indicating D major, and often ended phrases on the tonic, the third, and dominant of this key. Despite
Tailleferre’s serial intent, the music is quite “tonal,” creating comprehensible melodic lines (Example 2).
Example 2: Tailleferre, Sonata Mvt. I, mm. 11-15
A brief contrasting section enters after two successive statements of the opening melody occur (mm. 1-13 and mm. 15-26). This section (mm. 27-34) begins on the pitch
A, the dominant of the key of D, and returns to this note throughout the passage. The chromatic half-step note grouping from the previous section is also utilized in the phrases, thus creating some unity among the sections.
A fragment (mm. 37-44) containing similar motivic structure to the opening phrase (mm. 3-4) is reprised and developed through the use of more expansive rhythms and pitches (Example 3a and b).
63 Example 3a: Tailleferre, Sonata Mvt. I, mm. 3-4
Example 3b: Tailleferre, Sonata Mvt. I, mm. 37-44
(comparison between the second half of mm. 3-4 to m. 37 and 41)
The movement ends with a “coda” section (mm. 45-57) utilizing a previously stated half-step note motive as a final unifying figure (Example 4).
Example 4: Tailleferre, Sonata Mvt. I, mm. 50-52
64 The second movement has many of the same qualities as the first movement.
The tempo is slower but uses similar compositional devices such as repetition, note-sets, chromatic half-steps, and hints of tonality. This movement comes closer to incorporating a structured ternary form “loosely” consisting of an exposition (mm. 1-9), middle section (mm. 10-22), recapitulation (mm. 23-30), and codetta (mm. 31-35).
In the exposition, four measures of antecedent followed by five measures of consequent create an asymmetrical phrase structure. The consequent phrase contains a meter change, giving the phrase an extra measure to create an echo effect (Example 5).
Example 5: Tailleferre, Sonata Mvt. II, mm. 1-9
The movement is not complicated and contains minimal development. The middle section basically incorporates motivic ideas from the exposition until the return of the opening phrase. The recapitulation brings back the exposition material with slight alterations in meter. The codetta ends the movement with a mixture of motives from earlier thematic material (Example 6).
Example 6: Tailleferre, Sonata Mvt. II, mm. 31-35 (compare to Example 5)
65 The third movement is extremely lively, exhibiting a “circus music” quality reminiscent of the popular institutions admired by Satie and Les Six. Repetition unifies this movement through the use of phrase and note replication, as well as written in repeat signs (Examples 7a, b and c).
Example 7a: Tailleferre, Sonata Mvt. III, mm. 1-4 and mm. 12-15
Example 7b: Tailleferre, Sonata Mvt. III, mm. 5-7
Example 7c: Tailleferre, Sonata Mvt. III, mm. 16-19
66 A cadenza serves as a brief, contrasting middle section before the return of the first four measures of the movement. Impressionistic influences are evident in these extended arpeggiations (Example 8).
Example 8: Tailleferre, Sonata Mvt. III, cadenza
This movement appears to be based solely on repetition with very little development of thematic material. Phrases are balanced, consisting mainly of two and four measures.
As in the other movements, repeated sets of notes structure the phrases, and there is a sense of tonality.
Summary
Sonata for Clarinet Solo was a means for Tailleferre to apply a new mode of expression; however, her natural “classical” style was not abandoned. This piece exhibits her most neoclassic qualities: 1) an overall conservative, simple style, 2) brevity and concision, 3) secure control over form and phrase structure, 4) use of repetition and imitation, 5) minimal development of musical ideas, 6) “tonally” based, light accessible melodies and lyric sensibility. Sonata for Clarinet Solo was a noble attempt at serialism however, Tailleferre’s instinctive compositional style remained
“classic.”
67 Darius Milhaud Sonatina for Clarinet and Piano op.100
Composed in 1927, Sonatina for Clarinet and Piano op. 100 combines neoclassic features with twentieth-century practices. Like Honegger, Milhaud’s title
“sonatina” is appropriate since the piece is less than ten minutes in length. Milhaud’s modified use of traditional form with contemporary techniques makes this piece difficult to realize as a true work of French neoclassicism.
Milhaud used modified ternary forms in all three movements of Sonatina.
The first incorporates an exposition with four different motivic areas (mm. 1-4; mm. 5-
15; mm. 16-20; mm. 20-34) before reaching the contrasting middle section (m. 35). As discussed in chapter two of this study, it is not unusual for the exposition to incorporate several motives. Milhaud quickly manipulated and developed these motives as he contrasted them harmonically, rhythmically, and texturally. The movement begins with the first motive aggressively stated by the piano. The clarinet enters with an independent line one bar later making the texture contrapuntal. The parts remain independent as the second motive (mm. 5-16) is displayed in the clarinet part, and the piano continues with the same motive it used in the beginning of the movement.
Milhaud continued to interject the opening piano motive before employing several ostinato figures, which are also based on this motive (Examples 1a and b).
68 Example 1a: Milhaud, Sonatina Mvt. I, mm. 1-2
Example 1b: Milhaud, Sonatina Mvt. I, mm.11-22
69 Milhaud used ostinati frequently throughout the movement, giving him the opportunity to change melodies yet unify the music.
Milhaud continued to motivcally interplay previous melodies until the contrasting middle section (m. 35). Unlike Honegger, Milhaud developed this middle section but still not enough to call it a true development. The melody is in the clarinet part, exhibiting a more lyrical quality than the themes from the exposition. The piano part is less active, and the texture is more homophonic than contrapuntal. This theme is developed until a transition (m. 53) leads the music back to a developmental passage
(mm. 57-88). Milhaud unified this developmental passage (mm. 57 and 72), by bringing back material from the exposition and the contrasting middle section (Example 2).
Example 2: Milhaud, Sonatina Mvt. I, mm. 57-58
In this developmental section, Milhaud also used the initial sixteenth-note figure from the exposition and developed the motive by means of sequential imitation between the clarinet and piano (Example 3).
70 Example 3: Milhaud, Sonatina Mvt. I, mm. 59-63
The recapitulation (mm. 88-95) is short and incorporates only a small portion of material from the exposition. Milhaud did not use all the motives from the exposition nor did he use material from the middle section.
Harmonically Milhaud used a great deal of dissonance, chromatcisim, bitonality, and polytonality, making it difficult to hear this work as neoclassic. He began the first movement with clashing minor seconds and parallel sevenths chords in the piano part.
Milhaud also immediately employed bitonality by having the piano part in D major and the clarinet part in b minor (Example 4).
71 Example 4: Milhaud, Sonatina Mvt. I, mm.1-3
Later in the movement Milhaud combined his penchant for bitonality with chromaticism (mm. 28-29). Within two tonal centers, he sequentially used a chromatic ascending line of parallel triads in the piano to transition into the first motive of the movement (Example 5).
Example 5: Milhaud, Sonatina Mvt. I, mm. 28-30
An example of polytonality occurs in the middle section (mm. 53-56) where three different tonalities occur simultaneously. The clarinet is in an ostinato pattern consisting of three pitches, A-flat, B-double flat, and C-flat, the right hand of the piano is in E minor and the left hand of the piano is in D minor. Another important feature in this passage is an isorhythmic pattern. The clarinet repeats its figure five times while the
72 right hand of the piano is in a two-measure rhythmic pattern and the left hand in a one- measure rhythmic pattern. Not only did Milhaud employ polytonality, he also employed polyrhythm (Example 6).
Example 6: Milhaud, Sonatina Mvt. I, mm. 53-56
Although isorhythm is a technique from the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and on some level Milhaud could be regarded as “neomedieval,” the complexity and tonal ambiguity of this section creates a disruptive character, making it a challenge to recognize implications from past eras.
One last non-neoclassic harmonic issue important to note is Milhaud’s use of pandiatonicism. Milhaud used a succession of ascending and descending parallel triads without any chord function. Once again, Milhaud incorporated polyrhythmic
73 “isorhythm” in the piano part while utilizing motivic fragments from the middle section in the clarinet line (Example 7).
Example 7: Milhaud, Sonatina Mvt. I, mm. 72-75
Although this movement is primarily non-neoclassic, neoclassic expectations occur from time to time, such as the movement ending in B minor, the key in which the movement began.
The second movement of Sonatina demonstrates more neoclassic features than the first. With the exception of the middle section, the piano plays more of an accompaniment role to the clarinet, thus creating a more homophonic texture.
Implementing a ternary ABA structure, the first section (mm. 1-15) features a lyrical melody in the clarinet part. This melody is supported by a recurring motive that sequences down by step in the right hand of the piano while the left hand employs an ostinato figure (Example 8).
74 Example 8: Milhaud, Sonatina Mvt. II, mm. 1-7
Harmonically, this movement uses some traditional means by securing more tonal areas. The movement begins in A-flat major, tonally hints at C major, and makes its way to E major for the contrasting middle section. However, the middle section
(mm. 16-42) begins bitonally with the piano in E major and the clarinet in B major. This section is an imitative canon between clarinet and piano. The theme begins in the clarinet part and is comprised of four short motives. These motives are imitated between the clarinet and both hands of the piano, but not in the order they were originally stated.
This allowed Milhaud to be contrapuntally free as he piled up the canonic imitation of the second motive of the theme (Example 9).
75 Example 9: Milhaud, Sonatina Mvt. II, mm. 16-23
The recapitulation (mm. 41-54) is the same as the exposition with the exception of a sequentially descending filler line in right hand of the piano. After moving through several different tonal areas in the middle section, the recapitulation returns to A-flat major. A brief codetta (mm. 54-58) changes the tonality to A-flat minor, making this movement the one movement of the piece not ending in its original key.
The character and compositional techniques in the third movement of Sonatina exhibit many of the same qualities as the first. The correlations between these movements serve as unifying elements, thus making the piece cyclic. Due to the number of similarities, only a few outstanding points will be discussed. Utilizing the same ternary form, the opening motive of the exposition in this movement is similar to the opening motive in the exposition from the first movement (Example 10a and b).
76 Similarities between these two motives are bitonality, a descending rhythmic figure comprised of parallel seventh chords, and the recurring use of this motive throughout the movement as a unifying device.
The contrasting middle section is divided into two sections (mm. 28-50 and mm. 51-61). New motivic material is mixed with pre-existing material from the exposition. In the second part of the middle section (mm. 51-61), there are several repetitive step-wise scale patterns resembling portions of the exposition (mm. 3-5).
Milhaud once again mixed “tonalities,” but this time it is “bimodal” with the piano in F
Lydian and the clarinet in F Dorian (Example 11).
77 Example 11: Milhaud, Sonatina Mvt. III, mm. 51-61
In the recapitulation, Milhaud utilized an ostinato based on the original motive from the exposition. The clarinet plays the same motive and also presents material from other sections of the piece. The movement ends with a traditional IV, V, I chord progression ending in C major, one of the key areas presented in the bitonal exposition.
78 Summary
Due to Milhaud’s richly traveled life, a variety of elements and influences are exhibited in his music. Sonatina does display some neoclassic traits, but aspects such as harmony, texture, and rhythm make it a challenge to state whether this particular piece epitomizes the French neoclassic style. In a neoclassic sense, Milhaud utilized the following: 1) small traditional forms, 2) techniques from the past such as homophony, counterpoint, canon, imitation, thematic development, ostinati, and cyclic elements for unification, 3) brief moments of functional harmony and tonal areas, 4) rhythmic and harmonic jazz elements based on the popular institutions of the day.
Despite the use of such neoclassic devices, the overall character of Sonatina does not meet the neoclassic expectation. Some prominent non-neoclassic elements consist of: 1) roughly driven rhythms, 2) harsh dissonances, intervallic clashes and chromaticism, 3) arbitrary use of traditional, functional harmony in combination with awkward non-traditional modulations, 4) use of bitonality, polytonality, bimodality, and pandiatonicism, 5) overall density and complexity. In many ways, Sonatina is a work of a genius. Milhaud was able to employ so many aspects of his unique compositional style into one short work. However, the light-hearted simplicity that is indicative of the
French neoclassic style is absent from this particular composition.
79 Francis Poulenc Sonata for Clarinet and Piano
Sonata for Clarinet and Piano was composed in 1962, one year before Poulenc’s death. Remaining the true “Frenchman,” Poulenc was committed to the aesthetic of
French neoclassicism throughout his life. In this work, Poulenc integrates his penchant for frivolity and youthfulness with a mature musical style.
Although entitled Sonata, none of the movements display a true sonata form.
Each movement utilizes a modified ternary or rondo form consisting of an exposition, contrasting middle section, and recapitulation. All the movements lack a central development. As discussed in chapter two of this study, Poulenc modeled his sonatas after the eighteenth-century style of Scarlatti, where themes can be contrasted without thematic development.
The first movement begins with a capricious introduction (mm. 1-8). No key center is firmly established here, so its function is a playful “charade” before the true exposition (m. 9). In typical Poulenc fashion, these lively eight bars immediately create a tongue-in-cheek character reminiscent of the French café-concert and music-halls. The first theme of the exposition (mm. 9-18) consists of a lyrical ascending-descending phrase in the clarinet. The piano supplies an ostinato figure of oscillating eighth notes reminiscent of an “Alberti bass” figure from the Classical period. Poulenc employed this homophonic texture consistently throughout the movement, as well as the entire work (Example 1).
80 Example 1: Poulenc, Sonata Mvt. I, mm. 9-18
The second theme (mm. 19-28) is based on the dotted rhythm at the end of the first theme, thus unifying these two melodies. The second theme is symmetrically balanced consisting of two four-bar antecedent/consequent phrases (Example 2).
81 Example 2: Poulenc, Sonata Mvt. I, mm. 19-28
The second and third statements of the second theme (mm. 27-39) are similar in musical content but are asymmetrical phrases with the antecedent part of the phrase being longer than the consequent. As discussed in chapter two of this study, it was not unusual for
Poulenc to incorporate symmetrical phrases with asymmetrical phrases, thus combining neoclassic with modern trends. The end of the exposition (mm. 59-66) is cyclic,
82 incorporating motivic material from the introduction in dialogue between the instruments (Example 3).
Example 3: Poulenc, Sonata Mvt. I, mm. 59-66
Harmonically, the exposition modulates through a variety of key areas. In a neoclassic sense, the music is tonally based, but the modulations occur abruptly with very little preparation.
The middle section contrasts greatly with the exposition. As discussed in chapter two of this study, Poulenc used the middle section in place of the development.
83 The section begins with transitional material initiated by the piano. The first thematic statement (m. 78) is in the clarinet part featuring a double-dotted rhythmic figure reminiscent of the seventeenth-century French overture style. The second and third statements of the theme (mm. 86-101) continue this double dotted figure in the clarinet part as the piano plays an accompanimental role. Poulenc used more traditional harmonic function in this section than in the exposition (Examples 4a and b).
Example 4a: Poulenc, Sonata Mvt. I, mm.78-83
84 Example 4b: Poulenc, Sonata Mvt. I, mm. 86-92
The recapitulation (mm. 106-22) uses material from the introduction as well as the first and second themes of the exposition. The phrases are mostly asymmetrical, and only portions of the initial material are restated. The codetta (mm. 123-33) is reminiscent of the introduction and first theme of the exposition. Poulenc unified the movement by ending with a tremolo in the clarinet part, the same way he ended the introduction
(Example 5).
85 Example 5: Poulenc, Sonata Mvt. I, mm. 123-33
The second movement slightly deviates from the ternary form. As in the first movement, Poulenc began the movement with a short introduction (mm. 1-10) before beginning the exposition. The clarinet part begins with a quasi-cadenza, reminiscent of a classical recitative (mm. 1-4). The first two bars are stylistically similar to the opening of the contrasting middle section of the first movement. The cadenza uses a neighbor- tone motive as its basis (Example 6).
86 Example 6: Poulenc, Sonata Mvt. II, mm. 1-4
A six-measure interlude after the cadenza slightly delays the entrance of the exposition but contains motivic material soon to be utilized in the exposition’s first theme. The principal theme of the exposition (mm. 11-24) is extremely lyrical, exhibiting Poulenc’s gift for melodic writing. This melody in the clarinet part is based upon a double-dotted rhythmic motive, similar to the middle section of the first movement. The phrase structure is repetitious as well as asymmetrical. The first half consists of an eight- measure antecedent followed by a six-measure consequent. With the exception of these unbalanced phrases, this section is quite neoclassic in style. The texture is strictly homophonic and the harmony is functional (Example 7).
87 Example 7: Poulenc, Sonata Mvt. II, mm. 11-24
88 The contrasting middle section (mm. 25-63) continues to utilize the double- dotted figure through a new motive. The piano and clarinet are continually in dialogue throughout this section, exchanging motivic material. This aspect of Poulenc’s style is similar to the eighteenth-century classical style in which a question-answer interchange of parts was commonly executed. The phrases are symmetrical, consisting of six- measure phrases divided into two measures per statement (Example 8).
Example 8: Poulenc, Sonata Mvt. II, mm. 31-36
Restatements of the exposition enter periodically, thus cyclically linking these two sections.
89 The recapitulation (mm. 63-72) brings back the material from the exposition, but the principal phrase is shorter in length. An interjection of the neighbor-tone figure from the introduction concludes this section, once again unifying the movement. In a brief codetta (mm.73-76), Poulenc utilized dissonant, extended chords (mm. 73-74) and ended the movement on a half cadence (Example 9).
Example 9: Poulenc, Sonata Mvt. II, mm. 71-76
The third movement, resembling a rondo form, contains two distinctive themes.
Both are lively and jovial in character, reminiscent of Parisian circus-hall music. The first theme (mm. 1-17) begins with two percussive chords, a “hammer” rhythm common to the tongue-in-cheek style of popular music.118 The texture is homophonic, allowing
118 Daniel, 103.
90 the clarinet to perform all sorts of musical calisthenics. The tonality is centered around
C major, thus reinforcing the neoclassic traits of this section (Example 10).
Example 10: Poulenc, Sonata Mvt. III, mm. 1-7
Transitional material (mm. 13-17) containing cyclic material from the first movement
(mm. 40-44) occurs before the announcement of the second theme (Examples 11a and b).
91 Example 11a: Poulenc, Sonata Mvt. III, mm. 13-17
Example 11b: Poulenc, Sonata Mvt. I, mm. 40-44
92 The second theme (mm. 18-43) continues the lively character in a new key area of E-flat minor. Although Poulenc employed meter changes, the fluidity of the melody is not interrupted and the phrases remain symmetrical. Repeated neighbor-tones are the basis of this melody, similar to the opening cadenza of the second movement (Examples
12a and b).
Example 12a: Poulenc, Sonata Mvt. III, mm. 18-25
93 Example 12b: Poulenc Sonata Mvt. II, mm. 1-4
The contrasting middle section (mm. 44-79) is stylistically neoclassic. The harmony is tonal employing smooth modulations into new key areas. Homophony prevails as the lyrical melodic line is interchanged between the two instruments. The melody is first introduced by the clarinet (m. 44). The rhythmic motion is slower due to augmented note values in the clarinet part. The piano answers the clarinet with the same melody (m. 52), but the phrase is one measure shorter than the prior melodic statement by the clarinet. A third reiteration (m. 59) returns in the clarinet part, but this time it is slightly extended, consisting of eleven measures. Although the melody is the same in each statement, Poulenc slightly altered the phrase by changing the number of measures each time. An active accompaniment figure consisting of moving eighth notes supports the melodic statements but does not over shadow the lyrical line (Example 13). New transitional material follows, bridging this section to the recapitulation.
94 95 Utilizing tonal harmony, an augmented-sixth chord (m. 79) is used to segue back to the percussive “hammer” chords of the first theme (Example 14).
Example 14: Poulenc, Sonata Mvt. III, mm. 79-86
The recapitulation (mm. 80-115) is a collage of material, interspersing both opening themes with middle section material as well as motives from the other two movements. A codetta, presenting new material characteristic of the first and second themes of the movement, (mm. 116-28) concludes the piece. The music ends with a
“bang” by utilizing the percussive hammer rhythm in the piano part and incorporating it with dissonant seconds against the tonic C, accentuating Poulenc’s satirical intent
(Example 15).
96 Example 15: Poulenc, Sonata Mvt. III, mm. 125-28
Summary
Although composed many decades after the days of Satie and Les Six,
Poulenc’s Sonata for Clarinet and Piano remains faithful to the aesthetic of French neoclassicism. Poulenc was a strong advocate of neoclassicism and stayed true to it through the use of the following compositional techniques: 1) homophony with melody supported by “Alberti-bass” accompaniment, 2) triadic-based, diatonic melodies,
3) traditional harmonic motion without much chromaticism; use of triads, secondary dominants, augmented-sixth chords, 4) simple rhythmic patterns incorporating steady, motor and dotted-rhythmic figures, 5) formal ternary structures; sonata form based on the eighteenth-century sonata style, 6) question-answer dialogue between instruments,
7) use of primary and secondary thematic material, 8) balanced phrase structure,
9) unifying factors such as ostinati, return of motivic and thematic material and cyclic elements, 10) light-hearted, humorous, tongue-in-cheek elements based on the popular music of the day.
97 This is not to say that Poulenc was not a product of his time. His use of frequent and rapid modulations was often devoid of traditional procedure, and his use of meter changes often created unbalanced, asymmetrical phrase structures. However, Poulenc was able to successfully integrate compositional techniques from the past with twentieth-century practices, never completely abandoning the French neoclassic style.
98 Chapter IV
Conclusions
In the early twentieth century, the term neoclassicism had been defined and redefined. Despite how often the term has been used to describe a musical movement or a composer’s style, a definitive conclusion is still difficult to summarize. After World
War I, the neoclassic movement appeared to be a necessity for the arts. As the world was recovering from devastation, the over-indulgence of the previous era seemed no longer appealing. After decades of heavy, emotional drama, artists saw an opportunity to offer something refreshingly different.
Erik Satie, with the assistance of Jean Cocteau, launched this “new simplicity” into motion. Satie’s controversial personality and original musical style gained a lot of attention and admirers. The group of young French composers, known as Les Six, were among his greatest enthusiasts. Although they did not completely follow his musical aesthetic, they did support the principle behind it. As the members of Les Six matured and developed their own musical voices, some at times adhered to the neoclassic aesthetic, while others moved onto other modes of musical expression. The question that was addressed in this study “Were they truly neoclassic?” concluded that Arthur
Honegger, Germaine Tailleferre, Darius Milhaud, and Francis Poulenc were at some point, if not throughout their entire careers neoclassic composers.
In assessing the composers’ compositional histories and oeuvres, one would discover the diverse paths that each composer sought. Each member had mentors, influences, and supporters. Some acquired great fame, while others were never truly
99 recognized for their talents. The individual choices and proclivities of Arthur Honegger,
Germaine Tailleferre, Darius Milhaud, and Francis Poulenc directed them towards their musical destinies.
Arthur Honegger was true to his Swiss heritage. Although he was immersed in the French culture, it was his destiny to move out of the Les Six template. His years with the group served him well, but he never completely adhered to the aesthetic of Les
Six. Honegger’s mentors and influences varied from his colleagues, and he was never comfortable denigrating those whom he admired. However, he did make attempts to assimilate to Satie and the spirit of the group. Through the music that was discussed in this study, Rhapsody for two flutes, clarinet and piano, Musique d’ameublement for flute, clarinet, trumpet, string quartet, and piano, and Sonatina for Clarinet and Piano,
Honegger utilized the neoclassic aesthetic. Although Rhapsody (1917) exhibits many
Debussyian and impressionistic influences not advocated by the group, neoclassic traits are evident through its small chamber instrumentation, skillful use of woodwind instruments, balance, concision, and simplicity. Musique d’ameublement (1919) was composed in the style of Satie’s “furniture music.” The three tiny miniatures that make up this piece are really a precursor to minimal music rather than neoclassic. Honegger was never a faithful disciple of Satie or his minimalistic style, but Honegger did attribute this piece to him. Sonatina for Clarinet and Piano (1921-22) was perhaps the closest Honegger ever came to the spirit of French neoclassicism and Les Six. As concluded in this study, this piece contains the elements one would deem neoclassic.
100 The last movement in particular demonstrates the light-hearted, playful features characteristic of the jazz and music-halls of the day. Honegger was able to incorporate neoclassic characteristics such as brevity, concision, simplicity, and logic into his own complex style. Eventually, Honegger followed his true passion and composed for greater musical forces. He is noted in music history for his large, expansive works; however, the compositions from his earlier years should not go unrecognized. Although
Honegger did not continue to compose in the neoclassic style, he was a contributor to the movement during its inception.
Germaine Tailleferre was a gifted artist who never truly reached the acclaim she deserved. Being female during an era that did not support female independence, she made choices that would forever affect her career. Tailleferre was extremely modest and insecure about her abilities. She did not have the initiative that her male colleagues had or the same amount of support necessary to encourage her talents. Tailleferre was criticized for being too “feminine” in her compositional style, which created a negative connotation toward her work. She experienced many hardships and financial difficulties that kept her from composing for a great many years. Two bad marriages and poor personal decisions created a difficult life for her. Composition was an expressive outlet for Tailleferre. Her compositions exhibit a direct, honest appreciation for subtlety, grace, and “classic” beauty. Despite popular criticism, Tailleferre did musically what she wanted and had no problem emulating the composers she admired, such as Ravel and the great masters of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Tailleferre was a true
“classicist” even when she experimented with the radical compositional techniques of
101 her day. The music that was selected for discussion in this study, Image pour Huit
Instruments for flute, clarinet, celeste, piano, and string quartet, Sonata for Clarinet Solo and Arabesque for clarinet and piano demonstrates Tailleferre’s classic style over a fifty-year span of time. Image (1918) is Tailleferre’s homage to one of her greatest mentors, Ravel. Although impressionistic in nature, it still reflects her classical affinities towards balance, control, elegance, and simplicity. Tailleferre experimented with serialism in Sonata for Clarinet Solo (1957). Even here, she retained her conservative classic style. Despite her use of serial techniques, the piece exhibits concision, control, and lyrical sensibility. Arabesque (1973) for clarinet and piano is vintage Tailleferre. A simple, gentle melody is the basis for this short character piece. As in her earlier works, the music remains simple, concise, and controlled, allowing the beauty of the melodic line to prevail. Although Tailleferre did not make a great impact on the twentieth- century musical world, her music is not inconsequential. Tailleferre represents the
“classic” in the French neoclassic style.
Darius Milhaud’s environment had a great influence on his musical creativity. Travels to many countries and exposure to various cultures inspired and influenced his compositional style. Milhaud was certainly the most prolific member of
Les Six, making him a difficult composer to categorize. He was an advocate and follower of Satie, but he was stylistically independent from him. Milhaud rallied against romanticism and impressionism, and supported the “new simplicity”; however, his style was much more radical than his Les Six colleagues. In this study, the four compositions discussed are quite varied and some demonstrate neoclassic traits more than others.
102 Similar to Honegger’s Musique d’ameublement, Cocktail aux clarinettes op. 69 (1921) for three clarinets and voice was Milhaud’s homage to Satie’s minimalist style. In this chamber piece Milhaud used jazz elements and began to incorporate polytonality, his soon to be compositional trademark. Sonatina for Clarinet and Piano op. 100 (1927) does utilize some neoclassic elements; however, Milhaud’s heavy use of bi- polytonality, polyrhythms, and dense textures, make it cacophonous and complex- sounding at times. When listening to this piece one may find it difficult to assess it as neoclassic. Suite op. 157b (1936) for clarinet, violin and piano exhibits more obvious neoclassic tendencies than Sonatina. Suite is much lighter in character. Milhaud incorporated a mixture of compositional interests but utilized a more tonal, vertical structure, devoid of harsh dissonances. Concerto for Clarinet and Orchestra op. 230
(1941) also displays greater neoclassic traits than Sonatina. Seeing as Benny Goodman commissioned this work, Milhaud incorporated American jazz elements with neoclassic devices. Duo Concertante (1956) for clarinet and piano captures the spirit of French neoclassicism more than any of his other works mentioned in this study. The character of this piece is light and playful exhibiting concision and control. In comparing the lineage of these compositions, it appears that Milhaud’s compositional style was becoming more neoclassic later in his life.
Francis Poulenc was the true Parisian of Les Six who stayed dedicated to the
French neoclassic style throughout his career. Although Tailleferre was also a true
“classicist,” Poulenc’s playful, tongue-in-cheek style was more representative of the popular French institutions of the day, an important aspect of French neoclassicism.
103 Also Poulenc’s compositional output was greater and more consistent, exhibiting his neoclassic style over a longer period of time. Despite his lack of formal training,
Poulenc was gifted with a great melodic sensibility. One could argue that he was destined to be neoclassic. He had the ability to create two moods in his music, jovial and lively, yet reflective and melancholy. His style matured but essentially stayed the same throughout his career. Poulenc was adamant about keeping his music “French,” as well as abiding to the concept of neoclassic simplicity. This is not to say that he did not incorporate the trends of his day. Many of his influences came from twentieth-century figures. No matter what compositional period Poulenc was going through, his music always remains melodious, tuneful, light-hearted, and full of vitality. The pieces discussed in this study represent three stages of chamber music composition. Sonata for
Two Clarinets (1918) and Sonata for Clarinet and Bassoon (1922) are representative of his earlier years. These are youthful works divulging the influence of Satie and
Stravinsky. However, neoclassic features such as concision, balance, and emotional restraint are evident during this experimental period. The Sextet for piano and wind quintet (1932-39) is a more mature work from his middle period, exhibiting Poulenc’s neoclassic advancements. The addition of the piano to this work enabled Poulenc to incorporate more neoclassic elements, such as homophony and tonal harmony. Sonata for Clarinet and Piano (1962) combines all the different stages of Poulenc’s neoclassic style. His gift for tuneful melodies is prevalent, as well as his penchant for humor and frivolity.
104 Through the direction of Erik Satie, Les Six brought music back to a simple reality, setting the stage for a twentieth-century musical makeover. Despite the fact that the group only existed for a few years, these composers were an important influence on neoclassic music. The French musical culture embraced the desire to make simplicity, clarity, and objectivity an art form. The members of Les Six were chief proponents of this twentieth-century musical movement that would not only redefine French music, but would assist in bringing back the styles and traits of the greatest musical masters of the past.
105 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS
Austin, William W. Music in the 20th Century from Debussy through Stravinsky New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1966.
Bernac, Pierre. Francis Poulenc: The Man and his Songs. Translated by Winifred Radford. London: The Camelot Press Ltd.,1977.
Brody, Elaine. Paris-The Musical Kaleidoscope 1870-1925. New York: George Braziller Inc., 1987.
Buckland, Sidney and Myriam Chimenes eds. Francis Poulenc: Music, Art and Literature. Brookfield, Vermont: Ashgate Publishing Company, 1999.
Cocteau, Jean. Le Coq et l’arlequin. Paris: La Sirène, 1918.
______. A Call to Order. Translated by Rollo H. Myers. New York: Haskell House Publishers Ltd., 1974.
Collaer, Paul. Darius Milhaud. Translated and edited by Jane Hohfeld Galante. London: MacMillan Press, 1988.
______. A History of Modern Music. Translated by Sally Abeles. New York: The World Publishing Company, 1961.
Daniel, Keith W. Francis Poulenc, His Artistic Development and Musical Style. Ann Arbor, Michigan: UMI Research Press, 1982.
Delannoy, Marcel. Arthur Honegger, 2nd ed. Geneva: Slatkine Editions, 1986.
Deri, Otto. Exploring Twentieth-Century Music. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1968.
Goldbeck, Frederick. Twentieth Century Composers Volume IV: France, Italy and Spain. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson Limited, 1974.
Griffiths, Paul. Modern Music: A Concise History from Debussy to Boulez. New York: Thames and Hudson Inc., 1978.
106 Halbreich, Harry. Arthur Honegger. Translated by Roger Nichols and edited by Reinhard G. Pauly. Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press, 1999.
Harding, James. The Ox on the Roof: Scenes from the Musical Life in Paris in the Twenties. London: MacDonald, 1972.
Hartog, Howard. European Music in the Twentieth Century. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press Publishers, 1976.
Hell, Henri. Francis Poulenc. Translated by Edward Lockspeiser. London: John Calder Ltd., 1959.
Hill, Edward Burlingame. Modern French Music. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Riverside Press, 1924.
Honegger, Arthur. I am a Composer. Translated by Wilson O. Clough. London: Faber and Faber, 1966.
______. Incantation aux fossils. Lausanne: Editions d’Ouchy, 1948.
Ivry, Benjamin. Francis Poulenc. London: Phaidon, 1996.
Keck, George Russell. Francis Poulenc: A Bio-Bibliography. New York: Greenwood Press, 1990.
Mawer, Deborah. Darius Milhaud: Modality and Structure in Music of the 1920’s. Brookfield, Vermont: Ashgate Publishing Company, 1997.
Mellers, Wilfred Howard. Francis Poulenc. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
Messing, Scott. Neoclassicism in Music: From the Genesis of the Concept through the Schoenberg/Stravinsky Polemic. London: UMI Research Press, 1988.
Milhaud, Darius. Entretiens avec Claude Rostand. Paris: René Julliard, 1952.
______. Etudes, Paris: Éditions Claude Aveline, 1927
______. Ma vie heureuse (My Happy Life). Translated by Donald Evans and Christopher Palmer. London; New York: Marion Boyars, 1995.
______. Notes without Music, An Autobiography. Translated by Donald Evans and Arthur Ogden. Edited by Rollo Myers and Herbert Weinstock. NewYork:Alfred A. Knopf, 1953.
107 Myers, Rollo Hugh. Erik Satie. London: Dennis Dobson Limited, 1948.
______. Modern French Music. New York: Prager Publishers, 1971.
New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, s.v. “Honegger, Arthur” by Geoffrey K. Spratt.
New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, s.v. “Milhaud, Darius” by Jeremy Drake.
New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, s.v. “Poulenc, Francis” by Myriam Chimenes and Roger Nichols.
New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, s.v. “Les Six” by Paul Griffiths.
New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, s.v. “Tailleferre, Germaine” by Robert Orledge.
Nichols, Roger. Conversations with Madeline Milhaud. London: Faber and Faber, 1996.
Orledge, Robert. Satie the Composer. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
Pendle, Karin. Woman and Music: A History 2nd ed. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000.
Perloff, Nancy Lynn. Art and the Everyday: Popular Entertainment and the Circle of Erik Satie. New York: Oxford University Clarendon, 1991.
Poulenc, Francis. Correspondance, 1915-1963. Réunis par Hélène de Wendel. Paris: Éditions de Seuil, 1967.
______. Entretiens avec Claude Rostand. Paris: René Julliard, 1953.
______. Mois et mes amis (My Friends and Myself). Translated by James Harding. London: Dobson Books Ltd., 1978.
Randel, Don Michael. Harvard Concise Dictionary of Music Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1978.
Sadie, Julie Anne and Rhian Samuel eds. Norton Grove Dictionary of Woman Composers. New York; London: W.W. Norton, 1995.
108 Sadie, Stanley. The New Grove Twentieth Century French Masters. New York: Norton, 1986.
Salzman, Eric. Twentieth-Century Music: An Introduction, 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc., 1967.
Schmidt, Carl B. The Music of Francis Poulenc 1899-1963. Oxford: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.
Shapiro, Robert. Germaine Tailleferre A Bio-Bibliography. Westport, Conneticut: Greenwood Press, 1994.
Shead, Richard. Music in the 1920’s. London: Gerald Duckworth, 1976.
Slominsky, Nicolas. Music Since 1900, 5th ed. New York: Schirmer Books, 1994.
Spratt, Geoffrey. The Music of Arthur Honegger. Cork, Republic of Ireland: Cork University Press, 1987.
Straus, Joseph N. Remaking the Past-Music Modernism and the Influence of the Tonal Tradition. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1990.
Stuckenschmidt, Hans Heinz. Twentieth Century Composers II: Germany and Central Europe. New York: Holt, Rinehart, Winston, 1971.
Watkins, Glenn. Soundings-Music in the Twentieth Century. New York: Schirmer Books, 1995.
Whitthall, Arnold. Music Since the First World War. New York: St. Martins’s Press Inc., 1977
Yates, Peter. Twentieth Century Music. New York: Pantheon Books a division of Random House Inc., 1967.
DISSERTATIONS AND THESES
Barrett, Lina M. “Introduction to Life and Works of Germaine Tailleferre.” M.A. thesis, University of Kentucky, 1953.
Bobbitt, Richard B. “The Harmonic Idiom in the Works of Les Six.” Ph.D. diss., Boston University, 1963.
109 Gelfand, Janelle Magnuson. “Germaine Tailleferre (1892-1983), Piano and Chamber Works.” Ph.D. diss., University of Cincinnati, 1999.
Jennings, Vance Shelby. “Selected Twentieth Century Clarinet Solo Literature: A Study in Interpretation and Performance.” D.M.E. diss., University of Oklahoma, 1972.
Laughton, John Charles. “A Comprehensive Performance Project in Clarinet Literature with an Essay on the The Woodwind Music of Darius Milhaud (1892-1974).” D.M.A. thesis, University of Iowa, 1980.
Petrella, Robert Louis. “The Solo and Chamber Music for Clarinet by Darius Milhaud.” D.M.A. thesis., University of Maryland, College Park, 1979.
Poulin, Pamela Lee. “Three Stylistic Traits in Poulenc’s Chamber Works for Wind Instruments.” Ph.D. diss., Eastman School of Music, 1983.
Stirzaker, Thomas Duncan. “A Comparative Study of Selected Clarinet Works by Arthur Honegger, Darius Milhaud and Francis Poulenc.” Ph.D. diss., Texas Tech University, 1988.
Trickey, Samuel Miller. “Les Six.” Ph.D. diss., North Texas State College, 1955. Microfilm Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International, 1980. Microfilm.
Wyber, Jana Lynn. “A Study of Francis Poulenc’s Melodic Style as found in the Sonata for Flute and Piano (1956-57), the Sonata for Clarinet and Piano (1962) and the Sonata for Oboe and Piano (1963).” M.M. thesis, University of Calgary, 1990.
ARTICLES
Haughton, John Alan. “Darius Milhaud: A Missionary of the Six.” Musical America 37 (January 1923): 3-42.
Heim, Norman M. “Sonatinas for Clarinet and Piano.” NACWPI Journal 30, no.2 (Winter 1990): 10-16.
______. “The Clarinet Music of Darius Milhaud.” NACWPI Journal 22, no.2 (Winter 1973-1974): 30-33.
Lubin, Ernest. “The Six Return to the Limelight in Paris.” New York Times 13 January 1952 sec. 2 X7.
110 Max, Stephen R. “Clarinet and Piano: Les Six and Copland.” American Record Guide (November/December 1991): 183.
Milhaud, Darius. “The Evolution of Modern Music in Paris and Vienna.” North American Review 217 (April 1923): 544-550.
Mitgang, Laura. “Germaine Tailleferre: Before, During and After Les Six.” The Musical Woman Vol II (1984-1985). Edited by Judith Lang Zaimont, Catherine Overhauser, Jane Gottlieb.New York: Greenwood Press, 1987. 177-221.
______. “One of ‘Les Six’ Is Still at Work.” New York Times 23 May 1982. sec. 2 p. 25 and 28.
Myers, Rollo Hugh. “A Music Critic in Paris in the Nineteen Twenties: Some Personal Recollections.” Musical Quarterly 63 (October 1977): 524-44.
Rae, Caroline A. “Honegger: A Centenary Reappraisal.” The Musical Times 133, no. 3 (March 1992): 118-121.
Russ, Michael. “Accounting and Mediating: Modes, Genera, Voice Leading and Form in Milhaud.” Musical Analysis 19, no. 2 (July 2000): 233-255.
Thomson, Virgil. “ More and more from Paris.” Modern Music 16 (May/June 1939): 229-237.
Van der Toorn, P.C. “Neoclassicism and its Definition.” Music Theory in Concept and Practice (1997): 131-156.
______. “Neoclassicism Revised.” Music Politics and the Academy (1995): 143-178.
Wiser, John D. “Complete Clarinet Works of Les Six.” Fanfare 15 no. 2 (November/December 1991): 562.
Vuillermoz, Emile.”The Legend of the Six.” Modern Music (February 1924): 15-19.
WORKS
Honegger, Arthur. Sonatine pour clarinette en La and piano. Paris: Éditions Salabert, 1925.
______. Rapsodie pour duex flûtes, clarinette et piano. Paris: Éditions Salabert, 1923.
111 Milhaud, Darius. Sonatine pour clarinette and piano op. 100. Paris: Éditions Musicales Durand and Cie, 1929.
______. Concerto for Clarinet and Orchestra. Reduction for Clarinet and Piano. Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania: Elkan-Vogel Co., Inc. 1942.
______. Duo Concertant pour Clarinette et Piano. Paris: Heugel et Cie. 1956.
Poulenc, Francis. Sonata for Clarinet and Piano. London: Chester Music Limited. 1963.
______. Sextour pour piano, flute, oboe, clarinette, basson, et cor. Copenhagen: Wilhelm Hansen. 1945.
______. Sonata for Clarinet and Bassoon. London: Chester Music Limited, 1924.
______. Sonata for Two Clarinets. London: Chester Music Limited, 1919.
Tailleferre, Germaine. Arabesque pour clarinette et piano. Paris: Éditions Henry Lemoine, 1973.
______. Image pour huit instruments. London: Chester Music Limited, 1921.
______. Sonata for Clarinet Solo. New York: Rongwen Music Inc. 1959.
DISCOGRAPHY
Aaron Copland Sonata for clarinet and piano, “Les Six” The complete works for clarinet and piano. Victoria Soames, clarinet, Julius Drake, piano. Clarinet Classics E64 HH, 1992. Compact disc.
Arthur Honegger- La musique de chambre. Timpani 1C1010, 1992. Compact disc.
French Clarinet Art. Paul Meyer, clarinet, Eric Le Sage, piano. Denon Records CO-79282, 1992. Compact disc.
Kammermusik fur Violine, Clarinette und Klavier. Trio Bellerive. Koch International GmbH, 1992. Compact disc.
Ken Peplowski, the other portrait. Ken Peplowski, clarinet. Concord Concerto CCD 42043, 1996. Compact disc.
112 The Music of Germaine Tailleferre. Nicole A. Paiement, conductor. Helicon Music Ltd. 1008, 1996. Compact disc.
Music of Les Six for Clarinet and Piano. Eric Wachman, clarinet, Ted Reuter, piano. Centaur CRC 2587, 2002. Compact disc.
Poulenc Complete Chamber Music, Volume 3. Naxos 8.553613, 2000. Compact disc.
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