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Thesis Introduction Research Aims, Disciplinary Origins and Existing Work 2 Scope of Research 3 Thesis Organisation 4 University of Stirling Department of Film and Media Working Women in the News A Study of News Media Representations of Women in the Workforce by Deborah Anne Magor Submitted for the degree of PhD May 2006 DECLARATION This thesis has been composed in its entirety by the candidate and no part of this work has been submitted for any other degree. Candidate Deborah Anne Magor Abstract This study examines how working women are represented in the news media, and its main aim is to determine to what extent ‘social class’ figures in the representations of women in news content. Using language, visual and narrative analysis, the thesis comprises four case studies each focusing on portrayals of different women from different socio-economic backgrounds determined by their occupation. The first two case studies examine portrayals of low paid working women through coverage of the National Minimum Wage introduction into Britain in April 1999 and the Council Workers’ Strike in England and Wales in 2002. The latter two case studies focus on women in particular professions: elite businesswomen, military women and women war reporters. The study concludes by noting that multiple voices occur in news texts around the key contrasting themes of progress/stagnation and visibility/invisibility and which can give contradictory discourses on the intersection of gender and class. From the massification and silencing of working class women, to the celebrity and sexualisation of the business elite, and the professional competency news frames of middle class women, class was shown to be a determining factor in how women figure in news content. However, these class determinants combined with other news frames pertaining to gender, whereby powerful and established myths of femininity can come to the fore. These myths can be particularly powerful when women enter non- feminine work ‘spaces’ such as business and the military, and class, particularly in the latter case, can tend to slip out of view, as sexist coverage is commonplace and debates are formed about the right and wrong behaviour for women. i Acknowledgements Thanks to Tom O’Malley and John Beynon at Glamorgan University for early support, encouragement and guidance. My research was made much less stressful by the funding from the Arts Faculty at Stirling University. Thanks also to the Sociology Department at Lancaster for space and support in the final stages first time round. A collective acknowledgement to the Film and Media Department at Stirling, and particular thanks to Jacquie L’Etang, Jane Sillars, Raymond Boyle, Brian McNair, Philip Schlesinger and Simon Frith. For technical support and archive rummaging thanks to Fred Philips, Mike Macdonald, Helen Hallier, Will Dinan and Annabel Griffin, also to Jacqui Reilly at the Glasgow University Media Group. Family and friends have contributed in various ways to this thesis. Thanks first to my parents David and Elizabeth Magor. In the postgraduate community, particular thanks to Jackie Sorley, Mandy Powell, Chas Macdonald, Yow Juin Wang, Rachel Lawlor, Maria Barrett, Isaac Tabner, and my fishy friends Phil Williams and Francis Murray. A collective acknowledgement also to Christine Lohmeier, Matthew Brennan, Pedro Nunes, Adam Behr, Mark Percival and Mike Macdonald for distracting me when I should have been doing other stuff. Many more friends have provided support and encouragement over the last five years, but particular thanks to Tina Welch and Julia Johnson for their love and enduring friendship. Three people made the biggest difference to this work. Lynne Roper read the thesis first time round giving important input to the academic work, as well as providing rich friendship, advice and support. Second time round, I’ve relied heavily on two key people. In the Stirling Film and Media Department, Myra Macdonald has given gentle and patient encouragement, plus sharp intellectual guidance and I cannot stress enough the part she has played in contributing to this final piece of work. Finally, thanks to Craig Walker, who had to deal with all the other stuff, but who did so with characteristically good humour and with uncomplaining support and love. ii Table of Contents Abstract i Acknowledgements ii List of illustrations v List of plates vi List of excerpts vi Thesis introduction Research aims, disciplinary origins and existing work 2 Scope of research 3 Thesis organisation 4 Chapter 1: Class and gender: a historical and sociological overview Chapter introduction 7 The problem with class 7 A recent history of class 9 Feminist theory and social class 14 Class markers for this thesis 20 Chapter conclusion 25 Chapter 2: Representation Chapter introduction 26 Representation 26 Developments in feminist media studies 30 Feminist work on language 32 Psychoanalysis and screen studies 33 Feminist media studies into the 1990s 34 Feminist work on the intersection of class and gender in representation 35 Chapter conclusion 47 Chapter 3: Methodology Chapter introduction 48 Case study research 48 Case study selection 52 Data collection: execution, issues and constraints 55 Sample selection and sample details 62 Qualitative analysis 68 Chapter conclusion 73 Chapter 4: It pays to know: women and pay: the National Minimum Wage Chapter introduction 74 A brief history of the National Minimum Wage 75 It pays to know! 77 Press news coverage of the National Minimum Wage 79 Broadcast news coverage of the National Minimum Wage 96 Chapter conclusion 103 iii Chapter 5: It’s a dirty job: women and industrial conflict Chapter introduction 105 A brief history of women, trade unionism and industrial disputes 106 Female employees and strikes in the public sector 108 The 2002 Council Workers’ Strike 109 Press news coverage of the Council Workers’ Strike 111 Broadcast news coverage of the Council Workers’ Strike 122 Chapter conclusion 128 Chapter 6: None of their business: businesswomen in the media Chapter introduction 130 Women and business news 132 From business news to core news item 136 Clara Furse: a new CEO at the Stock Exchange 138 E-babes in the news and the Martha Lane Fox phenomenon 143 Representing the nouveau riche 150 Chapter conclusion 161 Chapter 7: Frontline, Headline: women worker Chapter introduction 163 Recruitment of women in the Armed Forces 163 The MOD recruitment campaigns and representation 166 News media coverage of women workers in the Armed Forces 169 The conventional journalism of conflict 182 The war correspondent 186 Chapter conclusion 202 Chapter 8: Conclusion: representing gender and class in the news media 204 Bibliography 212 Webography 222 Appendices A: Case study press sample national, regional and local newspaper list 223 B: Quantitative analysis coding schedule 224 C: Transcript: National Minimum Wage news item 225 (Platform, Scottish ITV, 1April 1999) D: Transcripts: Council Workers’ Strike news items 229 (Channel 4 News, 7pm, 17 July 2002; BBC News, 10pm, 17 July 2002) iv Illustrations Figures 1.1: NS-SEC Analytic Classes 23 3.1: Coding schedule core categories 59 3.2: Monitored UK terrestrial television news programmes 60 3.3: National Minimum Wage case sample details 62 3.4: Council Workers’ Strike case sample details 63 3.5: Businesswomen case sample details 66 3.6: Women in conflict: case sample details 67 3.7: Fiske’s Codes of Television 72 4.1: National Minimum Wage: newspaper articles March and April 1999 80 5.1: Council Workers’ Strike: article focus on women 112 7.1: Yvonne Ridley: newspaper articles September and October 2001 191 Tables 4.1: National Minimum Wage: article focus on women 81 4.2: National Minimum Wage: article focus on women and minimum wage 81 4.3: National Minimum Wage: naming strategies in the main focus sub-group 82 4.4: National Minimum Wage: direct female and male speakers in comparative news weeks 88 4.5: National Minimum Wage: indirect female and male speakers in comparative news weeks 88 5.1: Council Workers’ Strike: sample summary 111 5.2: Council Workers’ Strike: article focus on women 113 5.3: Council Workers’ Strike: direct and indirect male quotes in strike coverage 117 5.4: Council Workers’ Strike: direct and indirect female quotes in strike coverage 117 5.5: Council Workers’ Strike: week two, male speakers 118 5.6: Council Workers’ Strike: week two, female speakers 118 v Plates A: National Minimum Wage advertising logo 78 B: National Minimum Wage news article (reproduced) (Independent, 4 April 1999: 9) 84 C: Council Workers’ Strike letter (reproduced) (Birmingham Evening Mail, 22 July 2002: 10) 115 D: Celine Dion news item (Guardian, 29 March 2003: 26) 135 E: Clara Furse front-page news item (Daily Telegraph, 24 January 2001: 1) 140 F: Brent Hoberman and Martha Lane Fox, Lastminute.com 146 G: Lance Bombardier Heidi Cochrane, MOD publicity photograph 177 H: Lance Bombardier Heidi Cochrane, news article (reproduced) (Daily Mail, 1 Feb 2001: 1) 179 I: Jodie Jones front-page news item (Daily Express, 26 September 2001: 1) 184 J: Yvonne Ridley front-page news item (Sunday Express, 30 September 2001: 1) 193 List of Television News Excerpts 1. National Minimum Wage, ITN News, 6pm, 1 April 1999 96 2. National Minimum Wage, Newsnight, BBC, 10.30pm, 1 April 1999 98 3. National Minimum Wage, Channel 4 News, 7pm, 1 April 1999 100 4. Council Workers’ Strike, ITN News, 10pm, 17 July 2002 124 5. Ann Summers Court Appeal, BBC News, 1pm, 18 June 2003 158 6. Women Troops on front line, BBC News, 4.55pm, 24 December 2000 170 7. Women Troops on front line, Channel 4 News, 7pm, 23 January 2001 175 8. Yvonne Ridley: Channel 4 News, 7pm, 28 September 2001 195 9. Yvonne Ridley: BBC News, 10pm, 28 September 2001 195 10. Yvonne Ridley: ITN News, 10pm, 2 October 2001 196 11. Yvonne Ridley: Channel 4 News, 6pm, 6 October 2001 198 12. Yvonne Ridley: ITN Weekend News, 13 October 2001 200 vi Thesis Introduction Women’s mass entry into the workforce is arguably the most fundamental social transformation in western societies of the late 20th Century.
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