Sport Fitness Culture

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THE BOOK 12 SPORT Sport | Fitne CULTURE Sport|Fitness|Culture focuses on the influences of culture and society on human movement, such as sport, physical activity, and fitness. The text introduces SOCIETY and analyzes current issues of importance for those concerned with human & movement and culture, whether it is in the context of teaching physical education, coordinating/ marketing sport and recreational programs, coaching or serving Vol.12 the general population – young and old – with any form of physical activity. Sport|Fitness|Culture incorporates interdisciplinary, cutting-edge work reflecting various research paradigms from these theoretical perspectives: sociology, psychology, history, philosophy, anthropology, gender and race studies and

cultural studies. ss

| Culture Sport The fact that more and more people of all ages are participating in sport and physical activity means that serious attention must be paid to increasing awareness of the positive as well as the negative effects of such involvement. Fitness Indeed, sport has become a major socio-cultural factor in people’s lives. In the USA, there is hardly anyone who is not touched by this movement; however, people have very different experiences based on their cultural and socio- Culture economic background, including gender, race/ethnicity, age, ability, as well as their sexual and religious orientations. This book will educate people about the importance of socio-cultural as well as psychological factors influencing people’s choices, opportunities, experiences and limitations in the domain of human movement. Karin Volkwein-Caplan The Author

Karin Volkwein-Caplan, PhD, German and American, is a Professor of Cultural Studies in the Department of Kinesiology at West Chester University of Pennsylvania. She has widely researched and published on gender and racial issues, HIV/AIDS in sport, ethics and sport, as well as healthy aging and fitness. Her books include: Fitness as Cultural Phenomenon; HIV/AIDS and Sport; Sexual Harassment in Sport; Sport, Culture & Society – A Workbook; Cultural Contours of the Body and The Social Geography of Healthy Aging (both with J. Tahmaseb ISBN: 978-1-782255-041-9 McConatha). She also co-edits two book series with 5 1 9 9 5 Meyer & Meyer Sports: Sport, Culture & Society and Healthy Aging & Fitness.

9 7 8 1 7 8 2 5 5 0 4 1 9 $ 19.95 US/£ 14.95/E 19,95 Karin Volkwein-Caplan www.m-m-sports.com

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ar_NEU_SportFitnessCulture_061113.indd 1 06.11.13 12:42 ABOUT THE SERIES — SPORT, CULTURE & SOCIETY

The “Sport, Culture & Society” series deals with issues intersecting sport, physical activity and cultural concerns. The focus of the book series is interdisciplinary, groundbreaking work that draws on different disciplines and theoretical approaches, such as sociology, philosophy, cultural anthropology, history, cultural studies, feminist studies, postmodernism, or critical theory. The “Sport, Culture & Society” series seeks to reflect both, the variety of research concerns from a multi-disciplinary perspective and discussions of current topics in sport and physical activity and their relationship to culture.

The Editors:

Karin Volkwein-Caplan (USA), Jasmin Tahmaseb McConatha (USA), and Keith Gilbert (UK)

For further information about the book series or the submission of proposals please contact:

Karin Volkwein-Caplan, West Chester University, Department of Kinesiology, West Chester,PA 19383, USA, e-mail: [email protected]

Jasmin Tahmaseb McConatha, West Chester University, Department of Kinesiology, West Chester, PA 19383, USA, e-mail: jtahmaseb [email protected]

Keith Gilbert, University of East London, School of Health, Sport and Bioscience, Water Lane, Stratford, London E145 4LZ, e-mail: [email protected]

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SPORT | FITNESS | CULTURE

Meyer & Meyer Sport

ar_NEU_SportFitnessCulture_061113.indd 3 06.11.13 12:42 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Karin A. E. Volkwein-Caplan Sport | Fitness | Culture 1st edition 2014 Maidenhead: Meyer & Meyer Sport (UK) Ltd., 2013 (Sport, Culture & Society; Vol. 12) ISBN 978-1-78255-706-7

All rights reserved, especially the right to copy and distribute, including the translation rights. No part of this work may be reproduced—including by photocopy, microfilm or any other means— processed, stored electronically, copied or distributed in any form whatsoever without the written permission of the publisher.

Member of the World Sport Publishers’ Association (WSPA) www.w-s-p-a.org ISBN: 978-1-78255-706-7 E-Mail: [email protected] www.m-m-sports.com

ar_NEU_SportFitnessCulture_061113.indd 4 06.11.13 12:42 Contents

Contents

Dedication ...... 6 Foreword ...... 7 Introduction ...... 8

Chapter 1: Sociology of Sport – Fitness – Physical Activity ...... 14

Chapter 2: Psychology of Sport – Fitness – Physical Activity ...... 26 with Margaret Ottley

Chapter 3: Culture and Values in the 21st Century ...... 38 Issue 1 Changing Values and their Impact on Movement Culture ...... 42 Issue 2 Fitness – The Global Sport-for-All? ...... 50 Issue 3 Culture, Aging and Well-Being: The Importance of Place and Space ...... 58 with Jasmin Tahmaseb McConatha Issue 4 The Paradox of Top-level Sports ...... 68

Chapter 4: Health and Sport – Fitness – Physical Activity ...... 78 Issue 1 Exercise, Health and Life Satisfaction ...... 81 with Christiane Jennen & Gerhard Uhlenbruck Issue 2 Physical Activity and the Perceptions of Aging ...... 91 with Jennifer Sutera & Judith Ray Issue 3 Obesity – The Pandemic ...... 101 by Christine Williams Issue 4 The Threat of HIV to the World of Sport? ...... 117

Chapter 5: Youth Involvement in Sport – Fitness – Physical Activity ..... 129 Issue 1 Social and Moral Development through Sport and Physical Activity ...... 132 Issue 2 Kids, Sport and Peril – An International Dilemma ...... 136 Issue 3 The Detrimental Decline of Mandated Physical Education in the United States ...... 147 by Matthew Cummiskey

Chapter 6: Race/Ethnicity and Sport – Fitness – Physical Activity ...... 169 Issue 1 Racism in US Sport? ...... 172 Issue 2 Capoeira Angola – A Symbol of Cultural Resistance and Survival ...... 186 by Margaret Ottley

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Chapter 7: Gender and Sport – Fitness – Physical Activity ...... 196 Issue 1 Sport – Liberation or Oppression? ...... 197 Issue 2 Equity in Sport through Title IX? ...... 207 Issue 3 Sexual Harassment of Women in Sport ...... 221 Issue 4 Homophobia in Women’s Sport ...... 237

Chapter 8: (Dis-)Ability and Sport – Fitness – Physical Activity ...... 247 with Edward Coyle

Chapter 9: Body Image and Sport – Fitness – Physical Activity ...... 256 Issue 1 The Body in the Age of Consumption and Spectatoritis ...... 256 Issue 2 Eating Disorders in the World of Sport ...... 267 Issue 3 The Effect of the Media on the Making of the Modern Body ..... 279

Chapter 10: Sport, Religion and Politics ...... 297 Issue 1 Sport in Unified Germany ...... 297 Issue 2 Sport as New Religion ...... 308

Dedication

To the people I love and who inspire me, – most of all James and Benjamin, and my parents. And to the many students at West Chester University who will not stop being inquisitive, and thus, keep me going…

ar_NEU_SportFitnessCulture_061113.indd 6 06.11.13 12:42 Foreword

Foreword

Universally, in the world throughout the years, sport and all its associated facets are part of daily and weekly communication media in every country on Earth. Historically, it has been principally a major part of male life. The 20th century provided for the emergence of women into this “sacrosanct” men’s world. Associated with the phenomenal development was the creative need for it to encroach upon education for all women.

The cultural impact along with the differentiated anatomical and physiological variations between the sexes has expanded into medical, psychological, and social complications that increased the total complexity of athletics/sport for all females. Thus, Dr. Karin A. E. Volkwein-Caplan and her professional associates have, like Jason and the Argonauts, built a ship to invade the technical and controversial field.

Dr. Volkwein-Caplan’s professional life coupled with her extensive experience in the educational field has provided the rather unique qualifications required to successfully captain this project. To completely enhance and magnify her reputation, drive, and dedication, she has fearlessly proceeded with not only her education in a number of universities in several major countries but has been a principal investigator and participant in professional international conferences with many successful presentations and subsequent publications. Like the success of Jason and the Argonauts, I predict Karin and her “educational crew,” though the production of texts like this, will bring back the “golden fleece of Colchis!”

Russell L. Sturzebecker, Ph.D. Professor Emeritus West Chester University September 2004

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Introduction

SPORT | FITNESS | CULTURE

Sport for every person, all through life, and an intensification of international efforts in physical training, could have decisive impact on solving the problems of today‘s world. (UNESCO Declaration)

Contemporary sport is an important part of social, political, cultural and economic engagement, action and struggle in the global age. (Marjoribanks & Farquharson, 2012)

Millions of people around the globe participate in a vast array of sport, fitness, and physical activities on a daily basis. They span from young to old and come from all walks of life – whether they engage in play, coaching, sporting competition, fitness and health activities, or even as spectators; and they talk about sports, even if they are not actively involved. Sport has become an integral part of the lives of many people in the 21st century, not only in highly industrialized societies. Thus, physical activities, fitness, and sports can be considered cultural practices reflecting multiple meanings. Sometimes these activities are trivilized as being separate from the real world. However, the book series Sport, Culture & Society deals with issues intersecting sport, fitness, and physical activity with cultural and societal concerns; and thus, interpreting sport as a microcosm of society. Indeed, sport, fitness, and physical activities are also phenomena for social change, since they have a profound influence on social life for many people of all ages in all parts of the world.

The focus of the book series is interdisciplinary and multicultural, drawing from various disciplines and theoretical approaches, such as sociology, psychology, cultural anthropology, history, philosophy, feminist/gender/race studies, political science, all of which are applied to this text, Sport – Fitness – Culture. Thus, the perspectives represented in this book reflect a variety of research concerns from a multidisciplinary perspective, as well as discussions of current topics in sport, fitness, and physical activity and their relationship to culture. Sport – Fitness – Culture is the culmination of research and teachings undertaken during the tenure of my academic life, including the work of various faculty members and graduate students from institutions I have worked at in the United States and Germany. Thus, this work reflects various cultural understandings and interpretations of sport, fitness, and physical activity in the 21st century. It is my hope that this volume, Sport – Fitness – Culture, will aid in improving the understanding between different cultures, various theoretical backgrounds, and the plentiful interpretations of the field of kinesiology, encompassing all forms of physical activity undertaken by human beings.

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This book starts out with laying the theoretical foundations for the sociology and psychology of sport, fitness, and physical activity (Chapters 1 and 2), as well as culture and values in the 21st century (Chapter 3). Then the health aspects (Chapter 4) and youth involvement in sport, fitness, and physical activity (Chapter 5) are discussed. Major concerns of interpretations of race/ethnicity, gender, (dis)ability, and body image issues as applied to human movement are analyzed in Chapters 6, 7, 8 and 9. Lastly, the influences of politics on sport - fitness - physical activity and vice versa, as well as the relationship between sport and religion, conclude this text (Chapter 10).

In order to better facilitate discussions about the role of sport, fitness, and physical activity in the 21st century, it is necessary to first lay out the definitions and key concepts used throughout this book. While Chapter 3 focuses on culture and values and their effects on human movement, this introduction will establish working definitions for the terms “sport,” “fitness,” and “health” as they will be used throughout this text.

Definition of Terms

Fitness and Health The scientific literature in kinesiology (performance and human movement related sciences) distinguishes between two forms of physical fitness: one related to health, including rehabilitation; and the other related to performance. Fitness is often described as an integral part of health and self-realization:

Physical fitness is considered a multifaceted continuum which measures the quality of health ranging from death and disease that severely limit activity to the optimal functional abilities of various physical aspects of life. (AAHPER Research Council, 1996)

The concept of fitness not only refers to exercise and its effects, but also to the general state of a person’s psychophysical well-being (Glassner, 1990, 216). Although some fitness enthusiasts distinguish between fitness and health, in everyday usage, the two words have become generally synonymous. Both terms incorporate exercise, diet, lifestyle, and more (Volkwein, 1998).

The International Consensus Conference on Physical Activity, Physical Fitness, and Health (Bouchard, et al., 1990) defined health as a ‘human condition with physical, social, and psychological dimensions, each characterized on a continuum with positive and negative poles. Positive health is associated with a capacity to enjoy life and withstand challenges; it is not merely the absence of disease. Negative health is associated with morbidity and, in the

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extreme, with premature mortality.’ (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1996).

Fitness and health also reflect the underlying concept that both are essential to the development of individuals, for the body as well as the mind. “Mens sana in corpore sano” – a sound mind in a sound body. Fitness is “stabilized health,” achieved through training. Indeed, both are associated with the quality of life, with life satisfaction and fulfillment, as well as the ecological and social parameters of each individual. That is, fitness and health are major determinants of how well people master their lives and adapt to new situations and requirements.

Numerous researchers have evaluated the benefits associated with regular participation in fitness activities. Uhlenbruck (1992, 1996), for example, in his immunological research on cancer and sport found that the effects of a well-balanced engagement in movement, sport, or fitness activities have led to a sense of subjective psychological well-being. He also found an increase in cognitive ability and creativity. Other researchers have noted that as a consequence of greater physical endurance, people are better able to master the daily routines of the job and the home. Furthermore, when engagement in sport and fitness activities results in enjoyment, the subjective quality of life is also positively influenced regardless of age (Volkwein-Caplan & Tahmaseb McConatha, 2012; see also Chapter 4 in this text).

Cultural Variations of the Term Sport The term “sport” has many definitions around the globe and multiple meanings, which can only be fully understood within its historical, social, and cultural contexts. The origin of the word “sport” is derived from the Latin deportare, which means “to divert.” In most European languages, the term “sport” has an all-inclusive meaning, incorporating a variety of human movements, including sport, recreation and leisure activities, as well as exercise and physical fitness. The German language, for example, distinguishes between different forms of sporting engagement depending on the major focus of the activity. For example, a physical activity with the orientation toward fitness is called Fitness- Sport; an orientation toward health is called Gesundheits-Sport (health sport); an orientation toward achievement and competition is called Leistungs-Sport (athletics or top-level sport); an orientation toward rehabilitation is called Reha- Sport (Volkwein, 1998). A focus on (dis)abled body sport as well as Paralympics has exploded over the past ten years (see Chapter 8). Recently, terms such as Geronto-Fitness (fitness activities for older adults) and Prestige-Sport (e.g., golf and yachting) have been added to the sporting vocabulary, which is expanding as the diversity of sporting activities increases. Hence, the term sport is used in the broadest sense of human movement and exercise.

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Modern sport has been defined by the Council of Europe as a free, spontaneous physical activity, which is conducted as leisure pursuit for enjoyment, recreation, and relaxation. Proper sport is executed with physical effort and encompasses several categories, which include competitive games and athletics, outdoor pursuits, aesthetic movement (e.g., dance) and conditioning activity.

In North America, on the other hand, the term “sport” is generally used in reference to competitive sporting endeavors, which limits sports to activities that occur only in formal structures. “This definition would include officially organized running races, but not casually racing a friend” (Majoribanks & Farquharson, 2012, 4). However, any physical activity that is called a sport in North America has evolved historically from individual or team exercises. Thus, sport can be better understood as an evolving process. While certain activities might be considered sport in a given time period, they might not always be defined as such. Changes over time also shape our thinking and whether we consider an activity as a sport or not. For example, football/soccer has not always been a sport; but no one would debate that it is a sport today. In addition, new activities are emerging and taking claim of being a sport, such as the rise of extreme games or online gaming, which results in struggles over whether they are real sports. Is an activity only a real sport once it has made it to the Olympic level? What about skateboarding or e-gaming? People involved in these activities spend hours practicing and perfecting their skills. These examples demonstrate that sport is a highly contested terrain, which changes over time.

In North America, various forms of physical activity have their specific terminology depending on the focus of the activity, much like the German differentiation. However, those forms of human movement are labeled as fitness or health exercise, leisure and recreational activities, dance, play, games, and more. The term sport is not attached here, as it is in the German language, thus the concept of sport in the North American context is essentially much more narrow and only used when the main objective is competition.

Although definitions of sports vary, those who offer definitions tend to emphasize that sports are institutionalized competitive activities that involve rigorous physical exertion or the use of relatively complex physical skills by participants motivated by internal and external rewards. (Coakley, 2004, 21)

Readers of this book should be aware of the historical, social, and cultural differences in the usage of the term sport, nationally and internationally. “Sport is a social and political construction. That is, how sport is constituted and what is defined as sport are the outcomes of struggles, contests and decisions that occur within particular societies at particular moments” (Majoribanks &

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Farquharson, 2012, 6). However, since the international understanding of sport captures all aspects of human movement and physical activity, and it embraces the health aspect of regular engagement in exercise as well as functional fitness, this interpretation of sport seems to be more suitable for the issues discussed in this text.

Conclusion

Social and cultural changes in the 21st century, as well as the effects of the globalization process, impact the curricular development of sport and physical education programs, health and wellness education, as well as our body culture in general. Thus, it is important to understand the impact of these changes on peoples’ lives and their needs, especially in regard to physical activity. The “old” rather traditional “sport for all” concept, with its focus on competition and achievement, may not satisfy these changed physical, psychological, and spiritual needs of individuals in modern societies any longer. Rather, the “new” fitness and exercise development in the 21st century with its emphasis on health, relaxation, and general life fulfillment may be more appropriate to the contribution of the overall psychophysical well-being of modern individuals. And, as the process of globalization continues, it is likely that this understanding of fitness and exercise will spread to non-Western cultures as well. Eventually, it might become the global “sport for all” concept in the future.

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References

AAHPER Research Council (1996). Health Related Physical Fitness Test Manual. Coakley, J. (2004). Sport in Society. 8th Edition. Boston: McGraw-Hill. Glassner, B. (1990). “Fit for Postmodern Selfhood.” In: H. Becker, M. Call (Eds.) Symbolic Interaction and Cultural Studies. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Pp. 215-243. Marjoribanks, T. & Farquharson, K. (2012). Sport and Society in the Global Age. Great Britain: Palgrave Macmillan. Uhlenbruck, G. (1992). Sport und Fitness – ein Leib-Seele- “Problem.” Natur- und Ganzheitsmedizin, 5, 50-52. Uhlenbruck, G. (1996). Bewegungstraining verbessert Lebensqualität. TW Gynäkologie, 9, 345-351. US Department of Health and Human Services (1996). Physical Activity and Health: A Report of the Surgeon General. Pittsburgh, PA: Superintendent of Documents. Volkwein, K. (Ed.) (1998). Fitness as Cultural Phenomenon. Münster, New York: Waxmann Verlag. Volkwein-Caplan, K. & J. Tahmaseb McConatha (2012). The Social Geography of Healthy Aging. Aachen/Germany: Meyer & Meyer Publishers.

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Chapter 1: Sociology of Sport – Fitness – Physical Activity

What does sociology have to do with sport? “Sociologists study social behavior of all kinds, from interpersonal social relations to group formations to formal social organizations. Sport is fundamentally a social phenomenon that encompasses all of these social forms of human activity. ... Sport is an extraordinarily popular and pervasive worldwide social endeavor, and therefore a suitable subject for study and analysis. ... Newspapers in North America devote more space to sports than any other topics, including business news, which would seem more important in a capitalist economy.” (Sage & Eitzen, 2013, 2)

The sociological imagination requires that we consider people in their social contexts. This means considering how historical, cultural and structural factors relate to and connect with each other. (Marjoribanks & Farquharson, 2012, 3)

Sport has become a major institution in the North American society, as well as in other highly industrialized nations. However, our understanding of it remains limited. There are many statements people make about sport that are either overstated, understated, misinterpreted or simply mythical. Can sport truly contribute to the improvement of modern society? It is certainly true that sport is a tremendous force for the status quo, and it distracts millions of people from more serious thoughts or painful existences. Does sport hold society together and does it empower women as much as it has men?

The question a sociologist might ask is: Why is social life organized in particular ways? Most people agree that the field of sport sociology “is the sub-discipline of sociology that studies sports as part of social and cultural life” (Coakley, 2004, 6). More recently, sport sociologists have also investigated the phenomenon of physical activity, fitness and health, and not only competitive, organized sports. In doing this research, people theorize about social life and the meaning of sport, fitness, and physical activity in it. Theorizing includes a combination of description, reflection, and analysis of social phenomena. This is based on the assumption that humans could make the world better; that is, more efficient, just and harmonious, as well as more controllable through the use of knowledge and science and technological advancements. Thus, sociologists first try to dissect what society is all about and what its various components are. It is assumed that social institutions, such as politics, education, media, and religion, are the general foundation and building blocks of a society.

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