WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION JR UJLLE1rTIN

Volume 46 No. 1 January 1997 THE WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION (WMO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations

The purposes of' WMO are: EXECUTIVE COUNCIL President J. W. ZILLMAN (Australia) To facilitate worldwide cooperation in the estab­ First Vice-President C. E. BERRIDGE (British lishment of networks of stations for the making of Caribbean Territories) meteorological observations as well as hydro­ Second Vice-President N. SEN Roy (India) logical and other geophysical observations related Third Vice-President (post vacant) to meteorology, and to promote the establishment and maintenance of centres charged with the prov­ Ex officio members of' the Executive Council ision of meteorological and related services; (presidents of regional associations) To promote the establishment and maintenance of Africa (Region I) systems for the rapid exchange of meteorological K. KONARE (Mali) and related information; Asia (Region II) Z. BATJARGAL (Mongolia) To promote standardization of meteorological and South America (Region III) related observations and to ensure the uniform W. CASTRO WREDE (Paraguay) publication of observations and statistics; North and Central America (Region IV) S. PoLLONAIS (Trinidad and Tobago) (acting) To further the application of meteorology to avia­ South-West Pacific (Region V) tion, shipping, water problems, agriculture and S. KARJOTO (Indonesia) other human activities; Europe (Region VI) To promote activities in operational hydrology P. STEINHAUSER (Austria) and to further close cooperation between Meteoro­ Elected members of the Executive Council logical and Hydrological Services; A. A. AL-GAIN (Saudi Arabia) To encourage research and training in meteor­ Z. ALPERSON (Israel) ology and, as appropriate, in related fields, and to A. ATI-IAYDE (Brazil) assist in coordinating the international aspects of A. I. BEDRITSKY (Russian Federation) such research and training. J.-P. BEYSSON (France) A. B. DroP (Senegal) E. W. FRIDAY (USA) The World Meteorological Congress U. Gii.RTNER (Germany) (acting) is the supreme body of the Organization. It brings J. C. R. HUNT (United Kingdom) together delegates of all Members once every four P. LEYVA-FRANCO (Colombia) years to determine general policies for the fulfilment G. McBEAN (Canada) of the purposes of the Organization. M. S. MHITA (United Republic of Tanzania) E. A. MUKOLWE (Kenya) L. NDORIMANA (Burundi) The Executive Council A. M. NooRIAN (Islamic Republic of Iran) is composed of 36 directors of national Meteoro­ I. 0BRUSNIK (Czech Republic) logical or Hydrometeorological Services serving in an T. ONo (Japan) (acting) individual capacity; it meets at least once a year to G. E. 0RTEGA GrL (Mexico) supervise the programmes approved by Congress. G. K. RAMOTHWA (Botswana) Y. SALAHU (Nigeria) (acting) G. C. SCHULZE (South Africa) The six regional associations R. A. SONZINI (Argentina) are each composed of Members whose task it is to J. ZIELINSKI (Poland) coordinate meteorological and related activities H. ZOHDY (Egypt) (acting) within their respective Regions. Zou JINGMENG (China)

The eight technical commissions PRESIDENTS OF TECHNICAL COMMISSIONS are composed of experts designated by Members and Aeronautical Meteorology: C. H. SPRINKLE are responsible for studying meteorological and Agricultural Meteorology: C. J. STIGTER hydrological operational systems, applications and Atmosphedc Sciences: D. J. GAUNTLEIT research. Basic Systems: S. MILDNER Climatology: W.J. MAUNDER Hydrology: K. HOFIUS THE SECRETARIAT OF THE ORGANIZATION IS LOCATED AT Instruments and Methods of Observation: J. KRuus 41 AVENUE GIUSEPPE-MOTTA, GENEVA, SWITZERLAND. Maline Meteorology: R. J. SHEARMAN WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION SECRETARY-GENERAL Vol. 46 No. 1 G. 0. P. OBASI January 1997 DEPUTY SECRETARY-GENERAL M. JARRAUD ASSISTANT SECRETARY-GENERAL A. S. ZAITSEV

The official journal of the World Meteorological Organization IB3llJJLJLIE ilJIW

2 In this issue 3 Message from the Secretary-General of WMO Subscription rates: 6 The Bulletin interviews: Richard (Dick) Hallgren Surface mail 15 Climate services for a changing world, by R. E. Basher 1 year: SFR 52 21 Climate Information and Prediction Services-CLIPS, by 2 years: SFR 94 A. Saules1eja and L. E. Olsson 3 years: SFR 124 Climate applications and services Airmail 24 Introduction 1 year: SFR 72 25 Climate services for sustainable development, by L. E. Olsson 2 years: SFR 130 3 years: SFR 172 27 Climate services to the public, by K. O'Lougblin 30 Climate services to the health sector, by G. Jendritzky and Published quarterly (January, April, July, L. Kalkstein October) in English, French, Russian 32 Climate services and food production, by W. Baier and Spanish editions. 37 Climate services and water resources management, by Z. W. Kundzewicz Remittances and all other correspon­ 41 Climate services and urban development, by Y. Boodhoo dence about the WMO Bulletin should be addressed to the Secretary-General. 43 Climate services and energy, by Y. Boodboo 46 Climate services for tourism and recreation, by L. L€Cha and OPINIONS EXPRESSED IN SIGNED ARTICLES OR P. Shackleford IN ADVERTISEMENTS APPEARING IN THE WMO 47 Modernization of the National Meteorological Service of Bulletin ARE THE AUTHOR'S OR ADVERTISER'S Mexico, by G.E. Ottega Gil OPINIONS AND DO NOT NECESSARILY REFLECT 53 Low-cost media weather presentation systems, by P. Budgen, THOSE OF WMO. The mention of specific B.W. Bettany, D.J. Griggs and C. Sear companies or products in articles or 57 Erratum advertisements does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by From other joumals WMO in preference to others of a simi­ 58 Rain shadows offer opportunity, by R. S. Schemenauer lar nature which are not mentioned or Anniversary advertised. Extracts from unsigned (or 59 The National Institute of Meteorology of Portugal celebrates initialled) articles in the journal may be its 50th anniversary, by A. Da Costa Malheiro reproduced provided the customary acknowledgement is made. Requests WMO programme news to publish signed articles (in part or in 60 Instruments and methods of observations whole) should be addressed to the Edi­ 61 Tropical Cyclone Programme tor. 63 World Climate Applications and Services Programme 63 World Climate Data and Monitoting Programme World Meteorological Organization 65 Atmospheric Research and Environment Programme Case postale 2300 66 Global Atmosphere Watch CH-1211 Geneva 2 69 Agticultural meteorology Switzerland 70 Aeronautical meteorology 72 Hydrology and water resources Tel.: (+41.22) 730.84.78 75 Education and training Fax: (+41.22) 733.09.82 78 Technical cooperation E-mail: [email protected] 82 In the Regions 84 News and notes 90 News from the Secretariat 94 Obituary 95 Reviews Editor: A. S. ZAITSEV 101 Calendar of coming events 102 Members of the World Meteorological Organization Associate Editor: Judith C. C. ToRRES In t!Mis issure

The customary annual message from the Secre­ urban development and energy (both by Yadowsun tary-General which opens this January issue is on a Boodhoo) and, last but not least in our contempo­ subject which concerns all of us on a rapidly rary world, tourism and recreation (Luis Lecha and increasing basis: "Weather and water in cities" is Peter Shackleford). the theme for World Meteorological Day 1997. The next article "Modernization of the National · The message is followed by an interview with Meteorological Service of Mexico" by the Service's Dr Richard (better known as Dick) Hallgren, who Manager, Mr G. E. Ortega Gil, also underlines the remains a major personality on the meteorological importance of NMHSs being in a position to pro­ scene after more than 30 years. A former Director vide an increasingly demanding public in all sec­ of the US National Weather Service, he is currently tors with reliable and timely information. President of the prestigious American Meteorologi­ Public awareness of a national Meteorological cal Society. Service and the effectiveness of the information An article by Reid Basher entitled "Climate imparted increase proportionally as the standard services for a changing world" leads our feature of televised public weather presentations improves. articles on the theme for this issue "Climate appli­ For financial reasons, however, high-quality presen­ cations and services". Planet Earth has undergone tations have hitherto remained the prerogative of fundamental changes and faces enormous chal­ the developed world. Messrs Peter Budgen, Bryn lenges basic to the survival of its inhabitants. The Bettany, David Griggs and Chris Sear describe author considers that this is an exciting opportu­ how this situation may be redressed in developing nity for meteorologists to create and deliver spe­ countries through the use of the good but low-cost cific; effective and reliable climate services to weather presentation systems now available, users so that they may respond to these challenges. together with a willing partnership between devel­ ·· The Climate Information and Prediction Ser­ oped and developing countries to install such sys­ vices (CLIPS) project was conceived precisely in tems and to train technical and media personnel in ·recognition of the fact that increasingly accurate their operation. global climate information and predictions would A new section starting in this issue is "From improve economic and social decision-making in other journals", in which interesting and relevant support of sustainable development. Andrej articles are reproduced from the magazines of Saulesleja and Lars Olsson describe this major other organizations and agencies. The first one, WMO initiative and emphasize the vital role that from the former FAO magazine, Ceres, describes national Meteorological and Hydrological Services how basic climatological knowledge can be easily (NMHSs) have to play in the provision of climato­ applied to obtain badly needed rainwater. logical information within this framework. The National Institute of Meteorology of Por­ A series of articles follows, in each one of tugal completed 50 years of existence in October which a specialist addresses an important area of 1996. A report of the celebratory programme is · specific climate applications and services, i.e. cli­ given by the President of the Institute, Mr A. de mate services for the public (Kevin O'Loughlin), the Costa Malheiro. health sector (Gerd Jendritzky and Larry Kalk­ Many complementary items and announce­ stein), food production (Wolfgang Baier), water ments will be found in "In the Regions" and "News resources management (Zbigniew Kundzewicz), and notes".

Cover: Sunset over Lake Taupo, New Zealand

Photo: Karen Dutton

2 WORLD METEOROLOGICAL DAY 1997 WEATHER AND WATER IN CITIES MESSAGE FROM PROF. GOD WIN 0. P. OBASI, SECRETARY-GENERAL OF WMO

ing on the environment and on the dwindling finite resources of our planet. The process of urbanization is illustrated by the fact that the total world population in 1950 was some 2.5 billion people, of whom about one-third lived in cities. By the year 2000, almost half the world's projected population of 6.2 billion will be living in towns and cities. The ratio is expected to increase to two-thirds by the year 2025. Along­ side this increase is the emergence of mega­ cities; these will be greatest in developing coun­ tries, where some 80 per cent of the world's urban residents will live. The implications of environmental changes for cities were addressed during Habitat 11, whose Habitat Agenda reflects the priority issues to be addressed, such as natural disasters, availability of freshwater, envi­ ronmental pollution and climate change. One of the most serious threats to cities is the occurrence of natural disasters. In addition to natural catastrophes such as earthquakes, weather-related phenomena such as tropical cyclones, floods, droughts, landslides and locust infestations, result in loss of life and property Prof. G.O.P. Obasi, Secretary-General of WMO and cause severe economic disruption. Statis­ Photo: WMO/Bianco tics show that extreme meteorological and hydrological events account for about 70 per World Meteorological Day commemorates the cent of all natural disasters. City dwellers are coming into force on 23 March 1950 of the increasingly vulnerable to these extreme events, Convention of the World Meteorological Organi­ in view of the high population density and settle­ zation (WMO). Each year, WMO celebrates the ment in flood-prone marginal lands. When natu­ Day by focusing on a theme of topical or cur­ ral disasters strike a country, they can set the rent interest to humankind. In view of the press­ development of urban centres back several ing urbanization problems facing our world years. In the recent past, floods and tropical today and as a follow-up to the Second United cyclones have caused enormous devastation Nations Conference on Human Settlements and have inflicted considerable human suffer­ (Habitat 11), which was held in Istanbul, Turkey, ing. For instance, in the USA, in 1993, the Mis­ in June 1996, the theme chosen for World sissippi floods caused damage estimated at Meteorological Day 19~7 was "Weather and more than US$ 10 billion dollars and had serious water in cities". repercussions on city dwellers along the river The theme is indeed appropriate and basin. The floods in Egypt in 1994 resulted in timely, given the enormous pressure which the damage estimated at several hundreds of mil­ rapid rate of urban population growth is exert- lions of US dollars. In the Philippines, in 1995,

3 tropical cyclone Angela took 915 lives and port of water from distant locations at high cost. caused some US $452 million dollars of dam­ Urban development is driven by socio-economic age as it crossed populated areas, including and strategic forces which often have little to the capital, Manila. it is worth noting that the do with the resources required. History has construction of buildings and paved surfaces shown, however, that the provision of water has a dramatic effect on the patterns of flood­ resources can determine whether or not a city ing following heavy rains. Most of the water will flourish. remains on the surface to run off as minor and This is why cities which lack fresh water sometimes major floods. Even small streams because of frequent droughts need to develop can turn into raging torrents when they escape appropriate water monitoring and drought-relief through old, inadequate drainage channels. What capabilities. The impact of recent droughts on were once small, innocuous streams have been large urban areas in various parts of the world the origin of some of the most destructive is further evidence that droughts are not just a floods of modern times in urban areas. rural problem. With continuous improvements in In order to mitigate the impacts of natural climate research and prediction, it is now possi­ disasters, the International Decade for Natural ble to provide some warning in advance of the Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) was launched by the onset of such extreme weather events. United Nations in 1990. In the context of the In cases where the available water supply Decade, WMO plays a key role by implementing is limited, competing demands sometimes lead its Plan of Action which places high priority on to confrontations between individuals and among the enhancement of the capabilities of the national authorities within a country and between States. Meteorological and Hydrological Services (NMHSs) In recognition of this fact, it is incumbent on all through Programmes such as the World Weather nations to put in place an appropriate mecha­ Watch, the Education and Training Programme nism that will ensure the monitoring and effec­ and the Technical Cooperation Programme. WMO tive management of water resources. The Rhine supports the strengthening of disaster prepared­ River Basin, which could be regarded as a kind ness schemes through improved monitoring and of megacity, is an example of how water warning systems, risk assessment, technology resources could be well managed for the bene­ transfer, public information and training activities. fit of millions of people. The effects of urbanization also have serious Another factor which determines the sus­ environmental impacts, including the availability tainability of cities and poses an increasingly of freshwater resources. The global demand for serious dilemma to urban planners, is the dis­ water has increased dramatically over the past posal of solid and liquid waste. In cases where century. Between 1900 and 1995, water with­ cities dispose of their waste in rivers and lakes, drawal from existing sources has increased some of it seeps into groundwater aquifers, more than six-fold. This increase is more than resulting in disastrous pollution and health con­ double the rate of population growth during the sequences for downstream communities. same period. The demand is a result of increas­ Through its Hydrology and Water ing irrigation, urban agriculture, industrial growth Resources Programme, WMO promotes the and rising water consumption per capita for enhancement of the scientific and technological domestic and sanitation purposes. capabilities of NMHSs to monitor, assess and In this regard, it should be noted that a sig­ manage water resources. In this regard, a nificant proportion of urban dwellers, particu­ major initiative, jointly embarked upon by WMO larly in developing countries, have limited or no and the World Bank, is the World Hydrological access to a safe, potable water supply. Estimates Cycle Observing System (WHYCOS). The sys­ put this figure at 16 per cent worldwide, 21 per tem is being developed in several subregional cent in South-East Asia, 22 per cent in the east­ components in order to improve our knowledge ern Mediterranean and up to 48 per cent in of the world's water resources. In response to a Africa. Another problem is that, as cities expand, call by the UN Commission on Sustainable so do their water requirements, and it becomes Development, a comprehensive assessment of more and more difficult and expensive to meet global water resources aims to identify the this demand, to the point that water rationing is availability of the resource, make projections of being introduced in many cities. Furthermore, future needs, and propose appropriate solu­ pressures of population growth require the trans- tions. WMO plays a key role in this endeavour

4 and is one of the lead agencies in this exercise, terious effects on forests. In turn, these effects which will be considered by a special session of will have an impact on water and food supply, the UN General Assembly in 199 7. and fuelwood needed by the urban population. In many ways, the well-being of city dwellers A major issue relating to atmospheric pol­ is also affected by the changing local climate lution is the intensive use of energy in urban generated by urban infrastructures. These infra­ areas. This contributes significantly to the emis­ structures should be appropriately designed and sions of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. energy-efficient in order to improve the urban The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change climate. This includes the opening of urban cor­ warns that, if no measures are taken to reduce ridors and the utilization of nocturnal downslope such emissions, an increase in global mean winds. Adapting buildings to the urban climate, temperature of about 1o -3.5oc and a sea-level using climatological information available from rise of 15-95 cm are expected before the end the national Meteorological Services, helps to of the next century. For coastal cities and low­ provide the comfort needed by urban dwellers. lying areas, such a rise will have serious conse­ lt is well known that the weather in a city may quences for human settlements, agriculture, bio­ be quite different from that in the surrounding diversity, coastal erosion and saltwater intrusion. countryside. This mainly man-made "local climate" WMO, as the authoritative scientific voice might manifest itself in "urban heat islands", involv­ in matters relating to the atmosphere, climate ing changes in wind, temperature, humidity, pre­ and water, is playing a leading role in interna­ cipitation and radiation balance, together with tional efforts to monitor and protect the environ­ various atmospheric pollutants, such as high lev­ ment through its scientific Programmes such as els of tropospheric ozone, chemical gases in the the World Climate Programme, the Atmospheric form of smoke from motorized traffic and efflu­ Research and Environment Programme and the ents from industrial stacks. The resulting Hydrology and Water Resources Programme. impacts include increased heat stress and other Through its collaboration with other UN agen­ health hazards. In the context of its activities cies and the NMHSs of Member countries, relating to the meteorological and climatological WMO continues to support relevant conventions aspects of the urban environment, WMO places such as the UN Framework Convention on Cli­ emphasis on the development and implementa­ mate Change, the ongoing negotiations on the tion of the Tropical Urban Climate Experiment International Convention to Combat Desertifica­ (TRUCE), in cooperation with national and inter­ tion and the Vienna Convention on the Protec­ national organizations. tion of the Ozone Layer and its protocols and One aspect of urbanization which relates amendments. These activities contribute towards more closely to the linkages between cities and ensuring the well-being of nations. neighbouring rural areas is the problem of local The theme "Weather and water in cities" pollution and acidification. Urban areas are major for World Meteorological Day 1997 provides sources of various types of emissions, such as everyone with an excellent opportunity to con­ carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulphur diox­ sider the important contributions that are being ide, nitrogen oxides and aerosols, and their made by WMO, in conjunction with the NMHSs environmental influence reaches far beyond the of Member countries, towards sustainable urban limits of the urban area itself. Various types of development and towards the protection of life acidifying pollutants are transported downwind and property in cities, as well as in rural areas. from conurbations and contribute to both dry and On this auspicious day, I urge policy-makers, wet deposition on sometimes sensitive soils partner organizations and the general public to and waters. Their impact on lakes and on agri­ recognize the valuable services provided by the cultural production in particular, may, in some NMHSs to ensure the survival of the world's cases, be disastrous. There may also be dele- cities and of our planet Earth. o

<£><£><£>

5 THE BULLETIN INTERVIEWS Richard (Dick) Hallgren

Or Taba recounts: I asked the driver of the taxi to stop at 1200 New York Avenue, the Washington DC Office of the American Meteorological Society {AMS}. I went to Suite 410 and entered. Dick Hallgren was on the phone. I was surprised to see him sporting a cravat-something I had rarely seen him wear before. I was flattered, thinking that it was in my honour that he had dressed formally but was soon disillusioned upon seeing his shoes discarded by his desk. As I waited for Dick to finish his call, I debated with myself whether I should a/so take off my shoes; perhaps he would propose that we should sit cross-legged on the floor to conduct the interview. Those who know Dick know that he has some original ideas. Although I nearly always know my interviewee personally, nevertheless I always prepare myself beforehand by collecting as much biographical information as possible, either directly from source, through literature or by mutual acquain­ tances. In this particular case, I was certain that I would have access to all sorts of informa­ tion, since Dick is an eminent personality in meteorology and outstanding in international matters. To my consternation, I could not find much. I called the Boston Office of AMS and left a message for Dick to supply me with what Richard E. Hallgren I needed. After some weeks of silence I called tional Research Department. His next assign­ him again and enquired if he had received my ment was in the Department of Commerce, message. Gracefully, he admitted that he had where he became Science Adviser to the Assis­ received it and had ignored it. So I decided to tant Secretary of Commerce. formulate a series of questions, mostly trivial, which proved to be useless during the interview. it was during this period that Dick came to know Once Dick started talking, however, I could not Dr Robert {Bob} M. White 1, who was Chief of fail to be fascinated by the ability, talent and the US Weather Bureau. The two men devel­ energy of the man I thought I knew. oped enormous respect for each other's talents even though they were of rather different For those who do not know Dick Hallgren well, characters. Bob recognized Dick's enormous there follow some introductory notes. energy and versatility, his detailed knowledge Dick was raised in a small town in the north­ of events and his ability to push through a western part of Pennsylvania. He was an enter­ programme even despite considerable obsta­ prising young man and, while still in middle cles. On the other hand, Dick saw in Bob White school, started a chicken business. He also a father figure, at least in many aspects of became involved in trapping small animals for science and government policy. This was the their fur, an activity which has now fallen foul of period after the launching of the first meteoro­ the Environmental Protection Act and other logical satellite, when the idea of developing a efforts to conserve wildlife. After receiving his much more effective World Weather Watch was Bachelor's degree in meteorology from Penn taking shape with the full cooperation of the US State University, he became a weather fore­ State Department. Bob White decided to bring caster in the Air Force and served some time in North Africa. After two years, he returned to Penn State University and obtained his Ph. D. He 1 R.M. White was the first WMO Bulletin interviewee in received an offer from IBM to join their Opera- January 1981 (WMO Bulletin 30 (1))

6 Dick with him to Geneva to attend a WMO Exec­ I am personally grateful to Dick Hallgren for his utive Council session where many new ideas interest in my interviews and his constant were being formulated to adapt to the new and encouragement. lt was he who proposed to successful meteorological operations and the WMO Congress and the Executive Council that possibilities they offered. One of these was the Bulletin interviews should be published closer integration with the Intergovernmental together in one volume. The first volume was Oceanographic Commission and the develop­ issued in 1988 and, at the time of writing ment of what was to become the Integrated (October 1996), the second volume is in prepa­ Global Ocean Services System (IGOSS). Dick ration. What greater personal pleasure for me played a key role in the development of that than seeing the interviews with the two men programme and in the plans and implementation I admire so much start the first volume and end of the World Weather Watch (WW\111} and the Glo­ the second one. bal Atmospheric Research Programme (GARP). Or Hallgren received the Arthur S. Fleming At the beginning, because of the way his mind Award as one of the 10 outstanding men in worked, Dick was not always persuasive in his Federal Government for his leadership nation­ proposals at the orderly pace of the WMO meet­ ally and internationally. He was awarded the ings. When he spoke, he would immediately leap Department of Commerce Gold Medal for the forward towards the conclusion and often did direction of the Barbados Oceanographic and not take the time to fill in all the intermediate Meteorological Experiment. In 19 77, he steps. His style was better adapted to informal received a special award from the Administra­ individual conversations with the other dele­ tor of NOM for outstanding management of gates, at which he was a master. He never lost NOM's Ocean and Atmospheric Service Pro­ an opportunity outside meetings to buttonhole gramme. In 1980 and 1986, he received the a delegate and would argue a point insistently Presidential Rank Awards of Meritorious and and he loved arguing with John Zillman2 and Distinguished Executive, respectively. In 1986, Yuri lzraeJ3. People soon learned that Dick was also, he received the Charles Frank/in Brooks an able person with a thorough grasp of a prob­ Award from the American Meteorological Soci­ lem in all its detail. ety and, in 1990, he received the International Meteorological Organization Prize. In this interview, readers will/earn about the various positions Dick held in NOM. He became This interview took place in Washington DC in an Associate Administrator and finally Perma­ September 1996. nent Representative of the USA with WMO. In this capacity he realized the importance of US contributions to the work of WMO. He was ready H. T. - Let us start this interview by your and willing to follow Or White's footsteps of sup­ porting new programmes either by additional telling us where you were born and some­ funds or through the secondment of experts. thing about your parents. One of his particular views was that the WMO Long-term Plan should not be too detailed. He R.E.H. -I was born in March 1932 in north­ was a great admirer of John Zillman but was western Pennsylvania in a small coal-mining not always on his side. They were well-matched opponents and at times equally obstinate in town. I am half-Swedish and half-ltalian. Both defending their own points of view. sets of grandparents came to this country around 1890 and both my grandfathers started After some 10 years, Dick felt he had done most of the things he wanted to do in the Weather work in the coal mines. it was a place of dedi­ Service and the AMS offered a new career. lt cated, hardworking people and life was simple. was a sad moment for many of us when Dick My parents married when they were in their left the Executive Council. mid-thirties-late in those days. Neither of As the new Executive Director of AMS, Dick them had more than a high school education introduced some changes, such as establishing but they were absolutely determined that educauonal programmes for pre-college students and undergraduate and graduate scholarships. I would have the chance to go to college and have the opportunities they hadn't had. I was delighted to discover that Or White had an office in the AMS Washington headquarters. The two men can therefore continue to exchange H. T. - Tell us a little about your schooling. views and interact in an immediate fashion as they have done in the past. R.E.H.- My high school had only 130 students in the ninth, tenth, eleventh and twelfth grades. We had one teacher for each major subject and 2 Elected President of WMO at Twelfth World Meteoro­ the Principal taught all the mathematics courses. logical Congress (1995) They were good teachers and we had the 3 Y. A. lzrael, interviewed WMO Bulletin 45 (1) opportunity to learn if we applied ourselves.

7 H. T. - How did you become interested in R.E.H. -When I was finishing my Ph. D., some meteorology? people tried to persuade me to apply for an R.E.H. -As far as I can remember, it was assistant professorship position but I wanted to thanks to my Uncle Frank Caimi, on the Italian work for a large corporation. There was a dif­ side, who was a high-school teacher in another ferent attitude in those days (over 35 years ago) part of Pennsylvania. He and I used to go hik­ about leaving academia and working for indus­ ing on Sunday afternoons and he loved talking try. Now it's commonplace and the largest source about the weather and clouds. I think it was of future employment in this country is possibly those Sunday afternoon hikes that created my through the private sector in a wide variety of interest in meteorology from an early age. activities. IBM made me the offer of joining their Operations Research Department and I accepted. I quickly found that the operational H. T. - What did you study at university? research people there didn't understand the What degree did you obtain? mathematics of operations research. I moved R.E.H. -In 1949, I went to Penn State Univer­ over and became Head of a Systems Engineer­ sity, which had a small but good meteorology ing Department, which focused on scientific programme. At that time it was unusual to study satellite systems. We had contracts to study a meteorology as a freshman. I finished my Bach­ satellite sferics sensor and ways to modernize elor's degree there in 1953. Charley Hosier, the field services of the Weather Bureau in the Hans Neuberger, Hans Panofsky and AI Black­ light of the technology and needs of the day. adan, all distinguished names in the field, rep­ resented literally the entire faculty. H. T. - Then you went to the Department of Commerce; what was the nature of H. T. -What did you do after obtaining your work there? your degree? R.E.H. -After graduating, I was commissioned R.E.H. - I went as Science Adviser to the as a Second Lieutenant in the Air Force. I became Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Science a weather forecaster for two years (1954 to and Technology, J. Herbert Holloman. lt was 1955) and spent some time in North Africa. lt the era of new satellite capabilities, advances was my first forecasting experience on a day­ in computers and numerical weather predic­ by-day basis and was excellent experience. tion. Jule Charney and Tom Malone were push­ ing for an international programme to make longer-range forecasts. President J. F. Kennedy H. T. - Afterwards you went to graduate gave his famous speech before the UN in 1963 school. What did you do? which stimulated a great deal of planning inter­ R.E.H. -After my two years in the Air Force, nationally. Nationally, the lnteragency Commit­ I went back to Penn State University to do grad­ tee for International Meteorological Programmes uate work. I started work on cloud physics under was formed. Holloman was the Chair and mem­ Charley Hosier. There weren't many graduate bers included Hugh Dryden, Deputy Administra­ courses in meteorology, so there was a possi­ tor of NASA; Lelan Hayworth, Director of the bility to study other subjects. I took many National Science Foundation; Harold Brown courses in physics and some in aeronautical who was in a senior position at the Department and electrical engineering. I always had a great of Defense, and later became Secretary of interest in the technological aspects of the Defense; Harlan Cleveland, who was Assistant world-there is a little of the engineer in me. Secretary of State for International Organizations That helped me tremendously and I would and later Ambassador to NATO; and Bob White, strongly recommend a wide background to who was Chief of the US Weather Bureau. The anybody entering the field of meteorology. World Weather Watch had just been named by I wrote my dissertation on the aggregation of Wexler and Bugaev and the Global Atmospheric ice crystals to form snow. Research Programme started to emerge both nationally and internationally. lt was an extremely exciting period and I was lucky to have been a H. T. - How come you went to work for IBM? young scientist involved in the planning.

8 Keystone, Colorado, USA - With Mr Zou Jingmeng, former President of WMO ( 1987 -1995) H. T. - Is that when you met Dr White? (ESSA) asked me to stay on in the Government and help him. I resigned from IBM and became R.E.H.- I had met Dr White when I was at IBM the first and last Director of the Office of the but we didn't know each other well. During the World Weather Systems. period I worked for Holloman we came to know each other much better. During the whole of the planning activity for GARP, we were working H. T. - I assume that your acquaintance together almost every day. with Dr White brought you into contact with WMO? H. T. - I have heard you refer to Charley R.E.H. -As Administrator of ESSA, Dr White Hosier and Bob White as your mentors. was Permanent Representative with WMO. The Could you expand on this? first WMO meeting in which I participated was a R.E.H.- Ever since undergraduate days, Charley session of the then Executive Committee in Hosier was a major influence on me. We had 1966-30 years ago. I remember the meeting many interests in common, besides meteorol­ rather well, because we were trying to write ogy, and we were from a similar background in the first World Weather Watch Plan to submit to Pennsylvania. Over the last 45 years, I have Congress the next year. never made a decision concerning my profes­ sional life without consulting Charley. As to Bob H. T. -Tell us what your work entailed with White, I still refer to him as "Dad" because I feel WMO. so close to him and he has influenced my career so much. Bob White and Charlie Hosier are my R.E.H. -My primary activity was trying to plan two mentors-how lucky can one person be? the World Weather Watch and formulate both nationally and internationally the series of experi­ ments within the framework of GARP. I was also H. T. -What did you do when you left the working on a concept called the Integrated Glo­ Department of Commerce? bal Ocean Stations System (since renamed the R.E.H. -After about a year and a half as Sci­ Integrated Global Ocean Services System), whilst ence Adviser on secondment from IBM, Bob retaining the same acronym, IGOSS). I viewed it White, who was then Administrator of the Envi­ as the World Oceanographic Watch, which just ronmental of Science Services Administration happened to have another name. One of the dif-

9 ficulties in the planning was the division between I wanted to do was to modernize the Service meteorologists and oceanographers. We were by obtaining new large computers for the trying to set up a joint international WMO/IOC National Meteorological Centre and installing organization for IGOSS and, nationally, we were local warning radars at more locations, as well trying to find ways of encouraging cooperation as automatic meteorological observing stations. between meteorologists and oceanographers. The largest and most dramatic effort was called lt was during this period that we carried out the Automation of Field Operations and Ser­ the Barbados Oceanographic and Meteorologi­ vices, which consisted of establishing a much cal Experiment (BOMEX). This was a major more sophisticated communication system and air-sea interaction experiment and resulted in installing computers at all weather stations for a higher level of cooperation between meteo­ the first time. In our field, modernization is a rologists and oceanographers. lt also taught us continuous process with spurts along the way. many lessons about large-scale field experi­ ments that would prove useful in GARP. H. T. -What was your greatest motivation behind making this change? H. T. - It must have been about this time R.E.H.- This country has more severe weather that NOAA was created and you moved and flooding than almost any other nation in there? the world-certainly much more than in Europe R.E.H.- NOM was created in October 1970. and maybe the same amount as China-and it In a sense, it was a major expansion of ESSA, is this which drives the Weather Service. Every and Dr White was named Head. He had led all part of the country is affected and it was prob­ the planning of the organizational structure and ably that more than anything that motivated me used some of us in ESSA extensively in that to join the Weather Service. I felt the time had regard. I became Associate Administrator for come for me to focus on the severe weather Environmental Monitoring Prediction. lt was also and flood warning service in the USA. We were in that period that the planning of the Environ­ developing our knowledge of mesoscale mete­ ment Conference in Stockholm was taking place. orology and our geostationary satellite system was in place. The possibilities existed to do something quite far-reaching on the mesoscale H. T. -What did your new job involve? and where severe weather takes place. I essen­ REH. - In addition to WWW, GARP and IGOSS, tially left GARP; I stayed with IGOSS because I was assigned the National Oceanographic that was a service component; and I stayed Instrumentation Centre, the Marine Mineral with the World Weather Watch, but I essentially Technology Centre, the National Data Buoy Pro­ turned my attention away from international ject, the International Field Year for the Great activities to activities in the USA for a period of Lakes and the Manned Undersea Programme three to four years and I put all my energy into for NOM's first year. I was also named US this exciting work. Member on the Tropical Experiment Board, the Tropical Experiment Council and led the US H. T. - How did you become Director of effort with regard to the Global Environmental the National Weather Service? Monitoring System (GEMS). lt was exciting and fun, although working 18 hours a day was a bit R.E.H. -A new administration came in and Dr much, I was learning about many activities in a White left. I went back to Headquarters as Assis­ wide variety of ways. tant Administrator for Oceanic and Atmospheric Services. Having been George Cressman's deputy for four years, it could be said that I now H. T. -The year 1973 saw a radical shift became his boss but I always say that I work in your career. What happened? with someone or that people work with me­ R.E.H. -In 1973, I made a major change and not for me. In 1978, George decided to retire went over to the National Weather Service as and I preferred to go back to the Weather Ser­ Deputy Director under George Cressman4. What vice as Director than stay at Headquarters. I was assigned the job and started planning 4 Interviewed WMO Bulletin 45 (4) another effort to modernize the Weather Ser-

10 vice. I became Permanent Representative with was that we all knew each other so well. I am WMO in 1981. interested in people and I worked hard to under­ stand them and let them know enough about me so that they might understand me. As a result, H. T. -How do you view your achieve­ we built up some good relationships over the ments at the Weather Service when you years, which were useful in times of difficulty, look back? together with a little humour which I injected R.E.H. - lt is a delight to see the entire net­ whenever I could. I'm pleased to hear that I was work of radars that are installed across the regarded as helpful. country; most of the automatic stations have been installed, the new geostationary satel­ H. T. -You also had the reputation of being lites are up and functioning; and the profile stubborn and getting what you wanted. networks for wind observations are over some parts of the country. I understand that R.E.H. - I have heard that before but the deci­ the decision has been just taken to implement sions we took were of tremendous importance the new Automated Weather Information Pro­ for our field in the future. I felt that we should cessing System for each of the local weather be far less compromising. I knew most of us stations. With these technologies and the out­ would agree on what is important in the final standing, dedicated employees throughout analysis. I always tried not to put US interests the Weather Service, we are already seeing first but rather those of the world meteorologi­ the benefits of much better severe weather cal community. and flood warnings and forecasts. They have a tremendous value, not just for the safety of H. T. - One example of your talent and life and the protection of property but also for cooperation was long-term planning. Tell the quality of life.That is a tremendous step us about it forward and I'm pleased that I was part of the planning of it when I was Director of the R.E.H. - Any credit for long-term planning Weather Service. belongs to John Zillman. I was involved from the beginning; we all felt that we had to develop better plans for all of WMO's pro­ grammes. But most important was to build a far better World Weather Watch-the question was how. We had many intense discussions, made possible by the fact that we were all good friends. The World Weather Watch has to serve both the developed and the developing worlds and the planning has to be done in such a way so that it serves everybody to the extent possible. Knowing the individuals and under­ standing what they needed in their Services was a help. Annecy, France -Dick Hallgren (right) with Gordon Cartwright (centre) and John Zillman H. T. - Did you have any difference of H. T. - You were probably one of the most opinion with your Soviet colleagues when popular members of the Executive Coun­ you were working on the long-term plan? cil. You had the reputation that whenever R.E.H. - If I were to isolate one area which members got into difficulties over a deci­ caused some difficulties, it was the way individ­ sion, they could call on you to find a solu­ ual nations functioned. In the USA, we had a tion. Was this thanks to your experience public-private partnership developing, i.e. we or because of your personality? had a commercial structure to help build our R.E.H.- First of all, I think my deep involve­ systems, whether it was a new radar, new satel­ ment and commitment over a long period of lite or a new computer and to provide weather time were an invaluable asset. A second element services to specific clients. That was an

11 unknown concept in the Soviet Union. Also, climate services will help agricultural and because of the Cold War, we refused to sell energy distribution activities and the use of them our large computers, which they needed water resources, for example, and everybody badly, and this caused some stress and tension. will benefit on a world-wide basis. On the other hand, we were working together to improve observing and communication systems and on environmental monitoring and in these areas and many others, we were in agreement. I consider Yuri lzrael one of my closest friends.

H. T. - What are your views about WMO activities in climate and climate change? R.E.H. -First of all, I don't see a large differ­ ence between weather and climate. I think we should be trying to emphasize the common aspects and the similarities rather than the dif­ ferences. Admittedly, differences exist but they Dick Hallgren with (left) Yuri Izrael and (right) John Zillman in Geneva during a session of the WMO are far outweighed by the similarities. I believe Executive Council WMO has done an excellent job in developing programmes that generally improve scientific H. T. -How do you view the present and understanding of the atmosphere for all time future status of meteorology and the ranges of prediction. The climate question has environment? brought meteorology to the centre of both international and national policy issues. What R.E.H. -The atmosphere, and therefore mete­ we meteorologists say can make an enormous orology, are at the centre of most regional and difference to the way nations act and have an global environmental issues. WMO has been enormous impact on economic conditions successfully involved in environmental issues, around the world. So far we have been doing particularly ozone depletion, all aspects of cli­ quite well, we have collaborated through vari­ mate, local pollution and acid deposition. On ous mechanisms, particularly the Intergovern­ the other hand, Meteorological or Hydrometeo­ mental Panel on Climate Change, in trying to rological Services have not been part of the determine collectively what is happening to our national environment programmes as much as climate as the result of human activities and they should be. In the USA, the Weather Ser­ also in order to gain a much deeper under­ vice is too frequently regarded as a provider of standing of the sciences relevant to under­ weather services and not as being absolutely standing climate. We are coming to the point, fundamental to environment programmes. In however, where actions could have far-reaching many countries, I am disappointed to observe implications on the economies of countries and that it is as if the weather people are dealing we have to be sure that we are providing the with the pure atmosphere and the environmen­ best possible advice. We must not overstate or tal people are dealing only with the dirty, pol­ understate our case. luted atmosphere. A Global Environmental Mon­ itoring System (GEMS) or Global Environmental Observation System is imperative for coping H. T. - How do you see WMO's climate­ with known and potential environmental issues. related activities evolve? I am delighted to read about the Global Climate R.E.H. - Better predictions on every time­ Observing System, the Global Ocean Observ­ scale from the shortest to the very longest can ing System and so forth. Many of the observa­ be decisive in how well we adapt to and cope tions needed for weather are also needed for with any climate change. We have to articulate climate and in the Global Observing System of more clearly how important our services are to the World Weather Watch we have an ongoing this process. Even if the climate doesn't system that can form a large and solid base change as much as we expect, huge climate for providing a more comprehensive observa­ variations will remain and the provision of good tional programme.

12 H. T. -The No bel Prize chemistry has meteorology. What is so striking is that the been awarded to three meteorologists. Do concept of the free and unrestricted exchange you think there has been enough recogni­ of data was so well accepted as a way of work­ tion of the work of meteorologists? ing internationally in meteorology that nobody thought to write it formally into the WMO Con­ R.E.H. -This was a beautiful example of scien­ vention. lt was taken for granted that it would tists joining together to tackle a problem and automatically be there. That that situation is finding a solution. They thoroughly deserved the now in jeopardy is ironic after the message award, not only because it was an outstanding which emerged from the Second World Climate scientific achievement but also because they Conference in 1990 and the United Nations become involved in a policy issue that the world Conference on Environment and Development is now taking action to address. We shall be see­ in 1992. That message was that everyone, ing more environmental problems in the future every nation, every institution around the world and there will be even more opportunities for should be assured the best environmental infor­ meteorologists to be centre stage. Frankly, I am mation available on which to make any develop­ hoping other meteorologists will receive the ment decisions. Meteorology is the only field Nobel Prize-1 am thinking, for example, of Ed that has really practised free and unrestricted Lorenz5 and his work. exchange of data. At a time when we should be the leaders in conserving that concept and H. T. - You were always a strong advocate spreading it to other scientific fields among all of hydrology in WMO? nations, I am worried we may go in the oppo­ site direction. I hope common sense will pre­ R.E.H. -If the Hydrological Service is not part vail-if not, it would be a tragedy. of the Weather Service, the two have to work together in full cooperation. Whether it's a ques­ tion of floods, low water, water resource man­ H. T. - Now we come to the stage of your agement or river traffic, the link between oper­ life when you moved to AMS: how did that ational hydrology and the Meteorological come about? Service is a natural one. lt was a tremendous R.E.H. - I had been President of the Society in step forward when WMO became active in 1982 and had served in other assignments in operational hydrology. Long before I became terms of the volunteer systems that underpins Permanent Representative, I realized that any professional scientific society. I had been hydrologists were under-represented in the Director of the Weather Service for about a WMO decision-making process. I tried to bring decade, which is a long time. Ken Spengler6 about a higher level of awareness of hydrology was retiring as Executive Director and it seemed by my activities on the Council. I well remem­ like a perfect opportunity to remain involved in ber the HOMS project when it first came up for meteorology both nationally and internationally consideration in WMO in 1977. The concept yet not at the same pace as was required of was practical and absolutely wonderful and a the Director of the Weather Service. lt was number of us worked to get it approved. lt has probably unusual for someone who had been been a superb programme and I understand President to become Executive Director but that it has been emulated on the meteorologi­ you shouldn't spend your whole life in just one cal and climate side. I feel to an ever increas­ activity if you have opportunities to do other­ ing degree that WMO has to serve hydrology wise. lt looked like a good opportunity for some­ better, not just operationally but in the research one of my age-1 was nearly 56 years old-to aspects as well. do something else.

H. T. -What about the international H. T. -Are you pleased with the change? exchange of data? R.E.H. - I'm extremely pleased with the change. R.E.H. - I consider this the most important First of all, I'm only the second Executive Direc- policy issue ever confronted by the field of

5 Interviewed WMO Bulletin 45 (2) 6 Interviewed WMO Bulletin 36 (2)

13 Cosmos Club, Washington DC, USA- A succession of chiefs of the US National Weather Service (from right to left): Francis Reichelderfer, Bob White, George Cressman and Dick Hallgren tor. Ken Spengler was the first and served in attract the best of young students because our the post for 40 years. After almost a decade, field will be only as good as the people in it. as well as working to improve our journals and continuing our excellent scientific meetings, H. T. - My first interview for the WMO I feel I have been able to bring some additional Bulletin was with Or White and it took dimensions. One example has been to interact place in the University Corporation for more on the national scene on a policy basis; Atmospheric Research (UCAR) office. Is Or another has been to move forward with elec­ White still in contact with UCAR? tronic publishing, which is the way of the future; another has been to become more aggressive R.E.H. -He is the former President of UCAR with an educational programme, because meteor­ and now has the formal title of UCAR Senior ology is a superb way of getting children inter­ Fellow. Bob is a past president of AMS and ested in science generally: it is unfolding right I am on the UCAR board of trustees. He is, before their eyes and is a way of teaching therefore, even institutionally, more involved in them physics, chemistry and mathematics. meteorology now than he had been during a decade as President of the National Academy of Engineering. H. T. - I believe you have been successful in acquiring scholarships from the private sector for meteorology students? H. T. -What was the most unforgettable event of your professional life? REH. -The corporations are interested in contributing to the field and this is a way in R.E.H.- I have always tried to find a way to which they can make a difference. So far it's express how important international activities been very successful. We now have a large are to me. I would never have dreamed that number of scholarships and fellowships-about I would have had the opportunities that I've had 40-that are helping first-class students in the in my life, particularly internationally. To meet USA through their studies. Half a dozen or so people from every country in the world, to have are funded by individual members, a few are some of my closest and dearest friends from funded by collective contributions of individual other countries, to be able to interact and learn members but the great majority-approxi­ about people from different parts of the world, mately 30 of them-are funded by the private different cultures, different ways of thinking, dif­ meteorological industry. We are trying to ferent backgrounds. it is not an event as such

14 but, professionally, this has been the most and is a naturalist at the Park Service of Mary­ treasured component and experience. land. They all went into the life sciences but they all took their calculus and physics; I insisted on that while I still had something to H. T. - So that means that, if you lived say about what they did! We are both proud of your life all over again, you wouldn't them and their accomplishments but I have to change anything? say that it was Maxine who raised them while R.E.H. -That is obviously an overstatement, I was gallivanting around the world and working but I certainly would want to make sure that long hours. lt was she who allowed them to the international dimension was part of my pro­ develop the way they did, giving them opportu­ fessional life. I hope other meteorologists real­ nities to participate in all kinds of sport and cul­ ize how important that is in the overall picture. tural activities, and made them what they are. I was lucky that I had someone who had that level of patience with regard to what I did while H. T. - Would you like to tell us about your making sure that the children weren't forgotten. family? Now we have three grandchildren-Jessica, R.E.H.- Here, too, I have been lucky. Maxine Jeffrey and Karissa. I hope that a part of their and I grew up together in the same little town life will be an interest in international activities. in north-western Pennsylvania and we married in our early twenties. We have three children, the oldest has just turned 41 years of age. Our H. T. -Thank you. I wish you and your two sons are medical doctors; our daughter family a long, happy, successful-and has a master's degree in wildlife management international-life! o

CLIMATE SERVICES FOR A CHANGING WORLD

By Reid E. BASHER*

Introduction through to ministers, and to provide this infor­ We have entered an exciting new era for climate mation efficiently in the form they want. services, when the demand for answers to cli­ Climate services will vary in nature from matic questions basic to our survival on the country to country but, in general, they encom­ planet rises inexorably, year by year, and when pass (a) the provision to users of consulting the technological capacity to address these advice, analyses, predictions, summaries, and questions increases by leaps and bounds. What data as required; (b) the development of clima­ effects does climate have on ecosystems, agri­ tological knowledge, and the analysis and sum­ culture, water supply, cities, etc.? How can we mary of data, including the compilation of produce more food, cleaner energy, more reli­ tables and maps of historical data, as well as able water supplies, less air pollution? What will near-real-time climate surveillance reports; and next season's climate be like? How has climate (c) the maintenance and improvement of climate varied in the past, and how will it change and databases. These activities are mostly carried vary in future? These questions present a grow­ out by national Meteorological and Hydrological ing opportunity for meteorology. The challenge Services, but some are also undertaken by is to be able to identify the types of information independent consultants and university groups. needed by decision-makers, from small farmers The purpose of this article is to sketch the important themes and trends that are shaping today's climate services, to outline the charac­ * Project Director, Climate Research and Information Services, National Institute of Water and Atmos­ teristics of the modern climate service organi­ pheric Research, Wellington, New Zealand zation and, generally, to excite the interest of

15 climatologists and users of climate information as to the possibilities for developing valuable user-oriented climate services. Where in the world are we going? The emergence of modern climate services has occurred as a result of extensive and radi­ cal change in the world. Change has become the norm; something to be accommodated as a central, rather than aberrant, feature of the lives of individuals and the activities of organi­ zations. A scan of the main trends in society and the environment shows that four principal, fundamental, strongly interrelated, trends lie at the heart of all change. Population Global population is enormously greater than in the past, and will continue to increase for many decades to come. Larger populations require more food, water, energy, shelter and economic development generally, and have greater demands Tropical rainfall cuts deeply into neglected land, cleared for development, in Nadi, Fiji, producing large quantities for information. More people also mean a larger of lagoon-clogging sediments. In the distance, a cement source of generating knowledge, innovation and factory discharges dust and fumes. The involvement of cli­ technology. matologists in snch projects can reduce costs, risks and environmental impacts. Knowledge Photo: Reid Basher The global knowledge base has grown rapidly Climate plays many roles in this drama: as a fea­ and will continue to expand, especially knowl­ ture of the environment that can be abused and edge concerning the natural world, economic changed; as a controlling factor in ecosystems applications and human behaviour. In the field of and human settlements and economies; as the climate, we understand and can model the main origin of natural disasters and damaging impacts; climatic processes and, in some cases, can and as a source of renewable water and energy. make predictions of their future behaviour. A These four major trends lead to a number great deal is now known about the impacts of of consequent trends. An important one is that climate on plants, ecosystems, agriculture, etc. of globalization, where international communica­ tion, travel and trade increasingly create a com­ Technology mon global-scale pool for goods, services, cul­ Technology increases at a dizzying rate. it feeds ture, knowledge, data, etc. Meteorology has, of off, and drives knowledge growth, and is funda­ necessity, long held a global view and its satel­ mentally altering the nature of our societies. lite images of the Earth's orb, continents and Just as agricultural societies transform to indus­ ever-changing cloud patterns have played a trial societies, so do industrial societies trans­ powerful role in shaping the public's perception form to information societies. The driving forces of our global home. Global networks and data of the information society are knowledge, data, exchange, global climate modelling, and glob­ communications and computers, and the thirst ally shared knowledge and techniques are basic of users for useful information. Computing and to climate science and services. communications are central to the development In contrast to globalization, there is another of climate science and climate services. trend on smaller scales, toward users, diversity of need, and markets. The expanded availability Limits to growth of knowledge and technology increasingly empow­ The Earth's capacities to meet the needs of bur­ ers ordinary people to be information users and geoning populations and to support continued decision-makers and to seek specific solutions economic development are becoming strained. tailored to their problems. At the same time,

16 governments are shifting toward reduced regu­ mate and on the impacts of such shifts on eco­ lation of trade and greater use of markets for systems and human concerns, with little regard, service provision. Climate service providers, in the public mind at least, for climatic variabil­ whether operating in a public or commercial mode, ity and the fact that the impacts of existing will need to become oriented toward meeting variability can be comparable with those of pro­ diverse and changing user needs, and to make jected climate change. Furthermore, in places use of market approaches such as market strongly affected by the El Niflo/Southern Osci­ assessment, product development, advertising llation phenomenon, specially arid regions, the and quality customer service. mean may have little significance, since eco­ The world is changing quickly, but while much system behaviour and agricultural success are is uncertain, it is clear that the volume and com­ almost entirely dominated by the large year-to­ plexity of demand for science-based climate ser­ year variability. vices can only increase. Climate service providers Fortunately, we have now reached a more face an interesting future. mature stage, where the following points are more generally understood: (a) climate is not Climate variability, change and sustainability stationary but exhibits natural variations on Until a few decades ago, climate was regarded time-scales of decades, centuries arid longer, as essentially unchanging. Climatologists treated in addition to possible anthropogenic changes; the climate as statistically stationary for all (b) the effects of climate change will be pri­ practical purposes and concentrated on obtain­ marily felt through variability, especially from ing long representative data series, and sum­ extremes such as droughts, floods, storms marizing the characteristics and impacts of cli­ and heat waves; (c) changes in variability are mate variability, such as the seasonal cycle, a key concern in climate-modelling studies; spatial patterns, extremes, etc. (d) to understand the impacts of future'change Subsequently, the issue of climate change requires the study of the impacts of existing vari­ has put a strong focus on shifts of the mean cli- ability; (e) a key line of defence against climate

A city is a highly concentrated focus of human development and has a highly concentrated requirement for climate data aud expertise, to help secure effective housing, energy use, drainage, air quality, etc. In these respects, many of the world's cities do not have as fortunate a situation as Sydney Photo: Reid Rasher

17 impacts, both now and with respect to future Engineers, investors, farmers and other climate change, is the provision of climate ser­ decision-makers for whom climate is a vices to monitor, study, predict and provide key factor in design, development, opera­ advice on, climatic variation and impacts. tions, legal liability, etc. The relatively recent concept of sustainabil­ Climate information is essential in the design of ity must also be set in the context of climate buildings, water supplies, drains, roads, etc. lt variability, owing to the role of climate in both is needed in risk assessment and management economic development and the environment. and in investment choices, e.g. in respect to Most of the conservation and resource manage­ crop types and associated farm configurations ment sections of the Earth Summit's Agenda 21 and the development of resorts, ports, energy have some basis in climate variability, change plants, irrigation, etc. Near-real-time climate and impacts, especially: "protecting the atmos­ information and climate forecasts can be valu­ phere", "managing land sustainably", "combating able in ongoing decision-making in production deforestation", "combating desertification and and marketing operations, particularly in water drought", "sustainable mountain development", resources and agriculture. "sustainable agriculture and rural development'' and "protecting and managing fresh water". Research scientists studying climate pro­ Climate services are also essential to disas­ cesses, climate variability and climate change ter preparedness planning, and to the develop­ High-quality climate database services are ment of sustainable energy supplies, and sustain­ essential to such research, as well as to collab­ able cities and other human settlements. oration in international data exchange arrange­ An additional dimension of all sustainability ments and expert review committees coordi­ problems is their multidisciplinary nature. As a nated by WMO and the IPCC. Such activities member of the teams formed to address such also provide spin-off benefits of access to problems, the climatologist will need to have an extensive international networks of scientific understanding of the relevant fields of ecology, expertise, knowledge and data. agriculture, engineering, business, etc., in order to advise effectively on the roles of climate vari­ Research scientists in environmental, ability and change. agricultural, industrial fields, etc. Climate has important impacts on ecosystems · Stakeholders and users and economic production and can cause varia­ The stakeholders of climate services and their tions in annual Gross Domestic Product of sev­ databases are those people or groups of peo­ eral per cent. The availability of a climate data­ ple having a stake in the success of those ser­ base and associated expertise in climate analysis, vices. Stakeholders range from school chil­ ensures that nationally important climate-related dren to governments. They are not necessarily research in a wide range ·of applied science users; but their goals are usually satisfied if fields is soundly based on quality data, whose users obtain what they want. The main external limitations are known. stakeholder groups are as follows. Teachers and students studying climate Policy-makers and public agencies con­ and statistics serned with climate change, natural A knowledge of climate, its variation and resource management, environmental impacts is a valuable component of education. protection, natural hazard management Climate data provide long, reliable and meaning­ Climate data and analysis services are required ful data series for studies in statistics. to meet a country's international obligations. lt is important to note the dominant public They play an important role in defining the cli­ role of the above stakeholders-four out of five matic conditions that sustainable resource man­ are clearly public in nature. Moreover, in the case agement must cope with, and in monitoring of the second group (engineers, investors, farm­ possible impacts of land use and other environ­ ers, etc.), much of the benefit of applying climate mental changes. Climate information is essen­ services accrues to the community as a whole, tial to the development of renewable wind and rather than to just the individual user. The support solar energy and the management of the physi­ of a nation's public climate services, especially cal hazards of storms and floods. the climate network and database, cannot

18 therefore be secured by cost-recovery policies Styles of user interaction applied to the subset of commercial users. In particular, even modest prices for climate data­ The following questions were developed by sets have been found to be a major disincentive the author as part of an exercise for WMO to users and to result in greatly sub-optimal use training workshops on climate services and of the valuable resources of data that have been user interaction held in the Philippines and painstakingly developed with decades of public Mauritius. funding. New Zealand's approach to this dilemma To what extent do any of the following is to fund publicly the climate network and statements apply to your climate service orga­ database, and to charge the user only for the nization? What lessons are there is this for marginal cost of servicing his enquiry. you? What improvements would you like to National Climate Programmes have been make? promoted by WMO as a sound way to define and "Unfortunately, around here it seems meet national needs for climate research and to be more important to please the bosses services. China, for example, has established a than the clients." comprehensive programme that simultaneously "I really love to get out of the office addresses climate research, climate monitor­ and talk to clients." ing, climate services, and climate prediction. "We are proud of our academic abilities and the quality of our technical equipment." Users have specific needs "Whenever I get the chance, I talk to Unlike the generic stakeholders, users are spe­ journalists and tell them what the latest cli­ cific people with specific problems that they mate news is." believe can be better dealt with, using climate "We are very busy with routine data information. Typically, users are professionally processing and don't really have the time to or technically trained and, usually, a decision promote ourselves." hangs on the outcome of the enquiry. Some­ "My bosses are always pushing to get times the user enquires by letter, but telephone, climate considered in national environmen­ facsimile and e-mail are increasingly used, where tal and development projects." available. In New Zealand, approximately 1 500 "We shut the office at lunchtime because paid enquiries are serviced each year, which is there are always too many enquiries then." equivalent to about one enquiry per year per "We've got a very good knowledge of 2 000 inhabitants. what's happening in industry and agricul­ Although there is some commonality in cli­ ture at present." mate service enquiries, a key feature of each is "These customers always think they its uniqueness, and the need to consider it indi­ know best, and are far too impatient." vidually. A school child wants simple information on tropical cyclones (probably for a project due investor seeks a comprehensive report on the tomorrow!); a police officer wants details of rain­ climate at a proposed resort development; a fall at a road accident site; an engineer wants forestry company commissions a project to data to choose the best months for laying an assess and map the climate regions suitable for undersea cable; a parent seeks advice about the introduction of a new tree type; an electricity the chances of rain on a planned wedding date; generator funds a major research study of maxi­ a reporter asks whether climate change is caus­ mum probable precipitation in order to assess ing fish catches to be smaller than usual; an the safety of the nation's hydroelectricity dams. agriculture ministry official wants guidance on Because personal service takes time and is seasonal rainfall, in order to predict the drought­ relatively expensive, some climate agencies are affected national grain production. In almost all moving to computer-based enquiries where the cases, the information is wanted promptly-within users log on to the database or to a World Wide a day or two at most. Web host, and use their own time to search for More sophisticated consultancies and the answer they want. In Australia, many near­ research may be required where a major project real-time services are available by automatic fac­ or investment is at stake. An ice-cream manufac­ simile transmission. turer wants a study done on the effect of tem­ Some users are experienced at applying perature and cloudiness on ice-cream sales; an climate data and want only a particular dataset

19 to analyse, without a climatologist's assistance. vice organization, together with brief advice on Other users, however, may have only a vague how to address them, follow. idea of what role climate has in their problem and how climate information can help, and will What do users want? require considerable assistance to reach a sat­ Systematically identify and summarize client isfactory conclusion. Experience shows that needs in terms of sector (agriculture, water many people are unaware of the availability and resources, etc.); or user (large organization, capability of climate services. Climatologists small user, private, public, etc.); or time-scale have been slow to reach out into the community of information (historical, real-time, future). to display their wares and to learn about users' Study past records and experience of climate fields of interest. This has been a concern of services provided by your group; observe cur­ WMO for some time and has led to several rent economy and business; survey customers reports on user needs and marketing (WMO/fD and markets; consider the impacts of new Nos. 525, 536, 586 and 663). technologies. A lesson concerning the supply of regular reports to assist ongoing operations, e.g. of a farm, an irrigation scheme, a factory, etc., is that the client usually wants a package of infor­ mation describing (a) the weather and its impacts over the past month or season; (b) a compari­ son of this with previous years, typically the last year and the long-term average; and (c) a sea­ sonal climate outlook. Where skillful climate pre­ dictions are available, they can be tailored to the user's needs but, when not available, even the climatology of the season provides valuable guidance. This package of past, present and future climate information is a key principle of the WMO CLIPS project. (See following article, starting on page 21 (Ed.). Another lesson is that reliability of service is important to users-producing exactly what is promised, by the date or time promised. A sur­ vey by the author of a sample of New Zealand climate service clients showed that reliability was more important to them than the quality of the tangible products, the personal approach of the service officer or the customization of the In N adi, Fiji, children construct a house in a mango tree, service. This result parallels those of similar protected from the climatic elements of sun, wind, rain American studies in banking and other service (and sea-level rise!). In similar but somewhat more sub­ stantive projects, decisions made today using quality cli­ industries. mate information will materially improve the world our children will inhedt. The modern climate service organization Photo: Reid Basher The changing circumstances of climate services present exciting new opportunities but they are What have we got on offer? also a threat to old ways of doing things. Is your Be knowledgeable about your unique resources climate service organization focused internally, and represent them with confidence. These on operational systems and practices, and on include quality data series and summary informa­ the store of data and standard publications? Or tion; expertise in weather, climate processes and is it oriented externally, toward users and their climate variation; an ability to identify and analyse specific needs, and toward the impacts of cli­ climate-related problems; a knowledge of current mate on the world? (See box, on previous page.) climate anomalies; access to climate predictions Four key questions for the modern climate ser- and the ability to interpret these for the local

20 region; a knowledge of climate change issues; quickly (the achievement of these high-quality, and professional commitment and reliability. accessible data resources will be a major ser­ vice output in itself). Standard summaries, How do we go about delivering what is wanted? information sheets and other publications will Clarify each client's needs, and make sure that be desirable. You will need suitable library the he or she is clear about what you are going resources, and access to WMO materials, as to do for him or her. (All users can be consid­ well as foreign data and expertise. A good ered "clients", whether or not they are charged knowledge of your country, and how climate for the service.) Set a budget of time or cost impacts upon it, is taken for granted. You will and complete the job within this. Do each job as need excellent communication skills in order to well as you promised (or preferably a little bet­ develop actively good relationships with users ter) and always do it on time. Ensure that the and outside organizations. Your organization presentation of the information matches your will need to be responsive and flexible so that scientific standards. If charges are levied, make it can cope with the inevitable fluctuations of this clear early on, and be prepared to explain demand for services. Suitable long-term fund­ the policy and how the charge is calculated. Seek ing will be needed and for this and other rea­ and respond to client feedback. Keep good sons, you will put effort into informing and sat­ records, both of individual jobs, and of the mar­ isfying your stakeholders, especially staff ket as a whole. Establish and monitor standards senior to you, officials in government and of performance for individuals and the climate major clients service group as a whole. Conclusion What resources are needed to succeed? The world has changed radically and, in so Staff are most important--you need enthusias­ doing, has provided new demands and new tic, knowledgeable and skilled staff, who opportunities for the creation and delivery of cli­ behave in an outgoing, user-oriented manner. mate services. They will have some familiarity with economics, Circumstances among the 184 Members of ecology, business, etc., in addition to expertise WMO (as of October 1996) will vary widely, but in meteorology, climatology, statistics and data all can benefit from the user-oriented philosophy processing. You will require a good national cli­ described here, which holds that the needs of mate network and historical database, of stakeholders and users are paramount, and that course, and computer facilities to archive data the prime purpose of a climate service organiza- and to access and analyse data for clients tion is to meet their needs. o

CLIMATE INFORMATION AND PREDICTION SERVICES-CLIPS

By Andrej SAULESLEJAl and lars E. 0LSSON2

Climate has a value value of agricultural output typically dipped to When an f/ Nifio event occurs, rain falls in the 20 per cent of its value during El Nifio years. In desert in Peru but not in the rice-growing region. 1987, however, farmers were warned of the Most of Peru is desert and has little agricultural forthcoming f/ Nifio event and planted cotton output, but rice is grown in upland areas in the instead. The rains did fail that year but the cotton foothills of the Andes. Before 1986/1987, the thrived-whereas the rice crop would have been lost. The value of output from the agricultural sec­ 1 Atmospheric Environment Service, Downsview, tor remained near its normal value of US$ 800 Ontario, Canada million. The value of this forecast to Peru was 2 Chief, World Climate Applications Division, World almost US$ 700 million. There have been similar Climate Programme Department, WMO benefits since then.

21 Water resources management is increasingly dependent on accurate climate information and predictions. In this catchment, north of London, United Kingdom, groundwater abstraction over many years substantially reduced river flows. The onset of drought conditions in 1988led to a further diminution in flows and by 1992, the River Ver was dry throughout its upper reaches Photo: Terry Marsh, Institute of Hydrology, United Kingdom An estimated US$ 33 million, or 10 per cent than US$ 1 million per year to their business. of the total costs for road drainage structures in Using climate normals as a baseline, a manu­ Australia was saved by the use of hydrometeoro­ facturer of bottled gas, operating throughout logical data. By introducing climatological data Europe estimated that the use of climate ser­ into the design of an iron and steel complex in vices, which included relevant climatological China, US$ 20 million was reported saved in con­ data and monthly forecasts created a net value struction costs. Climate information and special of £0.7 million per year to the business. forecasts could reduce irrigation by 1 to 2 events The list of examples above shows how vari­ per season, saving US$ 50-100 million in Canada. ous sectors benefit from appropriately adapted Climate/demand relationships and related fore­ climate information and prediction services. casting are estimated to reduce costs for elec­ Most success stories reported on seem to have tricity generation by US$ 2 million per year in one thing in common-the users of the climato­ New Zealand. There, the value of seasonal fore­ logical products have been involved in the spec­ casts to all sectors of the economy has been ifications of the service to be provided. The estimated at US$ 34 million, or 0.04 per cent of products have been tuned to the specific needs the GNP per year. and requirements of an application and service, In the USA, the estimated value of seasonal with regard to content, formulation and dissemi­ ENSO-related forecasts having a 60 per cent $: nation. Often, these requirements include many accuracy level is US$ 180 million per year for - different aspects, from conventional climatologi­ the agricultural, forestry and fishery sectors. cal normals, recent climatological information, This value would increase to US$ 310 million if weather forecasts and expected development the accuracy were 77 per cent. Advice from a of the weather on the seasonal and interannual state government in Australia on the appropriate time-scales. lt is this new vision of providing the mix of wheat and sorghum and on crop fertiliza­ various users with a package of relevant cli­ tion based on SOl-related predictions, enabled mate information and prediction services that farmers to improve overall returns by US$ 4-20 forms the basis for the CLIPS initiative. per hectare. Power traders in the USA estimate Understanding climate as the history of the value of climate prediction services at more weather can be expanded to include climate as 22 mate predictions for selected periods and regions and agreed that this should form the basis for a major project in the Fourth WMO Long-term Plan (1996-2005). The Climate Information and Pre­ diction Services-CLIPS-project is thus an international-scale response to the challenges of climate variability and change. lt is built on the successful atmospheric and oceanographic research of recent decades. At the same time, it is built on the realization that fruitful application of this new knowledge has to be developed in close collaboration with the ultimate users of the information that can be provided. Flooding in Trinidad in November 1994: climate informa­ tion and prediction services can help authorities plan for, Twelfth Congress decided that the CLIPS and mitigate the impact of, natural disasters. project should aim at enhancing the capabilities Photo: Trinidad Guardian of WMO Members to adapt to climate variability and change. The provision of these services will the future expectation for weather, in the order improve the basis for social and economic deci­ of weeks, months or years ahead. sion-making and for addressing related policy Fungal and microbial disease incidence and issues. Furthermore, it was decided that, epidemiology are affected by climatic conditions. although CLIPS had been initiated by WMO, it Tropical diseases such as malaria, trypanosomi­ should be planned and implemented in a coop­ asis (sleeping sickness), dengue, yellow fever erative effort involving other international and and encephalitis are generally transmitted by regional bodies, as well as national agencies, insect vectors. Insect populations and therefore particularly, NMHSs. CLIPS will bind together the diseases are modulated by climatic factors. various atmospheric, ocean- and land-based There is a relationship between the SOl index data and research programmes for a common and the frequency of malaria and dengue fever and tangible result. lt will improve the basis for in Viet Nam. Quantitative leaps in malaria inci­ decisions and increase self-sufficiency, particu­ dence in Costa Rica and Pakistan are coincident larly in the developing world. The project will with ENSO events. In the Punjab region of north­ capitalize on a growing capability to exchange east Pakistan, the risk of malaria quintuples dur­ climate predictions, information and related ing the year following an El Niiio event and, in products in near-real-time through modern com­ Sri Lanka, the risk is quadrupled during an El munication technologies. Provision of current Niiio year. Knowing the links between disease climate information and predictions will improve and climate, one may be better prepared with economic and social decision-making and sup­ medical supplies and through other actions. Sav­ port sustainable development on the national, ings are possible in managing stockpiles of med­ regional and global scales. ical supplies with limited shelf-lives. The greatest benefit, however, would not be measured in eco­ nomic terms, but in terms of well-being, health and lives saved. CLIPS-a WMO initiative Twelfth World Meteorological Congress (Geneva, June 1995), discussed the future of climate appli­ cations and services. lt was recognized that the important advances occurring in the monitoring of the global climate system and the improved capability to exchange the resulting information in near-real-time would have great potential for The climate determines what kind of crops are viable and when to plant or sow. In this case, a local variety of pearl enhancing socio-economic decision-making. millet is cultivated in the semi-arid area of North Darfu, Furthermore, Congress reviewed the devel­ Sudan. Although yield is low, it is the staple food. opment of capabilities and opportunities for cli- Photo: FAO/S. Mathema

23 CLIPS-an NMHS capability response to climate variability and change have Climate applications are manifold and relate to a been proposed for the national, regional and glo­ wide variety of socio-economic activities. bal scales. The climatological normals, assem­ Although the end-products delivered to the users bled by WMO on a global basis and by NMHSs may be rather sector-specific, the basic informa­ for respective nations, form the base for many of tion, as well as many of the methods used, have these traditional climate services. much in common. Climate predictions and projections on vari­ The traditional climate service has been to ous time-scales add value to the climate informa­ provide climatological data and derivations. tion which has been provided traditionally. In These are normally available from NMHS data­ most cases, climate services have been used as banks or in regional/global data centres. a base for decisions regarding future activities. lt Through the successful implementation of the is the expectation of weather and extremes that CLICOM project, most NMHSs can today present is of greatest value to decision-makers. CLIPS quality-controlled climatological information in aims at providing capabilities to provide increas­ computer-compatible form. Besides raw data, ingly refined climate information, primarily the databanks and climatological bulletins include through the NMHSs. derived statistics, time-series and spatial analy­ The beneficiaries of future climate services ses and various types of specific regressions or will embrace a wide spectrum of decision-mak­ associations with related fields. WMO produces ers, from international agencies and pro­ Climate System Monitoring project information grammes to national governments and individual on a monthly and an annual basis for the globe. entrepreneurs. In the long-term perspective, the Recently, some new indices and indicators relat­ potential for sustainable development through ing to extreme weather events, climate change the appropriate inclusion of climate-related infor- impacts and various types of sector-specific mation will benefit all mankind. D

CLIMATE APPLICATIONS AND SERVICES INTRODUCTION

Recent and emerging concerns regarding the ditions. Water is vital to many socio-economic impact of climate changes locally, regionally activities, but its availability is increasingly criti­ and globally, have lent renewed urgency to how cal and water resources management is methods and knowledge of climatic conditions increasingly dependent on accurate climate can be used in planning and carrying out cli­ information and predictions. Related to the mate-sensitive socio-economic activities. Tradi­ availability of water and the provision of food tionally, sectors such as food production and security are the potential risks of drought and forestry have used climate information as an devastating desertification. Climate information essential component in both planning and oper­ and prediction services can help authorities ations. The climate has determined what kind plan for, and mitigate the impact of, these nat­ of crops would be viable, when to plant or sow ural disasters. Climatological information is and how to manage agriculture land and forests. also an important component in disaster pre­ Indeed, entire national economies have been vention. In determining risks of floods, shore­ based on climate conditions. line destruction, landslides and avalanches, a Today, we know that many other socio­ thorough knowledge of climate and its economic sectors are sensitive to climate. The variability is important. need for energy, as well as the feasibility of Climatological information is an important using various forms of alternative energy pro­ input in land-use planning, both public and pri­ duction, is directly dependent on climatic con- vate. Urban development depends on expected

24 future climate conditions and individuals may outlooks and predictions on seasonal and inter­ choose to settle in areas where the risk of cli­ annual time-scales. This information may mate-related disasters is minimal. Tourism, become more widely available through such already one of the world's major industrial sec­ communication media as Internet and the tors, uses climate as a basic resource, while, World Wide Web but, in order to be of real at the same time, the so-called "carrying value in decision-making, it has to be appropri­ capacity" of a region or place is directly depen­ ately interpreted and applied. Through the dent on climate conditions. WMO Climate Information and Prediction Ser­ Climate applications and services can vices (CLIPS) project, NMHSs of Member facilitate both planning and operations in a nations will be equipped to translate this infor­ more economic and environmentally sustain­ mation into useful climate applications and ser­ able fashion. These services can normally be vices for a variety of socio-economic sectors. provided by the national Meteorological and In the following series of sector-specific Hydrological Services (NMHSs), which possess articles, the potential for climate applications a wealth of information obtained through care­ and services will be explored in detail. As ful monitoring. As well as climatological infor­ research and science progress, these services mation, they have the expertise to analyse and will be refined and the potential for mitigating interpret it in response to the specific require­ adverse impacts of severe climate conditions ments for various socio-economic activities. improved. While many climate information and Thanks to advances in climate-related sci­ prediction services are provided on a global or ences, NMHSs will increasingly be able to large regional scale, NMHSs can normally also issue information on expected developments of provide interpretation of local conditions, i.e. climate and weather conditions. Many national relevant to a specific activity within a country and international institutions already provide or even to a specific location. o

CLIMATE SERVICES FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

By l. E. 0LSSON

The concept of "sustainable development" has ... environmentally sustainable development ... grown out of the concern for global and large­ becomes the guiding framework for all eccr scale regional impacts on the environment from nomic action. various human activities. Since the 1972 UN From the viewpoint of climate and related Conference on the Human Environment, world­ natural sciences, one logical meaning relates to wide acceptance of the importance of environ­ the sustainability of natural resources. Climate is mental issues has been achieved. The World itself a resource upon which many socio-eco­ Commission on Environment and Development, nomic activities are based. Indirectly, climate the so-called Bruntland Commission, gave a influences not only the resources but also the first definition of sustainable development in its opportunities for development of economies and report Our Common Future: it is thus obvious that a thorough knowledge of Humanity has the ability to make development the climate and its evolution should serve as a sustainable-to ensure that it meets the needs base for decision-making. of the present without compromising the ability There is a growing consensus that sustain­ of future generations to meet their own needs. able development means achieving a quality of The true meaning, as well as the implica- life which is socially desirable, economically tions, of sustainable development, have been dis­ viable and ecologically sustainable and can be cussed and interpreted in many different contexts maintained for many generations. However, over the last decade. Sustainable development is although it seems easy to talk about sustainable still widely perceived as an essentially environ­ development-we know at least the basic ele­ mental issue, however, and, as such, relates in ments of the idea-it is much harder to make many aspects to the issues of climate, its variabil­ significant progress towards achieving it. Many ity and change. The World Bank has stated that: socio-economic activities, such as food

25 Peace and security (stability)

Politics Cultural dimensions

Institutional/administrative arrangements

Sustainable development requires harmonized objectives production, water use, energy production and acidification of soil and waters. Through local ini­ use, transportation of different kinds, as well as tiatives and implementation of projects, such as tourism and recreation, all relate to climate as a those normally included in local Agenda 21 pro­ precursor at the same time as they impact on jects, climate information and services provided climatic conditions at least locally and, in many at a local or national level can have a positive cases, both regionally and globally. impact at a regional and even global level. The In several cases, the indicators designed to role of NMHSs in providing such climate services monitor progress towards sustainable develop­ support is thus important. Through initiatives such ment need to embrace climate considerations. Obvious cases relate to environmental pollution Minimizing use of non-renewable and the detection of climate change, but agricul­ resources tural development or water resources manage­ ment projects also need to take climatological Sustainable use aspects into account. Many forms of sustainable Sustainable of renewable and renewable energy forms, including development I resources hydropower, biomass, solar and wind energy are Keeping within highly climate-dependent, and climate infor­ absorptive mation and services are therefore necessary in capacity of local their development and operation. The goal of and global sinks for wastes sustainable human settlement development, called for in the Habitat 11 Agenda (United Nations Conference on Human Settlements, Adequate livelihood, including l Istanbul, Turkey, June 1996) needs to be based access to natural resources on various types of climate services. Perhaps Meeting the most obvious aspect relates to the need for human I Choice I needs energy in urban areas and in individual habitats. ------1 Participation I Sustainable development in various socio­ I economic sectors relates directly or indirectly to I Shelter and healthy environment I such issues as global climate change and long­ range air-pollution transport with subsequent Components of sustainable development 26 as strengthening the observational programmes, interaction with the oceans and the resulting dis­ especially in developing countries, and CLIPS (see tribution of water resources on Earth. A major separate article on page 21), WMO has been thrust in the Climate Agenda is "climate services instrumental in developing the national capabilities for sustainable development". Through coordi­ to meet the demands for climate services in sup­ nated efforts among regional, national and inter­ port of sustainable development. national players in the use of available informa­ On the international scene, WMO ensures tion and know-how provided through modern the provision of authoritative international scien­ climate services, it is believed that significant tific information on the state and behaviour of achievements can be made towards more sus­ the atmosphere, the climate it produces, its tainable development. o

CLIMATE SERVICES TO THE PUBLIC

By Kevin O'LouGHLIN *

Growing public interest in climate services, ingly incorporate climate information into daily Because of the wide impacts of climate variabil­ , public weather services. ity on communities, a key role of a national Community needs and the range of climate Meteorological or Hydrometeorological Service services (NMS) is the provision of a range of services based on the national climate databank. For the Community needs for climate services are general public, the distinction between weather reflected in the types of request for climate infor­ and climate has hardly been relevant. lt is not mation and the range of services that have been sufficiently realized that meteorology includes developed by NMSs to meet those needs. These both weather and climate and that climate ser­ needs include not only inquiries from the gen­ vices to the public are every bit as much an eral public but also requests from almost every integral part of the role of an NMS as the more sector of the economy-agriculture, transport, familiar daily weather forecasts provided through water, energy, health, education, tourism, con­ the media. struction and manufacturing, to name but a few. General community interest in climate ser­ In many cases, the needs can be readily vices has been raised by the high profile of met from the way the NMS routinely analyses debate on issues such as the enhanced green­ and stores meteorological data to fulfil its role house effect, depletion of ozone in the atmos­ as the custodian of the national climate record. phere, the El Nifio effect and by the world news Some needs are met by simple listings of data coverage given to severe droughts of the early for specific locations and times. What was the 1990s in places such as southern Africa and rainfall or temperature or wind at this location Australia. two weeks ago? This might be needed by the lt is interesting that, while community aware­ amateur-hobby gardener, the fishing or sailing ness of meteorological subtleties is growing, enthusiast, or by the professional-a farmer, a meteorologists themselves are finding the dis­ lawyer or a policeman. tinctions and boundaries between weather and Some more complicated needs require anal­ climate increasingly blurred. Periods of persist­ ysis of the climate data. What is the frequency of ing extreme weather make up the seasonal strong winds at this location, or low tempera­ anomalies of climate. In the range of available tures at another? What are the frequencies of meteorological services there is a narrowing drought at a number of different locations where gap between medium-range weather forecast­ farming is marginal? Such needs can often be met ing and seasonal climate outlooks as skill in by the range of routine analyses carried out by both endeavours increases and NMSs increas- the NMS as part of maintaining the climate record­ for example, monthly means and extremes of the main weather elements. Others require special * Regional Director (Victoria), Bureau of Meteorology, statistical analyses to be undertaken by the cli­ Australia mate meteorologists. 27 Climate publications can meet a number of WMO publication announcement needs. Published analyses of rainfall, temperature and wind for a selection of representative locations Guide to Public Weather Services made available directly to the public or through Practices libraries can satisfy requirements for simple but WMO-No. 834 (1996) ISBN 92-63-10834-X useful information in relation to community acti­ 106 pages, numerous examples and illustra­ vities such as siting of houses, small-scale farm­ tions in black and white and in colour. ing, small business activity and recreational pur­ English and Spanish (French and Russian suits, such as sailing, and planning holidays. in preparation). Price: SFR 54 In countries affected by drought and influ­ This latest WMO Guide aims to provide enced by El Nifio, the provision of information information about those practices and pro­ on the extent and persistence of rainfall deficien­ cedures which are of greatest importance cies, the Southern Oscillation Index (SOl}, and for providing meteorological services to the climate outlooks based on SOl, sea-surface public and so prove useful to Members in temperature and analogues are all meeting the developing those services. Public weather needs of the farming community, planners and services provided by WMO Members are economists for climate information that helps in the most visible return for taxpayers' farm management. Information packages have investments in national Meteorological Ser­ been developed that enable a farmer to look at vices, in particular observing networks, rainfall patterns at nearby sites for similar years computer and communications systems, in the past. weather offices and specialist staff. Weather Community needs, especially of those warnings and forecasts, together with engaged in research related to intensely climate­ related hydrological and climatological sensitive sectors, such as agriculture and water, products and services can contribute signif­ increasingly require repeated access to a range icantly to public safety and security and be of climate data and their needs are best met by of enormous socio-economic benefit if prop­ access to the basic climate database, to listings, erly understood and applied. data summaries, statistical analyses and maps. This publication is based upon avail­ The information technology age has assisted able information and will be updated as this greatly, so that large amounts of data can additional contributions are obtained or now be provided easily in the form of computer significant developments occur. diskettes, compact discs or via e-mail.

Using climate data in public weather services In severe weather events, an important Climate data play a significant role in the provi­ aspect of the public information provided by an sion of public weather services. In many cases, NMS is comparison with past events or extreme the value of public weather services and the records so that the current disaster can be more public's perception of their quality can be enhanced readily compared in terms of its severity in by the effective use of climate information. Use meteorological terms and its comparative of climate data in forecasting can be a simple impacts on those affected. Because public appre­ application of climatology to the forecast or a ciation of the difficulty of forecasting extreme sophisticated application of analogue statistics events is limited, and expectations are higher in arising from substantial research on the histori­ an age of advanced computing and communica­ cal conditions associated with different synoptic tions skills, the provision of authoritative, timely weather types. historical information as part of the information Climate information can be a valuable part given about the event can assist balanced and of weather presentations in the media-espe­ constructive media coverage. This, in turn, helps cially newspapers, where space in the weather community understanding and the perception of segment can be routinely available to indicate the value of the meteorological services. monthly and annual progress with rainfall and In a similar fashion, the NMS can provide temperature. Information on seasonal conditions valuable assistance in the planning of major can be of great benefit to agriculture and other public events, for example the Olympic Games, community users when published in the daily to assess the statistical likelihood of conditions press or in specialist agriculture newspapers. likely to mar the occasion or even put the com-

28 ·~

Rainfall analysis for Australia in September 1996. This automated analysis is updated daily and is an example of the climate products available (in colour) on the Australian Bureau of Meteorology Web site: http://www.bom.gov.au/ petitors and public at risk. Climate information advice to their governments and the public on is often a major factor in the choice of location the issue, especially if there is some local infor­ and timing for such events. mation on changes measured in that country or The linkages between weather and climate to comment on the possible implications locally. in the range of services provided to the public emphasizes the value of WMO initiatives such Improving access to climate information as its Public Weather Services Programme (see The rapid changes taking place in computing and box on previous page) and Climate Information communications provide some valuable opportuni­ and Prediction Services (CLIPS) project (see ties to improve public access to, and presentation article starting on page 21 (fd.)). of, climate information. The national climate archive should be viewed as a valuable national Climate change-local and global asset that is not only available to the meteorolog­ Providing public information about climate ical community now and to future generations, change is an important role for NMSs. Because but that can also be accessed and appreciated of the tendency of the popular media to sensa­ readily and easily now by the general public. tionalize the extreme view, the issue of global Climate summaries, such as monthly and change does not always receive accurate, bal­ seasonal summaries, as well as climate outlooks, anced treatment in the media. Public percep­ can be made available by facsimile, dial-in ser­ tion can become distorted and, in some cases, vices, and climate information can be included this gives rise to unnecessary alarm. in recorded telephone services. The extensive work of the IPCC and the Data on computer diskette and CD-ROM efforts of WMO to encourage wide and accu­ can provide the public with unprecedented rate reporting of these findings have done access to data and analyses from the national much to convey a more balanced message for climate databank. While access to the full data­ the public. Nevertheless, there is still consider­ bank is still beyond the reach of most users, able scope for NMSs to provide authoritative commonly requested sets, such as of monthly

29 data or specific element analyses, can be rela­ term weather forecasting and seasonal-to-inter­ tively easily arranged and the cost of accessing annual climate prediction improves. and providing the data in computer formats can Public awareness of climate has increased be met by user charges. A good example is as a result of the global change debate and that comprehensive rainfall data for selected recent severe droughts, and demand for cli­ representative stations can be very useful, espe­ mate services is growing arising from the cially if analysed in the form of deciles to facili­ demands of agriculture, economists, govern­ tate study of dry and wet periods. ment planners and because of generally raised Electronic mail can pass data quickly in community concerns on environmental issues. computer-compatible formats, while the use of The general public can benefit from the the World Wide Web provides the opportunity to improvement of climate services provided by provide an electronic window to the range of NMSs, which have an increasing range of tools data and products available from an NMS. available to make services more relevant and accessible. The aim of effective climate ser­ Conclusion vices to the public should be to allow the com­ Climate services in support of community activi­ munity to realize now some of the benefits of ties are a major role of most NMSs and will the major long-term investment in the national increase in importance as skill at both medium- climate record. o

CLIMATE SERVICES TO THE HEALTH SECTOR

By Gerd JENDRITZKYl and Larry KALKSTEIN2

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines (heat load, cold stress, air pollution, oppressive health as" ... a state of complete physical, men­ weather) on morbidity and mortality. tal and social well-being, not merely the absence The multitude and wide range of variables of disease and infirmity". it relates to the state that influence human health explain why there and behaviour of the organism as a whole in are usually no simple cause-effect relations balance with the natural and social environment. between the atmospheric environment and the The physical and chemical properties of the well-being of humans. Consequently, the biologi­ atmosphere, including weather and climate, cal response to the different affecting parame­ are important aspects of our environment. In ters range from no effect, i.e. complete health, order to maintain health, well-being, and perfor­ to inconvenience, impairment, subclinical alter­ mance, the human organism is in a permanent ations and even clinically manifested damage state of confrontation with the environment. and increased mortality rates. This furthermore Adaptive reactions of the organism can implies that it is often difficult to establish criti­ therefore be taken as a response to disturbances cal values and standards relating to the associ­ by the atmosphere. A healthy organism will ation between climate and human health. accomplish adaptation by means of autonomic The effect of meteorological conditions as regulation, which mostly goes unnoticed. The confounder or modifier of air pollution impacts adaptability of sensitive, elderly and sick persons, depends on season. In winter, the influence of pregnant women, and children is more liable to temperature changes are less pronounced than be overtaxed, however. Particularly, cardiovas­ in summer. Fundamentally, weather/climate as cular diseases and diseases of the respiratory well as air pollution can provide the major con­ tract may be triggered or aggravated, depend­ tribution to the explanation of variance in mor­ ing on individual predisposition. Epidemiological tality rates. Although the relevance of air pollu­ studies show the effects of extreme conditions tion for human health is generally accepted by society and authorities, it is sometimes even overemphasized. Many standards have been 1 Zentrale Medizin-meteorologische Forschungsstelle, adopted for air pollution impact assessments, Deutscher Wetterdienst, Freiburg, Germany without clear evidence on how they relate to the 2 Department of Geography, University of Delaware, USA health effects.

30 Results of numerous epidemiological stud­ In the USA, the cities of Philadelphia, Washing­ ies from many parts of the world conducted in ton and Phoenix have adapted heat-health recent years, however, have shown that the watch/warning systems which are based on thermal environment is of comparable relevance the actual response of humans to meteorologi­ for health and well-being of people, at least in cal factors. In Philadelphia, where the system developed countries. For bioclimatological analy­ has been in place for two summer seasons, ses and assessments, heat budget approaches the Department of Public Health has determined are now state-of-the-art, as they evaluate heat that approximately 300 lives were saved during production of the human body and associated the hot summer of 1995. heat exchange as a function of activity. This These systems are based on a synoptic depends on air temperature, humidity, wind veloc­ climatological procedure that identifies "high­ ity and radiant fluxes, with due consideration risk" air masses historically associated with given to the insulation effect of clothing. lt is increased human mortality. Air mass occurrence thus obvious that both direct and indirect effects can be predicted up to 48 hours in advance of climate on health are important. This includes with the use of model output statistics guidance heat load, cold stress, air pollution, UV radiation, forecast data. If a high risk air mass is forecast, infectious diseases, nutrition, potable water an algorithm has been developed which estimates and effects related to disasters. lt is worth not­ the number of heat-related deaths expected for ing in this connection that the beneficial effects each city. City health departments use this of climate are used in many countries in so­ information to develop mitigation procedures in called climate health resorts (climatotherapy). an attempt to reduce the risk of heat-related Bioclimatological knowledge is especially mortality. Backcasting exercises have suggested applicable in various kinds of climate-related that the algorithm is an adequate predictor of planning. When applied in connection with envi­ heat-related mortality. ronmental protection planning, this will contribute WMO, in cooperation with WHO, is consid­ to improved climate and clean air conditions. ering recommendations that systems of this The target is to provide for a healthy living and type be developed internationally, especially for working environment, especially in urban areas. adaptation to major cities in developing coun­ The "urban climate" is an impressive exam­ tries, where heat-related mortality is an increas­ ple of a human-induced climate change. lt is ing threat to fast-growing populations. lt is thus important to consider these potential changes within urban planning projects. Biocli­ matological assessments, based on climate information and the results of boundary-layer models coupled with physiologically significant energy budget models of human beings, can j ~\A D provide valuable information to urban planners, authorities, health professionals, and other decision-makers. National Meteorological and Hydrological Services can facilitate the provi­ sion of those types of climate services which will benefit both the economic decisions and the resulting comfort of the future urban population. Operational heat-health warning systems There is well-documented evidence that hot weather contributes to increased morbidity and mortality in large urban areas and, in some cities, sophisticated heat-health watch/warning The heat balance of a human being-the German Klima­ Michel model: M = heat production; QH = sensible heat systems have been utilized to lessen the flux; Qsw = latent heat flux; QL = moisture heat flux; impact of "deadly weather". Most cities have QRe =respiration heat flux (sensible and latent). poorly defined means of dealing with these Radiation budget: I = direct solar radiation; D = diffuse health problems, however, and deficient, or no solar radiation; R = reflected radiation; A = atmospheric counter radiation; E = emission of the surroundings; systems are the rule rather than the exception. EKM = radiation from human surfaces

31 envisaged that more widespread application of I save human lives from succumbing to extreme state-of-the-art bioclimatological techniques can meteorological events. o

CLIMATE SERVICES AND FOOD PRODUCTION

ByW. BAlER*

Introduction Climate affects all economic sectors but agri­ culture, forestry and fisheries-all of which are served by agrometeorology-are most sensi­ tive and indeed vulnerable to climatic variability. Climatic elements and their extremes control many aspects of plant and animal biology and hence the potential of ecosystems. Their pro­ ductivity, in turn, affects the socio-economic conditions of societies, in both developing and developed countries. Moreover, the impact of climatic variability is felt not only by producers of food and fibre but also by supporting indus­ tries providing services. This impact is largest on agriculture and forestry activities in the developing countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America, where these sectors do not have the infrastructural resilience to abnormal climatic fluctuations. WMO addresses the effects of climate and climate variability on agriculture and forestry under the Agricultural Meteorology Programme and through the Commission for Agricultural Meteorology (CAgM). With its sci­ entific and technical expertise, CAgM deals with a wide range of agrometeorological appli­ The application of agrometeorological information has cations in areas such as climate and food and helped transform this once bone-dry and drought-prone fibre production, forestry and fisheries (food area in western Java, Indonesia, into flourishing rice fields. aspects only). Photo: FAO/Peyton Johnson Traditionally, long-term climatic records have been widely used for planning land use, gies to mitigate the socio-economic impact of agricultural operations, crop and animal produc­ climate change on food and fibre production. tion and for managing forestry resources. Any Agroclimatic applications predictions, such as expected crop yields or phenological dates, were based on past, cur­ Food production is still dependent on weather rent and projected average weather conditions. and climate, despite impressive advances in The WMO Climate Information and Prediction agricultural technology over the past decades. Services (CLIPS) project is bridging the gap In fact, the demand for agroclimatic applica­ between these past records and near-future tions has been increasing for both research expectations for weather in terms of climatic and operational use in crop monitoring and anomalies. This information is basic for strate- forecasting, plant protection, crop diversifica­ tion, sustainable land-use planning, forestry management and fisheries production. Statis­ Honorary Research Associate, Eastern Cereal and Oilseed Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food tics indicate that, of all the meteorological ser­ Canada, Ottawa vices, those for agriculture are the most signifi- 32 cant in most national economies. The wide crops (soyabean, flax, sugarbeet, oil palm, range of agrometeorological applications in fresh fruit) is important for the regional and support of food production may be distin­ local supply of food and fibre; guished, as follows. • Forecasting dairy, meat and wool produc­ tion (New Zealand) and forecasting quality Long-term planning (governments and and yield of milk (England and Wales) planning agencies) enables appropriate decisions (transporta­ Analysis of long-term climatic data in relation to tion, marketing) that lead to a much more agricultural production and other relevant infor­ efficient system "beyond the farm gate". mation has become an effective research tool for planning land use and determining strate­ Short-term operational decisions (farmers gies to increase food production under a range and farming communities) of climatic conditions. For example, the Inter­ Short-term operational decisions relate to a agency Group on Agricultural Biometeorology period from a few hours to a few days and are (FAO/UNESCO;WMO) carried out agroclimato­ based on crop and soil conditions and weather logical surveys in many countries to assess the forecasts. These applications deal with a num­ agricultural potential of the areas and increased ber of measures for improving agricultural pro­ agricultural production by the application of duction and for averting dangers to production. meteorological, climatological and hydrological Examples are: knowledge and information. The results of these surveys were published as WMO Technical • Scheduling irrigation based on water balance Notes for the following areas: arid and semi-arid sheets involving daily rainfall and estimates zones of the Near East (No. 56); the semi-arid of potential evapotranspiration to decide zone in Africa south of the Sahara (No. 86); the on when and how much water to apply to highlands of eastern Africa (No. 125); Andean crops; mountain regions (No. 161); the humid tropics • Controlling plant diseases and pests through of South-East Asia (No. 179). integrated pest management, using weather­ based applications of pesticides and insecti­ Medium-term options (planning agencies, cides to avoid/reduce a large number of industry and advanced farmers) applications and thereby minimizing spray­ Medium-term options or agroclimatic forecasts ing costs as well as air/soil pollution; are concerned with the assessment of current • Protecting crops against wind damage· by crop and soil-moisture conditions based on windbreaks and shelterbelts, against heat observations and crop-weather model outputs, and soil moisture losses by greenhouses but take into account future average and proba­ and plastic films, against frost damage by ble climatic conditions based on climatic data covering plants, heating air, mixing air and analysis. Such medium-term options include: water sprinkling; • Forecasting the optimum times for carry­ • Protecting animals against excessive heat, ing out field work operations, applying ferti­ cold, wind and radiation by providing shel­ lizer, sowing and harvesting, crop develop­ ter, and against animal diseases by provid­ ment phases, e.g. forecasts of the onset ing suitable weather parameters (e.g. mois­ of flowering of fruit trees or the dates of ture index) for forecasting the spread of ripening of fruit are important for making diseases; management decisions regarding frost pro­ tection measures, labour requirements and • Managing forest resources involving appli­ marketing; cation of insecticides from aircraft, forest fire danger ratings and use of controlled • Forecasting the quantity and quality of fires in forest management activities. yields of main crops (wheat, rice, barley, oats, rye, corn, potatoes) is important Climate change and agriculture because of their major role in global food The United Nations Framework Convention on supply and their economic significance in Climate Change (UN/FCCC) explicitly acknowl­ international trade; forecasting of other edges in Article 2 the importance of natural

33 Traditionally, long-term climatic records have been widely used for planning land use, agricultural operations, crop and animal production. In the arid lands of Ladakh, in tbe Himalayan region of northernmost India, agricultural practices have not changed in centuries. Its inhabitants eke out an existence which, already meagre, would be placed in jeopardy by a decrease in rainfall. ecosystems, food production and sustainable Panel on Climate Change (I PC C) !1, 2] projects economic development. an increase in global mean surface temperature Two climate-related processes affect crop relative to 1990 of about 2oc by the year 2100 production: as the "best estimate" value of climate sensitiv­ • Carbon dioxide enrichment in the atmos­ ity. Regional temperature changes could differ phere; ·and substantially from the global mean value. There is more confidence in temperature projections • Climate change induced by the greenhouse than hydrological changes. effect. , In the last few years, the "scenario" approach lncreasetl CD 2 concentrations reaching has been extensively used to estimate the likely about 460·ppmv by the year 2030 may have effect of climate change on agriculture relative to beneficial-effects on net photosynthetic produc­ 1990 baseline production. Most studies have used tivity and.water-use efficiency, especially in C3 2 x C02 climatic scenarios based on outputs from species, which include current major staple general circulation models. These are now avail­ foods, such as wheat, rice and soyabeans. C4 able for a network of gridpoints as fine as 1o x 1o staples, such as maize, sorghum, millet and showing the simulated change in daily or monthly sugarcane, typically grown in warm climates average climatic variables (temperature, precipita­ respond less tb increased C0 2 levels than C3 tion and cloud cover) between 1 x C02 (present species. Hence, it is likely that C02 enrichment day or baseline climate) and 2 x C02 (future) equi­ will benefit temperate and humid tropical agri­ librium conditions. culture more than that in the semi-arid tropics. The 1995 IPCC report projects that produc­ The other aspect of C02-induced changes of cli­ tivity of agriculture and forestry will increase in mate may alter the levels of temperature, rain­ some areas and decrease in others. The distri­ fall, sunshine and cloud cover that can influence bution of productive land will most likely change­ plant and animal productivity. The Second improving yields in some regions but causing Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental significant setbacks in others.

34 Food production Fisheries production Although global food production could be main­ The positive effects of climate change-such tained relative to baseline production, there as longer growing seasons, lower natural win­ could be serious consequences of large differ­ ter mortality, and faster growth rates in higher ences on local and regional scales, even at mid­ latitudes-may be offset by negative factors latitudes. In particular, many of the world's poor­ such as changes in established reproductive est people-living in sub-tropical and tropical patterns, migration routes, and ecosystem areas, and dependent on isolated agricultural relationships. Globally, marine fisheries produc­ systems in semi-arid and arid regions-are tion is expected to remain the same, but princi­ most at risk of hunger. Many of these high-risk pal impacts will be felt at the national and local populations are found in sub-Saharan Africa; levels. More important, climate change effects South, East, and South-east Asia; tropical areas interact with those of pervasive overfishing, of Latin America; and some Pacific island States. diminishing nursery areas, and extensive in­ Certain regions that are currently net shore and coastal pollution. exporters of cereals could also be affected by Impact assessment reduced crop-water availability and thus show reduced productive potential as a result of climate The major issues facing agriculture and food changes. Any decrease in production in these production as a result of global warming regions could markedly affect future global food (enhanced greenhouse effect) differ in the vari­ prices and patterns of trade. These regions ous latitudinal zones. Climate warming substan­ include southern Europe, the southern USA, tially lengthens and intensifies the growing sea­ parts of South America and western Australia. son in cold maritime climates. One of the most Climate change resulting in increased frequen­ threatened zones occurs in areas with a cies of drought poses the greatest risk to agri­ Mediterranean-type climate. Should rainfall culture, both at the regional and global levels. decrease in these and other semi-arid and arid areas, there could be major decreases in crop Livestock production and livestock productivity. In temperate zones, For livestock production, the most important a major cause of climate variability can now be impacts of climate are indirect, through effects linked to ocean temperature and circulation on both quality and quantity of feed production changes, the best understood being the £1 and pest and disease incidence. Climate Nifio/Southern Oscillation (ENSO), which has a change may affect livestock production by strong impact on temperature. The high and changes in grain prices and rangeland and pas­ low phases of the Southern Oscillation operate ture productivity. Pastoral systems, where the to accentuate the climatic anomalies in many rate of technology adoption is slow, are espe­ tropical areas. This gives simultaneous climatic cially at risk. anomalies in areas such as northern China, Ethiopia, India, southern Africa, Australia, Forest production Indonesia, the tropical Pacific and Brazil. Forests do not adapt rapidly and deviations in The low phase (£1 Nifio) causes widespread climatic parameters away from the forest eco­ drought. system's optimum weaken the trees. The Agriculture and forestry ecosystems also response of forests to climate and its variability affect greenhouse-gas emissions and, indi­ differs. Boreal forests are likely to undergo irreg­ rectly through this mechanism, climate. They ular and large-scale losses of living trees because account for approximately 23 per cent of total of the impacts of projected climate change. Cli­ equivalent C0 2 greenhouse-gas emissions in mate and land-use impacts on the production of the 1980s. Present estimates suggest that temperate forest products are expected to be agricultural activities explain about 1.4 per cent relatively small. In tropical regions, the availabil­ of the C02 equivalent greenhouse-gas emis­ ity of forest products is projected to decline by sions from the use of fossil fuels powering about half for non-climatic reasons related to farm equipment, land cultivation and biomass human activities. Global wood supply during the burning emitting C0 2, methane from rice, rumi­ next century may become increasingly inade­ nants, animal waste and biomass and nitrous quate because of both climatic and non-climatic oxide from cultivation, fossil fuel and biomass factors. burning and fertilizer use. Technologies now

35 exist that could reduce the rate of growth message of good hope for the future that is emissions. Breeding can also be focused on symbolic for this article in the WMO Bulletin: plants and animals that are more resilient to the variability of climate and feed supply. Farm­ The good news is that agroclimatic information, when used in a systematic and coordinated way, ers can also take advantage of changes in cli­ can help maintain and stabilize crop production, mate by changing the timing of crop planting despite weather and climate fluctuations. or of livestock operations to suit the season. Pest and disease control is most important in References preserving the resilience of crops and livestock [1] INTERGOVERNMENTAL PANEL ON CLIMATE CHANGE, 1996: to climate. This also decreases the vulnerabil­ Climate Change 1995-lmpacts, Adaptations ity of forest ecosystems, as does the manage­ and Mitigation of Climate Change: Scientific Technical Analyses. Contribution of Working ment of fire risk. Group 11 to the Second Assessment Report. Cambridge University Press. Outlook [2] INTERGOVERNMENTAL PANEL ON CLIMATE CHANGE, 1996: Extensive research has been conducted on the Climate Change 1995. IPCC Second Assess­ potential effects of climate change on agricul­ ment Report. Cambridge University Press. tural production. Fortunately, good sources of [3] WMO, 1994: Climate Variability, Agriculture and information exist and are readily accessible. The Forestry. WMO-No. 802. Technical Note No. 196, IPCC has reviewed and assessed global litera­ Geneva, Switzerland. 279 pp. ture on climate change and its impacts on eco­ [4] WMO {in preparation): Climate Variability: Agri­ nomic sectors including agriculture [1, 2). CAgM culture and Forests. WMO-No. 841. Technical activities, including those related to climate and Note No. 199, Geneva, Switzerland. food production, are reported in WMO Technical [5] ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHERS: Agricultural Meteor­ Notes, numbered CAgM Reports and unnum­ ology and Forestry-An International Journal, bered publications. The history of CAgM is doc­ Amsterdam, The Netherlands. umented in WMO/fD-No. 440. The ninth session [6] WMO, 1981: Guide to Agricultural Meteorological of CAgM established a Working Group on the Practices. WMO-No. 134, Geneva, Switzerland. Study of Climate Effects on Agriculture, includ­ [7] PERRY, M., 1990: Climate Change and World ing Forests, and of the Effects of Agriculture and Agriculture. Earthscan Publications Limited, Forest on Climate. The report of this Working London. 167 pp. Group, Climate Variability, Agriculture and [8] MAUNDER, W. J., 1986: The Uncertainty Busi­ Forestry [3] and the follow-up report Climate Vari­ ness-Risks and Opportunities in Weather and ability: Agriculture and Forests [4] are the most Climate. Methuen, London and New York. 420 pp. up-to-date global references on this subject. Many publications and reports by individual [9] INTERNATIONAL RICE RESEARCH INSTITUTE, 1989: Climate researchers and institutions around the world and Food Security. Manila, Philippines. 602 pp. 0 deal with climate change and its impacts. Most of these are regularly referenced in Agricultural WMO Bulletin subscription as a gift Meteorology and Forestry-An International Why not offer a year's subscription to tile Journal [5]. A list of periodicals of interest to WMO Bulletin to a friend, colleague or rela­ agricultural meteorologists is attached as tive, especially in a developing country, who Appendix 11 to the WMO Guide to Agricultural works, or is interested in, meteorology, Meteorological Practices [6]. The WMO Climate hydrology or climatology? Applications Referral System-Food(CARS-FOOD) is a convenient source of information. There are Subscription rates for one year are: many excellent studies on the effects of climate Surface mail: SFR 52 Airmail: SFR 72 change on global agriculture [7]. The wide scope Send the recipient's name and address and of weather and climate risks and opportunities an indication of the required language with respect to major economic sectors, includ­ version (English, French, Russian or Span­ ing agriculture, have been documented [8]. · An example of a book that presents a ish), together with your remittance, to the broad approach to climate, climatic variability Secretary-General, World Meteorological and food production on a global scale is Climate Organization, Case postale 2300, CH-1211 and Food Security [9]. The preface contains a Geneva 2, Switzerland.

36 CLIMATE SERVICES AND WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

By Z.W. KUNDZEWICZ*

Introduction logical variables is required. Information on pre­ Climate and water systems are closely linked. cipitation and evaporation is also necessary for Both are components of the common global sys­ feasibility studies, the planning and design of tem powered by the energy of the Sun. Climates projects related to hydropower, pollution abate­ are also categorized on the basis of water avail­ ment (including low flow augmentation), salinity ability as humid or dry. Furthermore, to a large control and groundwater recharge. In planning extent, climate controls the quantity and variabil­ irrigation schemes, climate data are used to ity of the water resources available in any determine crop water requirements and the region. Information on past and present climate demand for irrigation water. Climate informa­ is therefore essential in planning the develop­ tion is also indispensable in studies of domes­ ment of any water resource and the resulting tic water demands, residential needs (gardens, decisions are strongly dependent on the reliabil­ lawns, swimming pools), livestock water use, ity and accuracy of the climate data at hand. and industrial use such as cooling systems in One variable of particular importance to factories and power stations. water management is river flow, its past magni­ Specialized climate data may be needed tude and variability and its current and forecast in some water management projects. If naviga­ future states. Where flow data are not available tion is the issue, information on ice cover (tem­ at the location of interest-as is often the case, perature, freezing and ice break-up dates) and particularly in developing countries-it may be snow-melt distribution may be needed. In flood necessary to estimate past flows from climate control, knowledge of the frequency and inten­ records (instrumental or proxy). sity of past major storms is essential. In areas where water is scarce, or virtually nonexistent, Climate information and services for and fog is an important source of water supply, water resources management data on air humidity and the occurrence of fog There are a variety of purposes to be served by are important. water management projects, such as water Climate information is indispensable in gen­ supply, flood protection, irrigation, power gen­ eral water management studies, for instance at eration, navigation, sediment control and ground­ the stage of calculating regional water balances. water recharge. Recently, a number of environ­ Checking the water balance on the basis of pre­ ment-oriented purposes are being afforded cipitation, evapotranspiration and runoff data, increasing importance, such as the improve­ one may find discrepancies. In this way, one can ment of water quality, including salinity control, identify erroneous or inadequate data and, as a fish and wildlife conservation and the protection valuable by-product, justify the need for precipi­ of biodiversity. Moreover, account has to be tation correction or a modification in the station taken of recreational and aesthetic needs, as network, for example by relocating raingauges well as of various cultural and religious require­ to make the area! average more meaningful. ments. Consequently, the majority of water pro­ Water storage jects now serve multiple purposes. The basic climate information needed for The basic component of most water manage­ water management projects relates to precipi­ ment schemes is a water storage reservoir, typ­ tation and evaporation, and their spatial and ically serving multiple purposes such as flood temporal distribution. In order to determine protection, wate·r supply and power production. evaporation, which is often a data product, Climate information plays a significant role in information on temperature and other meteoro- both reservoir design and operation. In the design phase, estimation of the necessary reservoir capacity is based on time series of * Polish Academy of Sciences inflows and, in ungauged areas, these must be

37 estimated from available climatic information. cial resources, because of over-optimistic claims Estimating evaporation losses from a reservoir based on inadequate data. At the other extreme, is of extreme importance in hot and dry climates, a number of dam failures have occurred because where the annual total of free-water-evaporation of an under-estimation of flood magnitude, based may be as high as 2 500 mm. The very feasi­ again on the inadequacy of the available data. bility of a reservoir subject to excessive evapo­ Climate services are also needed to deter­ ration is questionable. A major cost in many mine the rules of reservoir operation. There is reservoirs is the spillway and climate informa­ a basic conflict between reservoir management tion is important in making an optimum deci­ for flood control and for conservation needs. sion as to its size and flow characteristics. Knowing in advance that a dry and hot period The quality of design of a dam depends on is coming, the reservoir operator may discharge the availability and accuracy of information for only a small volume of water; just enough to the site-relevant conditions. If information is not meet minimum requirements such as are set adequate, a safety margin must be introduced by the need to maintain biological life down­ which may cause over-design and incur addi­ stream. Alternatively, if abundant precipitation tional cost. Many dams lie empty, resulting in is expected, the operator may discharge a large the waste of millions of dollars of scarce finan- volume of water, creating additional space to

The success of a dam depends on the availability and accuracy of information for the conditions relevant to the site in the design stage. Photo: Kansai Electric Power Company (Japan)

38 Flooding in Montezuma, Georgia, USA, in July 1994: in flood control, knowledge of the frequency and intensity of past major storms is essential. Inadequate urban drainage results in frequent flooding of densely populated areas; the floods may not be large in absolute terms, but their damage potential is great. Photo: Johnny Crawford accommodate a flood wave. If an unexpected Climate input is also essential in mitigating high inflow arrives and the reservoir is full, the the effects of drought. There is a whole spectrum operator has to release a large volume of water, of measures which can be taken in response to a possibly creating a flood downstream. If spill­ prediction of drought conditions. Glantz (1982) way conveyance capacity is not adequate, water has recorded a case where a drought forecast may overtop the dam, jeopardizing its safety in a North American basin triggered a range of and risking dam breach or break and a catas­ activities such as digging wells, transplanting trophic flood downstream. perennial crops to other areas and subsidizing farmers with annual crops to leave their land Disaster prevention fallow. The earlier the drought forecast is known, Water resources management works to alleviate the more successful can be the preparations. hydrological extreme events, which are of cli­ However, as with floods, inaccurate forecasts matic origin-floods and droughts. In both can give rise to major problems. In the exam­ these areas, climatic information is needed. ple quoted by Glantz (1982), the drought fore­ When considering flood protection struc­ cast proved to be wrong, and abundant rains tures (levees, dams and flood control reservoirs) came. As a result, a number of individuals sued or non-structural measures (flood-plain zoning, the USA Government, requesting compensation flood forecasts), climate information is essen­ for the cost of the activities triggered by the tial. Frequency-intensity diagrams of precipita­ inaccurate forecast. tion and derived design storms are needed to produce the design flows for which storm drain­ Climate variability and change age is designed in urbanized areas. Inadequate Water resources management has traditionally urban drainage results in frequent flooding of been based on the assumption of stationarity, densely populated areas; the floods may not i.e. one of an unchanging climate. However, the be large in absolute terms, but their damage drought anomalies observed in the last decades potential is great. in the Sahel and a number of recent floods of

39 exceptional magnitude (e.g. those on the River climate change issue has brought much confu­ Mississippi and the River Rhine) make many a sion to planning and design communities which specialist question the stationarity assumption. feel uncertain about how to proceed. Is it ratio­ Several studies have indicated changes in the nal to ignore the weak "greenhouse" signal, sim­ frequency of dominant weather circulation pat­ ply because of the high uncertainty involved? If terns, and the insurance industry is becoming not, then how to take it into account? Estimates concerned with the increase of compensation of changes in mean annual precipitation result­ claims following natural water-related disasters. ing from different general circulation models The prediction of future climate and the are frequently discrepant when applied over a detection of climate change are therefore of small, hydrologically relevant scale, such as a considerable relevance to water management. river basin. lt is acknowledged that the existing They are basic for planning those elements of climatic models are not yet able to produce · the hydraulic infrastructure which are to serve results useful in amending hydraulic design over a longer time horizon, from several decades codes, on the spatial scale of a river basin. up to a century or more. Climate prediction The hydrological and water resources com­ based on the ENSO phenomenon has played munity is therefore watching with much interest an important role in drought forecasting with a the developments in the area of climate informa­ lead time of between several months up to a tion and prediction services embraced by CLIPS. year. This is a sufficiently long lead time for preparatory measures to be taken. References If studies of climate change come to project GLANTZ, M. H., 1982: Consequences and responsibili­ a significant change in hydrological extremes in a ties in drought forecasting: the case of Yakima. Water Resour. Res., 18, 3-13. warmer world, then the consequences for reser­ voir design codes of practice would be severe. KACZMAREK, Z., 1995: Water resources management Climate Change 1995-lmpacts, adaptation One would have to design and build bigger stor­ and mitigation of climate change: scientific age volumes to accommodate larger flood waves technical analyses. Contribution of Working and better fulfil the growing demand for water Group 11 to the Second Assessment Report of during the prolonged and more frequent droughts the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Chapter 14. Cambridge University Press. of increasing severity. Existing infrastructure may not guarantee the adequate level of pro­ WMO, 1994: Guide to Hydrological Practices (fifth edi- tion), WMO-No. 168, Geneva, Switzerland. 0 tection and may need to be re-developed. Kaczmarek (1995) led a group of experts studying the possible consequences of climate Publication announcement change for water resources management. Based Regional Satellite Oceanography on extensive literature research, he found that By Serge Victorov. Taylor & Francis Ltd, a number of basic parameters of water availabil­ United Kingdom (1996) 312 pages; colour and ity may change in a warmer world. Change of black and white illustrations; hlb ISBN 0 7484 seasonal and monthly patterns and of extreme 0273 X £44.95; p/b ISBN 0 7484 0274 8 £24.95 values of hydrological variables are possible, Satellite imagery of visible, infra-red, controlled to a large extent by climatological microwave bands and side-looking radar conditions. Increase in irrigation demand in a images when properly processed, together warmer and more populated world is certain; with relevant in situ data are demonstrated as precipitation increase may eventually be out­ being a reliable source of scientific and man­ weighed by temperature rise. Change in hydro­ agerial information for regional oceanog­ power potential and its temporal distribution is raphy, environmental monitoring of coastal likely. The duration of the season during which zones and marine-based branches of the econ­ a navigable depth is available in rivers may omy. This, the first book published on the change. Consequences to ecosystems and subject, is organized around several themes: water quality are also foreseen. Climate change the interaction between oceanography and may influence fisheries: cold-water fish being remote sensing; information and instrumen­ replaced by warm-water species, for example. tation; sensors and satellites; methodologies A greenhouse signal in time series of and experiences from Australia, the Baltic hydrological data is being sought but has not region, France, India, Norway and the USA. yet been found to any significant extent. The

40 CLIMATE SERVICES AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT

By Yadowsun BooDHOO

Urban development is expanding all over the factors were not considered in a judicious man­ globe at a high rhythm-in most cases, faster ner, to the detriment of human comfort and than desired. lt is expected that, by the turn of health and the urban environment. Whereas at the century, almost half the world's population least some nations have the capability of absorb­ will be living in urban areas. By the year 2025, ing the pressures generated by the urbanization this proportion may have reached two-thirds. process, emerging nations will undoubtedly be

Storm damage in the northern suburbs of Athens, Greece, in October 1994 Photo: Omega Press

Cities will become either much more crowded confronted with immense financial constraints or they will expand to occupy surrounding when having to counteract the negative effects areas-or both. Urbanization often leads to resulting from poor planning. lt is therefore imper­ less green space and more high rises of con­ ative to p.lan judiciously, taking into considera­ crete and steel, more vehicles and industries, tion the global effect of new urban areas. To be higher emissions of pollutants and less fresh air able to achieve this, planners and decision­ and to a build-up of heat commonly known as makers will need climate services. the "urban heat island". Every million people in a lt is vital to assess the temperature regime city generate 25 000 tons of the greenhouse of a city and its surroundings. Then, and only gas, carbon dioxide, and 300 000 tons of waste then, can potential changes in temperature, water every day: a real headache if these emis­ likely to be brought about by the urbanization sions are overlooked during the planning stage. process, be estimated. Trees along streets and Looking at many "contemporary" buildings in parks not only embellish the environment and and cities, it becomes apparent that climatic provide shade during the warm season, but also act as absorbers of pollutants. Green spaces * Meteorological Services, Vacoas, Mauritius, and and water surfaces, if wide enough, can create vice·president, WMO Commission for Climatology microclimates with local winds and help lower

41 surrounding temperatures by several degrees, Urban air, heated by industrial and other thus reducing the need for air-conditioning and human activities, rises above the city centre. the subsequent pressure on power utilities. Especially during conditions with light general Climate services could also include infor­ wind conditions, this may generate local winds, mation on types of buildings most suitable for which blow towards the city centre in a fashion the climate and on the choice of building mate­ similar to a sea breeze. These so-called "city rial. Designs will differ, depending on prevailing winds" can play an important role in ventilating climatic conditions, e.g. hot/humid, hoVdry, the city, but can also cause air pollutants to con­ Mediterranean, hoVsavanna or cold zones. In centrate downtown. The wind-induced response each of these zones, albedo of the surface, of buildings both upstream and downstream of types of soil (sandy or rocky) and sunshine dura­ a built-up environment are complex, and climate tion will play important roles. specialists can help assess potential risks for When land use is altered from agricultural storm damage to buildings in urban areas. to residential, changes are likely in precipitation Another important factor often overlooked patterns, soil moisture characteristics and soil in urban environments is the layout of buildings erosion with consequent increased risks of land­ and high towers, that is the air dynamic config­ slides and flash floods. Climate data and infor­ uration of the city fabric. By "funnelling" the air­ mation based on well-established observational flow, stronger winds than in surrounding areas networks will help depict extreme rainfall amounts may result. These add to the nuisance of urban and their return periods. These may enable the life and often have a complex effect on the dis­ computation of runoff values and, consequently, persion of pollution both within and downwind of requirements for adequate drainage systems. of a city. Buildings, if properly oriented, can help Disregard for extreme rainfall amounts have ventilate the urban areas. Long rows of tall build­ resulted in the loss of life and property on sev­ ings have been a subject of contention, as they eral occasions in the recent past. block the much-needed sea-breeze from flow-

Weather-induced urban damage in Hong Kong: a nine-metre high retaining wall collapsed at Kwun Lung Lau Estate in Kennedy Town during a heavy rain episode from 22 to 24 July 1994, when a total of 611.2 mm of rain fell. Over 1 000 tonnes of mud and rocks buried a busy footpath. Five people were killed and three were injured and some 2 000 families had to be evacuated. Photo: Hong Kong Government

42 ing inland and providing relief on sultry summer from a climatological network operated days. Appropriate climate services can help alle­ for a sufficient length of time; viate many of these problems at an early stage. • Descriptive and/or quantitative parame­ There is a marked temperature difference ters to describe the climatological condi­ between urban and rural environments. In mega­ tions in regions without data; cities, the urban temperature can be more than 10° higher, giving rise to urban heat islands. • Competent staff and suitable facilities to During winter in high latitudes these may be wel­ advise and brief urban planners, building come but, in the tropics, they add to the dis­ designers and urban operators on how to comfort of the population. By applying climate apply and make best use of climate data information and services at the planning stage and information. Conversely, climate spe­ of urban development, the intensity of urban cialists should be well versed in deducing heat islands may be controlled. local effects caused by structures of diff­ Solar energy is the main driving mechanism erent types; and of virtually all biological life. Through proper ori­ • Well-organized channels and communica­ entation of buildings, it is possible to control tion links in order to provide the best ser­ solar radiation and its effects. This is the main vice to users. focus in the emerging field of solar architecture. A well-organized national climate service lt is imperative that climate information should be capable of contributing positively to and services are increasingly used as part of the planning and functioning of sound and efforts to save the global climate through local healthy cities. Such a service should have: climate initiatives in all spheres of life. Climate services, when appropriately applied, provide • A reliable, well-organized climatological an opportunity of working towards a sustain­ database available to it, which should able human settlement environment in both include information based on observations existing and future cities. o

CLIMATE SERVICES AND ENERGY

By Yadowsun BooDHOO

Energy is undoubtedly the impetus behind most, energy demanding appliances; (b) there is also if not all, human activities-production of food the fact that 2 billion people, mainly in the lower­ and other commodities, transport systems, income developing countries, live below the communication, comfort and safety of the poverty line and this situation must be rectified. human and animal species. In both industrial­ This would mean that the traditional fuel ized and developing countries, it is difficult to reserve would be depleted even faster. imagine a situation where we would suddenly Present energy production and consump­ be deprived of the means of cooking our meals tion systems are being brandished as the main or of lighting our homes or of factories ceasing destroyers of contemporary civilization. In fact, to function because the oil wells had run dry. hectic activities around the world result in an Our modern society has become highly energy­ increasing rate of emission of greenhouse gases, dependent. resulting in climate change and subsequent sea­ Yet, this is not outside the realm of possi­ level rise, an accelerated hydrological cycle and bility if we carry on with our business-as-usual the possibility of an increase in devastating severe mentality. There are two main reasons for this weather events. lt appears that the energy sys­ eventuality: (a) traditional, i.e. biomass, fossil tem, as practised today, is competing with itself as well as nuclear, fuel is finite. Experts predict to destroy the very civilization which it was meant that, at the present rate of consumption, fossil to develop and protect. Climate services may fuel may last at most another century and this guide the design and operation of socio-economic rate is bound to increase as more and more activities, including those related to urbaniza­ homes obtain access to growing numbers of tion in a more energy-effective way. As many

43 alternative forms of energy production draw on ment. Methodologies for assessing this impact climate-related resources, climate services may locally, as well as on larger scales, have been also pave the way for the utilization of new and developed and transferred to NMHSs. ~ir :pollu­ renewable forms of energy. tion dispersion modelling has heeri ins

Hydropower

Hybrid power plant (a 20 kW windmill combined with Further development of hydropower as a major solar cells and a diesel generator) for telecommunications component in national and regional energy sup­ purposes at 0lst, Denmark ply systems has been encouraged. As an 44 A wind farm in California, USA example, it is estimated that the hydropower large-scale wind energy projects will obviously potential of the Zambezi river is large enough to vary, depending on operational conditions, but satisfy the needs of the whole of Africa at the any such development needs to be based on a present rate of consumption. NMHSs in a water­ reliable climate service. The development of shed region should already have most data such services has to be negotiated with those required for the determination of hydropower responsible for energy production. potential and these could be provided as an appropriate climate service, together with rele­ Solar energy vant hydrological information. The requirements The use of soJar energy takes many varying for information include river-flow data or, if these forms, from application of passive solar energy are not available, the generation of assessments features in the emerging area of "solar architec­ based on rainfall/runoff correlations. Furthermore, ture" to the generation of electricity in sophisti­ there is a need for site-specific data and infor­ cated solar energy plants. So-called "low tem­ mation related to the feasibility for adequate perature applications" include crop drying and water storage (reservoirs) to regulate the flows. water heating. This later technique is being widely applied in several countries and many Wind energy governments provide subsidies and soft loans Climate information for assessing wind-energy for households, enterprises, hotels, etc., to potential is normally available from the NMHS. purchase or incorporate solar water-heaters. In The information should be sufficiently accurate the tropics, temperatures of solar-heated water for assessing the potential for use of wind power may reach ?ooc or higher and may provide for for such purposes as pumping water for human the majority of the needs for "warm water". consumption or for irrigation. Electrical pumps Through appropriate architectural design, may be utilized, where winds are favourable solar energy can be used to minimize the need and water may be pumped and stored in reser­ for additional energy for space heating or cool­ voirs for use during periods of droughts. Wind ing. Other examples of solar energy utilization energy may still be useful for grinding cereals, include desalination of sea-water. This technol­ as in ancient times, and it will increasingly be ogy, though believed to be expensive, has used for generating electricity. Successful appli­ become an important source of water supply in cation of large wind farms requires more water-scarce countries and especially on small sophisticated meteorological data and informa­ isolated islands, where the storage of freshwa­ tion. Examples of such large-scale implementa­ ter is problematic. So-called "high temperature tion of wind energy can be found in the USA, solar energy applications" include solar energy especially in California, in India and in Scandi­ steam production and the fast growing field of navia. (See also item in "News and Notes" in photovoltaic energy. The potential for further this issue, p. 89. (Ed.)) The services required development of economically viable solar energy from the meteorological community in these applications is deemed most promising and

45 here the need for more reliable climate informa­ being re-styled, regionalized and even global­ tion is obvious. The basic resource for solar ized with refined model outputs from powerful energy development and use is the availability computers. This will provide a basis for improved of solar radiation and thus directly climate­ climate services to the energy sector. The related. NMHSs normally possess a wealth of recent world summits on issues related to the climate information, which would greatly facili­ environment (UNCED, Rio de Janeiro, 1992; and tate economically viable development and Habitat 11, Istanbul, 1996) have clearly spelled operations of future solar energy projects. out the urgency of saving the planet from threats such as those related to climate change. Concluding remarks lt is therefore increasingly the duty of the WMO With present-day technology, renewable energy and the NMHSs to provide relevant climate ser­ can cater for between 15 and 20 per cent of vices to lead the way towards sustainable devel­ the world's requirements. With better planning, opment and to promote new initiatives in the greater determination and more refined tech­ energy sector. At the same time, climate ser­ nology, this proportion could be substantially vices will be asserting themselves as effective increased. Traditional weather forecasting is and innovative activities. o

CLIMATE SERVICES FOR TOURISM AND RECREATION

By l. LECHAl AND P. SHACKLEFORD2

With very, very few exceptions we are only "climate change" at a rate and magnitude much paying lip service to the ideals of protecting the greater than has been known hitherto, even on environment through sustainable tourism. At the same time we are repeating over and over a local scale. again the mistakes of the past by going after The socio-economic importance of tourism the big numbers. is of global dimensions; in many countries, These were the words of the Secretary-General especially on tropical islands, it is the dominant of the World Tourism Organization (WTO), Mr E. industry. Tourism has become, directly or indi­ Enrfquez Savignac, when he inaugurated a rectly, responsible for emissions of greenhouse tourist fair in Berlin, Germany, in 1995. WTO gases and other environmental impacts. The forecasts that international tourist arrivals will high-quality services demanded by tourists top one billion by the year 2010, but to that require energy-intensive infrastuctures and many should be added a rapidly expanding domestic recreational activities place special demands tourism. In many respects, tourism and recre­ on energy availability. The increased demand ation are already today one of the largest indus­ could often be met by the use of new and renew­ trial sectors in the world. able sources of energy, primarily based on Tourism andrecreation depend in many solar energy, which is normally abundant in different ways on weather and climate. For most most areas favoured by tourists. outdoor recreational activities and many forms Environmental deterioration arising from of tourism, climate is a basic resource. Tourists tourism may, in some cases, threaten the very travel far from home in search of warm and conditions that formed the original attraction. sunny conditions on the beach or for good ski­ Efforts to establish schemes for "sustainable ing conditions at high altitude. As they travel, tourism development" have to be based on a they experience great variations in environmen­ firm understanding of the interaction between tal conditions. In some cases, these cause tourism/recreation and the environment, includ­ stress and discomfort and even, in extreme sit­ ing impacts on human health. Climate services uations, pose excessive risks to their health. In oriented to the tourism sector are aimed at many cases, travellers today are exposed to improving this development and providing the necessary information for the safe and prof­ 1 lnstituto de Meteorologfa, Havana, Cuba itable operation of facilities and activities. WMO 2 Chief, Environment and Planning, World Tourism has, together with WTO, prepared the Hand­ Organization, Madrid, Spain book on Disaster Prevention in Tourism Areas.

46 on the combined beneficial effect of relaxation and a "healthy climate". The development of cli­ matotherapeutical treatments requires high­ quality climate information and prediction ser­ vices as well as a thorough understanding of how the meteorological information can be applied medically. Climate services for the tourist and recre­ ational sector include the provision of climato­ logical characteristics as input to various types of decision models-objective or subjective­ in support of development projects. This includes climatological mapping of land and resources considered for different types of recreational activities. Obvious examples are the develop­ Information on river flows and water levels is vital for ment of ski-resorts and sea-bathing, sailing, those engagiNg in whitewater sports canoeing and whitewater rafting facilities. Other examples of activity developments where cli­ Many national Meteorological and Hydro­ mate has to be considered are camping facili­ meteorological Services are already providing ties, health resorts, hiking trails, golf courses, extensive weather and climate information to tennis courts and other sport arenas. the tourist industry for planning and operational Climate and weather conditions are thus to purposes. Special weather outlooks and fore­ be considered in the operation of many tourist and casts are issued as a service for tourism oper­ recreational activities. Optimal exploitation is ators and travellers. The issue of five- and, in frequently dictated by expected weather condi­ some countries, up to 30-day special forecasts, tions. In order to ensure minimal risks and opti­ is stimulating further growth of what are now mal economic viability, major sporting events should termed "spontaneous short-break holidays", be planned on the basis of climatological proba­ especially in the shoulder months. Many coun­ bilities under the guidance of professional advice tries issue information regarding ultraviolet and with specialized weather services, as radiation and the associated risks of exposure appropriate. The potential risk for disruptive in the form of special indices and advice on severe weather needs to be considered; special suitable protection. warnings and alerts may be needed to reduce Climatotherapy has become widely recog­ the risk of failure. In extreme cases, this will also nized as an important form of tourism, drawing ensure the safety of life and property. o

MODERNIZATION OF THE NATIONAL METEOROLOGICAL SERVICE OF MEXICO

By G. ENRIQUE 0RTEGA GIL *

Historical background During the same year, seven meteorological observing stations also started operations. The Central Meteorological Observatory, prede­ In 1901, the Central Meteorological cessor of the present National Meteorological Observatory started expanding the network of Service (NMS), was created on 6 March 1877. stations and organizing the NMS, aimed at sat­ isfying the requirements of agriculture and promoting economic activities in various clima­ * Manager, National Meteorological Service, Mexico tological regions throughout the country. 47 NEW DIGITAL RADARS PUERTO ANGEL ____;:: ...... ~· I .;:::.~~--4~~, MODERNIZED ANALOGUE RADARS

Mexican NMS: (above) radar network (coverage at 10 km a.s.l.) and (below) radiosonde network

11 automatic stations '

•' 5 manual stations ' l EMPALME T CHIHUAHUA q

TORREON

' T.UADALAJARA .!, ·oF ISLA SOCORRO' I '

By 1926, the number of weather stations works, equipped with conventional instruments, had risen to 50 and after 1930 the climatological comprised 79 synoptic stations, 5 270 clima­ station network had also expanded, as the pop­ tological stations, five analogue weather radars, ulation in the country increased. At the end of the 10 radiosonde stations, and one GOES meteo­ 1980s, the climatological and meteorological net- rological satellite imagery receiving station.

48 Nevertheless, NMS efficient operation was with specialized training in meteorology and hampered by the lack of a sufficient number of related fields 2. suitably trained personnel, obsolescence of equip­ The staff who joined the Service under this ment and instruments, and, in general, by lack of programme had first participated in a workshop a system for preventive maintenance and repair. for WMO Class IV3 meteorological personnel. Since 1988, the National Water Commission The NMS had also awarded fellowships to nine (NWC) has been the federal government institu­ staff members to carry out postgraduate stud­ tion responsible for providing the public with ies abroad. These persons gradually returned meteorological, climatological and hydrometric and joined the Service or other related institutions. information. lt is also responsible for the opera­ Other activities within the programme included tion of reservoirs for flood control and intervenes, on-the-job training of specialists in Meteorologi­ within the National Civil Defence System, to assist cal Services of countries in Region IV, participa­ the population during emergencies caused by tion in courses and technical conferences of meteorological phenomena. Meteorological ser­ WMO, as well as in workshops aimed at improv­ vices for civil aviation are provided by the Min­ ing daily operations. istry of Communications and Transport, through Staff who were already working at the the Service for Navigation in the Mexican Air observing stations and whose education was Space, at 56 national and international airports lower than university level participated in work­ in the country. Services for military aviation are shops and training seminars for Class Ill and IV provided by the Ministry of Defence, through personnel, organized with the support of the the Mexican Air Force. Mexican Institute for Water Technology (IMTA). During the period 1989-1994, the NWC carried out the first phase of the modernization Equipment of the NMS which had as its main objective the Modernization included the installation of auto­ improvement of 24- and 48-hour weather fore­ matic observing and telecommunication networks, casts, through the: consisting of seven new digital radars, five mod­ ernized analogue radars, 600 automatic clima­ • Provision of training courses and refresh­ 4 ing programmes for operational staff; tological stations and 65 automatic synoptic weather stations, one ground station receiving • Establishment of new networks for data data from the 665 automatic stations and 11 collection in real time, and radiosonde stations, one station receiving imagery • Initiation of the systematic management, from GOES-8, and a private telecommunication processing and dissemination of information. network for transmitting data via the integrated digital network and from the Mexican satellite Human resources SOLIDARIDAD. The provision of training and refresher programmes for personnel is a fundamental element of mod­ Information management ernization. Consequently, a training programme The main products of the NMS are meteorolog­ was developed for meteorologists and profes­ ical warnings and bulletins provided to the sionals in related fields; technical specialists National Civil Defence System. The NMS's were also appointed to serve in the main oper­ National Weather Forecasting Centre analyses ational centres of the NMS. the basic meteorological infoKmation on vari­ The programme involved: defining the qual­ ous space- and time-scales in order to prepare ifications of required staff, adopting selection short- and medium-range weather forecasts, as criteria, designing training courses and setting of well as warnings of tropical disturbances and a specific course from specialists in hydraulics1, severe storms which may affect the country. in order to be able to select outstanding students, The weather forecasts produced are now of incorporate them in the Service and provide them good quality, based on various sources of infor-

1 The course on hydraulics made it possible to progress quickly with the organization of working teams composed of personnel who had learned the characteristics and possibilities of the new equipment. 2 Mexican universities do not award the degree of "Licenciado in Meteorology". 3 WMO classification 4 200 have water level sensors and are located at the country's main reservoirs.

49 ( Users ) t Data I ~ I Telecot_Dmuni-~ ~ Data ~ Information ~uisition •cations ....,___ management ....,___ processing

Surface network Radio Quality control Analysis Upper-air net- Telephone Storage Forecasting work Ground stations Bulletins Satellites Fibre optics and Warnings satellite network

Operations of the Mexican national Meteorological Service mation, including satellite and radar imagery, In order to be able to receive meteorologi­ DIFAX charts, synoptic data, data from automatic cal data and products from Region IV and global climatological stations and radiosonde stations, NWP model outputs, there will be, as from 1996, numerical model outputs from regional and world a connection to the World Area Forecast System centres, and the meteorologists' own experience. (WAFS) as well as to Internet, whereby real-time Systems are being developed, using automated radar data will be exchanged with the US National methods for analysis and synthesis of meteoro­ Weather Service. logical information, thus permitting quality con­ Basic meteorological data are collected in trol and the timely issue of forecasts. real-time over the telecommunication system The dissemination of the NMS's meteoro­ which includes the GTS, GOES-8 and the private logical products is mainly effected via fax and, network of the National Water Commission using since 1994, via modem to most users connected the satellite SOLIDARIDAD. to the NMS data network . . As regards the management of climatologi­ Meteorological network cal information, a first step towards the estab­ Radiosonde network lishment of a data bank was the digitization of data from 5 270 climatological stations for the The radiosonde stations measure pressure, tem­ period 1961-1990. To date, 1 534 million bytes perature, relative humidity, wind speed and direc­ of information are available from 5 325 climato­ tion from the surface up to an altitude of 30 km. logical stations, corresponding to 250 million Nine automatic stations using the Omega Earth daily temperature, rainfall and evaporation data, location system transmit processed information utilizing the WMO's CLICOM system. The CLICOM via the GOES satellite; two automatic stations system and the digitized climatological informa­ using radiotheodolite as reference system trans­ tion have been transferred through training work­ mit via telephone-type channels; and five manual shops to the main government and academic stations transmit data via modem. The information institutions which use the information. The aim is stored on the NMS's database and processed on is to promote the use of the data to up-to-date a workstation which decodes and presents the knowledge of the country's climate. data received in a suitable format for weather fore­ casters and other users; the SONDA program is Current situation used to plot radiosonde thermograms. Since 1988, the NMS's resources have expanded to reach (a) 87 specialists in meteorology and Weather radar network related areas, (b) a new real-time data acquisi­ The NMS has a network of 12 radars (five mod­ tion network made up of 665 automatic stations, ernized and seven new) for storm detection, 11 new radiosonde stations, five modernized quantitative rainfall estimation, and wind-finding. radars and seven new digital radars, (c) a net­ The current network is mainly designed for work of PCs, (d) a computerized data bank, and detecting and monitoring tropical storms, the (e) a digital telecommunication network. most severe phenomena affecting the country.

50 The radars' scanning radius is 460 km (120 km minimum and maximum values over each 15- in Doppler mode). minute period for wind speed and direction, tem­ The information from each radar is collected perature, humidity, pressure, water-level and via the SouDARIDAD satellite at the Weather Fore­ 15-minute cumulative precipitation. The original casting Centre in Mexico City, with images up­ data relating to all previous transmissions remain dated every 15 minutes. Each radar's process­ on-line for one month. ing equipment generates images which are stored The information received from the automatic in a computer and transmitted to the NMS instal­ network is stored in the SAMIC system but, until lations via the NWC telecommunication network. they have been in operation for a reasonable Work is currently under way to develop a program period (three years), the databases of the auto­ to calibrate rainfall and wind products from radar matic stations will not include the information stations. from the conventional meteorological and clima­ tological stations. A programme is currently also Synoptic observing network being designed for the calibration of the sensors The NMS's synoptic network is made up of 72 in the 665 automatic stations. conventional stations which measure meteoro­ logical variables, transmit synoptic reports con­ Information from meteorological satellites taining individual or cumulative observations in Operation of the GOES-8 reception system FM 12-IX SYNOP code form every three hours started in June 1994, permitting the acquisi­ in real time, and prepare monthly and annual tion, processing, management, dissemination climatological statistics. and storage of imagery in the infrared, visible At the end of each month, CLIMAT (FM and water-vapour bands. The configuration of 71-IV CLIMAT) and CLIMEX reports are broad­ the acquisition and display stations includes an cast containing mean values for most of the Ethernet port and the stations are linked to the parameters observed at each station. NMS data network. GOES-8 satellite imagery is At the NMS, the Weather Forecasting Centre converted by programs developed by the NMS uses the real-time data to prepare meteorologi­ into a new format and bit maps and is trans­ cal bulletins and warnings, and the Climatology ferred using NFS to a local network server for Unit is responsible for managing the databases display and processing by the computers at the and broadcasts to the various users. Weather Forecasting Centre and used by mete­ orologists to prepare advisories and forecasts. Network of automatic weather stations This network has 65 stations which transmit Telecommunication network every three hours, via satellite, data on rainfall, For the collection of meteorological information wind speed, and run of the wind and direction, the NMS has a radio station, a network of sin­ solar radiation, pressure, temperature and rela­ gle side band radios, switched telephone-type tive humidity. The information is transmitted via channels and private links, as well as satellite GOES-8, received by a data-collection platform links for the reception of: and processed at a workstation which decodes • Data from climatological, hydroclimatologi­ and stores the reports in a database. cal, synoptic and radiosonde stations via During 1993 and 1994, 400 climatcilogical GOES-8; and 200 hydroclimatological stations were installed. They provide continuous wind-speed • Imagery from the GOES-8 geostationary and direction, temperature, humidity, pressure, satellite or, alternatively, from GOES-9; precipitation and water-level data. They process • Surface synoptic and radiosonde data, and store the information on a RAM and trans­ meteorological charts and special warnings mit it every three hours via GOES-8. issued by RSMC Miami National Hurricane To handle the information from the network Center via SPACENET 4, which is to be replaced of automatic surface stations, the Climatologi­ by the World Area Forecast System (WAFS); callnformation Collection and Management Sys­ tem (SAMIC) was developed. it produces isoline • Radar imagery via SOUDARIDAD. charts, reports and diagrams covering the main For the broadcasting of meteorological meteorological variables. The information avail­ information and products the NMS utilizes able on the data network consists of average, radio, telephone, fax and modem. Products are

51 distributed by a fax automatic system to some • To increase the capacity for processing 300 users. There is daily round-the-clock avail­ historical and real-time information and set ability of digitized data over the switched tele­ up procedures, systems and databanks to phone channels. At present, 50 users are sup­ take maximum advantage of meteorologi­ plied via direct modem access to the NMS data cal and climatological information; network, on which the main products available • To increase the capacity for distributing are NMS bulletins and warnings, GOES-8 the NMS's products, especially in the event imagery, radar imagery, data from the automatic of extreme weather conditions. and other meteorological stations, radiosonde information, warnings from RSMC Miami National The programme spans 20 years. Specific pro­ Hurricane Center, DIFAX products, daily rainfall grammes for the next five years include: person­ charts (isohyets), and daily national rainfall nel training to increase the current 14 per cent reports. An Internet node is being installed to of specialists in meteorology to 42 per cent at facilitate broadcasting of the NMS's products. the beginning of the next century; preventive main­ tenance and repair of the network; calibration Second phase of the NMS's modernization of instruments and equipment; installation of In 1995, the NWC adopted a strategy of modern­ systems to automate operations and ensure a ization, including the transformation of internal highly reliable telecommunication system. procedures, operational methods and technol­ In particular, it is planned to create a ogy to consolidate the institution's scientific and research and development section to introduce technological development, with the overall aim advanced technology, train a group to explore of improving its service to society. For this pur­ options for commercializing the NMS's products, pose, a feasibility study is being made of the and carry out studies to obtain numerical mod­ project Modernization of Water Management in els as operational tools and to acquire deeper Mexico (PROMMA), which will be implemented knowledge of the meteorological and climatic with a loan from the World Bank. phenomena affecting the country. As a participant in PROMMA, the NMS is As the 21st century approaches, the complete planning the second stage of its modernization, modernization of the NMS has the aim, shared with the general objective being to provide a timely, NMSs throughout the world, of meeting a growing quality public service oriented towards forecast­ public demand for increased protection, and to ing extreme hydrometeorological phenomena have available reliable, timely information to as far as possible in advance. improve productivity and well-being. 0 Over the next six years, highest priority will be given to the maintenance and rehabilitation of existing networks with more attention being WMO publications in Arabic and Chinese paid to the assimilation of scientific and techno­ Readers are reminded that some WMO logical progress and, hence, better knowledge publications are not issued in English, of atmospheric conditions to improve forecasts. French, Russian and Spanish only: the final As a result, substantial capacity building is needed reports of the Executive Council and in the NMS as regards both meteorology and Congress are available in Arabic, as well as climatology but a highly competent group con­ the final reports of Regional Associations I cerned with electronic instrumentation, telecom­ (Africa) and 11 (Asia); final reports of the munications and computers will ensure proper Executive Council are henceforth (starting supervision of contracts for maintenance and with EC-XLVIII) also available in Chinese; operation of the various networks, as well as to Basic Documents (WMO-No. 15) is pub­ plan their future evolution. lished in Arabic and Chinese. The Com­ The main foci of action planned for this pendium of Lecture Notes in Climatology for phase are: Class Ill and Class IV Personnel (WMO-No. • To strengthen the technical capacity of the 726) and the Compendium of Lecture Notes NMS's personnel; in Marine Meteorology for Class Ill and • To consolidate network operation to Class IV Personnel (WMO-No. 434) in the ensure the continuous acquisition of WMO Training Series are now also avail­ quality-controlled data and gradual expan­ able in Arabic. (Ed.) sion of the network;

52 LOW-COST MEDIA WEATHER PRESENTATION SYSTEMS

By Peter BUDGENl, Bryn W. BETTANY2, David J. GRIGGS1 and Chris SEAR2

Introduction Improving the situation A most effective way of informing the general In response to requests from some African coun­ public about the weather, both present and fore­ tries for help in improving the presentation of cast, is through the medium of television. In the weather forecasts on TV, a compact, low-cost United Kingdom, this fact was recognized as system was developed by the Natural Resources long ago as 1954, when a forecaster from the Institute (NRI), part of the Overseas Development Meteorological Office was given the task of pre­ Administration in the United Kingdom. lt was senting the weather forecast in person on BBC noted by NRI that in countries in Africa, where Television on a regular basis. By modern stan­ they were involved in a number of environmen­ dards, this presentation was crude, relying on tal projects under their Local Application of hand-drawn charts from the London Weather Remote Sensing Techniques (LARST) initiative, Centre, which had then to be taken by under­ neither the local television station nor the ground train to the studio. The chart details were national Meteorological Service (NMS) could sup­ redrawn in the studio onto the reverse of a port the type of weather studio that is employed transparent plastic screen to prevent smudging by countries in Europe or America, for example. during the presentation. The number of trained staff or amount of equip­ Such was the immediate impact with the ment needed would be beyond the economic general public that TV weather forecast presen­ means of even the combined efforts of the tele­ tations are now an essential part of virtually vision station and the NMS. In some developing every TV station's daily output throughout the countries, the standard of quality required for world. Forecasters from the Met. Office are still consistency with other domestic television pro­ giving presentations of the weather on BBC Tele­ grammes is not as high as that demanded else­ vision, although the number per day has risen where. This fact, combined with the willingness dramatically from one to about 50 over the dif­ to compromise, gave the impetus to devise a ferent national and international channels. Great low-cost media presentation system. use is made of high technology, not only in vis­ ual techniques, but in the amount of varied data Broadcast quality that can be drawn upon, such as satellite images, Broadcast quality is a term which might be weather radar images and numerical weather perceived to mean the highest quality output prediction (NWP) products. which is currently expedient. Thus there will Although these sophisticated presentations be within one evening's viewing a mix of video are now commonplace in many countries, some sources, from state-of-the-art triple CCD stu­ do not have access to such facilities, either dio cameras, through what were state-of-the­ through lack of the necessary equipment, exper­ art cameras five years ago, down to material tise or funds. Some presentations of weather on originated on domestic Hi-8 camcorders. TV are made using the most basic equipment, such as magnetic symbols on steel map-boards, The crucial part of weather forecasts seen where the symbols have often lost their mag­ on most televisions today is the combination of netism or have even been lost. Other countries live video (of the presenter) and computer­ have had to rely on affixing paper synoptic generated graphics, usually maps, images and charts or satellite images onto pin-boards. tables of data. Recent advances in computer technology have brought down the cost of plug­ in cards for personal computers (PCs), which 1 United Kingdom Meteorological Office allow this combination of live video and computer 2 Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, United Kingdom graphics. The competitive pricing policy of some

53 The tape of the broadcast is given to the =='re to go on air

Output tl·om the timebase corrector goes to the ___.:

The presenter stands or sits in front of a blue screen; taking his or her cue from the monitor next to the camera output from the camera goes The computer displays the to the CHROMAKEY card in the graphics image compnter

The NRI Media System-a simplified studio layout without lighting software manufacturers has meant that profes­ A monitor is mounted as close as possible to the sional graphics software is similarly affordable. lens axis, so that the presenter can check his/her The NRI approach is to equip a self-contained position while addressing the audience without a production studio within the NMS with low-cost noticeable shift in eye direction. This is an impor­ hardware, and software that enables the forecast­ tant point in order to maintain direct eye contact ers to record their own forecasts at "broadcast with the audience. A miniature microphone quality" (see box on previous page). These pre­ attached to the presenter's lapel is connected to sentations on video-tape are then delivered to the the video tape-recorder to provide the sound television studio for broadcast at the appropriate commentary. time. Although such an approach means the The video signal is passed from the camera "live" element of the broadcasts is lost, there to a CHROMAKEY card in the PC. When the rele­ are significant gains: no mistake in the delivery vant software is engaged, the card enables the and a far greater clarity in the presentation using PC to combine the image from the camera with modern animation software. From this clarity any current computer image wherever there is comes the opportunity to offer far greater detail blue in the live video signal. The weather fore­ and thus improved usefulness to a wider group cast computer graphics are prepared prior to of end-users. The system can also include satel­ the presentation and then assembled into a lite images of both cloud and environmental fea­ "script" of images within the animation software. tures, such as drying river beds or remote During the presentation, the presenter can dis­ areas which are becoming breeding areas for play each of these images in sequence at the insect pests (e.g. locusts). appropriate point by means of a hand-held micro­ switch or mouse. The output from the CHRO­ Structure of the system MAKEY card of the combined camera and com­ The figure above is a diagram of the structure of puter image signal is passed to the video-recorder. the NRI Media System. In the studio, the If necessary, this signal can first be routed weather forecast presenter stands in front of a through a time base corrector which smoothes blue screen, facing a video camera, which is set out the combined computer/video signal to give up at eye-level about two to three metres away. stability for recording.

54 Two monitors are supplied with the NRI mon viewpoint, however, a sequence of geo­ Media System. One is positioned immediately stationary satellite images can be made and next to the camera lens, while the second can shown as a movie to highlight patterns of cloud be located to one side of the presenter. This development and movement. All the software has proved useful during initial training, because can operate on a PC with a minimum specifica­ it allows the presenter to judge his position from tion of a 486 SOMHz processor with 8 Mb of the side, whilst actually pointing at the blue RAM and a 270 Mb hard disk. screen. However, continued use of this monitor Although the principal use of the system is is detrimental to the quality of presentation if for the production of TV presentations, NMSs the presenter fails to address the camera. As also have customers requiring hardcopy output more experience is gained with the system, for newspaper inserts and separate specialized this monitor is removed, but remains available bulletins. A desktop publishing (DTP) software as a back-up. package is therefore also included, which pro­ NRI carried out a number of tests to deter­ duces hardcopy output through a colour inkjet mine the most suitable type of camera to use printer. An optional item that can be included in with the system. Cameras with a separate Y/C the system is a colour scanner. output (commonly referred to as a SVHS (super When supplying the equipment for a com­ video home system) are capable of giving broad­ plete self-contained production studio, the NRI cast quality results when used in conjunction provides every item needed to start recording with professional quality video tape-recorders. presentations. The equipment includes a PC The tests showed that the professional, triple with CHROMAKEY card and CD-ROM drive, triple CCD (charge coupled device) cameras performed CCD video camera (or camcorder) with tripod the best, but high-end domestic products such stand, video-recorder, monitor, lapel microphone, as the Sony VXl triple CCD Hi-8 camcorder gave lights and stands, blue background screen and acceptable results. Single CCD Hi-8 camcorders various cables and accessories. Back-up spares show a slight drop in quality, but can be included for the PC, CHROMAKEY card, camera, recorder in such systems as a back-up if the financial and monitor are also provided. For the DTP budget is restricted. applications, a colour inkjet printer is also The remote nature of the studio determined included. All the necessary animation, map pro­ that the video recording machines should be duction and DTP software is provided. compatible with those used by the local televi­ sion studios. At first, these were in a format Deployment of the systems called Hi-Band U-MATIC SP. However, most tele­ The first NRI Media System was installed in vision companies are gradually moving over to Ethiopia in 1994. it was fortunate that some the BETACAM SP format. Ethiopia NMS forecasters were already experi­ The software used to generate the graph­ enced TV weather presenters and had only to ics for the forecast is Autodesk Animator Pro, adapt to the new computer-based system. Pre­ operating at a screen resolution of 640 x 480 viously, they had used hand-drawn charts and pixels and 256 colours. This has been found to images taken straight from the satellite receiver be adequate for the application. The program and pinned to a backing board. Following a short is competitively priced and can be learned training course in operating the system, the pre­ quickly to an elementary level. More sophisti­ senters were able to use it in their new presen­ cated animation sequences can be constructed tations. Such was the enthusiastic response from as the operator becomes more proficient. Ele­ the general public and government bodies that mentary techniques include the design of mete­ esteem for the whole NMS was raised immedi­ orological symbols, such as cloud, wind speed ately. For the first time they were easily able to and direction, sunshine, precipitation, tempera­ show the relationship between the changing ture and so on, and applying these to separate sequences of cloud cover observed from satel­ images of suitable background maps, which lites and actual weather in the various regions are also provided with the system. of the country. By using conversion software in the system, NRI provided the development facilities and images from satellites can be shown in Anima­ funds for the provision of the equipment for the tor Pro. NOAA polar-orbiting satellite images are Ethiopia system. However, the United Kingdom usually shown individually. Because of a corn- Met. Office had been working in collaboration

55 with NRI on the provision of MDD and PDUS sys­ gible improvement in government funding to tems to various countries throughout Africa under the NMS, enabling those Services to improve the WMO Voluntary Cooperation Programme (VCP). their operations and provision of services to Having seen the immediate positive effect of other customers. ; such media weather presentations systems, the Met. Office realized the benefits they could Present and future developments bring to NMSs. A decision was taken to provide Although training in the operation of the system a number of the systems to other WMO Mem­ is relatively easy to achieve, to the point where bers under the VCP. Since the Ethiopia system the forecasters can produce their own presen­ was installed, others have been donated to the tations unaided, and even develop their reper­ African Centre of Meteorological Application for toire of technical effects, it was recognized Development in Niger and to Ghana, Kenya and that presenting weather forecasts on television Seychelles, as well as the provision of back-up is more than just standing in front of a camera and additional equipment not originally supplied with a succession of sophisticated images to Ethiopia. The Namibian Government also self­ being shown in the background. The tech­ funded a system in late-1994. A further three niques in actually delivering the presentation to systems are scheduled for installation in 1996 the audience demand more than just knowing in Gambia, Tanzania and Uganda, with others where the next rain is going to fall or where it under active consideration elsewhere. will continue hot and sunny. The ability to be In all these countries the beneficial effect able to communicate that knowledge in an has been instantly noted, with praise for the understandable and informative way to the non­ NMS being received from many influential sources. specialized viewer is a skill that also has to be In more than one country there has been a tan- acquired.

The TV weather presentation studio at the Kenya Meteorological Department. Public and government awareness of a national Meteorological Service can be significantly improved when the quality of public television weather presentations is raised, often leading to increased funding. Photo: Natural Resources Institute

56 During installation of the NRI Media System, weather in time and area. Integration of images instruction is given not only on the operation of from polar-orbiting and geostationary satellites the system, but some basic presentation tech­ can be achieved in the presentations. Although, niques are also covered. These include the at the moment, the NRI Media System has the more obvious ones, such as not wearing blue capability of producing broadcast quality video clothing which will be replaced on-screen by recordings comparable to others in use in the the computer images, and remembering to host country, improvements can still be made face the camera as much as possible. How­ to the system to improve the picture quality of ever, presentation techniques go much further the system. This would arise from a combina­ than these examples. it has been noted that tion of improvements to hardware and soft­ forecasters have usually come from a back­ ware. However, there would be a significant ground of briefing specialists in their own field, increase in the overall cost of the system. such as aviation. As such, the information Further improvements could be added to these specialists require varies considerably the system by linking to an external direct source from what the general television viewer is inter­ of data, such that NWP products of actual and ested in. For instance, the concept of "fine" forecast synoptic charts, wind flow patterns, weather for an airline pilot can be considerably etc., could be shown directly on the screen. How­ different for a member of the general public. ever, these resources would not necessarily be Jargon must be kept to a minimum. While avia­ easily available in developing countries for which tion customers may understand perfectly well this system was originally envisaged. about fronts or the relationship between the rel­ ative spacing of isobars and surface wind, the Conclusion general television viewers are unlikely to know. it has been amply demonstrated that public To attempt to remedy this aspect, two awareness of a national Meteorological Service workshops fn Nairobi and Singapore have been can be significantly improved when the quality organized by WMO in conjunction with the of public television weather and newspaper United Kingdom Met. Office and the BBC. A presentations is raised. The lowering of the specialist TV weather forecaster/presenter and price of suitable computer hardware and soft­ television producer travelled to both sites to ware has allowed the development of relatively inform meteorological and television technical low-cost media presentation systems to be staff from a number of countries within the deployed in countries that would not have pre­ region about ways to improve their own weather viously been able to afford such systems. presentations. Not only were techniques in Although not necessarily as sophisticated as delivering forecasts covered, but also technical some of those used in developed countries, aspects, such as how to light the studio, how these media presentation systems do repre­ to present graphical materials, and so on. sent a vast improvement over what has hith- The two-week workshops were both well erto been in operation. o attended and the participants responded well to the topics that were covered. There was a posi­ tive improvement in the performance of all par­ ticipants in their approach to presenting weather Erratum forecasts on television. A number of participants The legend to the photo at the bottom of have returned to their respective countries and page 376 of the English edition of WMO made suggestions on how their own TV weather Bulletin 45 (4) (October 1996) should read presentations can be improved. it is hoped that as follows: "Mme Genevieve Guiard-Gerbier further similar workshops will be carried out with some of the joint winners of the 1996 again in the future as part of the WMO Public Norbert GERBIER-MUMM International Weather Services Programme. Award (from left to right): Messrs M. N. The NRI Media System in its current con­ Ward, C. K. Folland, A. W. Colman and K. figuration will be able to improve greatly on the Lane. The title of the successful paper was amount and style of information that can be 'Experimental seasonal forecasting of trop­ delivered. Current and forecast weather can be ical rainfall at the UK Meteorological demonstrated by the use of symbols, including Office"'. (Ed.) animation, to show the development of 57 From other journals

Rain shadows offer opportunity case. A centre peaked roof is better for collect­ By Robert S. SCHEMENAUER ing rain falling at an angle. Even better would be Cloud Physics Research Division of Environment, to eliminate the peak and have a roof with a sin­ Atmospheric Environment Service, Canada gle slope rising up from the windward side. This, however, might look a little odd, so a more rea­ sonable approach is to put a vertical panel along This article is reproduced from Ceres, the FAO the peak of the roof. Even a small panell m Review, No. 158, 28 (2) high can significantly increase the amount of A rainy day can be good weather for households rain collected in windy weather. in need of a free supply of water. The origin of all the fresh water the world uses, whether from Making use of rain shadows surface or underground sources, is precipitation. The reason for the increased collection is the A simple way to collect this precipitation is to rig existence of rain shadows behind each vertical up pipes to carry rainwater from rooftop gutters part of the house-the west wall, the peak of to a cistern, but that means making do with what­ the roof and the panel on the roof. When the ever water happens to run off the roof. A far bet­ wind blows rain against one side of the vertical ter way is to design a more efficient catchment wall, the rain-free area on the other side is known system by modifying the position of the house as a rain shadow. The wall will collect the rain and construction of the roof. that would have fallen in the rain-shadow area The first step is to understand something of in the absence of the wall. The rain collected the physics of rain. Each raindrop has a diameter by a house designed to make use of rain shad­ of 0.5 to 5 mm. Each rainfall has a spectrum of ows can be two or three times as much as the drop sizes with most of the larger drops being 2 rain collected by a house with a simple flat roof or 3 mm in diameter. Drops of 0.04 to 0.5 mm collection system. are called drizzle and [those] of 0.001 to 0.04 mm form clouds or fog. Taking the measurements In still air, a drop with a diameter of 0.1 mm falls vertically at about 25 cm s-1, a 0.5 mm drop The sizes of the rain-shadow areas can be at 2 m s-1 and a 5 mm drop at 9 m s-1. The determined by measuring the wind speed effect of a wind of even a few metres per second and inferring the droplet sizes from the mea­ is to push the drops sideways so they fall at an sured rainfall rates. Once the rain-shadow angle. The stronger the wind or the smaller the area is determined, it is possible to use a drops, the closer to horizontal will be their path. raingauge to measure the rainfall on the When it is raining and there is a strong west ground and calculate the amount of water wind, it is logical to seek shelter on the east side that should be collected. Climatological data of the house. By the same logic, it is from the for the locality will reveal the prevailing wind west side that the most rain can be collected. direction during rainfalls and average wind speed and rainfall rate. Then, informed deci­ Positioning the house sion can be made on how to orient new vil­ The house should stand free of any trees or taller lages or individual buildings and which build­ buildings that would intercept precipitation. Its ings are best suited for modification to length should face the wind and it should have improve their rainfall collection. an eavestrough (rain gutter) at the bottom of the Using the rain-shadow concept can improve west wall to collect the rain striking and running any effort to collect precipitation. In particular, it down the wall. can make a critical difference in semi-arid or mountainous areas where there is frequent driz­ Designing the roof zle but little heavy rain and, not only is the total A flat roof is an efficient rain collector only if the mount of precipitation low, but the drops tend rain falls straight down, which is not normally the to move toward the the horizontal. 0

58 Anniversary THE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF METEOROLOGY OF PORTUGAL CELEBRATES ITS 50TH ANNIVERSARY

By A. DA COSTA MALHEIROl

Events to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the General of WMO, who attended the celebration Institute of Meteorology (IM} of Portugal, began on behalf of the Secretary-General, Prof. G. 0. P. in Lisbon on 3 October 1996. A ceremony, pre­ Obasi, and expressed his appreciation for the sided by the State Secretary Assistant to the support and encouragement received from the Minister of Environment, Mr Jose Socrates, Organization. opened with a short performance of the IM staff On behalf of Prof. Obasi, Dr Zaitsev made choir followed by a speech by the President of a speech referring to the history of meteoro­ the IM, Mr A. da Costa Malheiro. Mr da Costa logical activities in Portugal, in particular the Malheiro evoked the memory of Prof. Amorim participation of the IM and its predecessors in Ferreira, the first Director-General of IM, whose the WMO Voluntary Cooperation Programme

Lisbon, Portugal, 3 October 1996-Participants in the ceremony to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the Portngnese Institute of Meteorology (from left to right): Dr A. S. Zaitsev, Assistant Secretary-General, WMO; Mr Jose Socrates, State Secretary Assistant to the Minister of Environment; Dr Mario Soares, former President of Portugal; Prof. Pinto Peixoto; and Mr A. da Costa Malheiro, President, Institute of Meteorology efforts led to the unification of the seven small and in the negotiations for the UN Framework services which existed until 1946. Mr Costa Convention on Climate Change. He also men­ Malheiro also paid homage to the other former tioned the IM's contributions to the Convention Directors-General, Mr Ant6nio Silva de Sousa 2, for the Creation of an Agency on Climate and Prof. Mendes Victor and Mr Jorge Cristina. He Related Environment Issues for the Community welcomed Dr A. S. Zaitsev, Assistant Secretary- of Portuguese-speaking Countries and the Ter­ ritory of Macao, and interpretation into the Por­ 1 President, Institute of Meteorology, Portugal tuguese language at sessions of WMO Regional 2 An obituary for Mr de Sou sa appears on page 94 of Associations I (Africa} and Ill (South America}. this issue (Ed.). Finally, Dr Zaitsev underlined the importance of

59 strengthening the link between the Portuguese Finally, at a panel session to review the institutes responsible for meteorology and for major challenges of the future, Prof. Mendes Vic­ hydrology. tor gave a talk entitled "Geophysics: the chal­ Prof. Pinto Peixoto then spoke on behalf of lenges in the next century"; Dr Zaitsev described the founders of the National Meteorological Ser­ the major Programmes of WMO and their evolu­ vice and explained the need for a specific lan­ tion to the year 2005; and Dr Mario Soares, guage among meteorologists, which facilitates former President of Portugal, spoke in his mutual understanding without loss of accuracy. capacity as President of the World Independent He praised the role of the Portuguese pioneer Commission for the Oceans, describing the meteorologists in founding an internationally pres­ objectives and activities of the Commission. tigious public service and recalled the role of The session was closed by Mr Jose meteorology in the creation of the first national Socrates, who stressed the importance of the agencies concerned with the environment in event and of the services rendered by the Insti­ Portugal. Prof. Pinto Peixoto also drew atten­ tute of Meteorology to the community. tion to the risk that current interest in new tech­ A lunch was offered to the staff, followed by nologies presented to the detriment of funda­ the award of commemorative plaques to the 47 mental scientific knowledge. surviving founding members of the Institute. 0

WMO programme news

• To establish a complete solid precipitation INSTRUMENTS AND METHODS dataset with all necessary information for OF OBSERVATION research (and eventually exchange) purposes.

Solid Precipitation Measurement lntercomparison The International Organizing Committee (IOC), which was set up by the president of CIMO for the WMO Solid Precipitation Measurement Inter­ comparison, held its final session under the chairmanship of Dr B. Goodison (Canada) at the Danish Meteorological Institute in Copenhagen from 2 to 5 September 1996. it was carried out over seven years at 26 sites in 12 Member countries. By comparing all methods currently in operational use to measure solid precipita­ tion (primarily in the form of snowfall) against well-defined reference gauges, results for the following main objectives should be derived: • To determine the wind-related errors in national methods of solid precipitation measurements, including consideration of wetting and evaporation losses; • To derive standard methods for correcting solid precipitation measurements; • To introduce a reference method of solid Copenhagen, Denmark, September 1996- Chairman and project leader, Dr B. Goodison (Canada), introducing the precipitation measurement for general use draft intercomparison report on solid precipitation to calibrate any type of precipitation measurement gauge, including automatic gauges; and Photo: WMOIK. Schulze

60 The participating Member countries, and Devastating tropical cyclones materialize the nominated national experts, in particular, about 80 times each year over tropical oceans. contributed with their national datasets and eval­ Not many cyclones or hurricanes actually make uation reports to the timely preparation of the it to land; as an example, only five hurricanes draft intercomparison report. The IOC consid­ on average strike the USA every three years. ered the comparison results and agreed on the The ones that strike land usually wreak havoc final structure and content of the comprehen­ with their violent winds, torrential rainfall and sive report. Several valuable conclusions for associated storm surges, floods, tornados and precipitation, especially solid precipitation, mea­ sometimes mudslides. Over 300 000 people surements, were derived. Furthermore, guide­ were killed by a tropical storm in Bangladesh in lines and recommendations were developed, 1971 and 154 000 by a similar storm there in including algorithms for correcting observations. 1991. Any reduction in human losses can be lt is intended to submit related proposals to the contributed to a tremendous improvement in WMO technical commissions concerned for their the cyclone warning system, the thousands of consideration and is hoped that recommenda­ volunteers who assisted in warning dissemina­ tions for applying unified correction procedures tion and evacuation, and the construction of a will be confirmed. The accuracy and reliability large number of cyclone shelters. Today, the of precipitation data, which is essential for oper­ NWS, the emergency management community ational and research applications of the data, and the media continue to mitigate disasters will thus be increased. A publication containing by striving for improvement in communications the comprehensive intercomparison results is and planning. intended to be issued by WMO in due course. The first portion of the course at FlU fos­ tered the importance of communication and planning by examining the Hurricane Evacua­ TROPICAL CYCLONE tion Study (HES) Program, which is the respon­ PROGRAMME sibility of the Federal Emergency Management Agency. The HES trickles down to state and local jurisdiction and contains myriad analyses International meteorologists learn hurri­ of hazards, vulnerability, behaviour, shelter, etc. cane forecasting techniques Each of these analyses assists in calculating By Jeffrey STUART, NOAA tropical storm damage and injury from wind, rain and flooding. Meteorologists contribute to Twenty-two international meteorologists attended HES by estimating storm-surge levels at each the Tropical Meteorology and Tropical Cyclone evacuation study area, participating in public Forecasting Course, sponsored by WMO and meetings and serving as consultants to the the US National Weather Service (NWS) for an ·study managers for state and local emergency intense 10 weeks of training in Miami and Talla­ officials. This type of planning and communica­ hassee (March-May 1996)*. The course is part tion is essential to prepare effectively the pub­ of the WMO's Tropical Cyclone Programme; it lic, the media and emergency response teams was managed by the NWS and conducted by for impending tropical storms. professors at Florida International University Meteorologists, especially those who attend (FlU), Florida State University (FSU) and the staff this course, learn that they must do more than of the Tropical Prediction CenterjNational Hurri­ just provide early warnings of approaching tropi­ cane Center (TPC/NHC). cal storms. They have to communicate effec­ Technically, the course covered the latest tively with the community, local, state and fed­ information and techniques with which Meteoro­ eral governments in order to ensure that the logical Services can strengthen the warning destructive power of hurricanes is well known. and hazard mitigation systems in tropical coun­ The FlU course studied the devastation wrought tries, concerning tropical storms. Among the by hurricane Andrew (1992) and discussed pre­ many benefits of the course were the sharing paredness plans to reduce the loss of life and of experiences and improved communication property damage. Andrew illustrated the need among participants. for improvement or enforcement of building codes, especially concerning roofs, windows * See also WMO Bulletin 45 (4), page 386. and door-protection systems and emphasized

61 that mobile homes are not safe havens. Also, improve warnings, participate in disaster pre­ Andrew showed that it is essential to stock sev­ paredness plans and communicate effectively eral days of water and non-perishable food, to with the public. The results of their increased check battery-powered lights and radios and to competence will reduce the loss of lives and fill vehicles with fuel before a storm strikes. perhaps lessen property damage. The friend­ The next four weeks of the course involved ships that were established will lead to a better hands-on experience at predicting the track and exchange of data between countries, which is intensity of hurricanes with the aid of the experts essential for successful hurricane and typhoon at tile TPC/NHC. Participants reviewed global forecasting. models, tropical waves, tropical analysis, satel­ lite-observed synoptic- and mesoscale features, Workshop on Tropical Cyclone Disaster hurricane models, best track determination, the Prevention, Preparedness and Mitigation Dvorak technique, storm surge and strike prob­ A Workshop on Tropical Cyclone Disaster Pre­ abilities. Most participants were familiar with many vention, Preparedness and Mitigation was orga­ of the topics, but this course provided them with nized by WMO, in cooperation with the Seychelles additional and up-to-date information and training. Meteorological Service and the Secretariat of Even some TPC/NHC staff attended the training the International Decade for Natural Disaster for a review. Advanced training of this nature is Reduction (IDNDR), at the National House, Mahe, critical to keep meteorologists at the forefront Seychelles, from 2 to 5 September 1996. A total in early detection and to minimize the amount of 44 trainees from Comoros, Madagascar, of false warnings. Mauritius and Seychelles attended. Although the studies at TPC/NHC focused The main purpose of the Workshop was to much more on meteorological topics than those provide an opportunity for exchanging informa­ at FlU, they still fostered communication with tion with the aim of assisting developing coun­ the public, media, and emergency management tries in the South-West Indian Ocean region to agencies. When do you give out the warnings to stimulate the reduction of disasters caused by the public? Hurricanes, like most storms, are tropical cyclones within the context of the IDNDR unpredictable and can turn quickly away from and the Sustainable Development of Small Island the determined route. Manual calculations, input Developing States (SDSIDS). from radar and hurricane reconnaissance air­ it was conducted by a team of resource craft, even past histories of storms, play a role persons from Comoros, La Reunion (France), in determining the path. The meteorologists Madagascar, Mauritius, Seychelles and WMO, attending this course simulated the prediction under the direction of Mr Luc Chang-Ko, Direc­ of several past hurricane paths, using the data tor of the Seychelles Meteorological Service. as they had arrived at TPC/NHC. Lectures were given on the following topics: the FSU wrapped up the last two weeks of the IDNDR; the WMO Tropical Cyclone Programme; course. Here, the participants were able to use disaster-mitigation strategies and terminology; the television studio to practise broadcast meteor­ the impact of tropical cyclones; regional/sub­ ology and improve their communication skills regional tropical cyclone warning system and with the public via television. it was interesting response to warnings; national tropical cyclone to discover that several of them had already forecasting and warning services; natural disas­ appeared on television in their home countries. ter risk management and assessment; technical This training enhanced their skills in presenting cooperation in the IDNDR and SDSIDS for the simple and accurate forecasts. A local (Tallahas­ South-West Indian Ocean; La Reunion tropical see) news station interviewed and aired some cyclone disaster prevention and preparedness of the class members discussing hurricane evac­ plan; and national activities on tropical cyclone uation, noting that evacuation is unfortunately disaster mitigation in the past and requirements not an option for many small island countries. for the future. Study visits were made to facili­ The FSU staff also gave instruction on radar ties and institutions relevant to disaster preven­ principles, NEXRAD, mesoscale systems, con­ tion and preparedness in Seychelles. vection, radiation, tropical boundary layers and The participants concluded that the Work­ monsoon circulation. shop had achieved its objectives: the exchange This course left in the minds of the partici­ of information and experiences had been mutu­ pants an indelible awareness of the need to ally beneficial and would contribute to the mitiga-

62 tion of impacts of natural disasters, in general, The new WMO;WHO/UNEP booklet Climate and tropical cyclones, in particular, for the devel­ and Human Health (WMO-No. 843) was presented oping countries of the South-West Indian Ocean. to the Congress and commented on favourably. Also, the WMO;WHO/UNEP monograph on cli­ mate change and human health, and the new WORLD CLIMATE APPLICATIONS WMO/UNEP book Interactions of Oesertification AND SERVICES PROGRAMME and Climate were well received by participants. Visits were made to the caves of the karst region, where a lake affords fine opportunities International Congress on Biometeorology for fishing and surfing in spring and autumn and The 14th International Congress on Biometeor­ ice-skating in winter but dries up completely ology was held in Ljubljana, Slovenia, from 1 to when the underground water in the caves sub­ 8 Septemberl996. Organized by the Interna­ sides in the summer. tional Society for Biometeorology (ISB), it was attended by over 200 scientists from 40 coun­ tries. The formal opening was made by the Slo­ WORLD CLIMATE DATA AND venian Minister of Agriculture, Prof. Milan Kucon. MONITORING PROGRAMME The Director of the Slovenian Meteorological Ser­ vice, Dr D. Hreck, and the Chief of the Climate Division, Mrs T. Cegnar, played an active role to Climate System Monitoring (CSM) Project ensure an efficiently and smoothly run meeting. Regional Meeting of Experts on the A broad range of topics was covered by Exchange of Climate Data and Products invited speakers in plenary sessions, while in­ The main purpose of the meeting (Buenos Aires, depth analyses of specific areas relating to bio­ Argentina, 9-12 April1996) was to follow up on meteorology were discussed in three or four two experiments initiated after a similar meeting parallel study group sessions. A poster display of experts in Washington in January 1994. The was arranged and there were plenty of opportu­ first experiment was designed to improve the nities for informal encounters. Some topics of completeness of the CLIMAT message datasets special interest to WMO were given high prior­ being received from Region Ill. The experts were ity. Several sessions on climate and human health satisfied with results and recommended that the were chaired by Prof. L. Kalkstein and included monitoring effort be extended to all WMO Regions. papers by several experts active in CCI, notably The second experiment was to distribute Prof. W. Weihe, Dr L. Lecha and Dr G. Jendritzky. over the GTS three different CSM products (A­ A session on urban and building climatology alphanumeric global temperature and precipita­ was chaired by Prof. T. Oke and one on TRUCE­ tion anomalies; B-T4 format hand-drawn glo­ related activities by Prof. E. Jauregui. Prof. W. bal temperature and precipitation anomaly charts; Selwamurthy chaired a session on human adap­ and C-GRIB format global sea-surface temper­ tation, including aspects of desertification, at ature anomalies) to WMO member countries in which papers were presented by Dr T. Darnhofer Regions I and Ill. Product A having been distributed and Dr W. Baier. Frequent reference was made successfully, the experts recommended that it to the climate-change issue and the role of the be distributed over the GTS in all WMO Regions. ISB in this work was extensively discussed in As difficulties continue in transmitting products two special sessions. B and C beyond the Regional Telecommunica­ The concluding plenary strongly endorsed tion Hubs because of limited line capacities, this the important role non-governmental organiza­ part of the experiment will continue in Regions I tions (NGOs), such as the ISB, could play in and Ill. furthering interdisciplinary research. NGOs could also be instrumental in identifying the Expert Meeting for the Preparation of the needs and requirements in various sectors Sixth Global Climate System Review using climate information and services. lt was This meeting (Geneva, 4 to 7 June 1996) followed suggested that WMO and ISB should cooper­ a one-day planning meeting for the publication ate in organizing the next congress, which will of a review of the climate of the 20th century. be held in Sydney in 1999; the focus would The experts focused their attention on the sixth probably be urban problems. edition of the Global Climate System Review

63 and decided that it would be based on climate base". In it, Mr Law, Minister of Science, Tech­ system events during the period December 1993 nology and Environment, said that the Cabinet to May 1996. lt will continue the biennial series had approved the setting-up of a regional centre that started with a review of the 1982-1984 in the country for the exchange of expertise in period. The continuity with previous issues will climate research. He mentioned the assistance be maintained with updated analyses of tradi­ received from WMO in acquiring up-to-date CLI­ tional CSM parameters and phenomena such as COM computer hard- and software. the El Nino/Southern Oscillation. At the same Some countries are making good progress time, it will attempt to broaden the perspective in using CLICOM for climatological services. In for readers with expanded climate system infor­ the Philippines, for example, CLICOM is used for mation on the oceanic and terrestrial domains the assessment of climatic profiles for regional of the climate system. development projects. In Sri Lanka, it is used for the regular production of contour maps of major Development of Climate Databases Project meteorological data, such as rainfall, monthly Guidance on the preservation and man­ weather summaries, annual climate data tables, agement of meteorological data etc. CLICOM is used in Fiji for most day-to-day A small group of climate data experts met in enquiries, providing customers with various data Arzier, Switzerland, at the end of May 1996 and upon request. lt was also used for submitting prepared a plan for the preparation of a publica­ monthly climate data for publication in World tion entitled "Guidance on the Preservation and Weather Records, 1981-1990. Management of Meteorological Data for Use in Two invited experts, Mr Tan Lee Seng (Malay­ Climate Analyses, Studies and Services". sia) and Mr John Halford (Australia) provided par­ The principal purpose of the publication is ticipants with lectures and practical exercises on to encourage the preservation and digitization of using the CLICOM system for climate data man­ meteorological data to make them more acces­ agement. A lecture was given on how to run sible and usable. lt is also intended to encourage CLICOM from Windows 3.1, Windows for Work­ all countries and to assist developing countries, groups 3.11 and Windows 95. Finally, the par­ in particular, to take full advantage of their climate ticipants discussed the main problems in CLI­ data resources. Guidance provided will include COM operations/maintenance, made some suitable means of preserving data in their origi­ important recommendations and agreed on a nal form. plan of action for 1996-1997. The target audience is national Meteorolog­ ical and Hydrological Services with special empha­ WMO Climatological Normals (CLINO) for sis on developing countries. The guidance may the period 1961-1990 also be useful for other groups and centres The publication of long-term climatological statis­ involved in managing climate data. tics from selected sites around the world satis­ fies the needs of a diverse clientele wishing to CLICOM obtain in situ climatological data for a variety of An RA II;V CLICOM Training Seminar was held at purposes, including climate research, monitor­ the Climate Division of the Meteorological Service ing, diagnostic studies and climate applications of Malaysia in Petaling Jaya, Kuala Lumpur, from and services. lt has long been recognized that 3 to 14 June 1996. The seminar was attended climatological data should be processed over by participants (mainly CLICOM database admini­ agreed uniform periods, in order to ensure com­ strators) from 21 countries: Australia, Brunei parability and to provide a long-term reference Darussalam, Fiji, Indonesia, Kuwait, Macao, Malay­ value or "normal" with which shorter-term (e.g. sia, Maldives, Mongolia, Nepal, New Zealand, monthly) data could be compared. Member coun­ Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, tries of WMO are therefore required to prepare, Qatar, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Thailand, for a selection of their stations, climatological Vanuatu, VietNam and Yemen. normals, which are defined in the Technical Reg­ The RA V Area Support Centre for CLICOM ulations of WMO as "period averages computed was established in Kuala Lumpur during the sem­ for a uniform and relatively long period compris­ inar. The local newspaper, The New Straits Times, ing at least three consecutive 10-year periods", published an article on 18 June 1996 with the and climatological standard normals, defined as title "Cabinet nod for regional climate research "averages of climatological data computed for

64 the following consecutive periods of 30 years: 1 January 1901 to 31 December 1930, 1 Jan­ uary 1931 to 31 December 1960, etc.". WMO undertook to promulgate such data and, in par­ ticular to publish the standard normals, collected from Members. The amount of data available for the period 1901-1930 was rather limited. These data were not published in one volume but were dis­ tributed to all Members by circular letter upon their receipt at the Secretariat. The 1931-1960 data were first published in 1962 as WMO-No. Montreal, Canada, June 1996- CAS Working Group on 117-C/imato/ogica/ normals (CL/NO) for CLJ­ Medium- and Long-range Weather Prediction Research MAT and CL/MAT SHIP stations for the period 1931-1960, followed by an expanded edition in The meeting reviewed the recent advances 19 71. The latter contains data on atmospheric in medium- and long-range weather prediction pressure, temperature (mean), sunshine duration, research, gave a scientific assessment of the vapour pressure, relative humidity, amount of pre­ methods used and identified key problems need­ cipitation, number of days with precipitation and ing further research efforts. lt also made propos­ frequency groups of precipitation amount. als for implementing the Programme on Medium­ The volume relating to the period 1961-1990 and Long-range Weather Prediction Research dur­ was made available towards the end of 1996. lt ing the WMO twelfth financial period (1996-1999) was prepared, like its predecessor, at the rec­ as requested by CAS-XI (1994) and Twelfth Con­ ommendation of the WMO Commission for Cli­ gress (1995). matology, whose technical guidance was used. Other areas of discussion were relationships lt includes, in addition to the elements listed and cross-cutting issues with other WMO and above, data on maximum and minimum temper­ international programmes relevant to long-range atures and wind speed. The publication contains weather forecasting (LRF), such as CLIVAR and statistical data for nearly 4 000 stations in more CLIPS, as well as the World Weather Research than 130 countries. lt was produced through Programme initiative proposed by the Expert the Development of Climate Databases Project Meeting on Very Short- and ShorHange Weather of the World Climate Data and Monitoring Pro­ Prediction (San Francisco, USA, December 1995). gramme. All the original data submitted by WMO The current evolution of atmospheric science Members are available from a digital database raises more and more issues of common inter­ at the National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) in est within the various prediction ranges. In this Asheville, North Carolina, USA, and it is planned connection, the Working Group made several to release them on a CD-ROM. proposals for consideration by the CAS Advisory Particular recognition for the preparation of Working Group in November 1996. this publication is due to NCDC, which undertook While approving the WMO Statement on the arduous task of the data collection, process­ the Status of Long-range Weather Forecasting, ing (including basic quality control) and editing, Eleventh Congress (1991) had requested that with the assistance of the WMO Secretariat. CAS update the statement with quantitative infor­ mation, as developments warranted, for. endorse­ ment by the Executive Council, when and as nec­ ATMOSPHERIC RESEARCH AND essary. Four years had elapsed since the formal ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME approval of the statement and the Working Group considered that, while the overall content of this statement was still valid, some updating Weather prediction research was necessary to reflect the significant Commission for Atmospheric Sciences progress made in numerical modelling tech­ The CAS Working Group on Medium- and Long­ niques. Several amendments were proposed. range Weather Prediction Research met in Mon­ The Group noted with satisfaction the publi­ treal, Canada, from 24 to 28 June 1996, under cation of the annual LRF progress reports and the chairmanship of Mr J.-F. Geleyn (France). suggested that in addition to the national reports,

65 individual contributions from focal points for LRF research should be included as a second part. GLOBAL ATMOSPHERE WATCH The meeting recommended that an Interna­ tional Workshop on Problems and Prospects in Dynamical Extended Range Forecasting be WMO/IGAC Workshop on GLONETjiTOY organized in 1997. The Institute for Atmospheric Environmental Research, Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany, The Second COMPARE Mesoscale Model hosted a WMO/International Global Atmospheric lntercomparison Chemistry (IGAC) workshop from 14 to 19 July The second COMPARE Workshop was held at 1996 to develop research and monitoring activ­ Meteo-France in Toulouse from 3 to 5 Septem­ ities as envisaged in the WMO Global Atmos­ ber 1996. The COMPARE international programme phere Watch (GAW) and the IGAC Global Tropo­ of intercomparison of mesoscale numerical mod­ spheric Ozone Network (GLONET). Twenty-eight els is supported by the Working Group on Numer­ experts from 11 countries and the WMO Secre­ ical Experimentation, a joint activity within the tariat participated. Atmospheric Research and Environment Programme The Workshop reviewed activities to iden­ and the World Climate Research Programme. tify developments in GAW and GLONET and also This second intercomparison was based on considered the Stratospheric Processes and the datasets provided by the field experiment their Role in Climate programme and the Inter­ PYREX conducted during autumn 1990 to study national Tropospheric Ozone Years (ITOY), 1997- the influence of the Pyrenees on atmospheric flow 1998 programme. on the mesoscale, as well as critical phenomena such as mountain waves, foehn, turbulence cre­ ated by mountain roughness, wave breaking and vertical shear forced by the flow deflection. The intercomparison and the workshop organ­ ized by the Meteo-France National Research Centre attracted most of the scientific commu­ nity concerned. Fifteen different models were carefully intercompared at different resolutions (50, 25 and 10 km) providing a wide range of Garmisch Partenkirchen, Germany, July 1996- Partici­ results and essential scientific information regard­ pants in the WMO/IGAC Workshop on GLONET/ITOY ing their ability to represent what had been observed. In addition, four non-hydrostatic mod­ The long-term WMO/GAW ozonesonde mea­ els with 2 km horizontal resolution participated. surement programme fits well with GLONET's This remarkable confrontation with reality is a overall goal to understand the evolution and glo­ major contribution to the improvement and devel­ bal distribution of (tropospheric) ozone, and to opment of what will be tomorrow the tools for develop a capacity to predict its future change. operational weather forecasting within NMHSs. ITOY is focused on the need for more tropo­ The workshop also discussed future COM­ spheric ozone data, concentrated on a two-year PARE case-studies, in particular: period during which more ozonesondes will be launched at a greatly increased array of observ­ • A tropical cyclone intense development ing stations. case. An intercomparison will be organized Available data have established that tropo­ by the Japanese Meteorological Agency; spheric ozone concentrations have increased during the past 50 years in regions affected by • VORTEX 95, a field programme on a tornado anthropogenic activities, markedly at some loca­ case in the USA, which will include more tions and less so at others. Such changes have high-resolution non-hydrostatic models; the potential of inducing profound and widespread • FASTEX (see WMO Bulletin 45 (3), 260-261 shifts in the Earth's radiation budget, altering (fd.)) and field experiments planned to life processes and perturbing the chemical study the development of frontal systems in health of the troposphere. There are currently the North Atlantic, which will also include an insufficient measurements, however, to charac­ intercomparison of assimilation systems. terize and quantify the global tropospheric dis- 66 Conference announcement Ozone intercomparison and workshops for Asia and the Pacific region WMO Workshop on Measurement of Cloud Properties for Forecasts of As part of the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) Weather, Air Quality and Climate function as a Quality Assurance/Science Activity Centre (QA/SAC) for high quality observations A WMO workshop, hosted by the National within the Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW) sys­ University of Mexico, will be conducted in tem in Asia and the Pacific region, a two-stage Mexico City, 23-27 June 1997. It will assess total ozone intercomparison was held concurrently the status of techniques for in situ and remote with four-day workshops in March and August 1996 measurements of cloud microphysical, optical in Tsukuba (Tateno Aerological Observatory) and and chemical properties in the context of pro­ Tokyo, respectively. Altogether, 40 experts from viding the information needed for under­ 13 countries attended. They were welcomed by standing fundamental microphysical pro­ the Director General of JMA, Mr Toshiyuki Ono. cesses and parameterization of cloud Scientific and technical guidance was provided properties in forecast models for weather, air by Japanese experts, assisted by four scientists quality and climate. from Canada, Germany, the Russian Federation This announcement is a call for papers and the USA. Six Dobson (China, India, Pakistan, ., in topics of remote and in situ cloud measure­ Philippines, Republic of Korea and Thailand) and ments and observational systems, data one Brewer (Malaysia) instruments were thor­ extraction algorithms, implementation and oughly inspected, calibrated and intercompared assimilation of observations in model devel­ with the JMA Secondary Standard Dobson No. 116. opment, comparison and initialization. The Ozone Commission has recommended that For more information, please contact: intercomparisons of instruments be implemented Graciela Ruga, Centra de Ciencias de la by QA/SACs every two or three years. The parti­ Atm6sfera, UNAM, Ciudad Universitaria, cipants became acquainted with the complete 04510 Mexico DF, Mexico (Tel.: (535) 622 automated system developed by JMA for the 4086. Fax: (525) 616 0789. E-mail: continuous operation of the Dobson instruments. [email protected]); or Dar­ lt guarantees high frequency of observation, rel Baumgardner, NCAR, P.O. Box 3000, constant quality control and the opportunity to Boulder CO, USA (Tel.: (303) 497 1054. Fax obtain numerous Umkehr ozone profiles. (303) 4971092. E-mail: [email protected]) Lectures covering national ozone observation activities, data-quality control, methods for data re­ tribution of ozone. Initiatives such as ITOY were evaluation according to WMO Ozone Report No. 29, therefore welcomed. and various approaches for analysing ozone data In order to detect and quantify changes in were presented by participants. These were con­ upper-tropospheric and lower-stratospheric ozone sidered useful exchanges of information and it and assess how it is modified in the radiatively was recommended that the JMA QA/SAC should important layer in the atmosphere, a global mea­ develop a system for reviewing, locally and/or surement strategy is required with the objective centrally, on a weekly or at least on a monthly of detecting small changes (a few per cent per basis, the ozone data collected by each station year) over a decadal time-scale. This improved in the region in order to identify and flag suspicious climatology demands a dedicated effort, and it can be best achieved by pooling all information available. All sites should be operated under a common measurement protocol with strict qual­ ity assurance procedures under the guidance of an international scientific committee. As identi­ fied in earlier WMO reports, most desirable regions for expansion remain in the tropical belts (Central and South America and Indone­ sia) and in the eastern part of Europe extend­ Participants in the Intercomparison and Workshop on ing into Siberia. This should be considered by Ozone Observations in Asia and the Pacific, hosted by the countries in those regions which wish to con­ Japan Meteorological Agency tribute to this effort. Photo: WMO!Bojkov 67 values. To facilitate such activities and exchange scientific groups in Europe, Canada, Japan and of information, each station should have access the USA will try to identify any discrepancies to e-mail. Furthermore, it was felt that the expe­ between the datasets and suggest ways to rience on ozone data analysis gained over the resolve them with the overall aim of preparing years by JMA should be shared with other oper­ sets for trend analysis. These would be useful for ators of Dobson, as well as of Brewer instruments. the WMO/UNEP Ozone Assessment-1998 for Step by step, the level of professional education which WMO has the lead responsibility for prepar­ of ozone station personnel should be improved ing and coordinating the scientific aspects, as a prerequisite for achieving high quality of·the according to the Vienna Convention for the Pro­ ozone data. The organization of the events under tection of the Ozone Layer. A report on the results the general supervision of Dr Osamu Uchino was and recommendations of the above studies will excellent and all participants left, satisfied that be prepared in the summer of 1997 for publica­ their time had been usefully spent. tion in the WMO Ozone Report Series, in which all previous ozone assessments are also available. Vertical ozone distribution study A plan for quality control procedures and trend Southern Cone Ozone Project (SC03P) analysis of ozone soundings, Umkehr and satel­ A complete set of instrumentation for the last lite solar backscatter ultraviolet (SBUV) instrument station to be established within the SC0 3P near . data was discussed at a meeting organized by La Rioja (Argentina) was delivered in May 1996 . At the time of writing (October 1996), it was expected to start operation upon completion of the local infrastructure in January 1997. With this station, the main components of the plan for SC03P will be completed. Some of the per­ sonnel training will continue and emphasis will be given to the quality of observations and ele­ ments of data collection and analysis. The training of observers for operation of automated total ozone and UV-B instruments was held in the Buenos Aires Observatory at Villa Ortuzar during August 1996. The training work­ shop was preceded by a calibration of the six instruments by experts from the Main Geophysi­ cal Observatory in St Petersburg. Four observers Participants in the expert meeting on vertical ozone distri­ from Chile and Paraguay and 14 from Argentina bution measurements and trends at the Haute-Provence took part. Through a combination of two broad­ Observatory, France, in July 1996 band (20 nm) and five narrowband (7 nm) filters Photo: WMO/Bojkov and a system for continuous tracing of the Sun, WMO with the International Ozone Commission these instruments are able to provide total ozone and NOAA in Tenerife in June 1994. A follow-up and UV intensity in five distinguished bands (as expert meeting on vertical ozone distribution, measurements and trends, was organized by WMO in collaboration with the International Ozone Commission and the WCRP Stratospheric Pro­ cesses and their Role in Climate (SPARC) project in the Haute-Provence Observatory, France, from 8 to 12 July 1996. About 30 experts from 10 countries participated and established a firm schedule for collection, quality control and trend analysis of the available information from ozone soundings, Umkehr and a few of the satellite experiments having more than a few years of Buenos Aires, Argentina, August 1996- Participants in records (e.g. SBUV, HALOE, SAGE-1/11). Through the training workshop on automated ozonometers intensive studies during the coming 12 months, Photo: WMO/Bojkov

68 well as integrated UV-B) every minute. Their encouragement during his 60 years of scientific operation is guided by software in an attached endeavour. PC and produces a series of averages and other characteristics of the ozone and UV-B at the end of the day. The filters' spectral characteristics are determined by laboratory spectrographic methods and the instruments check automati­ cally the consistency of the established charac­ teristics. After collection of a sufficient number of direct Sun and zenith sky simultaneous obser­ vations, the operational programmes of the instru­ ments will be amended to reflect the specific characteristics of the location.

· AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY Buenos Aires, Argentina, 12 September 1996- Prof. Burgos receives the first CAgM long service award. World Food Summit With him are Mr R. Sonzini, Director-General of the Argentine National Meteorological Service (NMS) (left) An initiative of FAO, the World Food Summit was and Dr G.V. Necco, Director, WMO Education and convened in Rome from 13 to 17 November 1996. Training Department The main objective of the Summit was to renew Photo:NMS the commitment of world leaders at the highest Prof. Burgos's involvement with WMO dates level possible to the eradication of hunger and back to its creation; he participated as a member malnutrition and the achievement of lasting food of the Argentine delegation to the 194 7 Washing­ security for all. The Secretary-General of WMO ton Conference to discuss the WMO Convention. accepted the FAO invitation to attend and to address the Summit. Workshops/seminars The planning for the Summit was assigned WMO organized a workshop/training seminar on to the FAO Committee on Food Security, whose drought preparedness and management for lntersessional Working Group prepared the draft North African countries in Casablanca, Morocco text of the Policy Statement and Plan of Action. from 24 to 28 June 1996. There were 35 partici­ WMO participated in the second, third and fourth pants from five North African countries and two meetings of the Working Group as an observer. European Mediterranean countries. The World Food Summit will be reported The workshop was directed by Prof. G. on in detail in a future issue of the WMO Bulletin. Maracchi, Director of the Centre for Computer Science in Agriculture in Florence, Italy, assisted Commission for Agricultural Meteorology by staff members of WMO and FAO. Other lec­ Long service award turers were drawn from national Meteorological The first award for outstanding and exceptionally Services and research institutes. The main con­ long service to the Commission for Agricultural clusions/recommendations of the workshop were: Meteorology was conferred on Prof. J. J. Burgos • The WMO World Climate Research Programme (Argentina) during the Commission's eleventh should be further expanded to include session (February 1995). Prof. Burgos received studies of extreme meteorological events, the award at a ceremony held on 12 September particularly drought; 1996 in Buenos Aires from the Director-General of the Argentine Meteorological Service, Mr Ram6n • Governments of North African countries A. Sonzini, on behalf of the Secretary-General should, jointly and with assistance from of WMO, Prof. G. 0. P. Obasi. Dr Gustavo Necco, donor countries, provide financial support Director, WMO Education and Training Department, to national Meteorological Services for the also participated in the ceremony. study of extreme events with a view to Upon receiving the award, Prof. Burgos forecasting and mitigating their effects; paid tribute to his teachers, colleagues, assis­ • All WMO Members should undertake sys­ tants and family for their unfailing support and tematic synoptic climatology research with

69 • Show how aviation products can be applied to aviation forecasting; and Describe the means now available to deliver aviation services by terrestrial and satellite systems. The delegates soon formed a close and friendly group. All were enthusiastic and asked perceptive questions. They listened to talks on the UKMO NWP models, the World Area Forecast System, the dissemination of aviation products (including meteorological data distribution (MOD) and the London Satellite Distribution System (SADIS)), United Kingdom national services for aviation and current areas of aviation research. Casablanca, Morocco, June 1996- Participants in the workshop/training seminar on drought preparedness and management for North African countries the aim of developing early warning systems of extreme events; • The World Bank should systematically take into account climatic constraints in devel­ opment projects; • The participation of experts in agroclima­ tology in the IPCC working groups should be strengthened.

Recent publications Bracknell, United Kingdom, July 1996- Fourth United The following CAgM reports have been issued: Kingdom Met Office/WMO Aviation Seminar: Steve Mur­ ray, SIGWX team leader, demonstrates the semi-automated • Definition of Agrometeorologicallnformation SIGWX system-with audience participation! Required for Field and Bush Crops (No. 70); Visits were made to the Central Forecast­ • Weather/Climate and Sustainable Agricul­ ing Office (CFO) and the computing facilities of tural Production and Protection (No. 71). the Met Office at Bracknell. There were demon­ strations of SADIS and MDD and the delegates had the opportunity to try their hand at creating AERONAUTICAL METEOROLOGY their own (non-operational) significant weather (SIGWX) charts using the semi-automated sys­ tem as used in CFO. There was also a visit to Application and interpretation of numeri­ ECMWF, which is adjacent to the College. cal weather prediction products in avia­ For two afternoon sessions, the aviation tion, and dissemination through satellite forecasters were divided into five regional groups and terrestrial means to discuss their use of aviation products (see table on the next page). They then presented By Wendy ADAMS their findings on the subjects to the relevant Seminar Coordinator, International Services, experts, providing much useful feedback. United Kingdom Met Office The weather showed the United Kingdom Twenty-two aviation forecasters from countries at its best throughout the week with warm and all over Europe, Asia and Africa met together sunny conditions and, after a busy schedule, del­ with United Kingdom Met Office (UKMO) experts egates had the chance to unwind at the social at the Met Office College near Reading from 15 event on the final evening. to 19 July 1996 for the fourth UKMO/WMO Avi­ At the end of the week, questionnaires were ation Seminar. completed and returned by 18 of the 22 dele­ The objectives of the Seminar were to: gates. They gave the Seminar high marks with 70 Use of aviation products

Group Topic

1. Northern Europe The use and comparison of NWP model output 2. Southern Europe Service provision in Malta, Romania and The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia 3. Middle and Far East The reception of WAFS products in the MID/ASIA region 4. East and West Africa Line squalls and shear line forecasting 5. Southern Africa Communications problems many positive comments and clearly found it gramme is expected to end in the year 2000, both useful and enjoyable. it was agreed that there was no need to keep As in previous years, the Seminar was a two ASDAR units as spares and that one would team effort; its success was due to the enthu­ be better utilized operationally. lt was thus siasm of the delegates and the commitment decided to pursue, as a matter of urgency, the and support of everyone involved both at the installation of three other ASDAR units, includ­ Met Office and the WMO World Weather Watch ing at least one on an aircraft of Aero/ineas Department. Argentinas. A number of technical discussions had been held, concerning the required modifi­ Operating Consortium of ASDAR Partici­ cation to the Argentine Boeing 747 to enable pants-Executive Board meeting air temperature to be measured. Work was pro­ An Executive Board Meeting of the Operating ceeding steadily and a successful outcome Consortium of ASDAR Participants (OCAP} was was anticipated, provided the certification held at the US National Weather Service in Sil­ requirements did not involve prohibitive costs. ver Spring, Maryland, from 3 to 5 September 1996. The Board was pleased to note that two ASDAR installations had been concluded on Air Mauritius aircraft. Federal Aviation Administra­ tion (FAA} certification, in the form of a Supple­ mental Type Certificate was issued for the Boe­ ing 767 aircraft of Air Mauritius in July 1996. ASDAR units were installed on two Air Mauritius Boeing 767-200ER aircraft in mid-June and became operational in mid-July 1996. Allied with this was the delivery to, and installation of, a DCP retransmission system in the Mauritius Meteorological Service. The sys­ tem had been tested in the United Kingdom with the assistance of Mr G. Frost and Met Silver Spring, Maryland, September 1996- Members of Office staff. After rectification of a hardware the OCAP Executive Board fault and a number of software shortcomings, the equipment was air-freighted to Mauritius The Board agreed that, because of the and successfully installed by the OCAP Techni­ intrinsic importance of measurements of rela­ cal Project Officer, Mr D. J. Painting, in June tive humidity in the atmosphere, negotiations 1996. The Board recognized the invaluable should be held with the US Office of Global Pro­ help and encouragement of the Permanent grams for the installation, certification and Representative of Mauritius with WMO, Mr R. R. evaluation of a humidity sensor, currently being Vaghjee, in this venture. As of 5 September developed under the Commercial Aviation 1996, a total of 19 out of 23 ASDAR units had Sensing Humidity Program in the USA, on been installed; 18 were fully operational and board a Boeing 747. providing data. The next Executive Board meeting will take In view of the reliability of the units already place in the WMO Secretariat in Geneva from installed and the fact that the ASDAR Pro- 25 to 28 February 1997

71 latrines: " ... we simply cannot afford to use our HYDROLOGY AND WATER drinking water to flush away human waste ... "). RESOURCES The final plenary was attended by the King of Sweden and included a presentation by Mr Kader Asnal, Minister of Water Affairs and Forestry of Water-related events in Stockholm South Africa, on the subject of achieving social, Stockholm Water Symposium economic and environmental justice in water The increasing recognition that this annual event resource management. is gaining at international level was reflected by The US$ 150 000 Stockholm Water Prize the number of high-level national delegates who was awarded to Mr Jorg lmberger (Australia) for attended this year as compared to previous his work on the complicated processes in mov­ years: over 600 participants from all over the ing waters (chemical and biological signals). The world participated in this sixth symposium from Junior Water Prize (for Swedish youth up to 18 5 to 8 August 1996. The overall theme was years and consisting of a sum of SKr 30 000), was "Safeguarding water resources for tomorrow­ also awarded. new solutions to old problems". The agenda reflected an increasing awareness that current The Global Water Partnership water policies are vastly insufficient: there is a In August 1995, the World Bank (WB) and the huge contrast between basic water management United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) tasks and the massive poverty, morbidity, and proposed the creation of the Global Water Partner­ mortality existing in many parts of the world. ship (GWP), with the objective of "translating the Water cycle implications in past and current Dublin and Rio de Janeiro principles on water into policy-making have been greatly neglected. Con­ practice". The GWP is envisaged as "an international sequently, the two plenary sessions and nine network designated to translate the global con­ workshops addressed a number of issues rang­ sensus on water management into responsive, ing from: (a) intersectoral competition for water coherent services to developing countries with versus political driving forces for development; an emphasis on implementation as close to the (b) groundwater for the next generation; (c) water users as possible". and health; (d) fulfilment of water supply and The First Consultative Group Meeting of the sanitation objectives; (e) capacity building for GWP was held in Stockholm on 9 August and con­ integrated water management; Wcommunica­ stituted the official founding event of the part­ tion to bridge different water perspectives; and nership. The event was structured in three parts. (g) comprehensive water policies and their local During the first, the meeting was addressed by implication. A young scientist's workshop was leading representatives of the founding sponsors. also held on the theme of a new resources Subsequently, presentations were made by a agenda-how young scientists can contribute number of speakers on the GWP, its mission, to finding realistic solutions for tomorrow. mode of operation, cost and funding. During the WMO presented a paper entitled "Water second part, the meeting broke into a n'umber of resources assessment-a tool for sustainable caucuses comprising representatives of develop­ development". lt was agreed that poor or miss­ ing countries, UN agencies, international organi­ ing data hinder good assessments and planning. zations, NGOs, private sector representatives and There was also agreement about the need for scientists. Each of these groups had to address better data on both water supply and demand a number of specific issues and make propos­ and for information on the viability of various als regarding the objectives and mission of the policy options. GWP, its membership, financing, governance A number of interesting points emerged from structure and designation of key officials. The the presentations, namely: (a) the appropriate­ third part comprised the caucuses' reports and ness of a global freshwater convention in achiev­ discussion thereof, in order to seek the partici­ ing sustainable freshwater management; (b) the pants' consensus and endorsement on each of need for capacity building for integrated water the above areas. After the conclusions of the management so as to better interrelate human debate, the GWP was launched. In summary, the resources, institutions and policy formation; (c) mission of the GWP is "to support countries in the whether new approaches to waterborne sewage sustainable management of their water resources". and sanitation problems were required (e.g. dry As its objectives, the GWP will: (a) support inte-

72 grated water resources management programmes For this purpose, a Membership Declaration will by collaboration, at their request, with govern­ be signed by members. The membership dues ments and existing networks and by forging new are US$ 10 000/year for UN agencies. This pay­ collaborative arrangements; (b) encourage gov­ ment can, however, be made in kind in the form ernments, aid agencies and other stakeholders of services of staff or consultants. to adopt consistent, mutually complementary The TAC will start with a few specific activi­ policies and programmes; and (c) develop inno­ ties which should illustrate where the GWP can vative and effective solutions to problems com­ make a quick impact. One of these is to initiate mon to integrated water resources management. a GWP project for southern Africa. This could be The GWP structure will comprise three com­ of relevance to WMO in view of the SADC/HYCOS ponents: (a) the Consultative Group (CG), the initiative presently under consideration. highest policy-making body of the network, will be convened annually in conjunction with the Destructive Water Stockholm Water Symposium. Mr I. Serageldin, This was the title of a conference organized at Vice-President, WB, has agreed to chair the CG the initiative of the International Association of in a personal capacity; (b) the Technical Advisory Hydrological Sciences (IAHS) as part of the North Committee (TAC), consisting of internationally American Water and Environment Congress '96. lt known professionals and scientists in disciplines was held in Anaheim, California, USA, from 24 to related to water use. An interim TAC has been 28 June 1996 and was organized principally by constituted, chaired by Mr Torkil Jonch-Ciausen, the US Geological Survey, the Congress itself Managing Director of the Denmark Water Qual­ being convened by the American Society of Civil ity Institute; and (c) the Secretariat, hosted by Engineers (ASCE). the Swedish International Development Cooper­ The emphasis was on floods and the means ation Agency in Stockholm. lt will support the of mitigating their impact on society. Most papers CG and the TAC, facilitate implementation of CG were based on actual experiences of recent decisions and be responsible for monitoring pro­ major flood events, such as those of the Missis­ grammes of the network. sippi and the Rhine. A panel of experts compiled Institutions of all sorts, "willing to explicitly a set of conclusions which have been passed to pledge their commitment to sustainable water IAHS for its consideration. resources management and willing to pay annual Some 200 participants from 30 countries membership dues" are invited to join the GWP. attended the Conference. Its unusual format, i.e.

Streamgauging in Ireland

In Ireland, the Office of Public Works is responsible, not only for streamgauging, but also for the operation of the country's canals, as is well illustrated by these photographs of the gauges on the River Barrow Navigations at Milford (left) and Carlow (right) Photo: WMO!Arthur Askew

73 being embedded within a Congress that attracted resources management, operational hydrology, 1 200 participants, meant that the two sets of climatology, meteorology and telecommunica­ participants could each attend each other's ses­ tions. WMO will also provide direct assistance sions, to the mutual benefit of all concerned. The to the NWC in the transfer of technology. Dur­ opportunity was thus offered to listen to a speech ing the first year of implementation, WMO sup­ by Maurice Strong, former Secretary-General of port will focus on the rehabilitation of the hydro­ the United Nations Conference on Environment climatological network, the development of and Development, who made an eloquent plea for telecommunications facilities, climate studies sustainable development in the water industry. and remote sensing. A selection of the papers presented will be published by IAHS in its Red Book series, and Comprehensive freshwater assessment thought is being given to holding other joint IAHS WMO is collaborating with other UN agencies and ASCE meetings in the future. and the Stockholm Environment Institute in the Comprehensive Assessment of the Freshwater Mexico and WMO sign agreement for Resources of the World, requested by the UN water resources management activities Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) The Mexican Government and WMO have entered at its second session in 1994. The work on the into an agreement for the provision of technical assessment, which is to be reported to the spe­ assistance services as a part of the implemen­ cial session of the UN General Assembly in 1997 tation of the national Water Resources Manage­ on the follow-up to UNCED, is now nearing com­ ment Project (WRMP) in Mexico. The agreement pletion. The report will cover the present availa­ was signed on 23 August 1996 in Mexico City. bility and use of water resources, analyse future Mexico was represented by Ms Julia Carabfas water scenarios and present proposals for action. Lillo, Minister of Environment, Natural Resources A workshop held at UN Headquarters, New York, and Fishery and Mr Guillermo Guerrero, Director from 2 to 6 September 1996, considered the General of the National Water Commission (NWC). results of the assessment and drafted policy WMO was represented by the Secretary-General, recommendations. The assessment has been Prof. G. 0. P. Obasi. The ceremony was the cul­ able to distinguish six groups of countries on mination of a process in which WMO had been the basis of the availability, present use and reli­ involved since the earliest stages. The agree­ ability of water resources as well as per caput ment signed will extend to the end of 1996 and income. For each of these groups, broad priori­ the total value of the technical assistance fore­ ties for water resources development policies seen is US$ 360 000. Upon agreement of the have been enunciated. it will be realized that the parties concerned and approval of the relevant water resources problems of rich, well watered annual budgets and work plans, the agreement countries (e.g. Canada or the Scandinavian coun­ may be extended to subsequent years. tries) are very different from those of develop­ The WRMP, implemented under a World Bank ing countries in the arid zone (e.g. Sahel coun­ loan, will provide Mexico with an effective tool to tries) and, consequently, the priority policies the determine the entire water cycle, thus respond­ countries should follow to cope with their water ing to the call for improved and more effective resources problems are completely different. national policies and integrated approaches in An editorial meeting is to be held at WMO addressing water problems. The project's main Headquarters, from 23 to 26 September to con­ objectives are to establish conditions for the sider and agree on the full report. Following this sustainable use of limited water resources, to meeting, the report will be edited and translated improve the intersectoral allocation of these for presentation to CSD in March/April 1997 resources and to provide reliable information and before its consideration by the General Assem­ tools for assessment, monitoring, planning and bly in the autumn. As well as this necessarily management, as well as the institutional capac­ short, formal report, the assessment has pro­ ity to implement the Mexican National Water Law. duced a wealth of background documentation The agreement calls on WMO to provide on the world's water resources and scenarios technical assistance and support to the NWC for for their future use, which will be published in procurement, installation and operation of equip­ companion reports. ment and recruitment of consultants, as well as A major difficulty in carrying out the assess­ for education and training of NWC staff in water ment has been the lack of readily accessible, reli- 74 able, data on the water resources of the different and discussions. Two full days were dedicated countries. The situation as regards data on water to modern CAL techniques. The CMI made avail­ quality and water use is even worse. lt is expected able several PCs with multimedia capacity (CD­ that a major recommendation of the report will ROM drives and sound cards), allowing partici­ be for the enhancement of the water resources pants hands-on experience in the use of CAL assessment capabilities of National Hydrologi­ modules. Among the material used was a train­ cal Services. As a contribution to this, WMO and ing module on hurricanes in CD-ROM, produced UNESCO have undertaken a revision of their joint specially for the event by the Cooperative Pro­ publication Water Resources Assessment­ gramme for Operational Meteorology, Educa­ Handbook for Review of National Capabilities. tion and Training (COMET) of the USA. EUMET­ SAT provided copies of a manual on satellite applications, which were distributed and used EDUCATION AND TRAINING during the presentation on this subject.

Recent education and training events Regional Training Seminar for National Instructors of Regions Ill and IV The purpose of this seminar, held in Bridge­ town, Barbados, from 1 to 12 July 1996, was to promote adequate standards in teaching methods and techniques for the instruction of meteorological staff, as well as to update par­ ticipants' knowledge of recent scientific devel­ opments in meteorology and related fields of Bridgetown, Barbados, July 1996- Participants in the regional interest. Regional Training Seminar for National lnstmctors of The event was opened by the Minister of Regions Ill and IV Agriculture and Rural Development, the Hon. Rowle C. Eastmond, who expressed the keen The instructors also visited the training interest of the authorities in supporting educa­ facilities of the CM I. During this visit, some tional activities, particularly in the area of mete­ examples of WAFS products and applications, orology. The local organizing committee was using a workstation at the Institute, were headed by Dr Colin Depradine, Principal, offered. At the request of participants, the Caribbean Meteorological Institute (CMI), a Weather Service provided daily operational WMO Regional Meteorological Training Centre. information relating to hurricane Bertha, which lt was attended by 24 instructors from struck the Caribbean zone during the seminar. Regions Ill and IV. Thirteen lecturers offered During the weekend, a highly appreciated trip presentations which, in many cases, included around the island and a picnic with Bajan spe­ practical examples, hands-on exercises and cialities were organized. case-studies on: training methodology and pro­ During the final discussions, participants gramme design; computer-aided learning (CAU recommended for the next event: an expansion and distance learning techniques; weather sys­ of the part addressing modern teaching tech­ tems in North America, tropical zones in South niques, particularly those related to CAL; the America; application of NWP products in pollu­ inclusion, in the scientific or technical presenta­ tion episodes; agrometeorology; satellite mete­ tions, of guidance for instructors on the best orology; hydrometeorology; aeronautical meteo­ way to transfer knowledge in each specific sub­ rology (WAFS); regional climate aspects; ject; the inclusion, when dealing with tropical meteorological factors in megacities; and the meteorology, of weather phenomena in the WMO Education and Training Programme. The Caribbean; the consideration of a climate series lectures were delivered in Spanish and English analysis for detecting changes or for estimating with simultaneous interpretation. the natural variability as a possible subject in Several participants offered short presen­ the series of technical presentations. The hold­ tations on their national training activities, ing of similar seminars every two years, using sparking off many useful exchanges of views external funding, was also. suggested. 75 Course announcements RMTCs of Argentina, Kenya and Nigeria were among those who attended. The International Institute for Land The Conference included formal lectures, Reclamation and Improvement (ll,RI) workshops, computer laboratories, poster ses­ announces the following courses sions and demonstrations. Participants came in 1997: from different areas and levels of the educa­ International Course in Computer tional and professional communities, allowing a Applications in Irrigation, 17 March- profitable exchange of experiences, views and 11 April 1997, Southampton!Wagenin­ ideas among teachers, educators, managers, gen (closing date: 31 January 1997); scientists and specialists. International Course on Drainage Exe­ At the closing ceremony, several key issues cution and Maintenance, 7 April- were summarized, based on the presentations. 9 May 1997, Wageningen/Lelystad Some of these were the use of multimedia tech­ (closing date: 1 March 1997); nology in the teaching process; the need to pro­ mote an "Earth system science" approach to 36th International Postgraduate help students understand global environmental Course on Land Drainage, 18 August- change; the importance of atmospheric and 28 November 1997, Wageningen (closing Earth sciences in motivating students and teach­ date: 1 May 1997); ers to develop an active interest in science, math­ 4th International Course in Microcom­ ematics and technology; the convenience of puter Applications in Land Drainage, fostering teams/partnerships to improve com­ 1 December-19 December 1997, Wagen­ munication among educators and specialists ingen (closing date: 1 September 1997). from different levels and backgrounds. For all further information concerning pro­ The preprint volume containing the contri­ grammes, requirements, application proce­ butions was available at the Conference. WMO dure, tuition fees and accommodation, fel­ has arranged for copies to be distributed to lowships, etc., contact: ILRI, Lawickse Allee Members and RMTCs. 11, PO Box 45, 6700 AA Wageningen, The The University of Edinburgh was helpful in Netherlands. making the local arrangements and organizing Tel.: + 31 317 490 144. Fax: +31 317 417187. several social events and visits, thus allowing par­ E-mail: [email protected] ticipants to enjoy the traditional and well-known Scottish hospitality.

Fourth International Conference on School and Popular Meteorological and Oceano­ Forthcoming education and training events graphic Education Regional Training Seminar for National The Fourth International Conference on School Instructors of Regions I and V and Popular Meteorological and Oceanographic The next in this ongoing series of regional semi­ Education was held at the Appleton Tower, George nars for instructors will be held in Manila from Square Complex, Edinburgh, from 22 to 26 July 10 to 21 November 1997. lt will aim at devel· 1996. Organized by the Royal Meteorological aping and promoting new techniques for the Society and eo-sponsored by the American training of meteorological personnel and at Meteorological Society and WMO, the Conference upgrading the knowledge of instructors in spe­ focused upon the roles of meteorology and cific fields of meteorology. oceanography in science education and the bene· fits to be gained from improving the environ­ Training Course for National Instructors on mental awareness and literacy of future genera· Teaching Methods and Training Seminar tions, and the public at large. Particular attention for National Instructors on Curriculum was given to weather awareness, meteorologi­ Development cal literacy and knowledge of the sea. The Con­ ference was opened by the President of the Royal These two training events are planned to be Meteorological Society, Prof. John Harries, and organized in 199 7 with the cooperation of the was attended by more than 100 participants International Labour Organization's International from 23 countries. Delegates from the WMO Centre for Advanced Technical and Vocational 76 Training in Turin, Italy. The dates have not yet Prior to 196 7, the training section of the been decided. Weather Bureau ran courses only for meteorolo­ gists (Class 11) and weather observers (Class IV). WMO training publications The first Weather Observers Training Course was The Arabic version of WMO No. 726-Com­ conducted in June 1946. The implementation of pendium of Lecture Notes in Climatology for Class the UNDP/WMO-assisted project for meteoro­ Ill and Class IV Personnel-has been issued. logical research and training in 196 7 permitted The translation into Arabic of WMO-No. the Department of Meteorology to be established 701-Mesometeorology and Short-range Fore­ as a unit of the College of Arts and Sciences at casting: Lecture Notes and Students' Workbook the University of the Philippines, which offered an for Training Class I and Class 11 Meteorological M.Sc. programme in meteorology. In 1972, the Personnel-is in progress. Weather Bureau was reorganized and renamed PAGASA. The Institute thus became the National The WMO Regional !l/leteorological Training Institute of Atmospheric Geophysical and Astro­ Centre (RMTC) in the Philippines nomical Sciences (NIAGAS) under PAGASA. In Background 1984, PAGASA was transferred from the Depart­ The Department of Meteorology and Oceanog­ ment of National Defence to the National Science raphy (DMO) at the University of the Philippines and Technology Authority. NIAGAS was renamed and the Atmospheric, Geophysical and Space the National Institute of Atmospheric Sciences Sciences Branch (AGSSB) of the Philippine Atmos­ (NIAS), maintaining its organizational and func­ pheric Geophysical and Astronomical Services tional structures. Administration (PAGASA) constitute the Philippine In 1987 the National Science and Technol­ RMTC, established in 1978, which serves the ogy was reorganized and renamed the Depart­ South-West Pacific (WMO Regional Association V). ment of Science and Technology (DOST). PAGASA became an Institute of DOST and was also struc­ turally reorganized. The astronomical and geo­ Conference announcement physical functions of the Agency were merged UNESCO Institute for Education with NIAS, which was renamed the AGSSB. Since International Conference on Adult 1946, the training arm of PAGASA has produced Education some 5 160 graduates: 3 998 for technical courses (Class 11, Class Ill, Class IV) and other Hamburg, Germany, 14-18 July 1997 special courses, and 1 162 for non-technical Focus: adult learning in the perspective of courses. lifelong education In addition to the demand for graduate Motto: adult learning-a key to the XXI courses in meteorology, a need was perceived century: a right and a joy, a task and a tool for advanced courses in physical oceanography. Themes: citizenship, democracy and human This led to the institution in 1976 of an M.Sc. pro­ rights; gender; work; health promotion; gramme in oceanography with the subsequent environment; media and information tech­ renaming of the DMO. A Ph.D. programme in nology; migrants, ageing populations, meteorology was started at the University in minorities, people with disabilities, prison­ 1982/1983. At present, the DMO has awarded ers; literacy and non-formal basic educa­ 27 doctorates, 68 master's degrees and 12 diplo­ tion; improving and strengthening condi­ mas in meteorology. tions; research, documentation and statistics. Courses offered The Conference will be called upon to The DMO currently offers courses leading to an adopt a Declaration on Adult Learning and M.Sc. (meteorology) with specializations in (a) numer­ an Agenda for the Future. ical weather prediction and analysis; (b) cloud For further information, contact Mr Paul precipitation physics; and (c) climatology and hydrometeorology. A diploma course in meteo­ Belanger, Director, UNESCO Institute for rology has been offered since 1987. A Ph.D. Education, Feldbrunnenstrasse 58, 20148 (meteorology) programme was instituted in Hamburg, Germany. Tel.: 49-40-4480410. response to increasing local and regional demand Fax: 49-40-4107723. E-mail:[email protected] for highly trained research workers in this field.

77 The Department also offers special short-term training courses with specialization in numerical weather prediction, data processing and hydro­ meteorology with the cooperation of PAGASA. it is also involved in an interdisciplinary Ph.D. pro­ gramme in environmental science and provides basic courses in meteorology and oceanography for certain undergraduate and graduate programmes. The DMO also offers courses primarily designed for teachers taking the master's degree programme in science teaching and enjoys the cooperation of other university units which pro­ Demonstration of lahar experimental test during the Semi­ vide courses in related fields, such as mathemat­ nar/Workshop on Flood Loss Mitigation (Philippines, ical statistics and computer applications. 28 February-8 March 1996) organized by PAGASA and the Japanese International Cooperation Agency in coopera­ PAGASA offers a regular course for Class 11 tion with the ESCAPIWMO Typhoon Committee (meteorologists) and Class IV (meteorological observers) personnel. Class Ill courses are con­ ciency on a continual basis. Seminars/Workshops ducted as the need arises. Short-term special on Disaster Preparedness and on Teaching Meth­ training courses, on-theiob training, seminar/ ods and Techniques are some of the non-techni­ workshops in the fields of weather forecasting, cal courses offered, especially for instructors hydrology, agrometeorology and other related and resource persons of the Agency. sciences are periodically conducted for local As there will be a continuing and increasing and foreign participants. As PAGASA comprises need for highly trained professionals in meteor­ not only meteorological but also geophysical and ology and hydrology to carry out various opera­ astronomical services, training courses related tional research and training activities, the RMTC to these fields are provided on an ad hoc basis, in the Philippines will continue to help meet this meteorology being taught as a minor subject. need. With the close collaboration between the PAGASA has included computer literacy as University of the Philippines and PAGASA, and one of its regular development activities with WMO's continuing support and assistance, a the aim of upgrading knowledge, skills and effi- bright future for it is foreseen.

Technical cooperation

Country projects cooperation between Switzerland, Mali and WMO in the field of agrometeorology, and of the dis­ Mali semination of agrometeorological techniques In September 1996, the Swiss Ministry of For­ and practices in rural areas. This cooperation eign Affairs, through the Directorate for Devel­ dates back to 1982. Among the tangible results opment and Cooperation, and WMO, entered obtained so far, the following are particularly into a new agreement for the implementation of worth mentioning: the fourth phase of a project to aid farmers in • Increase of yields, on average of 20-30 Mali, "Extension of agrometeorological assistance per cent, with peaks of 60 per cent; in rural areas". The project is expected to run for three and a half years (ending December 1999) • Reduction of number of reseeding (saving and has an allocation of US$ 603 126 from the time and seeds); Swiss Government. it will be implemented in co­ • Better planning of agricultural activities; and operation with the Director of the National Meteorological Service of Mali and with WMO • Reduction of rural exodus. as executing agency. With this latest contribution from the Swiss This new project represents the extension Government, the agrometeorological practices to the national scale of the achievements of the will be extended to cover most rural areas and

78 a wider variety of crops than just millet and sor­ rehabilitate the observational network, develop ghum. Particular emphasis will be placed, as in human resources and enhance capacity building. previous phases, on a participatory approach Regional projects for tailoring content and format of information to the needs of users. To support project activi­ African Centre of Meteorological Applica· ties, the data collection and transmission net­ tions for Development (ACMAD) work will be strengthened, 2 500 farmers and The eighth session of the ACMAD Governing 800 rural agents will be trained in agrometeoro­ Board was held in Niamey, Niger, from 27 to 29 logical techniques and basic meteorological March 1996. This was the first time that the and phenological observations and relevant Board had met at ACMAD headquarters. agrometeorological information will be broad­ The session was chaired by Mr Makha D. cast by rural radio in regional languages. Sarr, Deputy Executive Secretary of the Economic This project will represent the first attempt, Commission for Africa. WMO was represented among countries of the Permanent Inter-State by Messrs K. Konare, president of RA I (Africa); Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel, to W. Degefu, Director, Regional Office for Africa; extend the activities of agrometeorological pilot and H. M. Diallo, Acting Director, Technical Coop­ projects nationwide. The results of the previous eration Department. Nine out of 12 Member phases indicate that the success of the project States participated in this session, together with will contribute in a significant manner to food representatives of FAO, UNEP, UNDP and the security and self sufficiency in Mali, to the com­ Organization for African Unity. Representatives bat against desertification and to the protection of the ECMWF, Meteo-France, the United Kingdom of the environment in general. Meteorological Office and the National Weather Service of the USA, as well as of associated Mexico institutions in Niamey (AGRHYMET, HYDRONIGER, An agreement between Mexico and WMO for the the African School of Meteorology and Civil Avi­ provision of technical assistance services as ation, and the International Crop Research Insti­ part of the implementation of the Water Resources tute for the Semi-Arid Tropics) attended the Management Project was signed on 23 Septem­ Board for the first time as observers. ber 1996 in Mexico City. The project will be imple­ The Board reviewed favourably the results mented (1996 to 2001) by the National Water obtained during the first phase of the ACMAD Commission (NWC) of Mexico with the support programme, notably the operational tool and of the World Bank. expertise already in place, the products and The project components in which WMO will services elaborated and the method used: participate include: • The AMeDAS system and associated exper­ • Preparation/review of technical specifica­ tise is an integrated system of meteorolog­ tions for equipment and terms of reference ical data reception and processing. it repre­ for additional international technical assis­ sents the future for African Meteorological tance to be required by the NWC; Services in that it will permit them to bene­ fit from all the possibilities offered by MmosAT; " Supervision of activities in the formulation, acquisition, installation andoperation of • The products and services related to the equipment purchased directly by the NWC; monthly Climate Information and Forecast­ ing Bulletin for Africa. This bulletin aims to • Education and training of personnel of the bring closer together science and technol­ NWC at the international level in water ogy on the one hand and the economic resources and operational hydrology, meteor­ sector on the other. it is of direct use to ology and other related areas; and national Meteorological and Hydrometeoro­ • Technical assistance in institutional develop­ logical Services and is exactly the sort of ment and recruitment of specialized consulting product expected of an institution whose services in water resources and oper­ vocation is the application of science to ational hydrology, meteorology, telecommuni- development; cations, satellites, etc., as required. · • The method by which these results have been The project will provide Mexico with the effec- obtained particularly caught the attention tive means of determining the entire water cycle, of the Board. it consists of highlighting and

79 using existing expertise and developing lnter-American Institute (IAI) for Global synergies among existing institutions. lt Change ResearchjWMO regional project has permitted the Centre to operate with During 1996, significant progress was made in reduced funds and has guaranteed the the implementation of project RLA/92/G34 involvement of Member States: from 1992 "Regional cooperative activities in support of cli­ until the end of 1995, 248 meteorologists mate change research in the IAI countries". Par­ from 43 African countries were seconded ticipating countries in the project include: Argen­ to ACMAD. tina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, And tomorrow? Firstly, ACMAD will implement Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Mexico, a series of projects aimed at promoting products Panama, Paraguay, Peru and Uruguay (Bolivia, and services distributed to Member States through Colombia and Ecuador joined the project in the national Meteorological Services. Secondly, 1996). lt is also expected that Venezuela and it will put in place the means and expertise nec­ some Central American countries will also join essary to ensure follow-up, evaluation and as soon as the arrangements initiated by their meteorological and climatological forecasts for respective governments are completed. the whole of Africa, and eventually become a Activities carried out in 1996 included: (a) sup­ reference centre for the exchange of experience port for the installation of the workstations, periph­ and the consolidation of training and research erals and GIS-SPRING software; (b) international in meteorology and climatology. training seminars on the use and applications of The ultimate objective of the ACMAD pro­ GIS-SPRING 2.0 in Brazil and national training sem­ gramme is the integration and effective use of inars in Cuba and Mexico, with a total of some 50 meteorological and climatological forecasts in participants; (c) consultancies on data processing African economic policy by the year 2000. and on the adaptation of the METVIEW software to To enable ACMAD to achieve its objectives, run in the IBM RISK workstations; (d) formal train­ the Board decided to establish a Scientific Con­ ing through 14 fellowships of six-months dura­ sultative Committee, whose task is to identify tion and 15 of two months was also initiated. immediate goals, activities, products and end A tripartite review meeting was held in Octo­ users within the framework of ACMAD's long-term ber 1996 at INPE in Sao Jose dos Campos, plan. The Committee is composed of five or six Brazil, in which representatives from IAI, UNDP scientists from Member countries; eo-sponsoring and WMO participated. The possibility of extend­ institutions and partners in development are ing the project until 1998 was discussed to invited to participate. The Committee presented allow the completion of project activities in the the first results of its work to the Fifth Technical countries which have joined recently. Conference on Management for Development of The contract of the Project Director, Mr. E. Meteorological Services in Africa, organized by Banus, was extended from 20 December 1996 WMO in Rabat, Morocco, in November 1996. to 31 December 1997. The Board also decided to recruit two high­ lbero-American Climate Project level experts in the fields of weather and climate forecasting in order to consolidate the knowledge After the signature of the agreement between gained by the Centre and to undertake a wide­ the lnter-American Development Bank (IDB) and ranging scientific programme. WMO on 7 March 1996, for the preparation of During the session, several scientific lectures the feasibility study of the lbero-American Climate on seasonal forecasting and climate prediction Project, two preparatory meetings were held. The were presented. At the end of the session, a first one took place on 20-21 March in Geneva large number of representatives of diplomatic and the second on 16-17 September 1996 in missions based in Niamey attended an informa­ Washington, DC, aimed at discussing and approv­ tion meeting on the ACMAD programme. ing the pre-conditions that WMO, as executing The Board unanimously renewed the con­ agency, should complete to the satisfaction of tract of Mr M. S. Boulahya as Director-General IDB before the beginning of the feasibility and of ACMAD for a further term of four years. design studies for the project. The preconditions for WMO include: 0 More news concerning satellite meteorol­ ogy in Africa can be found on page 83 of • The signature between WMO and the 13 par­ this issue (Ed.). ticipating NMHSs (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil,

80 Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El tion of equipment would soon be completed and Salvador, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay the main emphasis would continue to be the and Venezuela), with CIDA-Delcan of Canada, training of personnel. Activities regarding this pro­ with the National Meteorological Institute of ject are regularly reported on in "Programme news" Spain and with a US Company using funds under the section "Atmospheric environment." provided by the US Trade Development Agency; Sectoral support • The revision and updating of the terms of Eastern and central Europe reference in accordance with all donors In November 1994, a seminar entitled Drought involved in the study; and Desertification was held at the Research and • The establishment of Executing Units in all Engineering Institute for Irrigation and Drainage, participating NMHSs, as well as identifica­ Baneasa-Giurgiu, Romania. Representatives from tion and selection of national experts for six countries in eastern Europe (Bulgaria, Hun­ selected countries; gary, Republic of Moldova, Romania, Turkey and Yugoslavia) and from France signed a proposal • Selection of the Feasibility Study Director; for a Research and Technological Development • Material arrangements at the WMO Regional Plan for the Prevention of the Drought Phenomenon Office in Asunci6n, Paraguay; and in eastern and central Europe, through the estab­ lishment of a regional drought monitoring centre. • Preparation of a detailed physical and finan­ In response to a request made by the coun­ cial programme for the study. tries concerned, a sectoral support mission con­ The study will run for a period of 18 months sisting of an agrometeorologist, Dr W. Baier and will cover the following: (Canada), and an economist, Dr K. A. Anaman (Australia), was carried out in June/July 1996 to • Design of technical project components Bulgaria, Hungary, Republic of Moldova and (extension and modernization of observing Romania. it became clear that the first step networks, communication systems, climato­ towards the establishment of the centre had to logical databanks and reinforcement of the be the upgrading of national hydrometeorologi­ institutional capacity of NMHSs); cal services with respect to drought monitoring, • Design of an institutional execution plan; including instrumentation, databanks, telecom­ munications, etc. The mission report, which • Design of the project management, schedul­ included the country programmes, was submit­ ing and monitoring system; and ted to countries for consideration. • Analysis of project feasibility (from technical, Qatar environmental, socio-economic, financial, institutional, legal and political view points). At the request of the Permanent Representative of Qatar with WMO and in coordination with the UNDP Office in Doha, a sectoral support mission Southern Cone Ozone Project (SC0 P) 3 was undertaken by WMO consultant, Dr S. M. Kul­ The SC03P is aimed at establishing some ozone­ shrestha (India). The purpose was to assess the and UV-B-measuring stations in the previously present status regarding meteorological facilities extremely data-sparse region of South America and services and to identify areas where the Qatar in order to gather and provide assessment data Meteorological Department could be strengthened to the responsible regional and national bodies. to provide improved meteorological and related The national coordinators from the participating services in support of economic and social pro­ countries (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay and gress, including the safety and well-being of the Uruguay) conducted a mid-term project review population. The mission report, together with a in April 1996 with representatives from UNDP project brief reflecting the requirements of the and WMO. They agreed that the project was pro­ Department, has been submitted to the Qatari gressing well and according to plan; the installa- authorities and UNDP for consideration. 0

'£>'£>'£>

81 In the Regions

Progress at the Gambia Meteorological a modern system for real-time and non-real-time and Hydrological Services meteorological data processing, non-real-time climatologica\ data compilation, weather analy­ By Babu P. JALLOW, Principal Meteorologist, sis and forecasting has been founded. The Department of Water Resources, Banju\, Department can now provide extensive services the Gambia to users in all relevant sectors. The Meteorological and Hydrological Services The Gambia has been provided with a Pri­ of the Gambia are located in the Department of mary Data User Station (PDUS) for receiving Water Resources under the Ministry of Agricul­ satellite data in digital form and cloud pictures ture and Natural Resources. Their mission is to of the area of operation on a real-time basis. Thus, observe and understand the weather, climate it is now possible to provide accurate short-range and hydrological cycle and to provide meteoro­ advice on hazardous weather events, such as logical and hydrological services in support of squall lines and thunderstorms, to aviators, ship­ national needs and international obligations. ping agents, etc. Meteorological and hydrological observations The telecommunications network was auto­ are essential for the provision of forecasts and mated some five years ago through the AGRHY­ warnings, defining and monitoring the nation's climate, MET Programme. Several communications cir­ research, and to support many user activities, cuits connect both local observation stations e.g. in the agriculture, forestry and fisheries and RTH Dakar, Senegal, to the Main Meteoro­ sectors. A comprehensive and representative logical Office. Thus, national meteorological network of observing sites is required. The back­ observations and information are gathered and bone of the network is the system of observing transmitted on a real-time and near-real-time stations which make regular observations, and basis. With the upgrading of the Computer Unit the telecommunications system. The telecom­ of the Department, global meteorological data munications systems and services are a vital and information are collected in a timely and part of the operational infrastructure through reliable manner. Both the quantity and quality which many of the functions of the Meteorological of the data received have increased and, hence, and Hydrological Services are performed. the accuracy of forecasts. Over the past 20 years, much progress has With the installation of the Meteorological been made in strengthening the mainstream Data Distribution System (MOD), under the VCP, meteorological and hydrological activities directed our Central Forecast Office is able to receive at safety of life and property, economic devel­ facsimile charts (wind, temperature and signifi­ opment and other important national goals to cant weather charts) and operational meteoro­ which the Services contribute. All the resources logical (OPMET) data and information. This, to of the Services are tied to the mainstream respon­ a large extent, has helped improve forecasts sibilities, in particular, the routine data collection and speed up flight documentation. Many of and processing that support the various fore­ the numerical weather products from the MOD casts, warning and information services to the cannot be interpreted, however, because of community at large and to specialized sectors, lack of much-needed training. The on-site instal­ such as agriculture, aviation and shipping. Dur­ lation of this equipment was accompanied by ing the past three years, excellent progress has the training of technicians and operational staff been made in the replacement of obsolescent of the Services. facilities and equipment. Most of the advances Also in the area of training, short-term fel­ were made through multilateral and bilateral co­ lowships have been awarded to two Gambian operation and particularly through the WMO VCP. technicians at the WMO Regional Meteorological The Department of Water Resources is now Training Centre (RMTC) in Cairo, Egypt; one tech­ equipped with some of the latest state-of-the art nician is undergoing training to WMO Class 11 computers and auxiliary equipment. As a result, level at the RMTC in Nairobi, Kenya; and another 82 to WMO Class I level at the University of Science that institution and EUMETSAT in the field of and Technology in Akure, Nigeria. meteorological satellite training was highlighted. The Gambia Meteorological Services will soon His visit to the Regional Training Centre for be in a position to broadcast weather forecasts Agrometeorological and Operational Hydrology and warnings by television for the first time and and their Applications (AGRHYMET) focused on this will also facilitate public outreach activities. the the use of METEOSAT imagery to monitor the The assistance provided to the Gambia · environment and water resources and as part of Meteorological Services has helped pave the an early warning system. A collaborative agree­ way to the establishment of an organizational ment was signed between EUMETSAT and the infrastructure and mechanism in support of the AGRHYMET Centre, whereby the latter will have Services' objectives, as well as expected future complete and free access to METEOSAT data. national and international obligations. The effi­ In discussions with representatives of the cient implementation of the operational, admin­ Niger Basin Authority, Dr Mohr learned about the istrative and technical support activities to meet Hydrological Forecasting System for the Niger essential internal and external needs is being Basin (HYDRONIGER). This programme utilizes carried out. lt is now possible to achieve signif­ a data collection network in real-time, based on icant improvements in the quality and timeliness the Argas transmission system, comprising 65 of the products and services offered to the data-collection platforms and 10 Argas direct community and to respond effectively to new reception stations. lt is foreseen that METEOSAT needs and trends in the applications of meteor­ data will be used for HYDRONIGER in the near ology and hydrology, especially now that public future. interest in climate and climate change issues is A visit was made to the African Centre of increasing sharply. 0 Meteorological Applications for Development (ACMAD), where a conference was arranged, Satellite meteorology in Africa attended by some 60 representatives of relevant Some years ago, the European Organization for institutions and their partners in cooperation the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites from 34 countries. it was opened by Mr ldrissa (EUMETSAT) developed a strategy to exploit Also, Director of the National Meteorological Ser­ MmosAT satellites in Africa. During the eleventh vice and Vice-president of the Board of ACMAD. session of WMO RA I (Africa) in Gaborone, Bot­ Speakers included Mr Jerome Lafeuille, Interna­ swana, in November 1994, the Director of tional Relations, EUMETSAT, and Mr Mohamed EUMETSAT undertook to facilitate access to Sadek Boulahya, Director-General, ACMAD. Both METEOSAT data in Africa, to support regional cen­ spoke of the importance of satellite meteorol­ tres for training in satellite meteorology in ogy for countries of the African continent. A col­ Niamey and Nairobi (see WMO Bulletin 45 (1), laborative agreement was also signed between 91) and to develop interaction with users. This EUMETSAT and ACMAD, whereby the latter would policy led to the organization of the first forum have free access to EUMETSAT data and images of Eumetsat users in Niamey in April 1995. The via the MDD system. lt was also agreed that second forum took place in Harare, Zimbabwe, ACMAD and EUMETSAT would collaborate in in December 1996. the organization of regional users' fora. As part of this process, Dr Tilmann Mohr, A joint project is under way between WMO, Director of EUMETSAT, visited several institu­ EUMETSAT, ACMAD and the European Union to tions in Niamey, Niger, on 18 July 1996. install a network capable of receiving data from During his visit to the Regional Telecommu­ the new generation of METEOSAT satellites (oper­ nication Centre and the National Meteorological ational as of the year 2000). This will permit Centre, he witnessed a demonstration of the national Meteorological Services in Africa to operational use of satellite data. benefit from the new technology and to improve At the African School of Meteorology and weather forecasting, as well as climate and Civil Aviation, the long-term cooperation between environmental monitoring. 0

"'"'"' 83 News and notes

The Bulletin Office on e-mail The package of automatic graphics include The Bulletin Office is at last on e-mail and can sun and cloud forecasts (national and regional); be contacted at: [email protected] 0 temperature forecasts (maximum and minimum and changes in between); rain and snow (how Automatic TV weather products much and where!); potential fog cover; seven-day TV broadcasters now have access to ready­ forecasts of temperatures and weather track made, on-air, graphical products that illustrate that highlight major upcoming changes; and local future weather conditions. travel conditions. WEATHERcast, running on the Weather Ser­ WEATHERcast also has embedded intelli­ vices International WEATHERproducer™ work­ gence tools for meteorologists, allowing them station, delivers the details viewers want in a direct access to information about the conditions manner which is fast, accurate, informative and on which their forecasts will be made. o easily understandable. WEATHERcast arrives by satellite and is ingested in the WEATHERproducer 0 for more information, contact Lisa as part of its programming menu. No extra hard­ Dempsey, Weather Services International, ware or labour is needed and WEATHERcast can 4 Federal Street, Billerica, MA 01821- be used for regular programming or quick cut-ins 3559, USA. Tel.: 508 670 5111. when weather events occur. Fax: 508 670 5100.

WMO Research Award for Young Scientists (1995)

On the occasion of his visit to Budapest, Hungary, in March 1995 (see WMO Bulletin 45 (3), 301), the Secretary­ General of WMO presented the 1995 WMO Research Award for Young Scientists to Dr I. Csiszar of the Hungarian Meteorological Service for his paper entitled "The effect of the droplet size distribution of the reflectivity of boundary­ layer clouds". 0

84 FirSt land-use maps for Tanzania

Satellite imagery, primarily data produced by the LANDSAT thematic mapper, is currently being used to prepare a series of 1 : 250 000 scale maps showing forestry and other land-use units for the whole of Tanzania. The interpretation is compiled as hard-copy imagery and checked by an extensive progranrme of field data collection. The complete com­ pilation is then digitized, enabling area calculations to be made. Training and equipment were provided under a £1.02 million project funded by the World Bank and carried out by a British firm of natural resource development consultants. The project was completed in September 1996. In our photo, Mr Ligusi Okello, Senior Forest Officer, is studying a colour-enhanced image of part of Tanzania, as transmitted by the satellite at an altitude of 850 km: red shows healthy vegetation and green leaves; green/blue depicts senescent vegetation; and the black areas indicate where bush fires have erupted. 0 0 For more information, contact Hunting Technical Services Ltd., Thamesfield House, Boundary Way, Hemel Hempstead, Herts HP2 7SR, United Kingdom. Tel.: +441442 231800. Fax +44 1442 219886

International Telecommunication Union proposals for projects in Africa, Asia and Latin Closing the global communication gap America. o A new transnational private development com­ o For further information, contact: pany, WorldTel Limited, has been launched on Terrefe Ras Work, Secretary of the Board, the initiative of the International Telecommuni­ WorldTel Limited, 9-11 rue Varembe, CH- cation Union to improve and develop basic tele­ 1211 Geneva 20, Switzerland. Tel.: +41 communications infrastructures and resources 22 730 5401. Fax: +41 22 730 6448. in the developing world on a fully independent commercial basis. lt is dedicated to creating Sam Pitroda, Chairman, WorldTel Limited an effective new model for cooperation between Headquarters, 2 Broadgate, London investors, commercial organizations and nations. EC2M 2AD, United Kingdom. Tel.: +44 WorldTel was conceived in January 1995, fol­ 171 714 4040. Fax: +44 171 714 4302. lowing the publication of a feasibility study enti­ tled "Closing the communication gap",which Global emergency telecommunications identified an annual shortfall of USS 30-50 bil­ The World Aid'96 Conference and Exposition was lion in funding for telecommunication projects held in Geneva from 30 September to 4 Octo­ in emerging markets. ber 1996 with the aim of "uniting the different The inaugural meetings for the Assembly agencies and organizations involved in emer­ of Governors and Board of Directors for World­ gency relief to ... encourage the best practice Tel Limited were held in London from 15 to 18 and highest standards of cooperation between July 1996. The budget was approved as were all concerned for the ultimate benefit of disas-

85 Announcement minals, they can continue to send and receive voice and data even when telephone and power 7th International Weather Festival lines have been destroyed. Issy-Les-Moulineaux, France International aid and relief are provided by 21-25 February 1997 specialized agencies, whose telecommunication Now in its seventh year, the Festival has needs are currently hampered by regulatory, reached cruising speed. A unique event licensing and other barriers. In many countries, which assembles journalists, TV weather the import and use of telecommunication equip­ presenters, scientists, the public at large ment for disasters and emergencies is treated and schools, an innovation in 1997 will be in the same way as importation and use of the introduction of a Graphics Prize, for the commercial equipment. Regulatory, licensing creation of the best TV weather map. and customs barriers are costly and impede As in previous years, there will also be: the import and operation of communication equipment or obstruct the use thereof. Lack of Talks for professionals and the general national telecommunication assistance plans and public; inventories and organizational barriers slow Open days for schools; down response and information exchange. The International Weather Show; The United Nations Department of Humani­ Debates and, above all, screening of tarian Affairs is currently working with relevant weather bulletins from 90 TV channels UN specialized agencies within a Working Group the world over, including, for the first on Emergency Telecommunications to remove time, Greece, Italy, Russia and Brazil. such barriers through an international conven­ The Festival will take place, as usual, in a tion (Convention on the Provision of Telecom­ serious but relaxed and friendly atmosphere. munications Resources for Disaster Mitigation For all information, contact : Fond and Relief Operations) and to ensure the rapid Bleu Communication, 11 his rue de Moscou, deployment and effective use of terrestrial and 75008 Paris, France. Tel.: 33 I (OI) 46 38 7I satellite telecommunications systems and equip- 21. Fax: 33 I (OI) 46 38 7I 33. E-mail: ment in emergencies and disasters. o I OI650,[email protected] 0 For further information, contact Mr M. Harbi, International Telecommunication Union, ter victims". it included a Special Session on Place des Nations, CH-1211 Geneva 20, Emergency Telecommunications, which high­ Switzerland. Tel.: +41 22 730 5571. lighted the vital role of telecommunications in Fax: +41 22 730 5137. disaster relief and mitigation and discussed the £-mail: [email protected] potential of the new breed of proposed Mobile Satellite Services in assistance and clean-up EXPO 2000 World Exhibition operations. The EXPO 2000 World Exhibition will take place When a disaster such as a tropical cyclone from 1 June to 31 October 2000 in Hanover, occurs, communication links are often one of Germany, with the general theme "Man-Nature­ the first things to be lost. Initially, this isolates Technology". The aim is to direct the world's the area, making it difficult to ascertain what attention to the global problems which will affect kind of assistance is needed. The long-term all peoples of the Earth at the beginning of the lack of basic communications, however, can be 21st century and to seek joint solutions to them. just as damaging. Traditional wireline telecom­ lt is hoped that, against this background, "par­ munication infrastructure is painstakingly slow ticipating nations could use EXPO 2000 as an and often prohibitively costly to reconstruct. opportunity to present proposals and sugges­ The loss of communications can severely dam­ tions for shaping the future in such a way as to age a region's economy, making it hard for preserve human dignity". people to rebuild their lives. EXPO 2000 was recognized and registered The proposed new Mobile Satellite Systems as a universal exhibition by the General Assem­ have enormous potential for both victims and bly of the International Exhibitions Bureau in Paris aid workers. Because their signals are transmit­ on 7 December 1994 in accordance with the ted by satellite to small portable handsets or ter- provisions of the 1928 Convention. it will follow 86 the World Exhibitions of Sevilla in 1992 and Lis­ bon in 1996. Publication announcement Mrs Birgit Breuel has been appointed General Advances in Atmospheric Sciences Commissioner of the exhibition with Dr Norman An international journal on the dynamics, van Scharpenberg as her deputy. o physics and chemistry of the atmosphere Published by the Chinese Committee of Conference announcement Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics and Eighth international conference and expo the Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chi­ Global Warming (GWS) nese Academy of Sciences. ISBN 0256-1530. New York, USA, 25-28 May 1997 Annual subscription rate, English edition Topics will be global warming and climate (1996), quarterly, 128 pages: US$ 349. change, global surveillance, education, pub­ Papers deal with the latest achievements lic health, energy and natural resource and developments in the atmospheric sci­ management, international law and policy ences (theoretical and practical aspects), making, and State and local government marine meteorology, weather systems, action. There will also be a workshop on numerical weather prediction, climate, industrial technology and greenhouse gas satellite meteorology, remote-sensing, atmo­ emission. spheric chemistry, cloud physics, weather The expo will feature technology, publica­ modification, air pollution and diffusion, tions and software addressing climate and atmospheric boundary layer physics and the environment, greenhouse gas and global turbulence. warming mitigation, energy planning, natu­ Orders and enquiries should be sent to: Inter­ ral resource management and C02 utiliza­ national Department, China Ocean Press, tion. Exhibitors will be accepted on a "first I Fuxingmenwai Street, Beijing 100860, come f'rrst served" basis. China. For all information, contact the GW8 Inter­ Tel.: 86-10-64919434. Fax: 86-10-62028604. national Program Committee, c/o Global Warming International Center, PO Box cut their C02 emissions to the point where there 5275, Woodridge IL 60517 0275, USA. is no threat to global survival. Climate change was Fax: +1 630 9101561 selected because it is the object of enormous political bargaining as well as intensive scien­ European political response to climate tific research and integrating socio-economic change assessment. Despite the fact that few countries will reach One finding is that governments wanting to the target of the UN Framework Convention on implement a climate policy should avoid labelling it as such. Another finding was that the FCCC Climate Change (FCCC) to reduce C0 2 emissions by the year 2000 to 1990 levels, the Conven­ is taken seriously in some parts of all govern­ tion has created a machinery of international ments but that there is no integrating focus within and national compliance that should bear the governments on the issue of climate change. For test of time, according to a recent study by the the most part, only environment and foreign International Institute of Applied Systems Analy­ ministries are involved intensively, not finance, sis (IIASA). Many adjustments have already taken trade or industry ministries. The link to employ­ place in data gathering, regulation, economic ment, social security and education is yet to be and industrial politics and local mobilization of made in any country studied. Nevertheless, all energy waste reduction to help respond to cli­ countries have created some form of coordi­ mate change. nating machinery and are producing plans, poli- The study, which was financed by the Com­ cies and data for the FCCC. o mission of European Communities, evaluated 0 Politics of Climate Change: A European European institutional response to the perceived Perspective (ISBN 0-415-125 73), edited threat of global warming. In particular, it looked by Ji/1 Jager and Tim O'Riordan, is pub­ at the significance of the FCCC in coordinating lished by Rout/edge Publishing, London, policy and ensuring that industrialized countries United Kingdom. Further information may

87 be obtained from the Office of Public days. Regular Geophysical Days (RGD) are each Information, 1/ASA, A-2361 Laxenburg, Wednesday. Regular World Days (RWD) are three Austria. consecutive days near the middle of each month, Tel.: +43 2236 807 Ext. 364 or 261. always Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday. Pri­ Fax: +43 2236 73 149. ority Regular World Days (PRWD) are the RWDs e-mail: [email protected] that fall on Wednesday. Quarterly World Days [email protected] (QWD) are the PRWD that fall in the quarterly World Geophysical Interval (WGI). The WGI is 14 International Geophysical Calendar 1997 consecutive days in each season, beginning on The International Geophysical Calendar (see a Monday of the selected month and normally below is prepared each year by the ICSU shifts from year to year. In 199 7, the WGis will International Ursigram and World Days Service be in February, May, August and November. (IUWDS) to recommend dates for making solar lt is recommended that particular efforts and geophysical observations that cannot be should be made to carry out an intensified carried out continuously. meteorological programme on the RGD (each The definitions of the designated days Wednesday UT) but also on Mondays and Fri­ remain as described for previous calendars. Uni­ days during WGis and Stratwarm Alert inter­ versal time (UT) is the standard time for all world vals. A desirable goal would be the scheduling

s M T F s M T w T F s JANUARY 4 JULY 11 18 25 1 AUGUST FEBRUARY 8 15 16 22 23 28 29 30 ]=]-]] SEPTEMBER @ 12 13 18 19 20 25 26 27 2 3 4 OCTOBER ® 10 11 16 17 18 we"- 2t+ 23+ 24 25 28 rlP~ 30 31 1 NOVEMBER MAY 4 I s 6 ~~~;;jJ 8

25 26 29 30 31 JUNE~]=]= d'Zl_i3_14_J5f"6+7' DECEMBER 8 9 15 16 w 20 21 22 23+ 26+ 1,7+ 28 29 30 1998 S M T W T F S .., "' .o.v JANUARY ;_ S I

@ Regular World Day (RWD) 8 Priority Regular World Day (PRWD) I'IJ Quarterly World Day (QWD) also a PRWD and RWD [1] Regular Geophysical Day (RGD) [!] Day of Solar Eclipse r--' l10 lll World Geophysical Interval (WGI) L9 _ !!! _~ Airglow and Aurora Period 6 + Incoherent Scatter Coordinated Observation Day 14* Dark Moon Geophysical Day (DMGD)

88 of meteorological rocketsondes, ozonesondes giving them financial assistance and interna­ and radiometer sondes on these days, together tional recognition". with maximum-altitude rawinsonde ascents at Projects must demonstrate originality, fea­ both 0000 and 1200 UT. In 1997, atmospheric sibility and their potential impact in areas such electricity observation periods are the RGD as science, technology, invention, discovery each Wednesday, beginning 1 January at 0000 and the environment. The Awards are granted UT, 8 January at 0600 UT, 15 January at 1200 every two years; each of five laureates receives UT, 22 January at 1800 UT, etc.. o US$ 50 000 and a gold chronometer. o o Copies of the calendar are available upon o For further information about the Awards, request from: the /UWDS chairman, Or R. including application requirements and Thompson, /PS Radio and Space Services, procedure and project guidelines, contact: Department of Administrative Services, The Secretariat, Ro/ex Awards for Enter­ P.O. Box 5606, West Chatswood, NSW prise; PO Box 1311, 1211 Geneva 26, 2057, Australia. Fax (61) (2) 414 8331, Switzerland. Tel.: (41 22) 308 22 00. e-mail [email protected]; or the /UWDS Fax: (41 22) 308 25 85. Secretary for World Days, Miss He/en Cot­ fey, WDC-A for Solar-Terrestrial Physics, Wind power in Europe NOAA E/GC2, 325 Broadway, Boulder, Europe has overtaken the USA in the field of Colorado 80303, USA. Fax (303) 497 exploiting wind power. Of a global wind power 6513, e-mai/ [email protected] capacity of some 13 800 MW forecast for the turn of the century, about half is expected to Conference announcement come from Europe, according to the European Wind Energy Association. Climate and History: In the United Kingdom, for example, which Past and Present Variability­ is targeting an increase of its wind power A Context for the Future capacity to 800 MW by the year 2000, the use The Second International Conference on of wind and other forms of renewable energy is Climate and History being encouraged by a government system of University of East Anglia, Norwich, United premium price payments for power produced Kingdom, 7-11 September 1998 in this way. This conference will be held to mark the As a result, Scotland's first wind farm has 25th anniversary of the founding of the Cli­ been commissioned. it is located on rough matic Research Unit by Prof. Hubert Lamb. moorland near the town of Douglas and is A major interdisciplinary event, it will made up of 26 turbines, each equipped with cover climate variability over the last few 41-m diameter rotors producing 600 kW, with millennia; human adjustments; and the a combined capacity of more than 15 MW.Jndic .. context for the future. vidual wind machines are also beginning to appear in remote parts of the country. One is For further information, contact Susan being used to provide electricity for a youth Boland, Centre Clerk, Climatic Research hostel more than 16 km from the nearest road Unit, University of East Anglia, Norwich or mains power. The turbine has three flexible NR4 7TJ, United Kingdom. blades producing 2.2 kW of power at a wind Tel. +44 1603 456161. Fax: +44 1603 speed of 12 m s-1. it is storm-resistant and vir­ 507784. tually maintenance-free. E-mail: [email protected] Another wind farm has recently been built on farmland at Treysglwyn, on the island of Rolex Awards for Enterprise Anglesey in Wales. Fourteen turbines, each The Rolex Awards were established in 1976 by with 37-m diameter rotors producing 400 kW Montres Rolex SA to "encourage a spirit of enter­ of power, serve 5 000 homes. o prise in individuals throughout the world by sup­ o For further information, contact the British porting outstanding personal initiatives" and Wind Energy Association, 89 Kingsway, helping them "implement innovative projects London WC2B 6RH. Tel.: +44-171 403 for improving the quality of life on our planet by 3433. Fax: +44-171 404 3432. 89 News from the Secretariat

Secretary-General's visits agriculture, transport, water resources manage­ The Secretary-General, Prof. G.O.P. Obasi, ment, protection and regeneration of the envi­ recently made official visits to a number of ronment, as well as natural disaster prepared­ Member countries as briefly reported below. ness and prevention. He recalled the contribution He wishes to place on record his gratitude to of WMO to the development and strengthening those Members for the kindness and hospitality of national Meteorological and Hydrological Ser­ extended to him. vices of ECOWAS Member States. In the con­ text of the working arrangement between Germany ECOWAS and WMO, the Secretary-General reiter­ The Secretary-General attended the 1Oth anni­ ated WMO's commitment to assisting ECOWAS versary celebration of the European Organiza­ Member States in the implementation of their tion for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satel­ Regional Meteorological Programme as an impor­ lites (EUMETSAT) in Darmstadt, Germany, on tant contribution to sustainable development. 25 June 1996. Finally, he highlighted the need for ECOWAS In his keynote address, the Secretary-General countries to secure peace and stability in order noted the prominent mention of WMO in EUMET­ to foster sound economic development, coop­ SAT's Convention. He· underscored the fruitful eration and integration. working arrangem-ent established between the During his visit, the Secretary-General held two Organizations and recalled the important discussions with several high-ranking officials, contributions made by EUMETSAT during its including Mr Y. Salahu, Permanent Representa­ first 10 years to many WMO Programmes: In tive of Nigeria with WMO, on matters related to particular, he referred to the geostationary Mmo­ the development of the Nigerian Meteorological SAT satellites located over Africa and Europe, Department. He also visited the facilities being the contingency plans to cover the Americas, if developed at Oshodi, in particular the new Cen­ required, andthe Meteorological Data Dissemi­ tral Forecast Office. nation service. He welcomed EUMETSAT's initia­ tives to eo-sponsor two training events in Africa, Niger namelfone in--Niamey, Niger, in October 1996, and the Second User Forum in Harare, Zimbabwe, The Secretary-General visited Niamey, Niger, from in December 1996. The Secretary-General wished 16 to 18 September 1996 to address the first the EUMETSAT Council success in initiating a session of the Scientific Advisory Committee of new programme· for a polar-orbiting satellite sys­ the African Centre of Meteorological Applications tem and looked forward to the continued rein­ for Development (ACMAD). In the course of his forcement of the excellent collaboration between visit, he was received by HE General lbrahim EUMETSAT and WMO. Mainassara Bare, President of the Republic of Niger; who expressed his satisfaction at the Nigeria·· excellent collaboration existing between Niger At the kind invitation of HE Flt-Lt Jerry John and WMO. The Secretary-General had fruitful Rawlings; President of the Republic of Ghana discussions with HE Mr Boucary Agy, Prime Min­ and Chairman of the Economic Community of ister; HE Mr Souley Abdoulaye, Minister of Trans­ West African States (ECOWAS), the Secretary­ port; HE Prof. Andre Salifou, Minister of State in General addressed the Summit of ECOWAS charge of External Affairs and HE Mr Jacques Authority of Heads of State and Government, Nignon, Minister of Commerce and Industry. which was held in Abuja, Nigeria, from 26 to 27 The Secretary-General also discussed with July 1996. Mr ldrissa Also, Director of National Meteoro­ In f\is statement, the Secretary-General logical Services of Niger and Permanent Repre­ explained the importance of meteorological and sentative of Niger with WMO, ways of enhanc­ hydrological activities in support of major devel­ ing further the excellent collaboration between opment sectors in ECOWAS States, especially Niger and WMO. 90 Prof. Obasi visited the ACMAD Centre and opment with Mr D. Hrcek, Director of the Insti­ the Sahelian Centre of the International Crops tute and Permanent Representative of Slovenia Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics and with WMO, and his senior staff. had fruitful discussions on matters of mutual interest with senior staff at those Centres. Mongolia The Secretary-General visited Mongolia from 22 to Mexico 26 September 1996 to address the eleventh ses­ The Secretary-General visited Mexico from 21 to sion of Regional Association 11 (Asia). The Secre­ 24 August 1996 for the signature of the Inter­ tary-General and the President of WMO, Dr J. W. Institutional Agreement between the Mexican Zillman, were received by HE Mr M. Enkhsaykhan, Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources and Prime Minister. They also had extensive discus­ Fisheries and WMO for the provision of techni­ sions with HE Mr Ts. Adyasuren, Minister for cal assistance as part of the implementation of Nature and the Environment, and several other the water resources management project (WRMP) senior officials and with Dr Z. Batjargal, Permanent in Mexico. Funded by a World Bank loan, the WRMP Representative of Mongolia with WMO, on matters will provide Mexico with the means to respond relating to the strengthening of the Hydromete­ more effectively in the formulation of national orological Services of Mongolia and various policies and in the development of integrated regional activities. The Secretary-General thanked approaches in addressing water problems. the Government of Mongolia for hosting the During his visit, the Secretary-General had Regional Association 11 session and ensuring its discussions with Ms Julia Carabias Lillo, Secretary success. He took the opportunity to meet with of the Environment, Natural Resources and Fish­ permanent representatives attending the ses­ eries; Mr Guillermo Guenneno Villalobos, Direc­ sion to discuss matters of mutual interest. tor-General of the National Water Commission and Mr G. E. Ortega Gil, Permanent Representa­ Egypt tive of Mexico with WMO, on matters relating to The Secretary-General visited Egypt from 27 to the project and on the strengthening of the 30 September 1996 to participate in the Meet­ excellent relationship between Mexico and WMO. ing of the Regional Committee of the Encyclo­ The Secretary-General also visited Mexico pedia Of Life Support Systems, held in Abu Sul­ from 10 to 12 September 1996 to address the tan. During his stay, Prof. Obasi held discussions twelfth session of the Intergovernmental Panel with Dr Hussien M. Zohdy, Permanent Represen­ on Climate Change (IPCC). In the course of his tative of Egypt with WMO, and other high-ranking visit, he had discussions with Dr Gabriel Cuadri, officials of Egypt, on matters of mutual concern. President of the. National Institute of Ecology, Georgia and other national officials on their collabora­ tion with the National Meteorological Service. The Secretary-General visited Tbilisi, Georgia, He had discussions with several Directors of from 3 to 7 October 1996, where he addressed national Meteorological and Hydrometeorologi­ the eighth session of the Interstate Council on cal Services on the future activities of the IPCC. Hydrometeorology of the Countries of the Com­ monwealth of Independent States. During his Slovenia visit, Prof. Obasi had an audience with the Presi­ The Secretary-General visited Slovenia from 8 to dent of Georgia, HE Mr Eduard Schevardnadze, 10 September 1996, where he addressed the during which matters of common interest were 24th International Conference on Alpine Meteor­ discussed. He also discussed cooperation ology in Bled. During his visit, he had fruitful dis­ between Georgia and WMO with HE Mr lrakli cussions with HE Dr Janez Drnovsek, Prime Menagarishvili, Minister of Foreign Affairs; HE Minister; HE Dr Pavle Gantar, Minister of Envi­ Mr David lakobidze, Minister of Finance; HE Ms ronment and Protection of Physical Planning, N. Chkhobadze, Minister of Environment, and and HE Dr Davorin Kracun, Minister of Foreign several high-ranking officials, including Mr Shalva Affairs, on issues of mutual interest, including Ogbaidze, Governor of the Province of Mtskheta. strengthening of the excellent collaboration The Secretary-General visited the Depart­ between Slovenia and WMO. ment of Hydrometeorology and discussed a Prof. Obasi visited the National Hydro­ number of issues, particularly the moderniza­ meteorological Institute and discussed its devel- tion of the Department, with Mr N. Beradze,

91 Head of the Department and Permanent Repre­ Permanent Representative of Poland with WMO, sentative of Georgia with WMO. and his staff. He also presented diplomas to six WMO fellows who had completed their training Poland in Poland. The Secretary-General visited Poland from 7 to Staff changes 11 October 1996, where he addressed the Vlllth National Conference on Technical Dams Control Appointments in Rytro. The Conference was organized by the On 1 July Ministry of Environment Protection, Natural 1996,Mr Resources and Forestry of Poland. During his Kazuto Suda visit, Prof. Obasi had fruitful discussions on the was appointed cooperation between Poland and WMO with Mr Junior Profes­ J. Boskowski, Vice-Minister of Foreign Affairs; sional Officer Mr A. Mierzwinski, Under-Secretary of the Min­ in the Joint istry of Environment Protection, Natural Resources Planning Office and Forestry; as well as with several high-rank­ of the Global ing officials. ·· Climate The Secretary-General visited the Regional Observing Sys­ Offices of the Institute of Meteorology and Water tem. Mr Suda Management and discussed several issues, holds a B.Sc. including the modernization of the Institute, with degree in Geo­ Prof. J. Zielinski, Director of the Institute and physics from

Geneva, 4 July 1996- Award of long-service certificates (back row, from left to right): Dr A.S. Zaitsev, Assistant Secretary-General; Mr Fernando Guzman (30 years, see WMO Bulletin 42 (4)); Ms Helga Struck Haering (25 years, see WMO Bulletin 45 (4)); Mr Pedro Romero (25 years, see WMO Bulletin 45 (3)); Mr David Hume (25 years, see WMO Bul­ letin 45 (4)); Mrs Denise Burkert (35 years, see WMO Bulletin 45 (4)); Mr Hamish McCombie (30 years, see WMO Bul­ letin 45 (3)); (front row, from left to right): Mrs Maria Tedjosasmito (20 years, see WMO Bulletin 44 (2)); Mrs Silvana Veltman (30 years, see page 93 of this issue); Mrs Annie Kal (20 years, see WMO Bulletin 45 (3); Prof. G. O.P. Obasi, Secretary-General; Mrs Christiane Estrop (25 years, see WMO Bulletin 45 (3)); and Mrs MargaTet Anderson (20 years, see WMO Bulletin 45 (3)) Photo: WMO!Bianco

92 the University of Tokyo. Before taking up his Departure duties with WMO, Mr Suda dealt with various cli­ On 31 August 1996, Ms Myriam Favre mate change issues for the Ministry of Foreign retired from her post of Librarian, WMO Techni­ Affairs of Japan and for the Japan Meteorologi­ cal Library. Ms Favre joined the Secretariat in cal Agency. this position in 196 7. We wish her a long and On 30 July 1996, Dr Mannava V. K. happy retirement. Sivakumar was appointed Anniversaries Scientific Offi­ Mrs Silvana Veltman, Senior Accounts Clerk, cer in the Agri­ Budget and Accounts Unit, Resource Manage­ cultural Meteo­ ment Department, completed 30 years of ser­ rology Division, vice on 1 July 1996. World Climate Mrs Huguette Morellet, Accounts Clerk, Programme Budget and Finance Unit (Project), Resource Department. Dr Management Department, completed 30 years Sivakumar of service on 26 September 1996. holds a Ph.D. in Mrs Anne-Marie Royles, Senior Clerk, Agricultural Cli­ Sales and Distribution of Publications Unit, Sup­ matology and port Services Department, completed 25 Soil Fertility years of service on 28 September 1996. from Iowa Mrs Helime Dufay, Information Process­ State University, USA, where he started his ing Assistant, Information Systems Division, career in 1973 as a research and teaching Support Services Department, completed 20 assistant. Between 1977 and 1983, he worked years of service on 30 August 1996. as Principal Agroclimatologist with the Interna­ Mrs Maria E. Aguado Caro, Text-pro­ tional Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid cessing Clerk, Documents Production Section Tropics (ICRISAT) in Patancheru, India. Dr (Spanish), Languages, Publications and Confer­ Sivakumar was assigned to the ICRISAT Sahe­ ences Department, completed 20 years of ser­ lian Centre in Niamey, Niger, in 1984. He was vice on 1 September 1996. Leader, Resource Management Programme from 1992 to 1993 and had been Director, Recent WMO publications Soils and Agroclimatology Division, since 1993. The Global Climate System Review. WMO-No. On 14 October 1996, Dr Carolin M. 819 (1995) ISBN 92-63-10819-6. English. Richter was 150 pages; numerous illustrations in appointed colour. Price: SFR 15 Junior Profes­ sional Officer This, the fifth edition of the Global Climate Sys­ in the Joint tem Review is based on climate system events Planning Office for the period 1991-1993. Its aim is to make of the Global readers aware of the evolution and inherent vari­ Climate ability of the global climate system, attempting Observing Sys­ to set short-term climatic fluctuations in a histor­ tem. Dr ical context. it also contains expanded informa­ Richter holds a tion on the oceans and discussions of pertinent Ph.D. in Meteo­ climatological topics. The Review serves to rology from demonstrate the value of climate data and prod- the University of Hamburg, WMO Catalogue of Publications Germany. Dr Richter had been working as a The 1996 edition of the catalogue (English/ research scientist in technical and experimental French/Russian!Spanish) is available free meteorology since 1987. Since 1994, she had upon request from the WMO Secretariat been a research fellow in remote sensing and and can also be visited via the WMO Inter­ radar meteorology with the Rutherford Appleton net home page Laboratory in Oxford, United Kingdom.

93 ucts provided by Members in contributing to our The present surge of new and recurrent infec­ understanding of the system. lt is thus both a tious diseases and the increase of more viru­ reference and an educational tool. lent or drug-resistant stains of pathogens are, to some extent, the result of climatic factors. Guide to the Provision of Meteorological Climate variability and potential change may Service for International Helicopter play an important role in these changing pat­ Operations. WMO·No. 842 (1996) ISBN terns. More frequent heat waves, rising sea-lev­ 92-63-10842-0. English, French, Russian els, increased temperature-dependent air pollu­ and Spanish. 28 pp. Price: SFR 15. tants and stresses on the agricultural system This publication, developed jointly with ICAO, could all affect the health of the human popula­ gives detailed guidance on what meteorologi­ tion. This booklet explains what we currently cal service should be provided for helicopter know about the relationship between climate operations. lt includes information on the oper­ and climate change on human health. ational requirements for observations, reports and forecasts for helicopter operations and Recently issued report gives examples of such support over high seas Executive Council-Abridged final report of the and mountainous terrain from WMO Members. forty-eighth session (Geneva, June 1996). Climate and Human Health. WMO;WHO/UNEP. WMO-No. 846 (1996} ISBN 92-63-10846- WMO-No. 843 (1996) ISBN 92-63-10843-9. 3. Arabic, Chinese, English, French, English. 24 pages; numerous illustrations Russian and Spanish. 85 pages. Price: in colour. Price: SFR 15. SFR 32.

Obituary

Ant6nio Silva de Sousa Commission for the Inter· Ant6nio Silva de Sousa died on 3 May 1995. national Born in Macao on 29 June 1920, he graduated Hydrological in mathematics and geographical engineering Decade, in and began work as a meteorologist in the Sec­ the General retariat of Civil Aviation on 11 November 1945. Council of the In 1946, he joined the National Meteoro­ National logical Service (NMS} of Portugal. He was sub­ Board for Sci­ sequently Chief of the Technical Office of the entific and NMS from 1950 to 1955; Chief of the Meteoro­ Technological logical Centre of Santa Maria (Azores) from 1955 Research, in to 1956; Chief of the Weather Forecasting Cen­ the Research tre in Lisbon from 1956 to 1957; and Chief of Coordinating the Weather Forecasting Service from 195 7 to Commission 1960. He was Director of the Meteorological for the North Service of Mozambique from 1960 to 1966 and Atlantic Treaty Director-General of the NMS of Portugal from Organization, Ant6nio Silva de Sousa 1966 to 1976. in the National As Permanent Representative of Portugal Commission for Geography and in the National with WMO, Mr de Sousa participated in a large Commission for the Environment. number of international meetings. He was elected Mr de Sousa was President of the Perma­ vice-president of the WMO Commission for Aero­ nent Commission for Scientific and Technical nautical Meteorology at its first session in 1954 Cooperation with the European Communities and president at its second session in 1959. and the Organization of Economic Cooperation From 1967 onwards, he represented the and Development, Vice-President of the Minister of Communications in the Portuguese National Board for Scientific and Technological

94 Research and member of the Steering Commis­ Mr de Sousa was elected President of the sion for the Atlas of the Portuguese Overseas Section of Physics of the Mozambique Studies Territories. He was appointed to replace the Society in 1963 and as President of the Society Secretary-General of the Ministry of Communi­ from January 1964 to December 1965. He was cations in hindrance cases and nominated decorated with the Order of Naval Merit of Brazil, President of the Social Structure of the Ministry the Military Order of Christ and the Order of Henry, for Public Works and Communications. the Navigator, and was praised three times for After ceasing to be Director-General of the high merit in the performance of his duties. o NMS, Mr de Sousa was nominated Vice-President of the National Commission for the Environment. A. DA COSTA MALHEIRO

Reviews

Global Precipitations and Climate Change. M. Desbois more useful-product would have been achieved and F. Deslamand. NATO ASI Series 1: Global through eo-opting an English sub-editor. This would Environmental Change, Vol. 26. Springer-Verlag, have resulted in a much improved pres.entation of the Berlin (1994). vii + 466 pages; numerous valuable scientific material this book contains. figures. ISBN 3-540-58439-0. Price: DM 280. Unfortunately, legitimate criticism does not end Knowledge of global precipitation is important for a there. The papers (28 in total) are variable not only in wide range of reasons, from the purely scientific to length (they range from eight to 28 pages) but also in the highly practical. However, precise information on quality. The concluding "Recommendations" are not precipitation remains elusive: at any one instant, pre­ well edited and vary greatly in both nature and format. cipitation is likely to be falling on about only 1 per There is no indication of the relationship between the cent of the global surface and is notoriously variable book's contents and the full programme of the Work­ in both space and time. All precipitation-measurement shop: it would have been helpful to have published that devices are susceptible to doubt and error and the programme. Finally, it is hard to guess why the volume representativeness of inventories based on such mea­ should end with an "Alphabetical list of authors", whose surements are limited by spatial and temporal sam­ names and addresses already appear under the titles pling problems. of their papers, yet does not contain a full list of par­ A NATO Advanced Workshop was held at ticipants. These latter facts help disguise the fact that L'Agelonde near Toulon, France, from 27 September to several presentations made to the Workshop are nei­ 1 October 1993 to "... review the present status of ther included, nor even mentioned, in this book, which knowledge concerning the past and present evolution therefore engenders both an incomplete record of the of the distribution of precipitations [sic] at global Workshop proceedings, as well as gaps in this cover­ age of the field. scale, related to climate evolution at different time scales. This review was intended to assess (also) the The papers which have been published are grouped availability and quality of data which could help under six section headings: "Precipitation palaeoclima­ through validation and initialization of model studies, tology" (lato sensu: historical data forms the sole basis and to improve our understanding of the processes for one of these four papers); "Received precipitation determining these precipitation changes.". history and existing climatologies" (four papers all on The present volume provides an introduction to northern hemisphere research); "Methodologies of large­ the aims and organization of the Workshop, presents scale estimation of precipitation from conventional data" papers delivered, summarizes outcomes of some work­ (five papers ranging from point estimation of rainfall by ing group discussions and lists names and addresses raingauges to the preparation of global datasets); "Method­ of authors. Curiously, the foreword precedes the table ologies of global scale precipitation from satellite data" of contents. More seriously, it is marked by omissions (four papers covering infrared, microwave, and (indirect) (e.g. it contains no reference to Section 6 ("Status of vegetation-index-based methods: the last paper having precipitation climatologies and current programmes") not been presented at the Workshop); "Validation and and presents a digest of the Workshop recommenda­ initialization of numerical methods" (seven papers on tions which is too brief and partial to be really useful. topics ranging from the initialization of general circula­ Moreover, despite claiming to be the result of "careful tion models to hydrological cycling models to a discus­ work of reviewing and rewriting", it is, as are too many sion of perturbations of the Inter-tropical convergence of the individual chapters, written in an English some­ zone); and "Status of precipitation climatologies and times not good enough for the meaning to be clear current programmes" (three papers on the Global Pre­ and unambiguous; furthermore, it contains typograph­ cipitation Climatology Project and the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission). ical errors. This reviewer fully appreciates the bravery of editors who prepare volumes in languages other Despite its shortcomings, this book will help fill than their own: he could not begin to do the same some gaps in the literature in a compact and timely way. himself. However, in the present case (which is by no means unique) a much more polished-and therefore E. C. BARREn

95 Changes in Land Use and Land Cover: A Global been converted to croplands globally, with regional Perspective. W. B. MEYER and B. L. TURNER values ranging from a maximum of 40 per cent in (Eds.). Cambridge University Press (1994). xi+ North America to least in South America. 537 pages; numerous figures and tables. ISBN The impacts discussed relate to air, soils and 0-521-47085-4. Price: US$ 49.95. water, and all three chapters make for sobering read­ This well-produced volume deals with themes which ing. Joyce Penner reviews atmospheric chemistry and are both timely and timeless. In the final chapter, air quality, and deals with both natural and anthro­ David Skole notes that "over the next 20 to 50 years pogenic emissions. Trace gas and particulate emis­ the global effects of land-cover conversion on eco­ sions from biomass burning remain inadequately systems and on human wealth and well-being may studied, despite their quantitative importance and the well be much larger than those arising from climate huge error terms relating to estimated sources and change. And yet very little is known about land cover sinks of C02 remain an impediment to any fully per­ and its alteration". These remarks provide an apt jus­ suasive attempts to model future climate change. tification for this excellent volume, which arose from Of the four chapters dealing with population and an earlier initiative of the Global Change Institute of income, technology, culture and cultural change, and the Office for Interdisciplinary Earth Studies led by political-economic institutions, my interest was most the US Committee on Global Change. aroused by GrUbler's demonstration of the tremen­ Most of the contributors to this volume plead dous increase in agricultural land and labour produc­ eloquently for a better integration of models and data tivity stemming from changes in technology over the from the social and natural sciences and all stress the past two centuries. As he notes, the real question is need for more rigorous and more consistent approaches whether we possess or will develop "appropriate tech­ to data collection, especially, but not exclusively, in nologies to feed, house, and employ whatever level of the social sciences. Given these concerns, it is pleas­ global population will materialize in the 21st century ing that the Land Use and Land Cover Change project in an adequate, equitable and environmentally com­ of the International Geosphere'-Biosphere Programme patible manner". has recently identified its scientific aims as including The final section deals with models. Jerry Melillo the causes of, and reasons f0r, land-use and land- offers a critical analysis of the strengths and weak­ cover change. · nesses of models concerned with interactions In a useful introductory overview, the two editors between land and atmosphere. The next generation of define land use as "human employment of the land", models will need to include more realistic simulations and hence within the bailiwick of the social sciences. of cloud cover, mineral aerosols, regional geography Land-use change may involve a shift to a different use and ocean dynamics, but existing models are useful or an intensification of existing use. Land cover denotes for sensitivity experiments. His discussion of Jule "the physical state of the land", and as such is largely Charney's biogeophysical feedback model of Sahel the concern of the natural sciences. Land cover changes drought is too bland and uncritical for my taste, and range from total conversion to minor modification. the specified albedo values in the original model are Among the primary or proximate sources of change far from realistic. There is still a danger that unsus­ are biomass burning, irrigation and pasture improve­ pecting readers will conclude that overgrazing is the ment. The secondary environmental impacts of such root cause of drought, which could lead to harsh and land cover change include trace-gas emissions, salin­ irrelevant drought-mitigation policies. The discussion ization and changes in runoff and water quality. of social science contributions to modelling global The rest of the book is in five roughly equal parts: change was enhanced by a thoughtful analysis of how working group reports; changes in land use and land best to approach natural resource accounting, a topic cover; environmental consequences; human driving likely to increase in importance in the near future. forces; and issues in data and modelling. The three David Skole's detailed analysis of Amazon deforesta­ working groups grappled, respectively, with trying to tion reveals the power of integrating remote sensing formulate a flow diagram showing the processes of data into Geographical Information Systems, and land use and land cover change; devising a scheme offers hopeful vistas for future progress. All in all, a to show trajectories of change in economically homo­ thought-provoking book which deserves to be care­ geneous regions of the world; and evaluating the fully pondered and widely read. prospects for projecting land use and land cover M.A.J. WILLIAMS changes into the near future (10 to 50 years). None of the groups met with much success, but they were at Global Geological Record of Lake Basins (Vol. 1). least able to specify some preconditions for achieving E. Gierlowski-Kordesch and K. Kelts (Eds.). these goals, or some modified version of them. Cambridge University Press (1994). xxxiii + Three clear and well argued chapters by Michael 500 pages; numerous figures and illustrations. Williams, Dean Graetz, and lan Douglas review his­ ISBN 0-521-41452-0. Price: £80. toric and recent changes in forests and tree cover, in grasslands, and in human settlements, respectively. This volume is a result of the International Geological There are interesting discrepancies in the tables used Correlation Program, Project 219 (Comparative by Williams and Graetz to show the global changes in Lacustrine Sedimentology in Space and Time) and is land cover before and after the adoption of agricul­ the first in a series to provide concise summaries of ture. Williams concludes that a total of 56.5 million information on the global spectrum of lacustrine km2 of forest and woodland has been reduced by 8.8 deposits, especially in terms of their palaeoenviron­ million km2, of which 7.0 million km2 came from tem­ mental interpretations. perate forests and only 0.5 million km2 from tropical With 71 chapters covering lake basins of Pre­ forests. Roughly 20 per cent of all grasslands have cambrian to Holocene age, which are reported from 96 many different areas of the world by 98 contributors adopted for minerals, clays or coal types. However, drawn from the global community of geoscientists, this first compilation sets down useful guidelines for this impressive 427-page compilation can rightly lay how future work on the global record of lake basins claim to providing a valuable perspective on the global should be reported with the aims of deriving a com­ spectrum of lacustrine deposits. it is also true, how­ puter-compatible database of information and of ever, that the state of knowledge regarding lake deposits, encouraging lacustrine researchers to seek a com­ represented by this volume, is somewhat partial. As mon sedimentologicallanguage. acknowledged by the editors, details of many of the it is clear that this first global compilation of lake vast lacustrine deposits of China, Africa, Russia and sediments research, despite its extensive nature, former Soviet republics in Middle Asia, and South leaves many gaps in the understanding of the lacus­ America are not included. In fact, only 14 of the con­ trine record relating, for example, to interpretation of tributions are associated with parts of the world out­ palaeoclimate information, to time resolution of side North America and Europe, while 20 of the sequences, and to development of criteria for facies chapters report investigations conducted in Spain. and subfacies recognition. The volume, however, does The volume is arranged mainly according to the provide a very firm foundation on which subsequent chronological age of the lacustrine deposits investi­ projects, such as ICP-324 (Global Palaeoenvironmen­ gated by individual studies. However, an introductory tal Archives in Lake Systems), can build. lt represents section comprises seven chapters which do not fit a successful first contribution to a series of works neatly into a chronological structure because they which will provide invaluable reference sources for either discuss particular processes, such as hydro­ sedimentologists and other environmental scientists carbon formation in lacustrine environments and water with an interest in the academic and practical impor­ chemistry of enclosed lake basins, or synthesize mul­ tance of lake sediments, both ancient and modern. tiple lacustrine episodes in selected regional and basi­ nal contexts. Subsequent sections are devoted to B. WEBB reporting studies of lacustrine deposits of PreCam­ brian, Cambrian and Devonian, Carboniferous to Per­ Long-Term Climate Monitoring by the Global Climate mian, Permo-Triassic to Jurassic, Early Cretaceous, Observing System. T. R. KARL (£d.). Kluwer Aca­ Late Cretaceous, Palaeocene to Eocene, Oligocene, demic Publishers, Dordrecht (1995). v + 517 Miocene to Pliocene and Quaternary ages. The 63 indi­ pages; numerous figures and illustrations. ISBN 0- vidual chapters within the "chronological" sections pro­ 7923-3856-1. Price: US$ 154. vide a vast wealth of information in a concise form. This book comprises a colfection of 24 substantial The reader might easily become "bogged down" in papers which were presented at an International Meet­ the enormous amount of detail contained in this com­ ing of Experts in Asheville, USA, 9-11 January 1995. pilation but an editorial introduction is very useful in Although the papers published are reprinted from Climate synthesizing the individual studies and in drawing out Change, Vol. 31, Nos. 2-4, 1995, it is nevertheless key points which can be borne in mind when reading useful to have them on the shelf in the form of a sepa­ individual chapters. For instance, the large number of rate comprehensive book for quick and easy reference. reported deposits indicating playa sedimentation is The aim of the meeting and, hence, of the book is highlighted, which may partly reflect the ease of iden­ outlined in the editor's foreword, as "[helping] develop tifying this form of lacustrine deposition, especially in the requirements for a long-term monitoring system". In very old and unfossiliferous deposits. Similarly, it is the wide collection of substantial papers condensed in noted that predominantly shallow freshwater facies the present book, a scientific framework is presented are typical of Carboniferous to Permian lacustrine for such a long-terrn monitoring system. The various sediments, while Triassic-Jurassic lake basins tend to contributors who are among the leading scientists of be found around the margins of the North Atlantic and their specific fields of research can successfully help have a history related to plate rifting and changing define realistic goals of the Global Climate Observing continental climates which are reflected in deposits System (GCOS) related to decadal-to-centennial time­ containing playa-alluvial states interbedded with thinly scale climate monitoring. The great practical impor­ laminated, organic carbon-rich deepwater calcareous tance of the book is shown by such simple and under­ shales. For lake deposits in many other parts of the standable titles as "Land surface temperatures-is the geological column, however, generalization is restricted network good enough?" (P. D. Jones) and "Documenting by the limited geographical distribution of the rele­ and detecting long-term precipitation trends: where we vant individual studies. Early Cretaceous lacustrine are and what should be done" (P. Y. A. Groisrnan and environments, for example, are represented by four D. R. Legates). it is shown that the data records avail­ investigations all from southern Spain. These provide able can generally be regarded as adequate, but they interesting evidence of subtropical to tropical condi­ may be inadequate in case of a specific purpose for tions which are related to an equable climate, the which they will be used. WMO is criticized for the fact Tethyan ocean circulation and the incipient opening that, out of a global monitoring network of over 9 000 of the South Atlantic, but cannot yield a wider global stations, data are readily available only for about 900 perspective on palaeoenvironmental conditions in stations (P. D. Jones, p. 415). Needless to say, the reli­ this period. ability of many data series is affected by urbanization The chapters in the volume exhibit a considerable effects, site moves and procedural changes that have variety in length, style, detail, emphasis and graph­ taken place over the years. ics, as might be expected from a compilation of indi­ The problems connected with climatic records vidual studies. There is no standard legend used and the GCOS are shown synchronously by most throughout the book for lithology, sedimentology and authors. The deficiencies which need to be rectified in other features, nor is a common set of abbreviations certain studies relate to the accessibility of records,

97 their accuracy and reliability, the homogeneity of time This book consists of a collection of papers series and the coverage of stations. Some authors cor­ dealing with the application of various concepts of rectly attribute this to the existence of some regions of uncertainty, presented at a workshop held in Madralin, the Earth for which data are not available. At the same Poland, in September 1990. The papers cover a wide time, many authors point out that climatic data are a spectrum of subjects, ranging from the analysis of vital requirement for a wide spectrum of consumers, outputs of general circulation models (GCMs} and including resource managers, planners, analysts, the rainfall-runoff modelling to river pollution and reservoir media, and researchers concerned with climate-impact management. studies. Usable and easily accessible data are not The emphasis of the book is on the applications always available, however. Hence, one must agree with of recent concepts of uncertainty, although papers the authors who point to the need for an improvement on more "classical" approaches are also included. of the GCOS. This is a particularly important aspect In the introductory chapter, the editor, Z. Kundze­ that poses a challenge to the progress of climatology wicz, defines and classifies the various uncertainty both now and in the future, especially in a context of concepts and relates them to the applications pre­ population growth, which makes increasing demands sented in the subsequent chapters. on agriculture, industry, recreation and the natural The first chapter of the book contains applica­ resources of the Earth. tions of classical methods. Two papers of this group The papers are grouped into four sections which present particularly interesting methodologies for the highlight the particular topics under discussion. The study of climate change. The paper by Moss proposes topics dealt with comprise firstly those covered by the a Bayesian information measure for analysing the out­ principal papers. They are followed in the second and puts of GCMs. This method, which is under develop­ third sections by contributions related to general and ment, addresses the difficult problem of matching the specific aspects of climate observing, respectively. The different scales of GCM outputs and observed data. presentation of topics is concluded with only one paper lt is well known that the precipitation outputs of on climatic impacts and climate monitoring. This section GCMs do not reproduce satisfactorily the observed cannot fulfil the current urgent needs of the large num­ precipitation patterns. In Bardossy's paper a model ber of climate-impact researchers who study the impact of daily precipitation and temperature coupled with of anthropogenic climate change. As projections of the types of atmospheric circulation patterns is pro­ future climate have become a key demand of society, posed. This approach, based on previous work by the GCOS must also be constructive and implementable Bardossy and Plate is very promising, particularly for on both a national and an international scale. The many modelling the precipitation and temperature of spe­ examples given relating to the specific aspects of climate cific regions under changing atmospheric circulation. observing point to promising prospects for improving The second chapter of the book is devoted to the climate observation system, partly also by means applications of recent concepts of uncertainty. of a non-instrumental observation, such as satellite Self-similar processes (fractional Gaussian noise} monitoring. with long-range correlations have been proposed by The papers presented clearly confirm the fact Benoit Mandelbrot and his co-authors since the late that climatology deals with a dynamic and complex sixties to model river flows with preservation of the Earth-atmosphere system. Under the growing societal Hurst coefficient. These models are now part of the awareness of the environment, climatology has also hydrologist's tool kit. Later, Mandelbrot generalized drawn a great deal of public attention and there can be these concepts and developed the theory of fractals, no doubt whatsoever about its impact on society. The i.e. mathematical objects with self-similar structure book proves the rapidly improved capability of modern at all scales. climatology in providing a deeper understanding of the At the present time, hydrologists are in the pro­ complex nature of the global environment. Many gaps cess of examining the possibilities of fractal model­ in the existing knowledge and data inadequacies still ling of the processes of the hydrological cycle. need to be bridged and the recommendations and sug­ The next five papers of the book propose frac­ gestions given by the authors fully implemented, if the tal models of permeability and rainfall. Two are par­ demands of the consumers are to be satisfied. ticularly interesting: the comprehensive paper by Love joy and_ Schertzer on multifractals and rain and Manfred DOMROES that by Georgakakos et al., which proposes a combi­ nation of fractals and chaotic dynamics for modelling New Uncertainty Concepts in Hydrology and Water rainfall with fine time increments. Resources. Z. W. KUNDZEWICZ (Ed.}. Cambridge The theory of fuzzy sets was developed in the University Press (1995}. International Hydrology 1960s by Zadeh to model events imprecisely under­ Series. xiii + 322 pages; numerous formulae stood. This theory has been applied in many fields, and diagrams. ISBN 0-521-461189-9 (h/b}. Price: £75 (US$ 125}. including water resources development. Two papers in this book utilize this methodology. The paper by Uncertainty is a basic characteristic of hydrological Mizumura used fuzzy set concepts to estimate the variables but the mathematical formulation of the residuals of Sugawara's tank rainfall-runoff model, concept depends on the type of problem and the whereas Kindler and Tyszewski examine the limitations amount of information available. Traditionally, hydrol­ of this approach and conclude that the concept of fuzzy ogists have been using the concepts of deterministic sets is much more applicable to diagnostic problems and random variables, whereas, more recently, con­ than to the decision-making process. cepts of uncertainty, originating in other fields such In view of the early stage of development of the as fuzzy sets, fractals and chaotic dynamics were applications of fuzzy theory in the water sciences, introduced into the water resources field. this statement may be premature.

98 Pattern recognition methods can extract informa­ the world of 1996, and their relation to development. tion from past data groupings according to a number Ten authors each write one of ten chapters, covering of classification criteria. This approach is used in climate change, water strategy and freshwater eco­ Mizumura's paper in combination with the tank model, systems, agricultural resources, bioinvasions, infec­ for predicting runoff from rainfall. tious diseases, human rights and environmental justice, The methodology of neural networks is useful in sustainable industries and harnessing the market for the case of complex relationships between the input the environment. and the output of a pattern which are not expressible On its range of environmental topics, can it be in mathematical form. The paper by Ranjithan et al. pro­ relied upon? Each chapter is easy to read, in a journal­ poses a neural network approach to the problem of istic style which made me wonder whether, in subject ground water remediation. The neural network methodol­ areas I was unfamiliar with, there were generalizations ogy is a promising artificial intelligence tool for dealing that experts would not accept. In the chapter on climate with complex hydrological and water resource systems. change, the price of readability is some loose phras­ Several papers are devoted to hydrological appli­ ing; on page 22, for example, it is not very clear which cation of the theory of random fields to rainfall model­ of the greenhouse gases (GHGs) (but probably anthro­ ling, multivariate outlier detection and regional drought pogenic GHGs other than C02 ) "trap as much heat as characteristics. More specifically, the methodologies would be generated by more than 300 000 nuclear of empirical orthogonal functions and geostatistical plants." For anyone reading the chapter as a first intro­ methods developed by meteorologists and geologists, duction to climate change, though, it is quick and cov­ respectively have proven to be very successful for the ers most of the issues understandably. Importantly, regionalization of hydrologic variables. like each of the other chapters, the chapter on climate The papers of the last two chapters of the book change also has a set of notes, including detailed ref­ deal with stochastic processes and risk and reliability erences; 68 notes on this chapter take up five pages. methods. Three papers of the last chapter are partic­ The number of notes for other chapters range between ularly interesting. The first two (Kundzewicz and Laski, 50 and 75. These notes and bibliographies alone make and Bogardi and Verhoef) deal with the problem of the book a most useful reference work. Nevertheless, optimization of water resource systems using a multi­ anyone seriously interested in climate change, for exam­ criteria decision-making approach. Given the multidis­ ple, would do better to use the notes as signposts ciplinary nature of water resources development, quan­ towards reading the authoritative works of the IPCC, titative, qualitative and environmental factors must be where peer review has ensured that each word has taken into account, and the multicriteria approach been carefully weighed. · therefore becomes necessary. The style is generally somewhat evangelical: often The third paper by Plate proposes a framework it is only by reference to the notes that the reader can for modelling non-point (agricultural) pollution of sur­ sort out what is science and what journalistic opinion. face waters which combines the hydrological, hydraulic Readers outside the USA (including readers of the 900 and decision-making aspects of the problem. This copies distributed each year at the World Economic integrated approach depends on the specific condi­ Forum in Davos, Switzerland) may also become irritated tions and requires further elaboration. by the reference in the foreword to "the US leadership In conclusion, this book presents a collection of role on environmental issues" and the weight too fre­ theoretical and applied papers on new concepts of quently given to North American examples. Readers uncertainty, combined with applications of established of the Bulletin in English are used to the standard UN concepts. The paper discusses the present state of language: State of the World uses US spellings (and development and the possibilities and limitations of each number systems: "trillions" = 1Ql2). Many environmental methodology, making the book an important contribution issues had their origins in the USA and that country to the development and correct use of these new con­ makes many important contributions to their study. cepts in hydrology and water resources development. But, in 1996, all governments and peoples through­ out the world are taking their first steps in managing G. CAVADIAS the planet by working towards sustainable develop­ ment in a sustainable environment. State of the World 1996, by L. R. Brown and others. Quite different from the other nine chapters, the (A Worldwatch Institute report on progress first, by Lester R Brown, deals with "The acceleration towards a sustainable society). Earthscan of history". By itself, this comprehensive review justi­ Publications, Ltd., London (1996). xvii + 249 fies begging, borrowing or even buying the book. lt pages. ISBN 1-85383-327-4. Price: £12.95. contains some thought-provoking facts and quotations: State of the World 1996, its back cover tells us, is the "When a country imports one ton of grain it is in effect 13th annual edition of "the flagship publication of the importing 1 000 tons of water. Grain has become the Worldwatch Institute. Currently translated into 27 lan­ currency with which governments balance their water guages around the world, it is relied upon by national accounts.";"Food, the defining issue"; "There is no governments, UN agencies, development workers and replacement for food."; "Regaining control of our des­ law-makers for its authoritative, well-reasoned and up­ tiny depends on stabilizing population as well as cli­ to-the-minute analysis and information." So, is it a hand­ mate.". lt contains innovative hope: "The entry of the book giving world statistics in 1996 (such as the weather, insurance industry into the debate on climate change war or the number of wirelesses), or a summary of the is a potential watershed. As a business on the front state of global activities (such as poetry, politics or lines of society's most risky activities, the industry has philosophy)? The title page gives more of a clue than a long tradition of spurring important policy changes the title: a "report on progress towards a sustainable to help reduce society's risks ... the industry's experi­ society." So, it is about the state of green issues in ence with fire-related claims led to ... stricter building

99 codes that reduce the frequency of fires. Similarly, insur­ Solar Heating in Cold Regions-A technical guide to ers have fought since the early 1970s for tougher safety developing country applications, by J.-F. Roz1s standards for automobiles. The resulting regulations and A. GUINEBAULT. Intermediate Technology ... have saved tens of thousands of lives-and avoided Publications Ltd., London (1996). viii + 167 billions of dollars in insurance losses." pages; numerous figures. ISBN 1-85339-329-0. This book deals with the issues behind the news; Price: £9.95/US$ 18.95. governments recognize the need to act but the issues The Mount Pinatubo Eruption-Effects on the Atmos­ often affect deep-seated interests and make it hard to phere and Climate. G. F1occo, D. FuA and G. Vls­ get the consent of the governed. Potential climate coNTI (Eds.). NATO ASI Series 1: Global Environmen­ change was not offered in some countries as a reason tal Change, Vol. 42. Springer;Verlag, Heidelberg for closing coal mines. Does the European "mad cow (1996). viii + 310 pages; numerous figures. disease" similarly cloak a real need to reduce demand ISBN 3-540-61281-5. Price: OM 180. for beef so as to increase world food efficiency? Here, we read that one kilogram of beef represents seven World Resources 1996-97-A Guide to the Global kilograms of grain: in a world with a growing popula­ Environment. A joint publication by The World tion, will, or should the corresponding seven tons of Resources Institute, the United Nations Environ­ fresh water continue to be available? ment Programme, the United Nations Development Are "national governments, UN agencies, Programme and the World Bank. World Resources development workers and law-makers" right if, as the Institute, Washington (1996). xiv +365 pages. cover says, they rely on State of the World each year ISBN 0-19-521161-8. Price: £24.95. "for its authoritative, well-reasoned and up-to-the-minute Vital Signs 1996-199 7-The trends that are shaping analysis and information"? Sources with more authority our future, by L. R. BROWN, C. FLAVIN, H. KANE and in each subject area are available (although few environ­ L. STARKE (Eds.). Earthscan Publications, London mental subjects are covered by "policy-makers' sum­ (1996). 169 pages; numerous diagrams. ISBN 1- maries" as excellent as the IPCC's); and being up-to-the­ 85383-0367-3. Price: £12.95. minute may be important for journalism (and selling yearbooks) but not for most good long-term govern­ Currents of Change-£/ Nifio's impact on climate and mental and international decisions-indeed, major re­ society, by M. H. GLANTZ. Cambridge University assessments and presentations of an area of science Press (1996). xiii + 194 pages; numerous by its practitioners can be too frequent and delay its figures. ISBN 0-521-57659-8 (p/b). Price: progress. So while the answer must be "no" for most £14.95/US$19.95).1SBN 0-52149580-6 (h/b). of the subject areas it covers, State of the World 1996 Price: £40/US$ 59.95). offers a good introduction for those who need to be Environmental Hydraulics. V. P. SINGH & W. H. HAGER well informed but do not have a specific environmen­ (Eds.). Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht tal interest; governments should once again be grate­ (1996). xiii + 415 pages; numerous figures and ful to an NGO for keeping the public debate on man­ equations. ISBN 0-7923-3983-5. Price: US$ 205. aging our planet moving on. Arrhenius-From Ionic Theory to the Greenhouse Effec~ s. G. CDRNFORD by Elisabeth Crawford. Watson Publishing Inter­ national, Nantucket (USA) (1996). xiii + 320 New books received pages. ISBN 0-88135-166-0. Price: US$ 49.95. Soil Physics (third edition), by T. J. MARSHALL, J. W. Boundary-Layer Meteorology-25th Anniversary HOLMES and C. W. ROSE. Cambridge University Volume, 1970-1995. J. R. GARRATI and P.A. TAYLOR Press (1996). xiv + 453 pages. ISBN 0-521- (Eds.). Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht 45766-1 (p/b). Price: £21.95/ US$ 37.95. (1996). 417 pages; numerous figures. ISBN 0- ISBN 0-521-45151-5 (h/b). Price: £60/US$ 90. 7923-4191-0. Price: US$ 75. Atmospheric Pollution by Aerosols, by V. K. SHARMA. Air Pollution IV: Monitoring, Simulation and Control. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur (1994). xii + 158 B. CAUSSADE, H. POWER and C. A. BREBBIA (fds.). pages; numerous tables. ISBN 81-7233-074-X. Computational Mechanics Publications, South­ Price: US$ 40. ampton (1996). 888 pages; numerous figures. Parameter Identification and Inverse Problems in ISBN 1-85312-422-2. Price: £245/US$ 368. Hydrology, Geology and Ecology. J. GOTTLIEB and Development and Application of Computer Techniques to P. DuCHATEAU (Eds.). Kluwer Academic Publishers, Environmental Studies VI. P. Zannetti and C. A. Dordrecht (1996). xvii + 300 pages; numerous BREBBIA (Eds.). Computational Mechanics Publica­ equations. ISBN 0-7923-4089-2. Price: US$ 140. tions, Southampton (1996). 744 pages; numerous Computer Methods and Water Resources Ill. Y. AsousLEI­ figures. ISBN 1-85312411-7. Price: £215/US $323. MAN, C. A. BREBBIA, A. H.-D. CHENG and D. OuAZAR Urban Transport and the Environment /1. J. M. BALDASANO (Eds.). Computational Mechanics Publications, Rmo and L. J. SucHAROV (fds.). Computational Southampton (1996). 528 pages; numerous figures Mechanics Publications, Southampton (1996). 624 and equations. ISBN 1-85312-424-9. Price: US$ pages; numerous figures. ISBN 1-85312451-6. 239. Price: £158/US$ 239. Distributed Hydrological Modelling. M. A. Asson and Geographical information Systems in Hydrology. V. P. J. C. REFSGAARD. Kluwer Academic Publishers, SINGH and M. FIDRENTINO. Kluwer Academic Publish­ Dordrecht (1996). ix + 321 pages. ISBN 0-7923- ers, Dordrecht (1996). xv + 443 pages. ISBN 0- 4042-6. Price: US$ 158. 79234226-7. Price: US$ 219. o

100 CALENDAR OF COMING EVENTS (sessions to be held in Geneva, Switzerland, unless otherwise stated) 1997 21-25 February Seventh International Weather Forecasters' Festival (Issy-les­ Moulineaux, France)

24-28 February First WMO International Workshop on Monsoon Studies (Den­ pasar, Bali, Indonesia)

24-28 February Land Degradation and Desertification (Cairo, Egypt)

3-7March Working Group on Planning and Impiementation of WWW in Region ill (Brasilia, Brazil) 10-14March International Conference on Regionalization in Hydrology (Braunschweig, Germany)

10-20March Commission for Marine Meteorology-twelfth session (Havana, Cuba)

10-21 March RA IV Workshop on Hurricane Forecasting and Warning (Miami, USA)

17-21 March Regional Workshop on Agrometeorological Techniques in Opera­ tional Agriculture in Latin America (San Jose, Costa Rica)

7-11 April International Workshop for Sea Ice Thickness Measurements and Data Analyses (Monterey, California, USA)

14-17 April INM/WMO International Symposium on Cyclone and Hazardous Weather in the Mediterranean (Palma de Mallorca, Spain)

23 April-3 May Fifth Scientific Assembly of IAHS (Rabat, Morocco)

7-10 May RA IV Hurricane Committee-nineteenth session (Nassau, Bahamas) 12-21May Regional Association IV (North and Central America)-twelfth session (Nassau, Bahamas) 13-16May International Trade Fair and Congress for the Geosciences and Geotechnology (geotechnica) (Cologne, Germany)

24-30May Seventh International Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference (ISOPE-97) (Honolulu, Hawaii, USA)

26-30May International Workshop on Drought and Desertification (Bet Dagan, Israel)

9-17 June Asia TELECOM 97 (Singapore)

10-20June Executive Council-forty-ninth session

23-27 June Workshop on Measurement of Cloud Properties for Forecasts of Weather, Air Quality and Climate (Mexico City)

101 MEMBERS OF THE WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION* STATES (178) Afghanistan, Islamic State of Georgia Paraguay Albania Germany Peru Algeria Ghana Philippines Angola Greece Poland Antigua and Barbuda Guatemala Portugal Argentina Guinea Qatar Armenia Guinea-Bissau Republic of Korea Australia Guyana Republic of Moldova Austria Haiti Republic of Yemen Azerbaijan Honduras Romania Bahamas Hungary Russian Federation Bahrain Iceland Rwanda Bangladesh India Saint Lucia Barbados Indonesia Sao Tome and Principe Belarus Iran, Islamic Republic of Saudi Arabia Belgium Iraq Senegal Belize Ireland Seychelles Benin Israel Sierra Leone Bolivia Italy Singapore Bosnia and Herzegovina Jamaica Slovakia Botswana Japan Slovenia Brazil Jordan Solomon Islands Brunei Darussalam Kazakstan Somalia Bulgaria Kenya South Africa Burkina Faso Kuwait Spain Burundi Kyrgyz Republic Sri Lanka Cambodia Lao People's Democratic Republic Sudan Cameroon Latvia Suriname Canada Lebanon Swaziland Cape Verde Lesotho Sweden Central African Republic Liberia Switzerland Chad Libyan Arab Jamahiriya Syrian Arab Republic Chile Lithuania Tajikistan China Luxembourg Thailand Colombia Madagascar The former Yugoslav Republic of Comoros Malawi Macedonia Congo Malaysia Togo Cook Islands Maldives Tonga Costa Rica Mali Trinidad and Tobago C6te d 'lvoire Malta Tunisia Croatia Mauritania Turkey Cuba Mauritius Turkmenistan Cyprus Mexico Uganda Czech Republic Micronesia, Federated States of Ukraine Democratic People's Republic Monaco United Arab Emirates of Korea Mongolia United Kingdom of Great Britain Denmark Morocco and Northern Ireland Djibouti Mozambique United Republic of Tanzania Dominica Myanmar United States of America Dominican Republic Namibia Uruguay Ecuador Nepal Uzbekistan Egypt Netherlands Vanuatu El Salvador New Zealand Venezuela Eritrea Nicaragua VietNam, Socialist Republic of Estonia Niger Western Samoa Ethiopia Nigeria Yugoslavia Fiji Norway Zaire Finland Oman Zambia France Pakistan Zirnbabwe Gabon Panama Gambia Papua New Guinea TERRITORIES (6) British Caribbean Territories Hong Kong Netherlands Antilles and Aruba French Polynesia Macao New Caledonia • On 15 November 1996

102 SELECTED LIST OF WMO PUBLICATIONS

WMONo. Sfr

Manuals, guides and handbooks 305 Guide on the Global Data-processing System. (1993 edition) E- F (R- Sin preparation) (without binder) 53 (binder) 17 386 Manual on the Global Telecommunication System (1991/1992 edition) Volume I-Global aspects and Volume 11 -Regional aspects E - F - R - S (without binder) 136 (binder) 21 411 Information on meteorological and other environmental satellites (1994 edition) E (without binder) 33 (binder) 17 471 Guide to marine meteorological services (1982 edition) E- F-R-S 34 485 Manual on the Global Data-processing System Volume !-Global aspects (1991); and Volume 11-Regional aspects (1992) E- F-R-S (without binder) 44 (binder) 17 732 Guide to practices for meteorological offices serving aviation (1990) E- F-R-S 26 781 Guide to applications of marine climatology (1994) E (without binder) 24 (binder) 17 782 Aerodrome reports and forecasts: a user's handbook (revised 1996 edition) E- F-R-S 16 788 Guide on World Weather Watch Data Management (1993) E- F-R-S 22 834 Guide to public weather services practices (1996) E - S 54 842 Guide to the provision of meteorological service for international helicopter operations (1996) E-F-R-S 15

Lectures and other publications 523 The atmospheric boundary layer (Third IMO Lecture) (1979) E 24 542 Climatic changes and their effects on the biosphere (Fourth IMO Lecture) (1980) E 34 614 Scientific lectures presented at the Ninth World Meteorological Congress (Geneva, 1983) (1985) E 14 649 El Nifio phenomenon and fluctuations of climate (lectures presented at the thirty-sixth session of the WMO Executive Council) (1984) E 12 700 Dispersion processes in large-scale weather prediction (Sixth IMO Lecture) (1990) E 87 712 Mesoscale forecasting and its applications (lectures presented at the fortieth session of the Executive Council (1989) E or For R 22 738 Meteorological and hydrological risk assessment (lectures presented at the forty-first session of the WMO Executive Council) (1991) E and R 15 771 Special topics on climate (lectures presented at the forty-second session of the WMO Executive Council (1992) E or R 12 795 Scientific lectures presented at the Eleventh World Meteorological Congress (Geneva, 1991) (1993) E 16 798 Climate change-Lectures presented at thefortyjourth session of the Executive Council (1994) E 15 805 Lectures presented at the forty-fifth session of the Executive Council (1994) E or F 16 822 Lectures presented at the forty-sixth session of the Executive Council (1995) E/R 15 819 The global climate system review (1995) E 15

Training publications 258 Guidelines for the education and training ofpersonnel in meteorology and operational hydrology (1984) E- F- S 39

A = Arabic, E = English, C = Chinese, F = French, R = Russian, S = Spanish Note: Except for publications indicated as being multilingual, the different language versions are published separately and the price refers to the version in one language only. WMONo. Sfr 266 Compendium of lecture notes for training Class IV meteorological personnel Volume I-Earth science (1970) E 23 Volume II-Meteorology (1984) E- F 47 364 Compendium of meteorology for use by Class I and Class If meteorological personnel Volume I, Part 1-Dynamic meteorology (1973) F 43 Volume I, Part 2-Physical meteorology (1973) F- S 31 Volume I, Part 3-Synoptic meteoro'logy (1978) F- S 39 Volume II, Part 1 -General hydrology (1977) E 13 Volume II, Part 2-Aeronautical meteorology (1978) F- S 19 Volume II, Part 3-Marine meteorology (1979) E- F- S 16 Volume II, Part 4- Tropical meteorology (1979) E 40 Volume II, Part 5-Hydrometeorology (1984) E 19 Volume II, Part 6-Air chemistry and air pollution meteorology (1985) E- F- S 26 382 Compendium of lecture notes for training personnel in the applications of meteorology to economic and social development (1976) E- S 31 434 Compendium of lecture notes in marine meteorology for Class Ill and Class IV personnel (1991 edition) A- E- F 37 551 Lecture notes for training Class I I and Ill agricultural meteorological personnel (1980) S 25 593 Lecture notes for training Class IV agricultural meteorological personnel (1982) E- F- S 19 622 Compendium of lecture notes on meteorological instruments for Class Ill and Class IV meteorological personnel Volume I, Part 1 -Meteorological instruments, and Part 2- Meteorological instrument maintenance workshops, calibration laboratories and routines (1986) E- F 39 Volume II, Part 3 -Basic electronics for the meteorologist (1986) E 37 669 Workbook on numerical weather prediction for the tropics for the training of Class I and Class I! meteorological personnel (1986) E- S 39 701 Mesometeorology and short-range forecasting lecture notes and students' workbook for training Class I and Class I! meteorological personnel (1990) E-R 15 726 Climatology lecture notes and students' workbook for training Class Ill and Class IV meteorological personnel (1993) A- E- 34 Booklets 745 The role ofWMO in the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (1990) E- F- S 8 748 Climate change: world leaders' viewpoints (1991) F- S 8 760 WMO and UNCED-1992. Protecting the atmosphere, oceans and water resources: Sustainable use of natural resources ( 1991) E - F - R - S 7 769 Meteorology and hydrology for sustainable development (World Meteorological Day 1992) E-F-S 15 772 Climate change-Environment and development-World leaders' viewpoints (1992) E-R- S 15 777 The Global Climate Observing System (GCOS): Responding to the need for climate observations (1992) E 15 778 WMO and the ozone issue (1992) E 15 786 Meteorology and the transfer of technology (World Meteorological Day 1993) E- F- S 16 796 Observing the world's environment: weather, climate and water (World Meteorological Day 1994) E- F-R-S 16 799 A decade against natural disasters (IDNDR booklet) E - F - R - S 15 801 Assessing a precious resource ... Water (World Water Day 1994) E- F-R-S 15 809 WMO statement on the status of the global climate in 1993 (1994) E 15 814 WMO and the protection of climate E- F-R-S (1995) 816 On the front line: public weather services E- F- S (World Meteorological Day 1995) 15 817 Beyond the Earth Summit-WMO and the follow-up to UNCED (1995) E- F-R-S 15 821 A response to the weather and climate challenge: the World Weather Watch (1995) E- F- S 15 828 The changing ozone layer (1995) E 15 832 Climate Information and Prediction Services (1995) E 15 835 Weather and sports (World Meteorological Day 1996) E- F- R- S 15 837 Exchanging meteorological data-Guidelines on relationships in commercial meteorological activities-WMO policy and practice (1996) E- F-R-S 15 838 WMO statement on the status of the global climate in 1995 (1996) E 15 843 Climate and human health (1996) 15

LAMBRECHT An intelligent logger for A RAM-Memory-Card DATALOGGER meteorological and other stores the data and parameters. transfers it to a PC. ADLAS Up to 14 freely-selectable Accessories: channels (analog, digital). reader unit, PC, data­ 12 Bit-ADC, 16 Bit-Coun­ transfer and analysis ter, CMOS-technology. software, sensor, solar panel.

WORLDWIDE m Btt{ LAMBRECHT ;e;:' KLIMATOLOGISCHE MESSTECHNIK liP GOTTINGEN

sensors Hand-held Instruments Telemetry Devices System Techniques for Meteorology and Environmental Protection

Wilh. Lambrecht GmbH P.O. Box 2654 D-37016 Gottingen • Phone: 5 51/49 58-0 • Fax: 5 51/49 58 312 ~ Global Atmosr:2herics, Inc. Lightning Location and Protection, Atmospheric Research Systems GeoMet Data Services

The devastating effect of severe weather is a problem experienced in virtually every country world wide. Thunderstorm activity in particular takes its toll because the dangers associated with lightning can be accompanied by high winds, flooding, hail, and severe tornadoes.

Detecting, measuring and locating lightning has led to improved safety and reduced damage and loss in many applications.

Global Atmospherics Inc., with lightning detection networks in over 33 countries, has provided local area systems and wide area coverage networks for the past 20 years to assist in protecting people and equipment. Please call for information, and the name of our representative in your country.

2705 E. Medina Road, Suite 111 Tucson, AZ 85706 In the US Toli Free 800-283-4557 Phone: 520-741-2838 Fax: 520-741-2848

The hydrogen generator that provides hydrogen at usable pressure without a compressor!

The latest in Teledyne Brown Engineering Energy Systems line of hydrogen generators, ALTUS 20 is designed primarily for inflating weather balloons. Unlike other gas generators intended for balloon inflation, ALTUS 20 provides hydrogen at usable and storable pressure; no compressor necessary. Other features include: • Easy installation and maintenance. • Microprocessor control for automatic operation and superior reliability. • Electricity and water operation; no methanol or acid-metal supplies required. • Compact size and rugged construction. For more information, contact us today!

~"TELEDYNE BROWN ENGINEERING Energy Systems 10707 Gilroy Road, Hunt Valley, MD 21031-1311 U.S.A. 410-771-8600 FAX: 410-771-8618 Telex: 87780 Vaisala radiosondes for more accurate measurement

The GPS (Global Positioning System) Wind Finding Radiosonde from Va isala, the world's largest manufacturer of radiosondes, offe rs unsurpassed performance to meet your uppe r air wind finding needs for today and in the future. Easy-to-use GPS wind finding provides a new level of accuracy, better vertical resolution and, more importantly, global coverage. Signals from up to eight satellites are automatically recorded and transmitted to the ground station where wind calculations are then performed.

Va isala offers an easy upgrade path to prepare for the future. You don't have to discard your old system or lose any of your previous capabilities. A simple upgrade is all that is required for current DigiCORA or MARWI N users. The GPS, the VLF-Nava id, and our improved Loran-C wind finding solution can all be included in the same DigiCORA unit, adding fl exibility to the choice of wind finding method.

Va isala Oy, P.O .Box 26 , FIN-00421 Helsinki, Finland (+) VAISALA Tel. ( +358 9) 89491 Fax ( +358 9) 8949 210, ( +358 9) 8949 227 Telex 122832 vsalafi Internet http:// www.vaisa la.com N AVAIR/GPS utilizes the navigation signals from the Global Positioning System to provide reliable, accurate synoptic sounding data under all weather conditions, anywhere, at all times. The cost/ benefit ratio of AIR's NAVAIR/GPS technology means affordable systems and radiosondes for all budgets. FLEXIBILITY: NAVAIR /GPS ground stations can be configured for use with AIR's GPSondes, GPS dropwindsondes, or GPS rocketsondes to provide reliable rawinsonde soundings with the ground station either fixed or in a moving vehicle. GPS windfinding is combined with AIR 's high-accuracy pressure, temperature and relative humidity sensors to produce precise atmospheric data. APPLICATIONS: • National Weather Service Synoptic Forecasts • Meteorological Research • Boundary Layer Research • Air Pollution Research • Hurricane Tracking • Emergency Response • Test­ Range Support • Defense: Artillery, on Ships, Aircraft, Vehicles • Refractive Index Measurement ENTER THE FUTURE - NOW. To learn more about the GPS revolution in upper air soundings and how to upgrade your existing systems, contact: Atmospheric Instrumentation Research, Inc. 8401 Baseline Road • Boulder, Colorado 80303 USA PHONE: (303) 499-1701 • FAX: (303) 499·1767 CV-700 UPPER AIR SOUNDING SYSTEM

AUTOMATIC TRACKING REAL·TIME LOGGING AND PROCESSING COMPUTERIZED WMO MESSAGE GENERATION

CV· 700 is a computerized radiotheodolite ground station for automatic tracking and data processing of digital and analog 1680 MHz radiosondes. CV·700 provides accurate wind velocity measurements from ground level to over 30 km. Wind data is reliable even at low elevation tracking angles. CV· 700 is ideal for in-the-field meteorological measurement: e Fully portable e Fast deployment e Simple operation e Battery and/or mains power e Can be used in integrated NAVAIDIRDF system e Provisions for GPS upgrade

~na.ta.

·- .·· -- -- - ~ 22 Hamelacha sr:-;l'ark Cible , .._.-_.._~ ~ • - New ,Industrial Ar'tt.l.'ili;: ., ~' . • ""' '-.-----<- ( ;·,- - . 1~-~YJ&AB-~A: ------. ) _., , ~ Tel: -¥7~_3)9i)a69;a _ Fax ~-902 1 ~7

0 ~~~ ~ ...... 0- ~~ ~ ......

Introducing the first desktop satellite downlink for hydrometeorology networks a low-cost, highly reliable receiver I demodulator for data transmitted via GOES satellite Handar has reduced the size of Remote data collection & network management satellite receivers/demodulators at your desk The powerful UBS 2000 system from that of a 19" rack mounted controller runs on a Pentium based personal com­ unit to a sleek case no larger puter with Windows 95 software. Multiple applica­ than a CD ROM drive. tion and visualization programs can be open at The receiver and demodulator are one time so you can always see the activity of your now integrated into a single compact network. Our systems provide the best graphics, package, making it the smallest and most powerful expandable options and upgrades available. on the market. The DRGS 2000 design takes advantage of today's advanced digital signal pro­ The best customer support in the business. cessing techniques which provide an avenue for We provide free lifetime technical support incorporating future data collection system capa­ with our technicians available by phone, fax, bilities through firmware upgrades. e-mail or bulletin board communications. Support of up to 540 data collection platforms Handar is an established company supplying with just one receiver/demodulator module! hydrometeorology systems worldwide for over 25 Every DRGS 2000 module supports three chan­ years. Call us today for free product information. nels simultaneously- all programmed by the user.

FROM INDIVIDUAL SEN S ORS TO FOR MORE PRODUCT INFORMATION : COMPLEX REG IONAL NETWORKS . HANDAR: 8 00-955 -7367 FAX : 408· 7 3 4·0655 HANDAR I S A LEADING S UPPLIER OF HANDAR INTERNATIONAL: 7 03-533·8753 HYDROMETEOROLO GY SOLUTIONS. VIS IT OUR WEB S ITE: www.tsi.com providing uwllbcr information u·orldwide

0 1996 1/mular. All nRbts ro 'SI'n WI. All COf~1 1 "if.!.b iJ lll"l' l>dd 1~1" lhl'lr rc'S{Jf!Ciin• J,vftll•rs . llmulm·1s 11 suiJS idiilt_"')" oj 1'SI b1corpvm tctl ------

ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE WMO BULLETIN

ACCAD Advisory Committee on Climate Applications and IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development (UN) Data (CC!) IGBP International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ACMAD African Centre of Meteorological Applications for (ICSU) Development IGOSS Integrated Global Ocean Services System AGRHYMET Agrometeorology and operational hydrology and (IOC/WMO) their applications IGU International Geographical Union (ICSU) AREP Atmospheric Research and Environment Pro- IHP International Hydrological Programme (UNESCO) gramme (WMO) IIASA International Institute for Applied Systems BAPMoN Background Air Pollution Monitoring Network Analysis (WMO) IMO International Maritime Organization CAeM Commission for Aeronautical Meteorology (WMO) IMO International Meteorological Organization CA gM Commission for Agricultural Meteorology (WMO) (predecessor of WMO) CAL Computer-aided learning IOC Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission CAS Commission for Atmospheric Sciences (WMO) (UNESCO) CBS Commission for Basic Systems (WMO) IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ccco Committee on Climate Changes and the Ocean (WMO/UNEP) (SCOR/IOC) ISO International Organization for Standardization CCD Convention to Combat Desertification ITU International Telecommunication Union CC! Commission for Climatology (WMO) IUGG International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics CCWCP Coordinating Committee for the World Climate (ICSU) Programme JSC Joint Scientific Committee for the WCRP CHy Commission for Hydrology (WMO) (WMO/ICSU) CILSS Permanent Inter-State Committee for Drought MDD Meteorological data distribution (METEOSA:r) Control in the Sahel NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration (USA) CIMO Commission for Instruments and Methods of NIS Newly Independent Stales Observation (WMO) NMC National Meteorological Centre (WWW) CLICOM Climate computing (WMO) NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration CMM Commission for Marine Meteorology (WMO) (USA) CO ARE Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere Response NWP Numerical weather prediction Experiment OHP Operational Hydrology Programme (WMO) COS PAR Committee for Space Research (ICSU) RMC Regional Meteorological Centre (WWW) CSD Commission on Sustainable Development RMTC Regional Meteorological Training Centre (WMO) DCP Data-collection platform RSMC Regional Specialized Meteorological Centre (WWW) DCS Data-collection system RTH Regional Telecommunication Hub (WWW) DRS DCP retransmission system SADC Southern African Development Community ECMWF European Centre for Medium Range Weather SCAR Scientific Conunittee on Antarctic Research (ICSU) Forecasts SCOPE Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environ- ENSO EL Niiio/Southern Oscillation ment(ICSU) ESA European Space Agency SCOR Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research (ICSU) ESCAP Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the SCOSTEP Scientific Committee on Solar-Terrestrial Physics Pacific (UN) (ICSU) ETR Education and Training (WMO) SPARC Stratospheric Processes and their Role in Climate FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United (WCRP) Nations STEND System for Technology Exchange for Natural Dis- FCCC Framework Convention on Climate Change (UN) asters (WMO) GAW Global Atmosphere Watch (WMO) TCP Tropical Cyclone Programme (WMO) GCIP GEWEX Continental-scale International Project TOGA Tropical Ocean-Global Atmosphere programme (WCRP) (WCRP) GCOS Global Climate Observing System TRUCE Tropical Urban Climate Experiment (WMO/IOC/ICSU/UNEP) UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and GDPS Global Data-processing System (WWW/WMO) Development (Brazil, 1992) GEF Global Environment Facility UNDP United Nations Development Programme GEWEX Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment (WCRP) UNEP United Nations Environment Programme GOOS Global Ocean Observing System (IOC/WMO/ UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and ICSU/UNEP) Cultural Organization GOS Global Observing System (WWW/WMO) VCP Voluntary Cooperation Programme (WMO) GTS Global Telecommunication System (WWW/WMO) WAFS World Area Forecast System HOMS Hydrological Operational Multipurpose System WCASP World Climate Applications and Services (WMO) Programme (WMO) HWR Hydrology and Water Resources (WMO) WCDMP World Climate Data and Monitoring Programme !AEA International Atomic Energy Agency (WMO) IAHS International Association of Hydrological Sciences WCIRP World Climate Impact Assessment and Response (IUGG) Strategies Programme (WMO) lAMAS International Association of Meteorology and WCP World Climate Programme (WMO) Atmospheric Sciences (IUGG) WCRP World Climate Research Programme (WMO/ICSU) IAPSO International Association for the Physical Sciences WFC World Food Council (UN) of the Ocean (IUGG) WHO World Health Organization lATA International Air Transport Association WHY COS World Hydrological Cycle Observing System ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization WMC World Meteorological Centre (WWW) ICSU International Council of Scientific Unions WOCE World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WCRP) IDNDR International Decade for Natural Disaster WTO World Tourism Organization Reduction (UN) www World Weather Watch (WMO)