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(List continues on the inside back cover) WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPER NO. 343

Freshwater Biodiversity in Asia With Special Reference to Fish

MauriceKottelat Tony Witten

TheWorld Bank Washington,D.C. Copyright © 1996 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433,U.S.A.

All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America First printing September 1996 Technical Papers are published to communicate the results of the Bank's work to the development community with the least possible delay. The typescript of this paper therefore has not been prepared in accordance with the procedures appropriate to formal printed texts, and the World Bank accepts no responsibility for errors. Some sources cited in this paper may be informal documents that are not readily available. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the author(s) and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to members of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accepts no responsibility whatsoever for any consequence of their use. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this volume do not imply on the part of the World Bank Group any judgment on the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. The material in this publication is copyrighted. Requests for permission to reproduce portions of it should be sent to the Office of the Publisher at the address shown in the copyright notice above. The World Bank encourages dissemination of its work and will normally give permission promptly and, when the reproduction is for noncommercial purposes, without asking a fee. Permission to copy portions for classroom use is granted through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., Suite 910, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, Massachusetts 01923, U.S.A. The complete backlist of publications from the World Bank is shown in the annual Indexof Publications,which contains an alphabetical title list (with full ordering information) and indexes of subjects, authors, and countries and regions. The latest edition is available free of charge from the Distribution Unit, Office of the Publisher, The World Bank, 1818 H Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A., or from Publications, The World Bank, 66, avenue d'lena, 75116 Paris, France.

Maurice Kottelat is an independent consultant and taxonomist. Tony Whitten is Biodiversity Specialist in the Asia Technical Department of the World Bank.

ISBN 0-8213-3808-0 ISSN:0253-7494

Cover photo: The largest freshwater fish in Asia is the giant Mekong catfish Pangasionodongigas. It reportedly mi- grates along the Mekong between Tonle Sap in Cambodia to upper Laos. Credit: F. D'Aubenton Contents

Foreword vii Acknowledgments viii Abstract Lx

1. Concerns I Background 1 Biodiversity I Mainstreaming Biodiversity 1 Attention to Freshwater Biodiversity 1 Human Capacity 3 Policy Context 4 2. Human significance offreshwater biodiversity 7 Economic Value of the Resources _ 7 Local Knowledge and Management of Resources 8 3. Biodiversity aspects 10 Ecosystem Diversity 10 Species Diversity in Freshwater Organisms 14 Genetic Diversity 17 Megadiversity Countries and Hot Spots 17 4. Threats and the mitigation of impacts 22 Threats and Effects 22 Mitigation 27 Environmental Assessments and Monitoring 29 Partnerships 30 5. Legal instruments 31 National Jurisdiction 31 Nationally Protected Species_ 31 6. National reviews 34 Afghanistan 34 Bangladesh 34 Bhutan 34 Brunei Darussalam 34

iii Burma 35 Cambodia 35 China 35 India 36 Indonesia 37 Japan 38 Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Republic of Korea 38 Lao P. D. R. 38 Malaysia 39 Maldives 39 Mongolia 39 Nepal 40 Pakistan 40 Papua New Guinea 40 Philippines 40 Singapore 41 Sri Lanka 42 Taiwan 42 Thailand 42 Vietnam 43 7. Selected programs and activities 44 Darwin Initiative in the Himalayas 44 Gangetic River Dolphin Watch Program 44 Wetlands International Asia-Pacific 44 South East Asian Aquatic Biodiversity Program 44 Biodiversity in Mainland South East Asia 44 Fishbase 45 8. Recommendations 46 Project Design _46 Environmental Assessment, Mitigation and Monitoring 46 Policies and Strategies 47 Knowledge Development 47 Capacity Building 47

iv Economic Assessment 47 Indicators 47 Priorities for Surveys and Identification Material 47 Literature cited 49 Appendixes 56 Appendix A. Fish species exclusively known from caves in South and East Asia 56 Appendix B. Considerations for Aquatic Biodiversity Studies in Environmental Assessment_ 57

v

Foreword

Many development projects impact freshwater The operational implications of this paper are biodiversity through flow regulation, pollution, considerable given the frequency with which siltation, eutrophication, and changes in the freshwater ecosystems are affected by develop- vegetation cover, and many of Asia's poorest ment projects. Paying attention to the biological people depend on freshwaterbiodiversity for their health of freshwater ecosystems can bring eco- protein needs. Biodiversity initiatives have hith- nomic and health benefits to riparian people, and erto tended to focus on terrestrial systems or, allow those ecosystems to maximize their benefi- when aquatic systemsare targeted, on coral reefs cial functions such as the improvementof water or wetlands (which have not necessarilyengaged quality. We hope this report will also make a sin- the requirementsof freshwaterbiodiversity). gular contribution to the meetings prior to and during the Fourth Conferenceof the Parties to the Recent ASTEN reviews of major environmental Biodiversity Convention on Biological Diversity assessments have found that if and when impacts in November 1997 at which a major topic of dis- on freshwater biodiversity are investigated, the cussion will be the status and trends of the biodi- quality of the available information is sometimes versity of inland water ecosystemsand the identi- below what is required for informed decision fication of options for conservationand sustain- making, and there are few effective mitigationor able use. management provisions incorporatedinto project designs. This is in part due to acute human re- While we are sure this paper will be useful, we source shortages,the lack of importancegiven to are equally sure that the developmentof concerns the work, and the lack of dialogue between spe- relating to freshwater biodiversity would benefit cialists. The World Bank's Water Resources from outside comments and dialogue. Please ad- Managementpolicy paper recognizesthat in order dress those to the Chief, Environmentand Natural to assist governmentsin developingstrategies and Resources Division, Asia Technical Department, cost-effective mechanisms for ecologically sus- The World Bank, 1818 H St NW, Washington tainable management,and the protection and res- DC, 20433, USA. toration of water-dependent ecosystems, more rigorous attention should be given to maintaining biodiversity and protecting ecosystems in the de- sign and implementationof water projects. As a Harold Messenger first step, ASTENhas commissionedthis report. Director Asia TechnicalDepartment

vii Acknowledgments

This documentwas preparedusing Trust Funds provided by the Swedishand NorwegianGovernments, whose support has been greatly appreciated.

Thanks are extendedto the followingfor their help in preparingthis document:M. Isabel Braga, Warren Brockelman,Christopher Cook, Indraneil Das, Wim Giesen, Mark Hill, Kevin Jeanes, BarbryKeller, Ken MacKay,Glenn Morgan,Peter Ng, Roger Pullin, Marcel Silvius,Jane Whitten,Ron Zweig.

viii Abstract

* Asia is home to some 3500 species of fish, * The countries of Asia differ in their national hundreds of other organisms which spend capacity and expertise in freshwater biodiver- their entire lives in water, and to many types sity and the related fields of ecology and tax- of freshwater habitats. Many of these are of onomy, and in the quantity and quality of considerable economic value and are an im- relevant and available information. The ap- portant source of food for many poor people. propriate remedial strategy is therefore differ- ent for each country. * This freshwater biodiversity can be adversely affected by projects related to dams, flood * Straightforward and relatively inexpensive control, water supply, mining, fisheries man- steps to ameliorate a currently serious situa- agement, introduction of exotic species, irri- tion are: gation, bridges, industrial effluent, domestic * encouraging awareness of and atten- waste, waterway modification for navigation tion to freshwater biodiversity issues; and other purposes, and forest clearance; * acknowledging that in order to make appropriate environmental manage- } Current international agreements and World ment decisions it is important to col- Bank policies support actions to consider and lect good and current data; conserve freshwater biodiversity, which has * executing studies to understand the received far less attention than biodiversity in whole economic values of freshwater terrestrial and marine ecosystems. Certain biodiversity; freshwater habitats are 'critical' in the sense * preparing field guides and manuals, of the World Bank's OP 4.04 on Natural * nurturing partnerships between engi- Habitats; neers and biodiversity specialists to achieve better project designs and * Freshwater biodiversity concerns are not al- more effective mitigation measures; ways wholly addressed by attention to fisher- and ies management or wetland conservation. * encouraging the release of scientific data collected by project proponents as part of environmental assessments.

ix

Concerns

Background as the ecosystems and ecological processes to which they belong, and is thus usually considered The purpose of this report is to give attention at ecosystem, species, and genetic levels. Eco- to Asian' freshwater biodiversity. It was compiled system diversity is concerned with the variety of with limited resources over a limited period and habitats and species communities, as well as the so it has not been able to explore the entire sub- ecological processes within ecosystems. Species ject. Instead it is intended as a document to initiate diversity refers to the variety of living organisms, discussions and as a basis for future publications and genetic diversity refers to the total genetic and activities on more technical aspects and information contained in the genes of an individ- training. The constraints have forced a concentra- ual species. 'Freshwater biodiversity', in the tion on certain species and issues; for example, context of this report, concerns the species and small algae and invertebrate animals are the most habitats to be found primarily within inland wa- abundant aquatic organisms, but fish are chosen ters. as the focal or 'flagship' group of species in the report because: Mainstreaming Biodiversity

* they are conspicuous, At the 1995 Conference of the Parties to the - they are easily identified, Biodiversity Convention, the World Bank - they are economically valuable, launched a significant document entitled Main- • they are nutritionally important for many poor streaming Biodiversity in Development. In its communities, foreword it states: The challenge now is for the * they are relatively well studied, Bank to help its developing country partners to * they are disappearing as a result of human- mainstream biodiversity conservation in environ- induced impacts, mentally sustainable development ... Investment * they are good indicators of water quality and operations in traditional sectors such as agricul- ecosystem well-being, and ture, forestry, energy, tourism, and urban and * they are species-rich - out of the approxi- infrastructure development should gradually be- mately 25,000 known fish species over 40% come more 'biodiversityfriendly'. or 10,000 are known exclusively from fresh- waters (which constitute just 0.008% of the Attention to Freshwater Biodiversity world's water) and an additional 500 species need freshwater at some stage of their lives While threats to charismatic terrestrial organ- (Nelson, 1994: 4-5). isms such as mammals, birds and orchids, or to disappearing habitats such as rain forests, have Biodiversity attracted much attention, the same cannot be said of the many freshwater habitats that are under Biodiversity refers to the abundance and the very serious threat, or of the very large number of variety within and among fauna and flora, as well aquatic organisms within them that face imminent extinction (Beverton, 1992; Moyle and Leidy,

- Asia is taken to includeall countriesbetween Afghanistan 1992; Wilcove and Bean, 1994; Abramowitz, and PapuaNew Guinea,and betweenMongolia and 1995; Naimann et al., 1995a,b).The Bank's ac- Indonesia. tivities reflect this bias, yet freshwater biodiver- 2 FreshwaterBiodiversity in Asia sity is affected by far more, and a far broader the wetland conservation lobby is beginning not range of, projects than the more 'popular' eco- just to declare a broad definition but to be more systems. The effects of development on freshwa- actively concerned with a wider range of fresh- ter biodiversity have been extreme, for in no other water species and habitats as well as their respec- comparable set of habitats have complete faunal tive functions. For example, the recent (March communities been wiped out so quickly by ill- 1996) Brisbane Conference of the Parties to the advised management. For example, an estimated Convention on Wetlands agreed to include nota- 200 to 400 species of fish disappeared from Lake ble fishes, fisheries, and karst areas in the criteria Victoria after the introduction of a single exotic for designating wetlands of international impor- fish species (Coulter et al., 1986; Barel, 1986). tance (see below). However, the state of concern Some 297 (40%) of the roughly 750 freshwater and knowledge of freshwater biodiversity still fishes and 213 (72%) of the 297 native mussels lags far behind that of'traditional' wetlands, ham- known from Canada and the USA are extinct, en- pering informed decision making. dangered or threatened (fish data modified from Even in wide-ranging reviews of biodiversity, Deacon et al., 1979; Williams et al., 1989; Miller freshwater biodiversity is often largely ignored. et al., 1989; mussel data from Williams et al., For example, except for a few brief lines in the 1992). This undoubtedly reflects the situation fish chapter, there is no mention of freshwater elsewhere in the world. biodiversity in the World Conservation Monitor- Freshwater biodiversity is a component of ing Centre's Global Biodiversity (Groombridge, wetlands' in the sense of the Ramsar Convention2 1992). The value of fish in the pet trade' is not in which 'wetlands' is defined broadly as "areas even mentioned, whereas there are five pages on of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural the parrot trade and six lines on reptile trade. This or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water is not representative of the respective values of that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, these trades. Gross retail value of the trade in including areas of marine water, the depth of neotropical parrots between 1982 to 1986 reached which at low tide does not exceed six meters". an estimated total of US$1.6 billion However, the popular understanding of wetlands (Groombridge, 1992), while the estimated annual appears to be of land-related ecosystems such as retail value of aquarium fishes is US$3 billion marshes, peatlands, estuaries, floodplains, (Bassleer, 1994). Freshwater biodiversity is also swamps, and lakes (e.g. Dugan, 1993). Such wet- scarcely mentioned in UJNEP's massive Global lands are often of ornithological interest but typi- Biodiversity Assessment (Heywood, 1995). cally have low oxygen concentrations and are in- The conservation of 'flagship' species and habited by hardy aquatic organisms which tend to habitats has been promoted in the hope that it have broad distributions. Other freshwater habi- would benefit less attractive species, and in many tats, such as ubiquitous rivers and streams, are of cases this has been achieved. In the case of wet- limited ornithological value, and have therefore lands the flagship group has generally been water- attracted relatively little concern. Very few rapids fowl. This is logical because: or foothill streams are protected for their intrinsic biodiversity value, although they may be included * they are conspicuous elements of many wet- as part of larger protected areas. Even where lands, wetlands have major conservation value for * they are readily identified, freshwater biodiversity, ornithological interests * they are censused and studied, have tended to dominate (see Scott, 1989). Today

2 - The official title is "The RamsarConvention on Wetlands 3 - Popularaquarium fishes originating in Asiainclude of InternationalImportance, Especially as Waterfowl featherbacks,tiger barbs,flying foxes,silver sharks, red- Habitat" but the whole title is rarely usedand is seen as tailedsharks, scissortails, harlequins, and other rasboras, restrictingthe broad mandateto integratethe conservationof clownloaches, kuhli loaches,glass catfish,halfbeaks, wetlandbiodiversity with sustainabledevelopment and the Sulawesirainbows, Irian rainbows,scats, bumblebee gobies, health and well-beingof people. pearl and other gouramies,fighting fish, and spiny eels. Concerns 3

* they are long-distance migrants, dependent on these 32, 13 are actively concerned with freshwa- wetlands in a number of countries in the ter biodiversity: course of their annual cycle of movements, and thus demonstrate the need for interna- * one works on amphibians, tional collaboration in conservation efforts, * two on fish, * they are of economic importance as game * two on decapod crustaceans (crabs and species, and shrimps), * they are near the top of most wetland food * two on insects, chains and thus highly susceptible to wetland * one on midges, contamination and disturbance (Scott, 1989). * three on molluscs, * one on copepod crustaceans (zooplankton), If freshwater biodiversity is to become a * one on parasitic worms. noted concern then flagship species and habitats need to be identified and promoted - candidates It is clear that the weight of interest is, not for the former could be the giant Mekong catfish, surprisingly, on organisms important as food and the Chinese sturgeon, the Asian bonytongue, other on vectors of pathogens. Of these 13 primary attractive aquarium fishes, and freshwater por- freshwater taxonomists, only three are of intema- poises. Candidates for flagship habitats could be tional stature (as gauged by publications in inter- biologically-rich rapids and peat swamps. national, peer-reviewed journals and membership Despite common perceptions, freshwater bio- of editorial boards). The problem is exacerbated diversity is an important issue with tremendous because II of the 32 conducting primary research economic, social, and environmental impacts. It and five of the 13 who actually work with fresh- impinges on human welfare in terms of food, nu- water organisms will be retiring in the next five trition, other resources, purification of water, rec- years. reation, and control of infectious organisms, and Academic training alone does not create ex- cannot be dealt with adequately as a subsection of pert taxonomists; this expertise relies heavily on fisheries management. In general, however, practice. Experience shows that it is almost im- freshwater biodiversity is often given no more possible to recognize real skill in conducting than a few lines in environmental assessments of taxonomic research before students begin practi- development projects, or disappears under a cal work. Indeed, the only efficient way to find 'fisheries' heading, whereas it should be a com- promising students is to test them and invest in pletely distinct concern. those truly showing the capacity and interest. A recurrent problem is that some researchers are Human Capacity reluctant to leave their office in order to conduct field work because the social norm is that field Progress in freshwater biodiversity is hampered activities which involve getting wet and handling by inadequate human capacity, especially where it dead animals do not befit individuals with a high relates to organisms and their identification. For academic degree. This can be extremely prejudi- example, there are about 80 zoologists in South- cial to the quality of research because opportuni- east Asia occupying official positions, who have ties are missed to gain intimate knowledge of training in taxonomy and are active at least occa- aquatic organisms, their habitats, behavior etc. sionally in that field (Table 1)4. Thirty two of Opportunities are also missed when donors and them conduct primary (i.e. original and innova- in-country institutions do not insist that findings tive) research, while the remainder are engaged in are published in peer-reviewed journals. In addi- activities such as identification, translation of for- tion, students trained abroad frequently work on eign works, and compilation of local lists. Of organisms of the host country rather than those indigenous to their home country for sound rea- 4 - Similardata for botanistsand for the rest of Asia could sons of cost and speed. Unfortunately, their not be assembled. 4 FreshwaterBiodiversity in Asia

Table 1. Approximate numbers of taxonomists in Southeast Asia. Only taxonomists trained, active and with a full-time position are included. Figures in parentheses represent the number of freshwater biodiversity specialists.

Total No. conducting No. due to retirein next five years No. conductingprimary research primaryresearch and due to retirein next five years Brunei 3 - Burma ? I Cambodia - - Indonesia 16 6 (2) 7 2 Laos Malaysia 20 10 (3) 6 4 (2) Philippines 15 4 (1) 4 1 Singapore 8 6 (4) 3 2 (2) Thailand 10 6 (3) 4 2 (1) Vietnam ? 7 - ? 2 Total 80 32 (13) 26 11(5) experience may not then be relevant to their local 18.39 (g) To adopt an integrated approach to setting and the store of knowledge of indigenous environmentally sustainable management of water biodiversity will not have increased. resources, including the protection of aquatic eco- systems andfreshwater living resources; 18.39 (h) To put in place strategies for the en- Policy Context vironmentally sound management of freshwaters and related coastal ecosystems, including consid- Descriptions and quotes from a number of key eration of fisheries, aquaculture, animal grazing, documents are presented below in order to dem- agricultural activities and biodiversity. onstrate that freshwater biodiversity is already on Activities: the international policy agenda. All states could.... implement thefollowing activi- ties: Agenda 21. The Convention on Biological 18.40 (e) Protection of aquatic ecosystems Diversity, laid before the UN Conference on En- (i) Rehabilitation of polluted and degraded water bodies to restore aquatic habitats and ecosystems: vironment and Development in Rio de Janeiro In (ii) Rehabilitation programmes for agricultural 1992, has been signed and ratified by most Asian lands and for other users, taking into account countries. Although freshwater ecosystems are not equivalent action for the protection and use of mentioned specifically, Parties to the Convention groundwater resources important for agricultural are required to develop national biological diver- productivity andfor the biodiversity in the tropics; sity strategies, plans or policies. One of the most (iii) Conservation and protection of wetlands significant outcomes of the Rio Conference is (owing to their ecological and habitat importance Agenda 21, an action plan for the 1990s and 21st for many species), taking into account social and century which elaborates strategies and integrated economicfactors; program measures to halt and reverse the effects (iv) Control of noxious aquatic species that may of the environmental degradation and to promote destroy some other water species; ofthenvironmentallysound sustaioableand delote () Protectionof freshwaterliving resources: environmentally sound and sustainable develop- (i) Control and monitoring of water quality to al- ment in all countries. Chapter 18 deals with lowfor the sustainable development of inlandfish- 'Freshwater' and includes the following relevant eries; sections: (ii) Protection of ecosystems from pollution and degradation for the development offreshwater aq- Protection of water resources, water quality uaculture projects; and aquatic ecosystems Objectives: ... Water for sustainable food production and rural development Concerns 5

18.76 (h) Inland fisheries: (c) Develop and expand national scientific and (i) Develop the sustainable management offisher- technological databases, processing data in uni- ies as part of national water resources planning; fledformats and systems, (iii) Prevent or mitigate modifiation of aquatic Ransar Convention. The Ramsar Convention environments by other users or rehabilitate envi- on Wetlands of International Importance was the ronments subjected to such modification on behalf first of the modem global inter-governmental of the sustainable use and conservation of biologi- treaties on conservation and wise use of natural cal diversityof livingaquatic resources; resources. Concern about declining populations of In summary,Chapter 18 is a positivedocument for waterfowl (mainly ducks) was the initial impetus the conservation of freshwater biodiversity, al- for the Convention, and other concerns were only though much of the language indicatesthat fresh- implicitly indicated, i.e. in the General Criteria 2: water biodiversity is a resource to be harvested. A wetland should be considered internationally Chapter 35, which deals with 'Science', is also important if: relevant: (a) it supports an appreciable assemblage of rare, vulnerable or endangered species or subspecies of Strengthening the scientific basis for sustain- plant or animal, or an appreciable number of in- able development dividuals of any one or more of these species; Activities or (b) it is of special value for maintaining the 35.7. Countries ... should: genetic and ecological diversity of a region be- (a) Prepare an inventory of their natural and so- cause of the quality and peculiarities of its flora cial science data holdings relevant to the promo- andfauna; tion ofsustainable development; or (c) it is of special value as the habitat of plants or animals at a critical stage of the biologi- Enhancing scientific understanding cal cycle; Activities or it is of special value for one or more endemic 35.12. (e) Develop the capacity for predicting the plant or animal or communities. responses of terrestrial, freshwater, coastal and marine ecosystems and biodiversity to short- and At the March 1996 Conference of the Parties to long-term perturbations of the environment, and the Ramsar Convention a new five-year strategic develop further restoration ecology; plan was adopted which sets a clear course for the 69 Study the role of biodiversity and the loss of future, stressing the need to integrate the conser- species in the functioning of ecosystems and the vation of wetland biodiversity and sustainable de- global life-support system; velopment. With regard to freshwater biodiversity (g) Initiate a global observing system of parame- a new Objective is included which recognizes the ters neededfor the rational management of coastal need to designate wetlands of international im- and mountain zones and significantly expand portance among types still under-represented in its freshwater quantity/quality monitoring systems, list. To support this, an additional 'Special Criteria particularly in developing countries 4' for designating such wetlands based on fish was adopted: Building up scientific capacity and capability A wetland should be considered internationally Objectives: important if: 35.21. (d) Improving access to relevant informa- (a) it supports a significant proportion of in- tion for scientists and decision makers, with the digenous fish subspecies. species or families, life aim of improving public awareness and participa- history stages, species interactions and/or values tion in decision making. and thereby contributes to global biological diver- Activities: sity, 35.22. (b) Strengthen the scientific infrastructure or (b) it is an important source offood for fishes, in schools, universities and research institutions a spawning ground, nursery and/or migration path (particularly those in developing countries) by the on which fish stocks, either within the wetland or provision of... access to current scientifc litera- elsewhere, depend ture .. 6 Freshwater Biodiversity in Asia

World Bank Policies. A number of policy and sites that maintain conditions vital for the documents have been issued in recent years which viability of those protected areas; or sites iden- implicitly support attention to freshwater biodi- tifed on supplementary lists prepared by the versity and its conservation. Bank or an authoritative source determined by the Regional Environment Division. Such sites may include ... areas with known high suitabil- Operational Policy (OP) 4.04. September 1995 iyfor biodiversity conservation; and sites that Natural Habitats: are critical for rare, vulnerable, migratory, or

* Para. 1. The Bank ... supports the protection, endangered species. maintenance, and rehabilitation of natural Operational Policy (OP) 4.07. July 1993. Water habitats and theirfunctions in its economic and Resources Management sector work project financing, and policy dia- * Para. 2(d). The Bank will assist borrowers in: logue. The Bank supports, and expects borrow- Restoring andpreserving aquatic ecosystems. ers to apply, a precautionary approach to natu- ral resource management to ensure opportuni- Operational Directive (OD) 4.00 - Annex B. April ties for environmentally sustainable develop- 1989. Environmental policy for dam and reservoir ment. projects

. Para. 8 .. an environmental reconnaissance iPara.4. The Bank does not support projects that, by independent, recognized experts or firms - in the Bank 's opinion, involve the sign ifcant selected by the borrower and approved by the conversion or degradation of critical natural s is essential. habitats. hahitats. ~~~~~~~~~~Bank- Is essential.

* Annex A, para 1. Natural habitats are land and * Annex B 1. para. 10. Hydroelectric and other de- watermeA,areaswhere 1. Natural ecstems'e bolo-avelopments should preferably be concentrated water areas where (i) the ecosystems' biologi- on the same rivers if hydrological risks and cal communities are formed largely by native other circumstances permit, in order to preserve plant and animal species, and (ii) human activ- elsewhere a representative sample of rivers in ity has not essentially modifned the area's pri- the natural state. This should be considered mary ecological functions. ato h rd-fs part of the trade-offs.

Annex A, para. 2. Critical natural habitats are existing protected areas and areas officially proposed by governments as protected areas. 2

Human significance offreshwater biodiversity

Economic Value of the Resources locally. Children catch frogs, tadpoles, snails, mussels, beetles, bugs, etc. in small streams and Human communities depend on freshwater under stones, and almost everything is eaten. This biodiversity for a variety of resources. The vari- is probably the main source of animal protein for ous habitats provide a wide range of resources as many of the poorest populations, but it has been well as services such as transport, supply of clean completely ignored in official statistical reports. water, and energy. Among the organisms, most For example, the official fisheries statistics for attention has focused on fish as food because of Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam report a their overwhelming economic importance, but total of 360,000 tons for the fisheries catch and food fish are not the only freshwater resources aquaculture production in the lower Mekong Ba- and fish are used also for fertilizer, medicine (e.g. sin. These figures, however, underestimate com- see Vincent, 1995), the pet trade, and they are an mercial production and often do not include the integral part of a dynamic food chain. subsistence fisheries (Mekong River Commission, There does not seem to have been an eco- 1992). The underestimation may be considerable nomic analysis of freshwater biodiversity value. as household consumption studies in N.E. Thai- The few available data are mostly fisheries statis- land suggest actual consumption of 32,200 tons, tics, but these are of very limited value for three 5.5 times the reported capture and culture reasons. First, most statistics do not discriminate (Prapertchob, 1989). This estimate plus recent between aquaculture and capture fisheries. For data emerging from projects undertaken by the example, in FAO fisheries statistics, aquaculture Mekong River Commission suggests that the total or reservoir production accounts for the entire fisheries catch and aquaculture production may be productivity of inland fisheries of Sri Lanka. as high as I million tons (J. Jensen, pers. comm.). Capture fisheries exist in the country, but are not Indicative of the dependence of lower income taken into consideration. Second, national statis- groups on fish, is the fact that the fisheries con- tics for many countries are unreliable. In district cept of 'trash fish' does not exist among poor hu- fisheries administrations, it is not uncommon to man populations; there being a use for almost see weekly or monthly statistics for villages in every fish. Observations on the fish communities which fisheries officers are rarely, if ever, seen. and their exploitation in Danau Sentarum Wildlife Statistics may also be falsified where taxes are Reserve, Indonesia, indicates that of 180 species collected, and there is a vested interest in under- known from that area, only one species is not used reporting catches. (pers. obs.). There are specific methods for fish- The third and most salient shortcoming of ing a variety of species, and even species reputed fisheries statistics is that they represent only to be poisonous are eaten after the poisonous or- catches sold in markets and completely overlook gans are removed. Species too small for process- subsistence fisheries, which represent a much ing are fed to large fish kept in cages (a single larger biomass. Commercial fisheries are usually fisherman could catch up to 50,000 fish 4-10 cm exclusively represented in official statistics, but long per day), along with waste parts of large these are not necessarily the crucial resource for fishes. the majority of the population, especially the im- In terms of nutrition, a change of food species poverished. Almost everywhere along rivers peo- can be very significant. Data from Bangladesh ple catch fish; large fish are brought to the market show that small capture fish are usually eaten or sold to middlemen, and small fish are eaten whole by subsistence fisherfolk and provide a rich 8 FreshwaterBiodiversity in Asia source of vitamins and mineral nutrients. Larger, plants in Peninsular Malaysia, 61 have a socio- pond-cultured fishes cannot be eaten whole and economic value: 15 as human food, 5 as livestock provide less than one-half the calcium and iron food, 30 as medicine, 3 as fertilizers, 11 for other and only 2% of the vitamin content of the smaller uses (aquarium trade, ornaments, magic, dyes, and more widely available fishes (Hill and baskets, mats, strings) (Nather Khan, 1990). Ac- Hanchett, 1995: 37). Also, in some areas of Asia, tually, the number of species collected for the the larger and commercially more valuable exotic aquarium trade is grossly underestimated. The species marketed and consumed primarily in ur- populations of several species in demand for the ban centers, have replaced the smaller indigenous aquarium trade have been seriously depleted, es- species normally sold and consumed in rural ar- pecially in Sri Lanka and Malaysia (pers. obs.). eas. The resource thus becomes more valuable, the former common property is privatized and is Local Knowledge and Management of claimed by wealthy land owners (K. MacKay, Resources pers. comm.). Fisheries planners must therefore consider socio-cultural effects, such as the loss of Local knowledge of fish diversity is generally food diversity and associated traditional knowl- good in communities which depend on fishing edge as well as possible reduction in food and life activities. Fishermen in Danau Sentarum, Indone- quality. sia recognize most fish species, have specific ver- Besides being used as food, some species are nacular names for them and know of specific uses collected for the aquarium fish trade. The main or recipes for them (pers. obs.). They have prob- species in this trade in Indonesia is the clown lems, however, with the identification of some of loach Botia macracanthus. This is possibly the the smaller fishes and occasionally claim that they most important wild-caught pet fish of the world, had never previously seen some of the species in terms of biomass, with an estimated 10,000,000 caught in small-meshed nets. In fact, they are exported per year5 (pers. data). Field surveys in probably simply not noticed among hauls of small Danau Sentarum indicate that some 2,400,000 are 'trash' fish which are bulk processed to feed cul- caught annually; until 1995 provincial statistics tured fishes. Even so, local knowledge is often report only about 50,000 to 300,000 individuals. biased towards those larger or most valuable spe- (Aglionby, 1995). Obviously, the economic vi- cies or towards the species collected by their usual ability of this massive pet trade depends upon the gear. For example, after a major pollution event in stability of biodiversity and the integrity of the the Mun River, Thailand, fishermen stated that ecosystem. some of the dead fish washed up were of species There are few studies of the trade in freshwa- they had never seen before (Roberts, 1993b: 130). ter turtles, but the limited available information The local knowledge of fish biology is some- indicates significant value. In Vietnam: some what less accurate. Fishermen tend to know at 240,000 animals (240,000 kg) are traded annually, which time of the year or day a given species can representing a value of US$2.4 million (Centre for be caught, what its stomach contents are likely to Natural Resources Management and Environ- be, whether the gonads are ripe, and even when mental Studies, 1994). In Bangladesh the legal the young fish appear, but this knowledge is trade in turtles and their eggs was worth nearly fragmentary, and there is a tendency to extrapo- US$1 million in the late 1980s (Das 1990), and it late generalities from a few specific observations. is higher in many S.E. Asian countries where the Their data are also strongly biased; fishermen end point is often the food and medicine markets tend to use different fishing gear at different sea- of China. sons, and catch fish with different gear in differ- Aquatic plants also have many economic ent habitats, so that the data are not comprehen- uses. For example, out of 237 species of aquatic sive and must be interpreted carefully. Local communities may traditionally manage 5 - Cardinal tetras are exported in larger numbers from Brazil aquatic resources, especially when they rely but these fish are much smaller. heavily upon them, and the resource is limiting HumanSignificance of FreshwaterBiodiversity 9

(Roberts 1993a,b; Roberts and Warren, 1994; Ali, interesting because they represent traditional 1996). Traditional management often comes in the management systems which have made the tran- form of periodic fishing bans (usually the spawn- sition to being the bases of modem regulations: ing season of some important fish species) and/or there are closed and open seasons, sanctuaries, in some areas, the return of broodstock, or the allocated fishing lots, and a wide range of licensed total or seasonal ban of certain fishing gear, and is gear, all backed up by a fisheries act. There are usually decided by the local community. Where inspection units belonging to both the Department the human population is not too high these man- of Fisheries and the provincial fisheries offices. agement regimes have often been sufficient to They have patrol boats, usually armed, and at- maintain a sustainable fisheries. The emergence tempts are made to enforce the regulations. In of overfishing may be related to a change in life- 1994 the DoF collected over US$100,000 in in- style, such as the move from subsistence fishing land fishing fees, and US$128,000 in confiscated to a market economy. goods and fines. In one province alone in 1994 the In parts of Cambodia there are active fisheries inspection unit charged over 200 fishermen with resource management systems dating back to at illegal fishing (K. MacKay, pers. comm.). least the early 19th century which are particularly 3 Biodiversity aspects

Ecosystem Diversity undersampled in most countries. The fauna of rapids is known to have a very high rate of ende- Freshwater habitats inhabited by different mism, but it is one of the least well-known habi- freshwater animal and plant communities can be tats and hundreds of species probably still await classified in different ways, and the classification discovery. below is based simply on their gross geomor- These habitats are threatened by deforestation phological features. The general types of organ- which increases the temperature and the sediment isms found in each habitat will be similar among load, dam construction which eradicates high gra- the different areas of Asia but the faunal assem- dient sectors within the reservoir and alters the blages will be distinct. flow pattern downriver, or channelization which reduces the heterogeneitv of the river bed, and Springs, hill streams, headwaters, rapids. thus the number of available ecological niches. These habitats are characterized by high gradient, often high altitude, usually high dissolved oxygen Freshwater swampforests and small streams and low temperature (these characters may be less in lowlands andfoothills. Freshwater-swamp for- applicable to lowland rapids), and rocky substrate. ests grow where changes in water level are lim- High shear stress occurs over and around the ited6, where there is at least some water present at stones and boulders. There are few if any macro- all times of year, and where the water is mineral- phytes (rooted aquatic plants). Many of the fish rich freshwater of roughly neutral pH. Inundations and invertebrates living in these streams have ad- may originate from rain or from river water aptations such as suckers, flattened depressed backing up in response to high tides. The major bodies, and laterally expanded fins to resist being physical differences between these forests and swept away by the current. Often the water is peatswamp forest are the lack of deep peat and the clear, and due to the high light penetration, there source of water being riverine as well as from the is abundant algal growth on the rocks, constituting rain (Corner, 1978). They harbor similar fresh- an important food resource for fishes and inverte- water biodiversity to the small streams in the brates which themselves form the prey of other lowlands and foot hills of Asia which were origi- species. The chaotic nature of these habitats re- nally under forest cover. These streams become sults in a mosaic of microhabitats, and the sam- very shallow in the dry season and usually run in pling of a few hundred meters may yield more a succession of pools and riffles, with a consider- species than any other freshwater habitats. These able amount of wooden debris (logs, branches, communities are usually very specialized and leaf litter). The water is usually clear and cool. their movements along the river may be very lim- There is very little light penetration because of the ited. Extensive stretches of other habitats with low trees above and thus very little underwater plant gradient, lower oxygen concentration, higher tem- growth; the majority of the aquatic fauna relies on peratures, sand or mud bottom, high turbiditv, and exogenous material, either vegetable debris or absence of rocks and algae to graze are barriers to dispersal. As a result, the distribution of many 6 _ It shouldbe noted that DanauSentarum and TonleSap are species is limited to a set of rapids, a few head- strictly riverineor riparianlakes rather than swampforests, waters,or a single tributary in a large river basin. sincethe rangein waterlevel is muchgreater - up to 16 m - For obvious reasons, samplingof these habi- andwater is completelymissing from the marginalforests for tats can be difficult and dangerous,and they are severalmonths. These fringingforests are thus a very hostile habitatfor freshwaterbiodiversity during the 6-9 dry months. BiodiversityAspects 11 animals (mainly worms and insects), or on other especially in coastal areas. Large rivers are usu- aquatic animals as food sources. In the wet sea- ally the most productive part of a basin. son, such streams flood the riparian forests, and The communities of large rivers are threat- most fish spawn at that time of the year in the ened by deforestation which results in increased flooded forest where food is abundant for both temperature and siltation and degradation of nurs- adults and fry. Large fishes enter the small ery grounds for fry during floods, pollution (most streams from the large rivers for the same reasons. urban communities are located on large rivers), Due to the heterogeneous structure of these habi- overfishing and flood control. Flow modification tats, they offer abundant and diverse shelters, food (channelization, diversion) and flood control have and spawning grounds and can accommodate a a significant impact as they reduce or adversely great variety of species, many of them small and affect the spawning grounds and the possibility of easily overlooked. lateral migrations. Threats may have cumulative These communities are threatened by defor- effects: the reduced run-off resulting from reser- estation, which increases the water turbidity and voir construction may no longer be enough to temperature, reduces shelter and food resources, flush concentrated urban, agricultural and indus- and modifies the spawning grounds. They are also trial pollution, leading to extensive anoxic zones. adversely affected by water diversion for agricul- ture, pollution, and overfishing (especially with Estuaries. Estuaries are complex ecosystems poisons). This type of habitat has been completely due to the variation in the interactions of saline destroyed in many areas. For example it is now and freshwater habitats according to daily, tidal missing in Java which is probably one of the main and yearly cycles. They are a transit area for all reasons why half of the species reported from the the nutrients carried by the rivers and are an im- island up to the middle of this century have not portant feeding and spawning ground for many been caught in recent surveys (Kottelat, 1995a). marine fishes and invertebrates. They are also a transit area for all the pollution in a river basin as Large rivers, riverine lakes andflood plains. well as for fishes on their migrations between the These important fisheries habitats are character- sea and freshwaters. This is one of the main points ized by very low gradient, low oxygen concentra- of concern in the present context. Overfishing in tion, higher temperature, high turbidity and high estuaries and the clearing of mangrove forests (an nutrient load, muddy bottom and cyclical floods. important nursery ground) are other major threats Floods are crucial events for many riverine fish- to these communities. eries for during them fish invade the flooded land where food is abundant for the adults and the fry; Lakes. Unlike the ephemeral riverine lakes most fish spawn during floods or immediately discussed above, ancient lakes are often of tec- before or after (Taki, 1978). The numerous small tonic or volcanic origin, and are geographically lakes (e.g. oxbow lakes) found in the floodplains isolated. Lakes in limestone areas may also be- are also included in this category. Some function long to this category although their evolution may as buffers, filling with water during high waters be much faster. and releasing it in the dry season. These are very Several lakes host particular fish communities ephemeral episodes in the life of a large river but with species specialized to occupy the pelagic they are crucial to maintaining the biodiversity. habitat (Table 2). 'Species flocks' are a particular Their fish fauna is usually the same as in the main feature of some ancient lakes. A species flock is river (although relative densities of the different an assemblage of very closely-related species species may differ). occurring within a restricted geographic area; Large rivers usually host rich species assem- usually members of a species flock occupy niches blages, but do not exhibit much variation between (food resources, habitats) that related species neighboring basins, as movement from one basin outside of the flock would never utilize, but which to another is occasionally possible during floods, would be utilized by other groups of animals. The most famous flocks are probably the several 12 FreshwaterBiodiversity in Asia

Table 2. Asian lakes with exceptional freshwater biodiversity interest.

Country Biodiversityfeatures References Lakes in Yunnan China large numbersof endemicfishes and in- Li, 1982;Chu and Chen, 1989, 1990;Yang, vertebrates 1991 Kottelatand Chu, 1988 MaliliLakes Sulawesi, 2 endemicfish genera.26 endemicfish Kottelat, 1990b-c,1991 (Matano,Towuti, Indonesia species (including15 of the 17 known Wawantoa) species of Telmatherinidae),in additionto I snake,3 crabs, about 10 shrimps,sonie 60 molluscs,I macrophyte,possibly spongesand watermites Lake Poso Sulawesi, I endemicfish genus.7 endemicfish spe- Kottelat, 1990a Indonesia cies, numerousendemic invertebrates Lake Lindu Sulawesi, I endemicfish species Kottelat,1990a; Whitten et al., 1987b,c Indonesia Lake Tondano Sulawesi, I endemicfish genus Collette, 1995 Indonesia Lake Sentani Irian Jaya, 2 endemicfish species Allen. 1991 Indonesia Lake Biwa Japan 3 endemicfish species,as well as endemic Kira. 1995: 18 snails,molluscs, and plankton Lake Inle Burma 9 endemicspecies and 3 endemicgenera Annandale.1918 and pers.obs. of fishes Lake Rara Nepal 3 endemicfish species Terashima.1984 Lake Kutubu PapuaNew II endemicfish species Allen. 1991:Allen and Hoese, 1986 Guinea Lake Lanao Mindanao, 2 endemicfish genera, 18 endemicfish Komfeldand Carpenter, 1984 Philippines species hundred species of cichlid fishes in African rift ous effects (Eccles, 1985). Most of these intro- lakes (Malawi, Tanganyka, Victoria) which oc- ductions have had damaging effects on the native cupy all habitat types, display many types of re- communities, sometimes bringing to extinction productive behavior and exploit all manner of entire 'species flocks'. The introduction of the food resources (Echelle and Kornfield, 1984). Nile perch Lates niloticus to 'improve' Lake Vic- The major threats to lake communities are toria resulted in the extinction of an estimated 200 introductions of exotic species, pollution, eu- to 400 fish species in less than 30 years (the fate trophication, and changes in water level. Lake of other freshwater organisms in the lake does not communities, especially the complex and diverse seem to have evcr been documented) (Coulter et ones, tend to be sensitive to changes. Fisheries al., 1986; Barel, 1986). In Asia, the cyprinid spe- biologists have often regarded lakes as having cies flock of Lake Lanao (Philippines) is appar- many vacant ecological niches, sometimes not ently also extinct (see the relevant country sec- realizing that several species may occupy the tion). same niche or that a single species may occupy a The only more-or-less pristine species flocks number of niches dependent on the season, time left in Asia are to be found in the Malili lakes, of day or life stage or sex of the individual; in ad- Sulawesi. These lakes actually host two parallel dition, niches which exist in one lake do not nec- flocks. The fauna of Lake Matano has many of essarily exist in another. As a result it has been a the same families and genera as the other lakes, common practice to 'improve' lake communities but most species are unique to the lake. The only with the introduction of exotic species. Few of other documented case of parallel species flocks these introductions resulted in the expected in- in the world is in two crater lakes in Cameroon creased productivity; in many instances rehabili- (Stiassny et al., 1992). See the relevant country tation of the existing fishery could have been just section for further discussion of the Malili lakes. as cost-effective and less likely to have deleteri- BiodiversityAspects 13

Data on abiotic, biotic and socio-economical are also easily overlooked or difficult to sample. factors of 64 Asian lakes and wetlands have been Many species are found only in the peat soils, and compiled by Kira (1995). persist there even when the streams themselves are dry. They include several species of small Marshes and swamps. Marshes and swamps worm-like fishes (Kottelat and Lim, 1994) and have a high productivity because of intense light catfishes (Ng and Lim, 1993) known in no other which results in rapid plant development and, as habitat. Such very specialized organisms have such, can support diverse invertebrate communi- very localized distributions and are confined to ties. These habitats are characterized by high tem- specific drainages. As a result, peat swamp fauna peratures and low oxygen concentrations. Most exhibit an unusually high degree of endemism. fish present in these habitats belong to families Peat swamps are very sensitive to deforesta- which have developed ways of breathing atmos- tion which is usually followed by fire. Peat pheric air as the dissolved oxygen is not sufficient swamp forest seems unable to regrow on burned (e.g. gouramies, walking catfishes). They are usu- peat, so restoration does not occur. Peat swamps ally very hardy fishes and most have very broad have been extensively converted into rice, oil distributions. Many wetland conservation activi- palm and pineapple plantations, and today only ties have focused on these habitats because they 10-20% of the original peat swamps of Peninsular are important for waterbird migrations. They are, Malaysia still remain (Ng, 1994a). The extant however, of limited value as far as fish biodiver- swamps are not free of human interference. sity is concerned. Large areas of coastal peat swamps and man- groves have been turned into ponds for prawn Peat swamps, black water streams, black culture in Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia. water lakes. Peat swamp forests are a specialized These prawns are cultivated almost exclusively habitat type of Southeast Asia. They were origi- for export and this type of aquaculture is not sus- nally very extensive along the sea-shores immedi- tainable; the ponds can only be used for about five ately behind the mangrove forests. In some areas years before pollution, accumulation of faecal of Sumatra and Borneo, the peat layer may reach matters and blooms of toxic algae take their toll. thicknesses of up to 20 meters. Water is retained Adjacent land and water supplies are also polluted by the spongy structure of the peat, and is highly by soil and water conditioners, pesticides, fertiliz- acidic with a pH of 3.5-6.0 (Whitten et al. 1987a; ers, antibiotics and disinfectants which are often Ng et al., 1992, 1994). It is tea-colored when seen used heavily (see Wilks, 1995 for discussion of against transmitted light, or black when seen in ecological and social impacts). In most cases, the reflected light, hence the common name of 'black land cannot be used for other agricultural pur- waters'. The water has low calcium concentra- poses for many years. tions and low oxygen levels. In natural conditions peat swamps are part of forest formations with a Caves and aquifers. Organisms inhabiting relative low tree diversity. Lakes may form on the subterranean habitats are often overlooked. These summit of peat domes or along streams or rivers include not only animals living in caves, but also flowing through extensive areas of peat swamps. those living in aquifers (some species are, for ex- Until recently many biologists considered ample, known only from artesian wells). These black waters to be low in biodiversity and pro- organisms are often characterized by reduced or ductivity (e.g., Johnson, 1968). In fact, peat absent eyes, pigmentation, and sensory organs. swamps have simply been poorly studied. Ongo- The fauna of only a few Asian cave systems has ing studies now show that in peninsular Malaysia, been investigated, but several caves have been 10% of the fish species are found only in peat found to harbor unique faunas, both aquatic and swamps (Ng, 1994a). Unpublished data indicate terrestrial. Most cave aquatic organisms are re- that this figure is even higher in Borneo. Most of stricted to a single cave or a single cave system. these species are small and have been overlooked The vertebrates and macroinvertebrates (such as by fisheries biologists. They occupy niches which crabs and shrimps) have usually been reported, 14 FreshwaterBiodiversity in Asia and, contrary to the situation in many surface wa- Species Diversity in Freshwater Organisms ter habitats, much attention has also been paid to smaller invertebrates. Very little is known of the As explained in the first chapter, fish are good fauna of aquifers in Asia, although it is known group to focus on in a discussion of freshwater that they are inhabited by invertebrates and fishes. biodiversity, but they are clearly not the only For example, the catfish Horaglanis krishnai is group which are dependent on freshwater eco- known only from aquifers in Kerala, India. systems. Most cave environments must be considered to be under threat. Threats include surface water Mammals. A wide variety of mammals are pollution, surface waste disposal, water tapping dependent on freshwater ecosystems. These range for human, agricultural or industrial use, lime- from the freshwater dolphins which live wholly stone mining for cement factories, and tourism. within the water column, to otters, fishing cats and For example, a reservoir built in Funing County, other fish-eating mammals. Many of these ani- Yunnan, China, submerged cave systems in which mals clearly also depend on there being other blind fishes were seen by geologists. suitable surrounding habitat for their survival. Juberthie et al. (1994) is the first volume of an There are three species of obligate freshwater ongoing encyclopaedia of subterranean biology. dolphins in the area: the baiji or Yangtze River The volumes dealing with vertebrates and cave dolphin Lipotes vexillifer, the susu or Ganges habitats in Asia should appear in late 1996. River dolphin Platanista gangetica and the bhulan or Indus River dolphin Platanista minor. All three Artflcial freshwater habitats. Artificial have distribution ranges restricted to a single river freshwater habitats in the form of man-made lakes basin, have very small global populations and are and reservoirs have often replaced ecologically under serious threat (e.g. Smith et al., in press). diverse and species-rich natural rivers. Artificial The baiji is close to extinction with an estimated habitats have a uniform underwater landscape, 300 individuals left in 1986, and the number still and often suffer from various forms of pollution. declining and now considered to be below 100 The most obvious types of these habitats in Asia (Reeves and Leatherwood, 1994). are reservoirs, paddy fields, and canals and There are also two recognized species of fac- streams in agriculture and plantation areas. Most ultative river dolphins in area: the finless porpoise new reservoirs go through a phase of being anoxic Neophocaena phocaenoides and the Irrawaddy and toxic as a result of the decomposition of dolphin Orcaella brevirostris. They are widely flooded terrestrial vegetation, and only very few, distributed along Asian coasts and are known to generally air-breathing, species tend to survive. enter rivers, but their systematics are not clear. Artificial habitats are generally depauperate and For example, the finless porpoise of the Yangtze the fish fauna is often at least partly exotic with seems morphologically distinct from those in Chi- many species stocked artificially. nese coastal marine waters (Zhou, quoted in Reservoirs may be beneficial for the native Leatherwood and Reeves, 1994), indicating that fauna in arid areas. Dams and effective forest they are possibly distinct species. There are cur- conservation practice in the Chalakkudy River rently no data to show that marine individuals are basin, Kerala, India, have contributed signifi- able to enter freshwaters or that freshwater ones cantly to providing a continuous flow of water in can enter the seas. Other cetacean species occa- the river, even during periods of drought. Most of sionally move up rivers, but only for relatively the other west-flowing rivers of Kerala and almost short periods. all their headwater reaches tend to dry up during the dry season, particularly in areas heavily Birds. Birds, such as waterfowl, have at- planted with tea. The Chalakkudy River is inhab- tracted more attention that any other animal living ited by a diverse aquatic community while other on or near freshwaters (e.g. Scott, 1989) and it is basins have a much lower diversity (Pethiyagoda thanks to this that so many wetlands have re- and Kottelat, 1994). ceived protection. Bird field guides are usually BiodiversityAspects 15 among the first tools available for animal identifi- Fishes. Fishes are the best known group of cation in a country, and this has created an interest exclusively aquatic animals. Approximately in the group. Wetlands may be important as a 25,000 fish species are recognized by scientists of source of food, nest sites, shelter, or all of these. which about 10,000 are found in freshwaters Some birds live year round in tropical wetland (Nelson, 1994: 3-5). Specialists estimate that habitats, while others are migratory. However, as some 5000 species still await discovery, most of was stated at the start of this report their abun- them in freshwaters. No detailed account has yet dance and diversity at any particular site does not been published of Asian freshwater fishes. Un- necessarily correlate with the abundance or diver- published data indicate that some 4500 species are sity of organisms living within the water itself, already reported from Eurasia (Europe and Asia and some freshwater habitats are rarely visited by combined), at least 3500 of them in the area cov- birds. ered here. The numbers of freshwater species in each Asian country are shown in the country sec- Reptiles. There are eight species of crocodili- tions. The distributions of some species of fresh- ans and 60 species of aquatic turtles in Asia (I. water fish are very restricted, leading to small and Das, pers. comm.). They have been the focus of vulnerable populations. For example a fighting attention by conservation groups and agencies and fish Betia simplex is known from a single group of so are not addressed in great detail here. Both spring pools and their outlet in a karstic area in groups have a significant market value, the croco- peninsular Thailand. diles for their skins (and marginally their meat) It is important to realize thatwhile our knowl- and the turtles for their meat, eggs, and as pets. edge of fish in general is better than for other The turtles of South Asia are described in Das groups, many fish species are known only from a (1994), who also provides a key to the species handful of works on descriptive morphology and found in insular Southeast Asia (Das, 1995). The taxonomy. Many species have been collected only conservation of freshwater turtles is dealt with in once by scientists, and this is the source of all (if Pritchard and Rhodin (1994). any) data we have on their ecology and habitat There are 24 species of true water snakes in requirements. Detailed information on distribu- Asia which are permanent inhabitants of fresh- tion, habitat, feeding habits, population size and water lakes or rivers (e.g. the endemic Enhvdris reproduction is available for just a handful of spe- matannensis in the Malili lakes). Except for cies. These data are based on adults, and informa- names, descriptions, and raw distribution data, tion is available on fish larvae only for some of there is little information available on them. the species used in aquaculture or occasionally kept in aquaria in Europe, North America and Ja- Amphibians. There are nearly 1000 amphib- pan. In many areas, experts have been simply un- ian species in Asia, most of which rely on fresh- able to identify fish larvae even at the family level water at some stage of their larval development. (Japan is a noteworthy exception). There exist no The type of water body needed by the various data on larval ecology despite the crucial impor- species is diverse, ranging from fast-moving hill tance of this period in the life and development of streams to swamps, mud pools, water-filled leaf fishes; larval ecology is often completely different axis, pitcher plants, etc. (Inger, 1966; lnger and from adult ecology. An effective management of Stuebing, 1992). Some adult amphibians may fish resources requires such information. spend all their life near or in the water, especially Fish migrations are well known throughout salamanders and discoglossid frogs. Frogs seem Asia (e.g. Chevey and le Poulain, 1940; Blache to be particularly susceptible to pollution and are and Goosens, 1954; D'Aubenton and Blanc, 1965; viewed as excellent indicators of environmental Fily and D'Aubenton, 1965; Roberts, 1993a,b, health. Some of the larger species are under se- 1995). There are short, medium and long distance vere pressure in some countries for food, both for migrations wholly within freshwater, there are domestic and export markets. primarily freshwater species which breed in ma- rine habitats, and primarily marine species which 16 FreshwaterBiodiversity in Asia breed in freshwater habitats, and there are sepa- the crustacean diversity is higher (e.g. eastern rate feeding, spawning and dispersal migrations. Kalimantan, Philippines). It is likely that the ab- The most famous fish migration in Asia is proba- sence of several species or groups of fishes allows bly that of the 3-m long giant Mekong catfish crustaceans to occupy ecological niches which Pangasianodon gigas which reportedly migrates they cannot normally occupy when a diverse fish along the Mekong between Tonle Sap in Cambo- community is present. dia to Upper Laos (e.g. Pholprasit, 1994). The Chinese seerfish Scomberomorus sinensis mi- Molluscs. Molluscs (snails and mussels) are grates between Tonle Sap, Cambodia, and the another significant group of aquatic animals. South China Sea. Information on this facet of their There are monographic treatments of them avail- ecology is clearly vital to the management of able only for a few countries or islands (e.g. these species (Hill, 1995). In floodplains, mass Thailand: Brandt, 1974; Java: van Bentham Jut- lateral migrations are usually associated with ting 1953, 1956). Some groups have attracted at- feeding and spawning (Taki, 1978). Sicydiine tention because they are intermediate hosts to sev- goby larvae are also known to be migratory, and eral parasites, especially schistosomiasis (e.g. they used to be the basis of specific fisheries in Davis, 1980; Davis and Greer, 1980). There is Java and Luzon, and perhaps elsewhere. reason to believe that many species have become threatened with extinction, or become extinct, in Crustaceans. Freshwater crustaceans are eco- recent decades as a result of declines in water nomically important because they are consumed quality, changes in land use, and the introduction over their whole range, and have therefore at- of exotic species. tracted some attention from biologists and para- sitologists (Ng, 1988: 15). There are two main Other invertebrates. No attempt has been groups of freshwater crustaceans in Asia for made to summarize data on other groups of which reasonably good data are available: prawns aquatic invertebrates. Some are permanent fresh- and crabs. The number of species in each Asian water organisms while others inhabit freshwater country are shown in the country sections. These only during part of their life cycle (e.g. as larvae). numbers were deduced with the help of Dr. Peter Most groups are still very poorly known (for ex- Ng, National University of Singapore, who has ample, it is almost impossible to identify fresh- studied these animals extensively in Southeast water sponges), while others have attracted much Asia. attention, such as several groups of parasitic While most of the known migrations concern worms, especially human parasites. Dragonflies fishes, species of the commercially-important and damselflies have also attracted much attention shrimp Macrobrachium breed in estuarine areas, from scientists and collectors, but this has focused and juveniles migrate upstream for several hun- on adults; it is still impossible to identify most dred kilometers. larvae, despite their important role in benthic Most freshwater crustaceans are restricted to communities. freshwater; this is especially true for freshwater A review of systematics, ecology and distri- crabs, many of which have very restricted geo- bution of tropical zooplankton has been published graphic distributions. Many species are known by Dussart et al. (1984). This includes references from a single stream or group of streams, often to most then-recent works. They pointed to nota- associated with a single hill or range; some are ble gaps in Burma, Laos and Cambodia. They known from a single waterfall. About 80% are conclude (p. 85) that "in Asia afairly comprehen- endemic to a single drainage. The presence of true sive knowledge of syslematics and distributions is freshwater crayfishes in New Guinea is notewor- available at least in half the countries of the thy because they are absent in the rest of South area". An examination of some of the cited lit- and Southeast Asia. erature indicates that most of the data has been Unpublished data indicate that where fresh- obtained at very few localities, and it seems that water fish communities are naturally depauperate, Biodiversity Aspects 17

'fairly comprehensive" is probably somewhat 1989), but in most instances they are limited to over optimistic. lists of chromosome numbers, and rarely cover intraspecific variability (e.g. Li et al., 1986). Per- Macrophytes. Information on the submerged haps the only noteworthy study in this context is macrophytes of S.E. Asia tends to be scattered in the research on mitochondrial DNA of the S.E. a number of smaller publications, but some family Asian catfish Hemibagrus nemurus (Dodson et reviews and identification keys are included in the al., 1995). ongoing series Flora Malesiana (e.g. van Steenis 1949a,b; Backer 1951; van Oostroom, 1953; den Megadiversity Countries and Hot Spots Hartog, 1957a,b; de Wilde, 1962; Bruggen, 1971; van der Plas, 1971; Taylor, 1977). Some groups A primary method of identifying the most im- have attracted more attention because they are portant areas for conservation has been determin- popular as aquarium plants (e.g. Araceae of the ing 'megadiversity' countries and hot spots. Me- genera Cryptocoryne and Lagenandra). Refer- gadiversity countries are the few countries which ences specific to individual countries are given in possess the largest fraction of the world's species, Chapter 6. while hot spots are regions with high concentra- tions of endemic species experiencing unusually Genetic Diversity rapid rates of habitat modifications or loss (Myers. 1988, 1990). Twelve megadiversity Genetic diversity is the total genetic informa- countries have been recognized (McNeely et al., tion contained in the genes of a population. It de- 1990): Mexico, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil, scribes the variation within that population, and is Zaire, Madagascar, China, India, Malaysia, Indo- thought to reflect the ability of the population to nesia and Australia. This listing was based on ter- adapt to change, although there are some well- restrial vertebrates, butterflies and higher plants, documented cases of thriving populations with and did not take any aquatic organisms into ac- very limited genetic diversity. However, it is gen- count. The ten countries with the richest freshwa- erally believed that populations with greater ge- ter fish fauna world-wide are listed in Table 3. It netic diversity are more likely to be able to adapt can be seen that five of these are in Asia, and four to changes in their environment and to be good are not generally recognized as megadiversity subjects for selective breeding. countries. Such analyses are confused, however, Very little has been published on the genetic by the effect that country size has on species to- diversity of Asian freshwater organisms. Interest tals. To demonstrate this, Tables 4 and 5 show has mainly focused on fish, and then on just a few Asian countries ranked first by the known number species which are of known commercial value, of freshwater fish species, and second by their such as tilapias (not native to Asia) and carps. species-to-area ratio. This shows major changes in Current projects on freshwater genetic biodiver- positions. sity in Asia are also focused on these fishes, de- The list of the richest countries in terms spite being exotic to most of the areas where the of the number of freshwater crabs and shrimps projects are conducted, and although they are mirrors that for fish (Table 6), with the Philip- known to be damaging to native faunas. pines and Thailand being the highest of those in There are chromosome data for many species terms of species-to-area ratio. of fishes in Japan, Korea and China (e.g. Yu et al., 18 Freshwater Biodiversity in Asia

Table 3. The top ten countries in terms of Table 5. Asian countries and other geographi- numbers of freshwater fish species. Only spe- cal units ranked by their freshwater fish spe- cies actually recorded are included. cies-to-area ratio.

Number Sources A B of species No. fish Land area A/B x 1000 Brazil 3,000 S. 0. Kullander,pers. species (km2 ) comm. Singapore 45 618 72.9 Indonesia 1,300 Kottelat,unpubl. Brunei 55 5,765 9.9 Venezuela 1,250 S. 0. Kullander.pers. Taiwan 95 36,179 2.6 comm. Malaysiapenin. 300 131,235 2.3 China 1,010 Kottelat,unpubl. Bangladesh 260 144,054 1.8 Peru 855 Changand Ortega, 1995 Vietnam 450 329,566 1.4 Tanzania 800 Eccles, 1992:Kottelat, Sri lanka 90 65,610 1.4 unpubl. Thailand 690 513,517 1.3 USA 790 Page and Burr, 1991 Cambodia 215 181,035 1.2 India 750 Kottelat.unpubl. Philippines 330 299,404 1.1 Thailand 690 Kotelat, unpubl. Laos 262 236,798 1.1 Malaysia 600 Kottelat.unpubl. Java 130 132,570 1.0 Nepal 129 147,181 0.9 Borneo 440 535,830 0.8 Indonesia 1,300 1,944,000 0.7 Table 4. Asian countries and other geographi- Koreanpenin- 90 99,143 0.7 cal units ranked by their total of freshwater sula fish species. Sumatra 300 475,300 0.6 Burma 300 676,581 0.4 Sulawesi 70 186.140 0.4 A B India 750 3,387,593 0.2 No. fish Land area A/B x 1000 Png 329 462,000 0.2 species (km2 ) Pakistan 159 803,941 0.2 Indonesia 1,300 1,944,000 0.7 Irianjava 80 414,800 0.2 China 1,010 9,560,948 0.1 China 1,010 9,560,948 0.1 India 750 3,387,593 0.2 Mongolia 56 1,565,000 0.0 Thailand 690 513,517 1.3 Vietnam 450 329,566 1.4 Borneo 440 535,830 0.8 Philippines 330 299,404 1.1 Png 329 462,000 0.2 Sumatra 300 475,300 0.6 Malaysiapenin. 300 131,235 2.3 Burma 300 676,581 0.4 Table 6. The top ten Asian countries in terms Laos 262 236,798 1.1 of the numbers of crab and shrimp species. Bangladesh 260 144,054 1.8 Cambodia 215 181,035 1.2 crabs shrimps Pakistan 159 803.941 0.2 No.species recorded in No.species recorded in Java 130 132,570 1.0 literature literature Nepal 129 147,181 0.9 China 120 50 Taiwan 95 36,179 2.6 Indonesia 90 70 Sri lanka 90 65,610 1.4 India 60 100 Koreanpenin- 90 99.143 0.7 Malaysia 88 55 sula Thailand 63 50 Irianjaya 80 414.800 0.2 Philippines 41 40 Sulawesi 70 186,140 0.4 Vietnam 12 30 Mongolia 56 1,565,000 0.0 Burma 20 ? Brunei 55 5,765 9.9 Cambodia 6 15 Singapore 45 618 72.9 Laos 7 10 BiodiversityAspects 19

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relatio to thekeygI dtrmin o~antintThe Wadistibuio ths ftersra ons' iti oupiigta Figure 1. Thetotal numberof fish speciesknown fromthe major river basinsof Asia.

Political units do not, of course, bear much patterns in freshwater organisms differing from relation to the key determinant in the distribution those of terrestrial ones', it is not surprising that of freshwater biodiversity, i.e. river basins many of the terrestrial hot spots, such as oceanic (Figure 1). Thus the Mekong, Ganges, Kapuas islands, do not contain significant elements of (Kalimantan), and Yangtze basins are the richest aquatic communities while important regions are in fish species, with the Kapuas the richest in entirely missing from existing hot spot distribu- terms of species to length ratio Lists of biodi- tion maps (e.g. Lake Inle in Burma, Malili lakes versity hot spots of the world have been com- in Sulawesi). piled (Bibby et al., 1992; Groombridge, 1992; Dinerstein and Wikramanayake, 1993), but again these are based on higher plants, terrestrial 7 - Terrestrialorganisms have two-dimensional vertebrates and butterflies and ignore aquatic distributionswhereas aquatic ones have one-dimensional communities. With speciation and distribution distributions,i.e. upstreamand downstream. In that respect the term 'hot rod' mightbe more appropriatethan hot spot. 20 Freshwater Biodiversity in Asia

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Figure2. The distributionof 'hot spots' for freshwaterbiodiversity in Asia, basedmainly on fishes.

Figure 2 shows the distribution of Asian cies in the Mekong basin in Vietnam, Cambodia, aquatic 'hot spots' based mainly on freshwater Laos,Thailand and Burma is 298 (Kottelat, 1989). fishes'. The Mekong basin is arguably the most This list was based on the scientific literature, important hot spot because of its size and the po- confirmedby scientistsand supportedby voucher tential and imminent threats to its integrity.The material. Allowing for species discovered since, only publishedestimate of the number of fish spe- the list may now be around 400 and could be ex- pected to reach 500 if the basin were surveyed 8.- This map is compiledfrom personalexperience in the thoroughly.This is rather less than the unsubstan- field, as well as on the literature,and correspondsto a good tiated figures of 1000, 1200 or 1500 fish species 'educatedguess'. Time and technicallimitations did not circulatedby some agenciesand experts. allow for the more preciseprocedures used in the production Since much conservation planning is now of terrestrialhot spot maps. The technicallimitations are mnainlya lack of groundsurveys over huge areas,the based on hot spot analyses(e.g. Johnson, 1996), it taxonomicuncertainty of a largernumber of taxa, and also is worth indicatingthat existing national systems the largernumber of aquaticvertebrate species than of protected areas across Asia have some positive terrestrialones, makingsurveying more difficult BiodiversityAspects 21 benefits for certain elements of freshwater biodi- on the border between Rajastan and Madya versity. For example, forested protected areas of- Pradesh in India set up to conserve the endan- ten include species-rich streams, and floodplains gered gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) as well as at may be important as seasonal spawning grounds. least eleven species of freshwater turtles and the There are, however, very few areas which protect Ganges dolphin. Both of these focus on large the freshwater biodiversity of larger rivers. Ex- 'flagship' species with presumed benefits for ceptions include the Chinese Alligator Reserve on other species. Riverine reserves present a chal- the lower Yangtze River, and the 400 km long lenge for protected area managers, not least be- National Chambhal (Gharial) Wildlife Sanctuary cause the tend to be 'lengths' rather than areas. 4 Thireatsand the mitigation of impacts

Threats and Effects Pollution. The major sourceof aquatic pollu- tion in freshwater systems is domestic and indus- The threats faced by freshwater biodiversity trial organic wastes, although toxic metals are also in Asia are manifold and pervasive. There are a concern in some areas. Paper pulp mills and cumulative and synergistic effects. and tolerance food-processing plants are the main industries to one factor may be lowered bv a stress resulting causing organic pollution (see Roberts, 1993b: from the presence of another factor. A major 115, for a description of a molasses spill in Thai- problem in managing freshwater ecosystems in land killing fish over 420 km of river). Organic the region is the lack of knowledge of how the matter is broken down naturally by bacteria in the various human-induced changes affect aquatic water, and this decomposition requires oxygen. life. Ecologists find it hard to define biodiversity When a large amount of organic matter is broken precisely in a functional sense or to define the down, it consumes a large amount of oxygen, and linkages between biodiversity and long-term sta- the oxygen concentration in the water falls. If it bility of ecosystems. What is known and beyond falls too low, fish and other aquatic organisms doubt, however, is that environmental degradation will die. Only a few species are able to survive by results in the following biological changes: breathing atmospheric air or using the oxygen- rich surface layer. Organic pollution is often ac- * the number of native species, and those in companied by algal blooms which feed on the specialized taxa or guilds. declines, organic material. Large amounts of decomposing * the percentage of exotic or introduced species algae then exacerbate the problem.. or stocks increases, Inorganic pollutants (including heavy metals, * the number of generally intolerant or sensitive bleaches and dyes) may accumulate in the flesh of species declines, fish and adversely affect their survival or repro- * the percentage of the assemblage comprising ductive biology, as well as contaminate their generally tolerant or insensitive species in- predators higher up the food chain including large creases, carnivorous fishes. birds of prey and humans. Ag- * the percentage of trophic and habitat special- ricultural pesticides are increasingly found in ists declines, freshwaters, and this especially true for areas * the percentage of trophic and habitat general- where irrigated rice culture predominates. ists increases, Any one pollutant may be sublethal, but may * the incidence of disease and anomalies in- stress the fish and other organisms so that they are creases, less resistant to diseases and the affects of other * the percentage of large, mature or older indi- pollutants' (Menasveta, 1985; Roberts, 1993b: viduals increases, 108). The toxicology of fishes in temperate re- * reproduction of generally sensitive species gions is quite well known, but this is not the case decreases, for fishes from tropical freshwaters. Different * spatial or temporal fluctuations are more pro-

nounced (Margalef, 1963). 9 - Epizootic Ulcerative Syndrome has swept through Asia. affecting mainly carps, and it is suspected that that was The most serious result of the losses of biodiver- associated with pesticide concentrations, low pH and other sity is that it reduces our future options for sus- poor environmental conditions. Although the costs to culture tainable biological resourcemanagement. stocks have been calculated. the cost to capture fisheries and to biodiversitv have not. Threatsand Mitigationof Impacts 23 species of fish differ greatly in their sensitivity to Reservoir construction may result in the de- chemicals. Besides death, injury, and increased struction of rapids and associated aquatic commu- sensitivity to pathogens, pollution may also in- nities in the reservoir itself as well as downriver. duce sex changes (Bortone and Davis, 1994). Nature conservation areas are often established around reservoirs to prevent siltation in the basin Increased sediment load Increased sediment and to increase the life of a reservoir. This may load caused by deforestation, agriculture, mining, benefit land animals, but has few benefits for and road construction, is one of the most serious aquatic species, that part of biodiversity most se- threats to freshwater biodiversity in less devel- verelv imported by reservoir creation. A sharp oped countries. Its economic impacts have been declines in fish biodiversity in two reservoirs in quantified, and it is well recognized that silting-up Thailand is reported by Sontirat (1991). causes increased flooding, water-logging and In the first years after completion of a reser- navigation problems, (e.g. Meijerink et al., 1988). voir some fish species may actually become verN However, the impacts on biodiversity and fish abundant, but the local fishermen may be unpre- productivity have been largely ignored, although pared for this and not be equipped to navigate and they are well documented in more developed fish on a lake for species they are not accustomed countries. to catching. Outsiders rather than locals may have Increased sediment loads negatively affects more experience with such conditions and eclipse fishes by damaging their gill epithelium, resulting the local fisherfolk, reducing their food supply in injuries and death. Silt deposition also modifies (see Roberts, 1993b: 115). The prospect of profit- the river bed transforming heterogeneous stony able economic activity may also attract outsiders substrate into homogeneous sandy substrates and to the reservoir area, thereby increasing the fish- leading to the extinction of many species living in ing pressures and other impacts (pollution, defor- or on the former substrate. Freshly laid eggs are estation. siltation, etc.). covered and deprived of oxygen and nursery grounds for juveniles destroyed. The resulting Introduced species. An introduced species is water turbidity reduces light penetration and plant any species intentionally or accidentally trans- survival, thus lowering primary productivity. ported and released by man into an environment outside its natural range. Some authors or agen- Flow alteration and water diversion. The cy- cies distinguish between species transported clic rise and fall of Asian rivers and lakes are of within a country, and those transported across singular importance because inundated flood international boundaries. This is based on the idea plains are the main or exclusive spawning and that the impacts of introductions within a countrv nursery grounds for many fish species. This cycle are less significant, and therefore would not ne- also signals and stimulates the breeding and cessitate the same precautions as those across movements of many freshwater species, and any borders. In a biodiversity context, and with large changes in timing and flow rates due to im- countries to consider, this distinction make little poundment will have adverse effects on them. A sense. period of zero flow during or following dam con- For example. the introduction of a fish species struction will clearly be devastating to the aquatic within the island of Borneo from Malaysia to communities downstream. However the deleteri- Indonesia ,with similar faunas would be more ous effects of flow regulation and water diversion significant than an introduction from Sumatra to may be more subtle. Other negative impacts of Irian Jaya, both of which are in Indonesia but flow regulation measures and water diversion in- possess completely different faunas. Two specific clude habitat destruction and modification, altera- examples from China are also illustrative. The tion of flood regimes, creation of sterile habitats artificial stocking of grass carp in Donghu Lake, and barriers to migration. Canals, by connecting Wuhan, caused the virtual disappearance of different river basins, may allow the entry of in- submerged macrophytes and dramatic blooms of vading exotic species and pathogens. planktonic algae. These conditions favored silver 24 FreshwaterBiodiversity in Asia carp and bighead carp, also native to China but nipulation, or by accidental release of its prey by a not to the lake. Fish yields trebled but comprised fish-eating bird or mammal. only the few stocked species: most of the 60 fish Introductions have been conducted haphaz- species native to the lake all but disappeared. In ardly in order to strengthen depleted populations addition, the number of benthic invertebrate or to improve the genetic quality of a population. species fell from 113 to 26, and zooplankton Here the assumption is made that the introduced species fell from 203 to 171. Each summer there stock belongs to a species already present in the are problems with algal blooms which target area. With the generally poor quality of deleteriously affect the quality and supply of available taxonomic data, this is often no more drinking water and the living conditions of than an assumption. No data are available for lakeside residents (Chen 1989). A similar Asia, but experience in North America and situation has occurred in Lake Honghu, Hubei, Europe (Kottelat, ms.) show that stocks assumed where 70 native species of fish were lost as a to be conspecific, later turned out to represent dif- result of fisheries programs (Chen and Cui, 1993). ferent species, and that these introductions have In biogeographic terms, only introductions within resulted in the extinction of native species or the river basins are likely to be less significant. creation of a hybrid stock, an outcome which is Animals and plants obviously do not respect little different from extinction. political boundaries and the biodiversity in a Examples of the effects of introduced species country with strict prohibitions or controls on in- are shown in Table 7. Many of these introductions troductions may be placed at risk by introductions were made in the 1970s before there was wide- in a neighboring country which later make their spread concern for biodiversity and conservation way across the border. Introductions of fishes in issues. Even so, there is a single documented case Irian Jaya threaten the local endemic aquatic of a fishery agency effectively monitoring the in- fauna, as well as that of neighboring Papua New troductions of fish using a pre-introduction as- Guinea. Fishes introduced in the Mekong basin in sessment (Coates, 1995). Various agencies have China are now appearing in Thailand proposed clear guidelines and codes of practice (Vidthayanon and Kottelat, 1995). (De Silva, 1989: 153; Coates, 1995), which are Fisheries departments are charged with in- strongly supported by international agencies. FAO creasing fisheries productivity and many of the is in the final stages of producing comprehensive new candidate species for introduction are exotic guidelines for this purpose (D. Coates, pers. and destined for forms of aquaculture. During comm.). It is noteworthy that there has never been trials they may be kept in ponds without particular a serious attempt at assessing the impacts of ti- care or sometimes even released into a reservoir, lapia Oreochromis nilotica. The species has been with the argument that if the test is successful, a introduced in at least 68 countries and is generally full environmental assessment will be conducted believed to have had no negative impacts. The afterwards for a large scale program. Experience truth is that there has simply never been any criti- shows that all cultivated aquatic organisms even- cal monitoring. Under conditions prevailing in tually escape (Courtenay and Williams, 1992: 52); fisheries agencies, impacts on freshwater biodi- fish can escape through the normal outlets of the versity are unlikely to be noted. ponds, during floods, as a result of careless ma- Threats and Mitigation of Impacts 25

Table 7. Some introduced species known to have had deleterious effects on indigenous biodiversity or humans.

Introducedspecies Country Effects Reference Ipomaeafistulosa India competitoragainst native species Cook, 1987 introducedaquarium Thailand competitorsagainst native species Piyakamchana,in De Silva, 1989: plants E21 snail-contaminated Hong Kong Introduction of the humanpathogen Schistosoma mansoni Meier-Brook, 1975,cited by De aquariumplants imported Silva, 1989:4 from South America goldensnail (apparently Philippines, major peston rice seedlingsand other crops. Displaced Acosta and Pullin, 1991 severalspecies of the Indonesia native snails,bringing someto local extinction. At the genusPomacea) time of introduction it was alreadyknown to be a pestin othercountries. snail Ampullaria gigas Thailand damagerice stemsin paddies Piyakamchana,in De Silva. 1989: 121 shrimp Macrobrachium China. Lake outcompetedthe nativeshrimp Caridina gregornanawhich Kottelat and Chu, 1988 nipponense Dianchi, Yun- is now very rare or extinct: an endemicloach Yunnanilus nan nigromaculatus,which feedson the smaller nativeshrimp is now very endangeredor extinct penaeidshrimps Philippines may have introduceddiseases to local species Juliano et al., in De Silva. 1989:83 American crayfish Pro- Thailand damagerice stemsin paddies, Piyakamchana.in De Silva, 1989: cambarusclarkii 121 American bullfrog Rana Thailand may be harmful to local amphibianspecies Piyakamchana,in De Silva, 1989: catesbiana 121 carp Cyprinus carpio India speciesof the native genusSchizoihorax have disappeared Jhingran andSehgal, 1978,cited from watersto which the carp had been introduced by Welcomme,1988: 20 Chinesecarps Thailand responsiblefor the spreadof fish diseases Piyakamchana,in De Silva, 1989: 121 Pseudorasboraparva Lake Lugu, introducedin mistakenbelief they were young grasscarp; Chen andCiu, 1993 Sichuan they fed on the eggsof the threeendemic fish species causingtheir virtual or actualextinction gambusiaGambusia hol- Worldwide introducedfor mosquitocontrol but havehad rare to non- Courtenayand Meffe, 1989; brooki and guppy Poecilia existenteffects on mosquitoes,and negativeto perhaps Arthington and Lloyd, 1989 reticulata neutral impactson native fishes goby Glossogobiusgiuris Philippines extinction of 17 endemiccyprinid speciesand 3 generaof De Silva. 1989: 146 lake Lanao grasscarp many places introductionof the parasitic cestodeBothriocephalus De Silva, 1989:4 opsarichthydis Nile tilapia Oreochromis at least 68 unrecorded,suspected outcompetition of native species. Pullin. in press nilIoticus countries rainbowtrout Sri Lanka threateningaquatic organisms.especially the endemic K. De Silva, 1982;P. De Silva and Oncorhynchusm0kiss shrimp Cardinia singhalensis K. De Silva, 1988;Pethiyagoda, 1991: 170 Europeanperch Perca Lake Bositen, Disappearanceof endemicfish Asipiorhynchuslaticeps Chen andCiu, 1993 fluviatilis Xinjiang, China tilapia Oreochromismos- Indonesia. endemicmolluscs are extinct and theendemic fish Whittenet al., 1987;pers. data sambicus Lake Lindu, .Yenopoecdussarasinorum is virtually extinct Sulawesi tilapia Oreochromis mos- many countries outcompetedlocal species Piyakamchana,in De Silva. 1989: sambicus 121 tilapia Oreochromismos- Philippines extinction of local endemicfish Mistichthysluconensis sambicus tilapia species Sri Lanka endemicand commerciallyimportant fish Labeoporcellus Pethiyagoda.1994: 195 has becomevirtually extinct. Freshwaterturtles Lissemys punctata and Melanochelystriuga havebeen greatly reducedas a result of the tilapia gill net fishery. unknownfishes and their Indonesia. the endemicfish Adrianichthyskrunvi and Wteberogobius Kottelat. 1990a parasites Lake Poso, amadi are extinct and X poptae and Oryziasorihognathus Sulawesi are very seriously threatened.W amadi wasthe baseof a subsistencefishery which collapsed 26 FreshwaterBiodiversity in Asia

For example, the introduction of tilapia spe- these activities and conduct an eradication of all cies into Sri Lanka has usually been presented as exotics introduced in these ponds. Any introduc- a success story. From the environmental point of tion of piscivorous fishes should be prohibited. view it is certainly not, and from a scientific point The threats posed by introduced species to of view much of the reports and recommendations freshwater biodiversity are clearly immense, in- are flawed by lack of data and superficial state- sidious and ever-increasing. In the long term, in- ments. Oreochromis mossambicus has been pro- troduced species may prove to be more damaging posed to fill what fishery managers perceive as a to freshwater biodiversity than habitat degradation ,vacant' ecological niche, the open waters of arti- and reduction because most successful invasions ficial reservoirs. Actually, four species and hy- are irreversible. Prevention of further biological brids have apparently been introduced invasions is therefore a most urgent priority (Pethiyagoda, 1991); 0. mossambicus is not a la- (Clout, 1995). custrine but a riverine species (Trewavas, 1983: 311) and administrators do not realize that the Habitat loss. If a habitat is severely degraded classification of niches is anyway artificial and or destroyed, then much of the associated biodi- that most species are capable of utilizing different versity will be lost. Habitat loss is one of the most niches in different habitats. Reports that tilapias important factors in loss of biodiversity in the re- remained restricted to reservoirs are not supported gion, and localized species are especially affected. by field observations (pers. obs. and Pethiyagoda, Land reclamation and the draining of wetlands has 1994: 194). While it has been said that indigenous a profound impact on freshwater biodiversity. fishes, especially cyprinids, benefited from the Some 80% of western Malaysia peatswamp for- presence of tilapias because of increased eu- ests have already been drained, burned and con- trophication (Fernando, 1991: 27), there is no data verted into rice, oil palm or pineapple plantations. to show which species really benefited. To refer This has threatened many rich, diverse, and geo- to 'cyprinids' and then to generalize conclusions to graphically restricted aquatic communities (Ng, all native fish is a flawed approach. Actually, the 1994a). endemic fish Labeo porcellus is virtually extinct, Habitat loss is also an issue when rivers are although until the 1970s it was sufficiently abun- channelized or impounded, when riparian fringes dant to warrant a fishery (Pethiyagoda, 1994: of vegetation are lost or altered, when silt smoth- 195). The freshwater turtles Lissemys punctata ers a bed of larger particles, etc. and Melanochelys tryuga have almost disap- peared from reservoirs in which they were previ- Overfishing. Overfishing in oceanic waters is ously abundant, as a result of the gill net fishery now recognized as extremely widespread and the (Pethiyagoda, 1994: 195). causative factors, especially the economic factors, Although introductions of exotic species by are quite well documented (for a recent summary individuals are forbidden in most countries, they see Fairlie et al., 1995). Overfishing also occurs in do occur, witness the numerous cases of feral many freshwaters but in Asia it has not been the populations of aquarium fishes (Kottelat et al., subject of detailed studies or analyses. For a use- 1993) wlhose impact has not yet been assessed in ful analysis of overfishing, data on the productiv- Asia. Introductions for sport fishing, however, are ity and identity of the stocks is essential. For most potentially much more dangerous. In many coun- countries, neither is generally available, and there tries, 'fishing ponds' are becoming increasingly is an urgent need to gather these basic data. widespread. Large native or exotic fishes are re- In some cases, however, overfishing is very leased in ponds where anglers pay to catch them. easily identified; in many places streams are sim- Many large top predators have been released in ply empty. The stream morphology may be nor- such ponds, are breeding and will threaten entire mal, the riparian vegetation may be intact, there is aquatic communities if they escape. A recent case no sign of pollution, the water is clear, but there is the introduction of the large cichlid Cichla sp. are no fish, no tadpoles, and almost no insects. in Malaysia. Ideally, governments should control Investigation usually reveals that the stream is Threats and Mitigationof Impacts 27 regularly poisoned, sometimes as frequently as east Asia, Wallago catfish in southeast Asia, and once a week. Under such abuse, most life forms the bonytongue Scleropagesformosus in Borneo. rapidly disappear. Fish poisoning is a traditional way of fishing for some groups of people, who Pet trade. The aquarium fish trade has been gather and process plants to obtain the poison. accused of driving species to extinction because The modem trend is towards using pesticides as of very selective overfishing, but there is no poison since they are more efficient and easier to documented evidence for this. Some species obtain, but they are also more damaging to aquatic which have been the subject of an important trade and human life. have decreased significantly and have disappeared Overfishing is often related to a change in in part of their original range, but this has always lifestyle. Some groups of people have developed been related to other causes (e.g. Botia regulatory strategies which seem to avoid over- sidthimunki in Thailand). Some species have dis- fishing, but communities with excess resources or appeared also in areas where they had never been which have not experienced resource scarcity collected for the aquarium trade (e.g. the 'silver (such as areas of the Mekong Basin) may not have shark' Balantiocheilos melanopterus in the Ka- developed management measures. Where re- puas basin, west Bomeo). On the other hand, sources are limited, problems may occur where some species may be temporarily saved from ex- different communities (including ethnic groups, or tinction because of the trade; for example, it is not commercial enterprises) exploiting the same re- clear whether the 'red-tailed shark' Epalzeorhyn- source come into contact. For example, in West chos bicolor (commonly called Labeo bicolor) Kalimantan, Indonesia, both the Melayu fisherfolk still exists in the wild, but tens of thousands of along the main river and the Iban in more hilly specimens are exported annually from Thailand, areas, perceive the other community's activity as all now captive bred. threatening to their own. The Iban may feel that the Melayu, using sophisticated nets on the main Mitigation river, will block the migration of fish upriver, while the Melayu are concerned about the abuse Mitigation is theoretically possible against of poisons upstream affecting their own fishing most negative impacts of development projects success (W. Giesen, pers. comm.). In other cases which influence freshwater biodiversity'°. Despite communities see their fish resources being ex- this, there appears to have been little work in Asia ploited without restraint by outside interests, and on designing mitigation measures to compensate they see no benefit in preserving stocks. Poison for the losses to freshwater biodiversity as a result abuse is apparently associated with the growing of development project impacts. A common interactions between human communities. Previ- course is to promote aquaculture development, but ously fish had to be eaten or processed the same this addresses loss of protein quantity rather than day they were caught, but communication with loss of biodiversity; in many cases, aquaculture middlemen creates a market for surplus fish actually exacerbates biodiversity losses. Other which can be stored in freezers or sent ovemight mitigation measures have been instituted for large to a city market. dams, but have usually been limited to sugges- There are, as yet, no published data to indicate tions for minimum flows below dams to allow the that overfishing is responsible for the extinction of survival of some fishes and fisheries. There is any fish species in Asia (which does not mean that enormous scope for fruitful collaboration between it is not the case). But overfishing, usually com- engineers and biodiversity specialists to design bined with other threats, is responsible for the innovative features for infrastructure and other drastic reduction of entire communities, especially projects so that losses to biodiversity can be in densely-populated areas, and of some species of particular economic interest. Examples would IO- The noteworthyexception is the introductionof exotic include species of Tor carp in all south and south- species.These are virtuallyimpossible to eradicateonce established. 28 FreshwaterBiodiversity in Asia minimized. At the very least, 'standard' mitigation collected before filling and transplanted to the measures should include maintaining shoreline new rapid site. There appears to be no precedent vegetation, maintaining bottom heterogeneity and for this but artificial rapids have been created in preserving samples of intact habitats. In this con- North America on spillways of power plants in text, point 10 of the World Bank Operational Di- order to compensate for the loss of river stretches rective (OD) 4.00 - (Annex B) of April 1989 is used by sport kayakers. If rapids can be con- important; it requires that a representative sample structed for sport, there should be no technical or of rivers be preserved in their natural state. ethical obstacles to constructing them for main- taining biodiversity. Fish ladders. At some Asian dam sites, fish It has been said that some rapids were pre- ladders (a succession of concrete tanks) have been served at the construction of Pak Mun dam in constructed to allow the passage of migratory fish Thailand, but this refers only to a maintenance of species, more or less following models used in the landscape for tourists. During the tourist sea- temperate countries where they are designed pri- son (3 months each year). the water level of the marnly for sport and food fishes such as salmon reservoir is lowered during the daytime so that and trout. Transposed to Asian rivers with fish tourists can see the rapids upstream of the dam. communities which include a large number of Obviously, this will have no benefit for the rapids- migrating or moving species, very few of them inhabiting fishes which will have been eliminated able to jump, these systems appear to have com- by heavy siltation, stagnant or slow moving wa- pletely failed to allow fish, dolphins, shrimps, etc. ters. and low levels of dissolved oxygen (Roberts, to pursue their normal movements. Most of the 1993a: 124). migrating fishes are bottom dwellers and are un- Rapids can also he maintained downstream of able to pass these ladders. Some might adjust their dams. Their usefuliess depends on permanent requirements and breed in the habitats to which water flow in the river bed during and after con- they are newly confined, but many just die. struction, and the native fishes not being threat- Clearly, there is an urgent need to investigate ened by pollution, explosives or abusive fishing the feasibility of effective fish ladders, fish lifts or during construction. If rapids are damaged during swimways adapted to the needs of indigenous construction, depending on the sites, they might aquatic communities. Reeves and Leatherwood be restocked by fishes from other submerged (1994) comment that a prototype swimway for rapids at the time of filling. The minimum flow river dolphins exists, which, on paper at least. can left by most dams is often insutfficient to maintain be designed and built at a reasonable cost (in the real rapids, especially if the exposed river bed is context of megaprojects). However, for many very wide. The flow must then be restricted to a species there is currently insufficient knowledge narrower river bed, to reproduce more closely of their biological requirements to enable ade- natural rapid conditions. Depending on the cir- quate measures to be taken. An additional prob- cumstances, such rapids should be kept distinct lem is that fish may have difficulty finding the from spillways which could flush the rapids in the entrance of the ladders, lifts or swimways; electric case of flash floods If they cannot be separated, 'fences' have been suggested to direct fishes to- hydrological devices should be designed to bring wards them. It must be borne in mind that if fish the fish back to the 'normal' river bed when the migrate in one direction, they or their offspring water recedes in order to avoid massive kills in must return the other way, and not through a tur- isolated, drying pools. bine or over a spillway. Well-designed fish ladder systems could contribute greatly towards mitigat- Creation/restoration of spawning grounds. ing species loss at dam sites. Many fish species form large, more or less loose, Creation of rapids. Mitigation measures for schools which congregate at spawning grounds important habitats lost by the creation of a river during the appropriate season. For some species, barrier might include the creation of new rapids these spawning grounds are very sharply defined situated upriver of the reservoir, stocked by fish (e.g. a sand bar or stretch of boulders). Once these Threatsand Mitigationof Impacts 29 are flooded, silt quickly accumulates, covering and captive breeding include (but are not re- these places and making spawning impossible. A stricted to) many of the native species of Lake possible mitigation measure could be the creation Poso, Indonesia (see Table 2), those of Lake La- (or restoration) of spawning grounds beyond the nao, Philippines, some of the endemic species of reach of the reservoir. Clearly the ecological re- Lake Dianchi and other Yunnan lakes, China, the quirements of the species involved need to be re- species of Labeo endemic to Sri Lanka, and soon searched or at least inferred or extrapolated from many rapids-inhabiting fishes from the Mekong other better-known species. New spawning and other large rivers. grounds have been successfully created where the Any species recovery program must first ad- modification of water levels in temperate lakes dress the reasons for the initial decline or loss of has exposed the original spawning grounds, and the species concerned. Appropriate action may there are efforts to do this for the Chinese stur- include the removal of introduced species and the geon under a collaborative project between the restoration of habitat. It may also be necessary to Chinese Institute for Aquaculture Production and address issues of pollution, sedimentation and the US Department of the Interior (Y.J. Zhu, water flow regimes. It currently seems impossible 1995). to restore certain habitats, such as peat swamps and caves. If habitat restoration is not possible, Prevention of unintended movements. Within captive breeding programs should be considered, irrigation and hydropower schemes, canals are but they are no substitute for naturally maintained sometimes constructed wvilch connect different biodiversitv. river basins with different faunas. It is important to prevent invading species from passing from Environmental Assessments and one river basin into another. Their impact would Monitoring be the same as for deliberately introduced species (see above); these invaders or their parasites and Practical considerations for aquatic biodiver- diseases can seriously impact the freshwater bio- sity studies in environmental assessments are de- diversity of the drainages they enter. Such inva- tailed in Annex B. Careful studies prior to the sions could possibly be prevented either electric completion of a project are important because barriers or 'hot locks' of warm water - ca. 40 de- they allow useful and effective monitoring to pro- grees C - strategically placed in the canal system ceed. Such work should not be restricted to the linking to natural waterways (McCauley and Fry, project site, but should also include areas or rivers 1986); warm water would be lethal to fish and which will remain untouched and can be used as a other freshwater organisms trying to cross the control. This applies to all types of projects, in- lock. cluding introductions of exotic species. Unfortu- nately, with respect to freshwater biodiversity, the Species recovery. There are a few on-going general quality of the studies currently conducted attempts to aid the recovery of aquatic species is very low, and this hampers discussions and which have experienced serious population deple- wise decision making. tion. They aim mostly at preserving single char- Noss (1990) identifies five categories of spe- ismatic species like dolphins or crocodiles. Where cies which warrant intensive monitoring: fish are involved, attention is focused on a few species of interest to fisheries, fish of large size * ecological indicators - species that signal the (notably the Chinese sturgeon), or those of inter- effects of perturbations on a number of other est to the aquarium trade. There does not appear species with similar habitat requirements; to be a recovery program for any aquatic inverte- * keystone species upon which the diversity of brate within the region. Examples of current inter- a large part of the community depends; est are given in the country sections. Non- . umbrella species with large area requirements commercial species, whose survival presently which, if given sufficient protected habitat seems unlikely without some recovery program 30 FreshwaterBiodiversity in Asia

area, will bring many other species under Partnerships protection; * flagship or popular, charismatic species which At present there is insufficient nurturing of serve as symbols and rallying points for major the partnerships necessary between engineers and conservation initiatives; and biodiversitv specialists to achieve environmentally * vulnerable species which are rare, genetically sustainable development. There is perhaps too impoverished, of low fecundity, dependent much wringing of hands at the biological damage upon patchy or unpredictable resources, ex- inflicted by development projects, too much re- tremely variable in population density, or sentment of mitigation being tantamount to clear- subject to pest control programs. ing up after engineers' mistakes, and too little mutual exploration of measures and designs that To these a sixth category could be added would benefit the concerns of both groups. This is (Hill, 1995a): a challenge that must be met (Schulze. 1996).

* nutritionally important species. 5 Legal instruments

National Jurisdiction cerned but the situation is considerably worse for fish and invertebrates. In many Asian countries the conservation of freshwater biodiversity suffers from being placed Nationally Protected Species under both a conservation agency (often within a forestry department) and a fisheries agency. The Many countries have established lists of na- interests of conservation and fisheries agencies tionally-protected species. Very few list freshwa- are often in conflict, and communication between ter organisms, especially invertebrates. While tile them may be minimal. In the wider context of reason for listing large mammals and birds is usu- swamps, floodplains and estuaries many sectors ally clear, this is not the case for freshwater or- play a role, and the lack of cross-sectoral coordi- ganisms. Where fish are listed, species are often nation in planning and development has been and misnamed on legal documents: and where experts continues to be one of the strongest forces for are not available in the country to assist in these wetland destruction in Asia. matters, it seems unlikely that enforcement staff The fisheries and forestry agencies promul- could do better. This general confusion leads to a gate very different kinds of laws. Conservation situation in which protected status is sometimes laws usually list protected species whose capture granted to species which do not exist in the coun- or trade is prohibited, while fisheries laws usually try, which are misidentified, which cannot be deal with fishing seasons, fishing gear, minimum identified, or which are not threatened. At the size, quotas, etc.. The latter may also ban the same time, species recognized internationally as catch or export of some species and control or ban seriously threatened species are ignored or over- the introduction of exotics. Conservation agen- looked. These problems clearly point to an inade- cies, in theory, are interested in numbers of spe- quacy of baseline data and/or incompetent analy- cies. whereas fisheries agencies are more con- ses. This leads, at best, to useless conservation cerned with the weight of the fish catch landed. laws, and at worst, to regulations that do more Fisheries agencies often ignore threats to pro- harm than good. tected species listed by national conservation Three examples to illustrate the problems are agencies and intemational treaties like CITES. For given below. example, in Papua New Guinea the Fisheries De- partment will issue permits to collect aquarium Cambodia. The Fiat-Law on Fishery Manage- fishes, but the agency in charge of conservation ment and Administration No. 33 KRO.CHOR of will not issue export permits for the same fish. 19 March 1987 forbids the catch, sale and trans- In many developing countries, implementa- portation of three species of fish: Pangasianodon tion of nature conservation laws is now generally gigas, "probatusjullieni"(presumably Probarbus recognized as a significant problem. The prob- jullieni) and "grossochilus latius". While the lems include a lack of staff, lack of training and identity of the first two is clear, the meaning of awareness, low motivation associated with low the third is not. It appears to be a misspelling of salaries and susceptibility to bribes, lack of com- Crossocheilus latius, but this fish is not known to munity involvement, as well as the inability to occur in Cambodia. It is known only from India identify organisms due to lack of proper identifi- (Talwar and Jhingran, 1991: 416), and has never cation tools and information. The problems are been reported from Cambodia in scientific litera- well publicized when large vertebrates are con- ture but it sometimes appears in fisheries reports. 32 FreshwaterBiodiversity in Asia

It is not possible to determine which species was Kottelat et al. (1993) under the same name; originally intended and how it has been given that preliminary results of on-going research indi- name. Crocodiles are also listed as protected. cate that this fish is misidentified and is either While the Wildlife Protection Office of the De- an unnamed cave endemic or a cave popula- partment of Forestry is responsible for protection tion of P. binotatus, a species widely distrib- of wildlife, the Department of Fisheries is respon- uted in hill streams of Bali, Java and eastern sible for the protection of aquatic wildlife, in- Sumatra; its listing is justified; the status of cluding otters, frogs, crocodiles, fish, and dol- the material originally described as P. mi- phins. crops is not cleared yet; it might be the valid name for a slender fish from lakes of central Indonesia. Of the six officially protected spe- Java which also seems under threat; cies of freshwater fishes only the identity of * Notopterus sp. is the Javanese population of Scleropages formosus is indisputable (the Asian the commercially important featherback or bonytongue from Sumatra and Borneo, also belida called N. chitala by Weber and de known erroneously as arowana), this is not the Beaufort (1913). Roberts (1992) revised the case with the remaining five: family and concluded that the Indonesian material should be recognized as Chitala e Scleropages leichardti is a species endemic to lopis. Indonesian belidas actually represent at Australia (Merrick and Schmida, 1984: 72; least two species; unfortunately, no specimen Allen 1989: 29); the species occurring in Irian of the Javanese population has yet been found Jaya is S. jardinii (Allen, 1991: 37); they have either in the field or in museum holdings to been considered as a single species at some decide its identity (unpubl. data). Verbal ac- time, but clearly are distinct; the stated Eng- counts by informants who observed it about lish vernacular name 'Dawson River salmon' 30 years ago while still common in Java sug- is never encountered in the literature; avail- gest that it might be a distinct species. able data do not allow a decision on whether listing of this species is justified; In addition the Trade Department decreed that - Pristis sp. is a sawfish from Lake Sentani. It large (>15 cm) individuals of an otherwise un- is apparently P. microdon, a species distrib- protected species, the clown loach Botia macra- uted in freshwaters and upper estuaries of canthus, should not be exported in order to safe- South and Southeast Asia and northern Aus- guard the breeding stocks for continued capture tralia (Last and Stevens, 1994: 364); the status for the aquarium trade. Despite the volume of the of this species is of concern in its whole dis- trade in this species (see above), the stocks show tribution and a protection status is apparently no signs of depletion and it is unclear how this justified; regulation can affect the stocks. Fishermen * Homaloptera gymnogaster is a loach known catching a larger individual would eat it or sell it from a single specimen from lake Maninjau, as food fish instead of as an aquarium fish, but are Sumatra, described in 1853; additional mate- unlikely to release it. The only justification for rial has not been reported in the scientific lit- this regulation is perhaps to ban the export of erature since; the original locality data are du- mature individuals which could be used abroad to bious as members of the genus Homaloptera establish a breeding stock which would compete are from hill streams and not from lakes; with the national trade. However, the fish is al- Kottelat et al. (1993: 52) consider that this ready reportedly being bred in Thailand. species has been described again under 3 dif- ferent names; the species is widely distributed Thailand. Four freshwater fishes (Oreoglanis in hill streams of Sumatra (pers. obs.) and the siamensis, Datnioides microlepis, Botia listing is not justified; sidthimunki, and Scleropages formosus) and two * Puntius microps is probably the cave fish re- freshwater crabs are officially protected. Neither ported by Weber and de Beaufort (1916) and the migratory giant Mekong catfish Pangasiano- Legal Instruments 33 don gigas nor Probarbus jullieni, both listed on the Appendices of CITES and Migratory Species Convention, are protected. 6 National reviews

Afghanistan species and includes keys, descriptions, and line drawings of all species, many of which are quite Freshwatersites of exceptionalbiodiversity interest: none rudimentary (Rahman, 1989). See India, below known for general comments on the quality of informa- Freshwaterbiodiversity (species recorded) tion. Amphibians:6 Crocodilians:0 Turtles:I The freshwater plants of Bangladesh are de- Fish:84 (?50%of estimatedtotal) scribed by Khan and Halim Mahbuba (1987). The Crabs:6 (10%of estimatedtotal) floodplains are discussed by Khan (1994). Technicaland human capacity: Availabilityof recent monographof freshwaterfish spe- cies:- Bhutan Local skill to identifyfreshwater fish: - Freshwatersites of exceptional biodiversity interest: none A checklist of Afghanistan fishes was com- known piled by Goad (1981). 84 species are recorded Freshwaterbiodiversitv (species recorded): from the country; 67 are known from a single Crocodilians:Amphibians:24? river basin. No country-wide survey has ever been Turtles:??? conducted, and virtually all the fish samples ob- Fish:not known tained to date have been chance collections by Crabs:3 (10-20%of estimatedtotal) non-specialists. Our knowledge of this fauna is Technicaland humancapacity: Availabilityof recentmonograph of freshwaterfish spe- very fragmentary and many additional species cies:- should be expected. Considering the topography Localskill to identifyfreshwater fish: of the country, it seems likely that many species could have very restricted distribution ranges. There is apparently no specific publication on the fishes of Bhutan. There are a few scanered Bangladesh references in publications on Indian fishes.

Freshwatersites of exceptionalbiodiversity interest: many of Brunei Darussalam the floodplains; hillstreamson the Bangladesh-Burmaborder Freshwaterbiodiversity (species recorded): Freshwater sites of exceptionalbiodiversity interest: none Amphibians:19 known Crocodilians:2 Freshwaterbiodiversity (species recorded): Turtles: 18 Amphibians 76 Fish: 260 (90% of estimatedtotal) Crocodilians:I (possibly3) Crabs:5 (70-80%of estimated) Turtles:4 Technicaland humancapacity: Fish:55 (30% of estimatedtotal) Availabilityof recentmonograph of freshwaterfish spe- Crabs:not known cies: + cies:~~~~~~~~~~~~~Cas Technicaland no+nw humancapacitv: All specieswith adequateillustrations: -Teniaadhuncpci: Availabilitvof recentmonograph of freshwaterfish spe- Materialin local language:- cies. Materialin English:+ All specieswith good illustrations:+ Local skill to identifyfreshwater fish: + Maeria inloa luage:s- MaterialIn local language:- Materialin English:+ There is a single recent synopsis on the Localskill to identifyfreshwater fishi: - freshwater fishes of Bangladesh, which lists 260 National Reviews 35

There is little published information on the Technical and human capacity: freshwater fishes of Brunei. Eden (1984) reported Availability of recent monograph of freshwater fish spe- 22 species of aquarium fish, and Choy and Chin cies: - 22andChyandChinLocalspecies ofaquarium fsh, skill to identifvfreshwater fish: - (1994) list 44 species from the Belalong- A check list of 215 fish species then known Temburong basin. A checklist by Kottelat and from Cambodia, including a review of the litera- Lim (in press) records 55 species. ture and a key to the cyprinid (carp-like) species is available (Kottelat, 1985). This was based on Burma material obtained in the early 1960s and preserved in Museum national d'Histoire naturelle in Paris, Freshwater sites of exceptional biodiversity interest: Lake most of which had never been reported. The Me- lndawngy(#3): Lake Inle (#5) with 9 endemic fish species and 3 endemic genera (Annandale. 1918. and pers. obs.) kong River Commission, FAO and DANIDA are Freshwater biodiversity (species recorded): publishing an identification guide to the commer- Amphibians: 75 cial freshwater fishes (Rainboth, in press). The Crocodilians: draft which has been circulated includes only 124 Turtles: ??? seis Fish: 300 (50% of estimatedtotal) species. Crabs: 20(10% of estimated total) All the published information on freshwater Technical and human capacity: crabs dates back to the early 1920s, except for a Availability of recent monograph of freshwaterfish spe- description of a new species (Ng, 1995). cies: - Local skill to identifyfreshwater fish: - China

Traditionally, monographs on Indian fishes Freshwatersites of exceptionalbiodiversity interest: Wuhan have included Burma although no data after 1940 lakes (#96), Dongting lake (#100), Yunnan lakes (##136. are available (e.g. Talwar and Jhingran, 1991). A 137,138.143) checklist of Burmese fishes has been compiled by Freshwaterbiodiversity (species recorded): HIla Win (1987), listing 250 freshwater species; Amphibians: 190 this list is probably of little use as it is too con- Crocodilians:2 fused, many names appear several times, the no- Fish: 1010 (80% of estimated total) menclature is outdated, and several of the listed Crabs: 200 species are not known to occur in Burma. Shrimps: 50 (50% of estimated total) Using other published data (Talwar and Jhin- Technicaland human capacitv: gran, 1991; Kottelat, 1989) and unpublished Availability of recent monograph of freshwater fish sources,there appearobesome300fishspecies species:+ (but partial.provincial) sources, there appear to be some 300 fish species All specieswith good illustrations:+ already recorded from Burma freshwaters. Our Material in local language: + knowledge of them is verv superficial and frag- Material in English: - mentary. Local skill to identifyfreshwater fish: +

Cambodia There are two recent synopses of Chinese freshwater fish species. Chen and Zheng (1987) Freshwater sites of exceptionalbiodiversity interest:Tonle listed about 800 species and S.Q. Zhu (1995) coy- Sap (#2) ", and the rapids between Khone Falls and Sambor. ers 1010. A total of 212 species from that total Freshwater biodiversity (species recorded): were first recorded from the country between Amphibians: 28 1982 and 1992; 156 are new species and 56 new Crocodilians: I records. Zhu's (1995) book is a set of keys to gen-

Fish: 215 (60% of estimated total) era and species, indexes, and line drawings of all Crabs: 6 (<10%of estimated total) but 10 species. The absence of descriptive ac- Shrimps: 15 (75% of estimated total) counts is a drawback to this book. In addition to national synopses, there are 1I - These numbersrefer to the Directorv of Asian Wetlands monographs dealing with the fauna of various (Scott, 1989)which provides useful backgroundinformation. 36 FreshwaterBiodiversity in Asia provinces, basins or islands: Hainan island (Pearl admitted that it cannot survive without in- River Fisheries Research Institute et al., 1986), tervention. However, its rank as a National Treas- Yunnan (Chu and Chen, 1989, 1990), Sichuan ure has not halted the decline in its population. It (Ding, 1994), Fujian (Chu, 1984, 1985), Qinling is now proposed that the few remaining be cap- range (Chen et al., 1987), Qinghai and Xizang tured and preserved in a semi-natural reserve. [Tibet] (Wu and Wu, 1992), Chang Jiang This operation is not without risk. For example, 7 [Yangtze] River (Fisheries Research Institute of of 12 Yangtze finless porpoises Neophocaena Guangxi, 1976), Zhujiang [Pearl] River (Zheng, phocaenoides in a reserve were killed during 1989), Guangdong (Pan et al., 1990), Guangxi capture operations by untrained staff (Fisheries Research Institute of Guangxi, 1981) (Leatherwood and Reeves, 1994). and Heilongjiang (Nikolski, 1960). Information A description of the freshwater plants of on the lakes in Yunnan province is given in Li China is presented by Yan (1983). (1982); Chu and Chen (1989. 1990); Yang (1991); and Kottelat and Chu (1988). India All of these works are in Chinese, although a few include limited English abstracts ; they are Freshwatersites of exceptionalbiodiversity interest: Streams not easily available and, as such, the dissemina- in Kerala and northeast India (Assam, Manipur, Nagaland. tion of the knowledge abroad is very limited. Meghalava. Himachal Pradesh, Mizaram. Tripura): major floodplains Also, the language barrier makes it difficult to Freshwaterbiodiversity (species recorded): obtain broader evaluations of the quality of the Amphibians:206 work. In general, most of the work is of reason- Crocodilians:3 able quality. It suffers, however, from a lack of Turtles:18 Fish: 748 (90% of estimatedtotal) critical approach, and from neglect of the work of Crabs:60 (60% of estimatedtotal) foreign authors. Shrimps:100 (70% of estimatedtotal) About 90 species of fish are believed to be Technicaland humancapacity: endangered and one, the carp Cyprinus yilongen- Availabilityof recent monographof freshwaterfish spe- sis from Yunnan, has been confirmed as extinct as All species with good illustrations:- Lake Yilong was drained dry for 20 days in 1981 Materialin locallanguage: - (Chen and Cui, 1993). Materialin English:+ A recovery program has been initiated for the Local skill to identifyfreshwater fish: + sturgeons Acipenser dabryanus, A sinensis, and Psephurus gladius (Changjiang Aquatic Re- The latest handbook on Indian fishes is by sources Survey Group, 1988). The Institute of Talwar and Jhingran (1991). They record 930 Chinese Sturgeons within the Gezhouba dam species from India and 'adjacent countries' Corporation (whose major dam blocked the pas- (Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Burma and sage of migrant species) has released 11 million Sri Lanka). In a handbook with a similar cover- fry into the Yangtze river over the last 11 years, age, Jayaram (1981) recognized 742 species. The and the Yangtze River Fisheries Research Insti- inclusion of 'adjacent countries' is an established tute with the US Fish and Wildlife Service are Indian ichthyological tradition although almost no studying the management and creation/restoration new material from these countries has been avail- of spawning grounds (Kynard et al., 1995). able to Indian authors since 1940. An estimate of An important flagship freshwater species is the fish fauna of India itself has never been pub- the Yangtze river dolphin or baiji Lipotes vexil- lished. The count, based on Talwar and Jhingran, lifer which, like other freshwater cetaceans, faces after the deletion of introduced species and cor- threats from dam construction, accidental kills rections of salient errors and omissions, is of 748 from fishing gear, collisions with vessels, and dy- species. Some state or regional accounts are also namite used for construction and illegal fishing. In available. These essentially consist of distillations China, the baiji has been declared a National of the text and illustrations of earlier works. In- Treasure (as has the giant panda), and it is now deed, there seem to be a number of problems with National Reviews 37 existing publications on freshwater biodiversity. shrimp species: Berbak Reserve (#8), Tanjung Puting Na- Many Indian publications on fish taxonomy suffer tional Park (#74) and probablyother yet unsurveyedareas of from a lack of criticism approach and lack of ex- FreshwaterBomeo(##71. biodiversity 75, 77, 78).(species recorded): posure to the outside world. In many cases the Amphibians:270 fieldwork is conducted by associates, not by the Crocodilians:3 researcher who writes the actual paper. As a re- Turtles: 15 (9 excluding Irian Jaya) suit, despite the many publications,the knowledge Fish:1300 (70% of estimatedtotal) suit,despite the many publications, the knowledge Crabs:90 (45% of estimatedtotal) of Indian fish fauna remains unsatisfactory. Con- Shrimps:70 (60% of estimated total) trary to many other Asian countries, the problem Technicaland human capacity: here is not the lack of data, but rather an abun- Availabilityof recent monograph of freshwater fish spe- dance of uncritical compilations and users, re- cies:+i sulting in inconsistency (see examples in Pethiy- Materialin local language: + agoda and Kottelat, 1994 and Kottelat, 1990d). Materialin English: + Meanwhile, some excellent fieldwork remains Local skill to identifv freshwater fish: + largely unpublished, the results of which, together with careful examination of well-preserved mate- The marine and freshwater fish fauna of In- rial show that the diversity of the Indian fish fauna donesia (as well as eastern Malaysia, Brunei and is underestimated and that many widespread spe- Papua New Guinea) is dealt with in the classic 11- cies actually are a composite assemblage of strik- volume monograph by Weber and de Beaufort ingly distinct species. Reexamination of material (1911-1962). The two volumes dealing with the collected in the last century also indicates that main groups of freshwater fishes appeared in several species have been overlooked which may 1913 and 1916 and are outdated. Kottelat et al. now be extinct. (1993) provide diagnoses and illustrations (in De Silva (1989: 150) lists instances of decline English and Indonesian) for the 962 species from and disappearance of indigenous species as possi- inland waters of western Indonesia and Sulawesi ble consequences of introduced fish species, al- (also including eastern Malaysia and Brunei); 293 though he asserts that the carp (p.142) has not species were not included in Weber and de endangered any of the Indian native fish. In fact, Beaufort and 251 were included under a different species of the native genus Schizothorax have dis- identification. Irian Jaya is covered by Allen appeared from waters to which the carp had been (1991) (see Papua New Guinea), and there is vir- introduced (Jhingran and Sehgal, 1978, cited by tually no available data on the freshwater fishes of Welcomme, 1988: 20). A symposium volume on the Moluccas and Lesser Sundas area, except for Indian threatened fishes (Dehadrai et al., 1994) recently obtained (and still unpublished) data includes accounts on many states and fish groups, from Halmahera island. although some papers are not as strong as others. The knowledge of the Indonesian fish fauna There is a strong bias towards large fish must still be regarded as rudimentary. For the area (especially mahseer Tor species popular with an- covered by Kottelat et al. (1993), the list of addi- glers) and very little attention is given to smaller tions and new discoveries since the book was species. written includes 75 species for which information A relevant and useful publication on the wet- has already been published and some 100 for land flora of the subcontinent is available (Cook, which information is available but not yet pub- 1996). lished. This represents an increase of 18% in only four years. These 'additional' species were ob- Indonesia tained with little effort, and it is estimated that at least 400-600 additional species remain to be dis- Freshwater sites of exceptional biodiversity interest: Malili covered. lakes in Sulawesi (#98); Lake Lindu (#89); Lake Poso (#87); One of the most important freshwater biodi- Lake Sentani in Irian Jaya (#129). The following peat versity sites in Asia is the Malili lakes of Sulawesi swamps each have their own set of endemic fish, crab or yet they are afforded protection only as Tourist 38 Freshwater Biodiversity in Asia

Parks which allows, inter alia, the introduction of Local skill to identify freshwater fish: + exotic species. The unique biogeographic position of Sulawesi results in a large portion of its fauna Masuda et al. (1984) compiled diagnoses in and flora being endemic to the island (Whitten et English and Japanese and illustrations of the 3200 al., 1987b, c). This also applies to its freshwater fish species then known from the Japanese archi- fauna. More than half of the 60 Sulawesi fresh- pelago. Nakabo et al. (1993) compiled diagnoses water fishes (including 15 of the 17 known spe- and identification keys in Japanese. Okiyama et cies of Telmatherinidae), I snake, 3 crabs, about al. (1988) compiled information on larval stages 10 shrimps, some 60 molluscs, I macrophyte and in Japanese. Some 150 species of freshwater possibly sponges and water mites are endemic to fishes are listed in Masuda et al. (1984); judging this group of five lakes (Kottelat, 1990b-c, 1991, from the data in Nakabo et al., and allowing for and unpubl.; P. Bouchet, pers. comm.). differences in the concept of what a species is, it The Asian bonytongue Scleropages formosus seems clear that the actual figure is higher. is now bred under artificial conditions in West The aquatic plants are discussed by Kadono Kalimantan and, in theory, a proportion of the (1994). young have to be returned to the Kapuas river to restore a much exploited population. It is not Democratic People's Republic of Korea, known if the a comprehensive monitoring plan is Republic of Korea in operation to determine the efficacy of this ap- proach. Freshwater sites of exceptional biodiversity interest: None Useful publications on macrophytes include known an annotated checklist to Indonesian freshwater Amphibians: 13 herbs (Giesen, 1991) and descriptions of the Crocodilians:0 freshwater plants of Papua New Guinea (Leach Turtles: 2 and Osborne, 1985). Family revisions of sub- Fish:90(?%ofestimatedtotal) mercredg macrophytesp iin Flora Malesiana are Crabs:Shrimps:0 5 (90-100%of estimatedtotal)) listed earlier. Information on the macrophytes is Technical and human capacity: available for Sur.iatra (Whitten et al., 1987a), Su- Availability of recent monograph of freshwater fish spe- lawesi (Whitten et al. 1987b), and Java and Bali cies:+ (Whittenet al., 1996). All species with good illustrations:- Material in local language: + Two monographs on the freshwater molluscs Material in English: - of Java are available (van Bentham Jutting, 1953, Local skill to identify freshwater fish: + 1956). Apparently no data on DPRK's freshwater Japan fishes have been published in the last 50 years. Jeon (1980) recorded 90 species of freshwater Freshwater sites of exceptional biodiversity interest: Lake fishes from RK, provided identification keys and Biwa (# 16) (Kira, 1995) discussed their zoogeography. There is apparently Freshwater biodiversitv (species recorded): Freshwatebiodiversity (species recorded): neither monographic treatment nor field guide to Amphibians: 52 Crocodilians: 0 the fishes of the country. Turtles: 4 Fish: 150 (95% of estimated total) Lao P. D. R. Crabs: 6 (60% of estimated total) Shrimps: 25 (80% of estimated total) Freshwater sites of exceptional biodiversity interest: Kh6ne Technical and human capacity: Fres Availability of recent monograph of freshwater fish spe- Freshwater biodiversitv (species recorded): cies:+Frswtrboiest(seisrcdd) All species with good illustrations: + Amphibians: 37 Material in local language: + Turtles: ? Material in English: + Fish: 262 (50% of estimated total) Crabs: 7 (15% of estimated total) NationalReviews 39

Shrimps:10 (15% of estimatedtotal) literature, but is inaccurate. Many of these species Technicaland human capacity: are common but are rarely collected because of Availability of recent monograph of freshwater fish spe- their small size or unpleasant habitats (e.g. cies: - Local skill to identify freshwater fish: - swamps). According to a list of all fish species known The publications on Laotian fishes comprises from inland waters of mainland Southeast Asia Taki's (1974) synopsis, a few scattered papers in (Kottelat, 1989) there are 264 freshwater fishes scientific journals, and some grey literature. These known from the whole Malay Peninsula very limited data have been obtained mainly from (Peninsular Malaysia + southern Thailand). This the Mekong mainstream and a very few of the list has been updated by Lim et al. (1993) who major tributaries. The rest of the country is still recorded about 260 freshwater fishes for Penin- virtually unknown from the ichthyological point sular Malaysia only. Unpublished data show that of view. Taki records 203 species from Laos; the figure is now around 300 species. most of them are illustrated and diagnosed. Data Kottelat and Lim (in press) list 249 fish spe- on the Mekong fauna in Thailand indicates that cies from inland waters of Sarawak. Inger and this figure is too low, and a recent survey in two Chin (1962) report and describe 129 species from river basins increased it to about 280 (Kottelat, in Sabah; in an up-dated edition, Chin (1990) added prep.). In additional areas with similar topography II species. These two states are covered by Kot- in Thailand and Yunnan suggest that probably 100 telat et al. (1993). to 200 species with restricted distribution should Ng (1988) revised and illustrated the 40 spe- be expected in the unexplored rapids and hill cies of freshwater crabs known from peninsular streams. Malaysia; 8 new species have been described since. Ng (pers. comm.) estimates that some 30- Malaysia 40 species are known from Sarawak and Sabah, including several cave species. An estimated 25 Freshwater sites of exceptional biodiversity interest: The species of freshwater shrimps are known from following peat swamps each have their own set of endemic Peninsular Malaysia and 30 from Sarawak and fish, crab or shrimp species: North Selangor swamp forest Sabah. (#9), Southeast Pahang swamp forest (#I), Sedili Kecil swamp forest (#5), Third Division and Sibu swamp forest (#30, 31). Maldives Freshwater biodiversity (species recorded): Amphibians: 158 The Maldives are a group of low-lying coral Crocodilians: Turtles: ? atolls. Freshwater occurs in aquifers and no native Fish: 600 (85% of estimated total) freshwater fish has ever been recorded. Crabs: 88 (65% of estimated total) Shrimps: 55 (55% of estimated total) Mongolia Technical and human capacitv: Availability of recent monograph of freshwater fish spe- cies: - Freshwater sites of exceptional biodiversity interest: none Local skill to identifv freshwater fish: t known Freshwater biodiversit,v (species recorded): There is currently a single book on the fresh- AmpCibians: 0 water fishes of western Malaysia, by Mohsin and Turtles:? Ambak (1983). Unfortunately it is quite superfi- Fish: 56(90% of estimatedtotal) cial, many species are not included, nomenclature Crabs: 0 is out of date, and information on habitats and Technicalandhumancapacit,: Availability of recent monograph of freshwater t'ish spe- conservation are often misleading. The authors cies: + recorded 382 species of which they describe the All species with good illustrations: + 121 they collected. Their list of 118 rare or extinct Material in local language: - species has been cited frequently in conservation Material in English: - 40 Freshwater Biodiversity in Asia

Local skill to identify freshwater fish: not known Availability of recent monograph of freshwater fish spe- cies: +

The only monographic treatment of the fishes All species with good illustrations: - of Mongoli(983)t is byShatunvskiiproMaterial in local language: + of Mongolia IS by Shatunovskii (1983). It pro- Material in English: - vides keys, descriptions (in Russian) and illustra- Local skill to identify freshwaterfish: + tions of 56 species. This figure is possibly under- estimated as it seems that several species of Ore- Mirza (1990) illustrates and describes (in oleuciscus might be confused under a single Urdu) 159 fish species known from Pakistan name. Additional information can be found in freshwaters. In 1975 he discussed their Travers (1989). The figure of 75 known fish spe- zoogeography. Some of the estuarine fishes are cies in Finch (1996) may include subspecies and diagnosed and illustrated by Bianchi (1985). exotic species. Papua New Guinea Nepal Freshwater sites of exceptional biodiversity interest: Lake Freshwater sites of exceptional biodiversity interest: Lake Kutubu (#22) with 11 endemic fishes Rara (#3) with rich invertebrate fauna and species of Schizot- Freshwater biodiversity (species recorded): horax (Terashima, 1984) Amphibians: 183 Freshwater biodiversity (species recorded): Crocodilians: 2 (93) Amphibians: 36 Turtles: 7 Crocodilians: 2 Fish (including frian Jaya): 329 (70% of estimated total) Turtles: 11 Crabs: 25 (20-30% of estimated total) Fish: 129 (80% of estimated total) Technical and human capacity: Crabs: 20-30 (20-30% of estimated total) Availability of recent monograph of freshwater fish spe- Technical and human capacity: cies: + Availability of recent monograph of freshwater fish spe- All species with good illustrations: + cies: + Material in local language: - All species with good illustrations: - Material in English: + Material in local language: - Local skill to identify freshwater fish: not known Material in English: + Local skill to identify freshwater fish: + Allen (1991) describes and illustrates 329 species then known to occur in inland waters of J. Shrestha (1981) provided keys, descriptions Papua New Guinea and the Indonesian province and illustrations of the 120 fish species reported of Irian Jaya. from Nepal; later she recorded 129 species Holthuis (1979, 1982) discussed the crusta- (Shrestha, 1994). T.K. Shrestha (1990) discussed ceans of the whole island. New Guinea is of spe- fish and fisheries in Nepal. Beside general com- cial interest for its presence of real freshwater ments, there is no concrete information on con- crayfish (Holthuis, 1986). Cave shrimps have also servation of aquatic organisms. There is also a been recorded. general discussion on fishing regulations in other countries, but no data on local regulations. Philippines

Pakistan Freshwater sites of exceptional biodiversity interest: Lake Lanao (#59) Freshwater sites of exceptional biodiversity interest: none Freshwater biodiversity (species recorded): known Amphibians: 63 Freshwater biodiversity (species recorded): Crocodilians: I Amphibians: 17 Turtles: 3 Crocodilians: 2 Fish: 330 (80% of estimated total) Turtles: 5 Crabs: 41 (60% of estimated total) - all endemic Fish: 159 (90% of estimated total) Shrimps: 40 (60% of estimated total) Crabs: 10 (15% of estimated total) Technical and human capacity: Technical and human capacity: National Reviews 41

Availabilityof recentmonograph of freshwaterfish spe- Singapore cies: - Local skillto identifvfreshwater fish: - There are veryThere few re sources veyource of recentreent datadta on know'nFreshwater sites of exceptionalbiodiversity interest: none the freshwater fishes of the Philippines. Herre Freshwater biodiversity (species recorded): (1953) published a then extensive bibliography to Amphibians: 24 the fishes of the Philippine archipelago, including Crocodilians: I freshwater species. The latest general and Turtles:6 Fish:45 (100% of estimatedtotal) authoritative account on the freshwater fishes is Crabs: 6 (100% of estimated total) by Herre (1924a-b). Herre recorded 36 'true' Shrimps: 11 (90% of estimated total) freshwater fishes. A few species have been added Technical and human capacitv: since to a total of about 45, almost all of them en- Availability of recent monograph of freshwater fish spe- cies:+ demic to the Philippines (especially on Palawan All species with good illustrations:+ and Mindanao). To these should be added 38 Material in local language: + freshwater species (mostly endemic) of otherwise Material in English: + marine families and 234 species occurring in Local skill to identify freshwater fish: + freshwaters but returning to the sea to spawn which Herre listed in 1959. The recorded fresh- The knowledge of the freshwater biodiversity water fish fauna thus totals about 330. of Singapore is outstanding: there is detailed or The limitations resulting from the lack of very detailed information on the taxonomy, ecol- ground surveys is obvious. A survey of inland ogy, distribution, and conservation status of most waters of the island of Leyte yielded some 120 groups. Of course the small size and the wealth of species (Kottelat, unpubl.) including five endemic the country have facilitated surveys, but a key species, three of them presently known from the factor has also been the presence in local institu- single ca. 5 km long Lagu creek (Watson and tions of a succession of scientists with an interest Kottelat, 1994, 1995). This stream appears to be a in freshwater diversity. veritable 'hot spot' of fish biodiversity, but it is Synopses of the Singaporean freshwater questionable whether this pattern is real or a result fishes include Alfred (1966), Munro (1990) and of Leyte being better collected than the adjacent Lim and Ng (1990). The last of these is a field islands (Samar, Cebu, Bohol, etc.), and of that guide with color illustrations of all species, which precise stream being very well collected as it is is inexpensive and available locally; similar adjacent to a campus where ecology is taught. guides also exist for amphibians and reptiles (Lim Lake Lanao on Mindanao Island is notewor- and Lim, 1992) and freshwater life (Ng, 1991a). thy for its species flocks of some Puntius species Freshwater crustaceans are discussed in Ng (1988, which have been the subject of numerous studies 1990, 1994b), planktonic copepod crustaceans by (see Kornfield and Carpenter, 1984, for a recent Fernando and Ponyi (1981), and rotifers by Fer- summary). Eighteen Lake Lanao Puntius species nando and Zankai (1981). are believed to be derived from a single P. bino- Some 45 native freshwater fish species are tatus-like ancestor; P. binotatus is widespread all now recognized from Singapore. Lim and Ng over Southeast Asia where it displays only rela- (1990) list 22 feral species and this list is probably tivelv limited variability in appearance and habi- not exhaustive, considering the importance of the tat. An assessment by an ichthyologist with field aquarium fish trade in Singapore and related risks experience of the status of the flock and the of escapes. Ng (1994b) lists six freshwater crabs causes of its possible extinction should be a high (three of them endemic to the island) and 11 priority as soon as security permits. freshwater prawns. General discussions on aquatic conservation in Singapore can be found in Ng (1991b) and Ng and Lim (1992) which include freshwater biodi- versity. The effect of introduced aquatic organ- 42 FreshwaterBiodiversity in Asia

isms on the native biodiversity is discussed by Ng discovered (about 10 since 1985) and that many et al. (1993). Endangered species are listed in the species identified as being the same as Indian Singapore Red Data Book (Ng and Wee, 1994) fishes by earlier authors actually are distinct, often and Ng (1995a). The Singapore Red Data Book is unnamed species. apparently unique in Asia, if not in the world, in For years, only seven freshwater crabs had that a dive:sity of marine and freshwater aquatic been recognized from Sri Lanka. Recent field- organisms are considered, and that invertebrates work has demonstrated this figure to be a very are dealt with thoroughly. crude underestimate. The revision of a single ge- The detailed field data available for Singapore nus, then assumed to be represented by a single illustrate that some species have very specialized species, shows that it in fact includes at least 10 and restricted distributions. Ng and Wee (1994: species (Ng, 1995b) and on-going research will 179) report a still unnamed shrimp known on Sin- show this trend to be valid for other genera too. gapore from a very short stretch (a few meters) of a fast-flowing forest stream. In the Malay Penin- Taiwan sula, this species is also known from a few iso- lated populations. Singapore also illustrates the Freshwater sites of exceptional biodiversitv interest: none fact that even streams in easily accessible areas known are still insufficiently surveyed as several species Freshwater biodiversitv (species recorded): Amphibians: 26 have been described only in recent years. Others Crocodilians: have long been confused with similar looking l'urtles: ??? species from other areas. Finally, old museum Fish:95(100% of estimatedtotal) material includes specimens not identifiable with Crabs: 35 (80% of estimated total) Shrimps: 15 (80-90% of estimated total) any known extant species which likely represent Technical and human capacitv: undescribed, extinct species (Ng and Kottelat, Availability of recent monograph of freshwater fish spe- 1994: 605). cies: + All species with good illustrations: + Sri Lanka Material in local language: + Material in English: - Local skill to identify freshwater fish: + Freshwater sites of exceptional biodiversity interest: none known Shen (1994) published color illustrations and

Amphibians: 39 diagnoses of all fishes of Taiwan. Tzeng (1986, Crocodilians: 1 1990) published two books describing and illus- Turtles: 2 trating in color all 95 fish species from Taiwan's Fish: 90 (95% of estimated total) freshwaters and indicating their conservation Crabs: 21 (50% of estimated total) status. All this material is in Chinese. Technical and human capacitv: Availability of recent monograph of freshwater fish spe- Some 35 species of freshwater crabs are cies: + known from Taiwan, 25 of which were described All species with good illustrations: + in 1994 (Shy et al., 1994). Material in local language: - Material in English: + Local skill to identify freshwater fish: + (outside official Thaland institutions) Freshwater sites of exceptional biodiversitv interest: Pa Phru The freshwater fishes of Sri Lanka are de- (#35) peat swamps has its own endemic fish. and crusta- scribed and illustrated in color by Pethiyagoda Freshwaterceans; Mae biodiversityKlong (#23) (species recorded): (1991); he recorded 88 native species and 21 ex- Amphibians: 107 otic ones. Although the fish fauna of the island Crocodilians: I has commonly been considered well known, on- Turtles: 12 Fish: 690 (90 % of estimated total) going work shows that new species are still being Crabs: 63 (50% of estimated total) National Reviews 43

Shrimps: 50 (70%/

Vietnam

Freshwater sites of exceptional biodiversity interest: none known Freshwater biodiversity (species recorded): Amphibians: 80 Crocodilians: 2 Turtles: 16 Fish: 450 (80% of estimated total) Crabs: 12 (<10% of estimated total) Shrimps: 30 (20% of estimated total) 7 Selected programs and activities

Darwin Initiative in the Himalayas with a broad range of activities with relevance to freshwater biodiversity conservation. These in- This project is being undertaken by the UK clude assessments (including ichthyological sur- Institute for Hydrology and the University of veys) for conservation and sustainable manage- Wales. It is investigating the consequences of ment of many wetland areas, and the promotion of river catchment management on freshwater biodi- development of integrated (multi-sectoral) na- versity in the Indian and Nepalese Himalayas. The tional and regional wetland action plans which study covers the spatial distribution patterns of include specific actions related to freshwater bio- aquatic biodiversity, stream water chemistry and diversity. WI-AP is also implementing a range of fluvial sediments in river catchments of the Hi- training and information/awareness activities malayas, with the aim of assessing and using these which incorporate freshwater biodiversity conser- parameters as indicators of environmental change vation aspects. One of the aims of WI-AP is to caused by anthropogenic impacts such as inten- support a greater recognition of the importance of sive agriculture and deforestation. freshwater biodiversity as part of the promotion of wise use and conservation of wetlands. Gangetic River Dolphin Watch Program South East Asian Aquatic Biodiversity WWF India has entered into a partnership Program with the Global Rivers Environmental Education Network (GREEN) and they have a proposal un- The Laboratory of Ecology and Systematics der preparation for a Gangetic River Dolphin of the National University of Singapore has an on- Watch Program along the Ganges in Nepal, India going research program on Aquatic Biodiversitv and Bangladesh with India project being imple- in South East Asia. The program includes basic mented by WWF-India. At three or four locations and applied research on aquatic biodiversity and along the Ganges, a program will be implemented ecology, documentation of aquatic biodiversity, involving water quality testing, water use surveys development of databases, elaboration of identifi- in the river basin, and population status survey of cation tools, environmental impact assessment the Gangetic river dolphin Platanista gangetica studies using freshwater systems, setting up and and threats to these. An awareness campaign will utilizing gene banks, a study of the genetic diver- be undertaken involving NGOs, schools and sity of food catfishes, advice on aquaculture spe- community groups. Emphasis is on the catchment cies, publication of field guides and handbooks (in approach. both printed and electronic formats), and interna- tional collaboration with individuals and institu- Wetlands International Asia-Pacific tions. Immediate targets of the program include handbooks on the freshwater crabs of Borneo and The mission of Wetlands International is to the Philippines, a field guide to S.E. Asian fishes, sustain and restore wetlands, their resources and and a field guide to Malayan aquatic insects. biodiversity for future generations through re- search, information exchange and conservation Biodiversity in Mainland South East Asia activities. Since 1987 Wetlands International - Asia Pacific (WI-AP) (formerly Asian Wetlands The Swedish Natural History Museum is de- Bureau) has been implementing a large program veloping the above project (known as MASEA) SelectedPrograms and Activities 45 which aims to develop systematic disciplines at Aquatic Resources Management and is available local MASEA biodiversity centers, to promote on CD-ROM. It includes data on fish taxonomy, biosystematic databases, and to stimulate and par- distribution, biology, reproduction, larval stages, ticipate in the organization of a network of biodi- etc. and includes photographs and distribution versity research institutions in S.E. Asia. The maps. The database is still being developed and ichthyological component proposes to assist in present coverage is variable depending on geo- inventories of the fauna and to support intema- graphical areas etc. The present coverage of Asian tional cooperation on fish biodiversity. freshwaters is still rudimentary.

Fishbase

Fishbase is a computerized database devel- oped by the International Center for Living 8 Recommendations

Project Design Environmental Assessment, Mitigation and Monitoring 1) Wherever inland waters are to be altered in the course of a project. freshwater biodiversity 6) Freshwater biodiversity components in envi- needs to be addressed as early as possible, using ronmental assessments should be: appropriate expertise and methods, in order to be sure of complying with Operational Policy 4.04 * conducted by experts with demonstrated ex- on Natural Habitats. perience (that is, experience in their field, not experience in writing EAs); 2) Rapids, peat swamps, and caves should be * addressed independently of fisheries and considered for inclusion in the list of 'critical wetlands, natural habitats' (sensu OP 4.04). * placed in a proper geographic context (river basins) and related projects or impacts of dif- 3) Fundamental field work conducted by teams ferent projects should be investigated to- led by competent scientists needs to be supported, gether; perhaps as part of project preparation seen in the * propose innovative and realistic mitigation context of training and capacity building. Ur- measures, and where no proven solutions ex- gently-needed information can be as basic as reli- ist, projects should be taken as an opportunity able lists of species, but also includes species' to test new and promising possibilities. distributions, empirical data on food, reproduction and migrations. The results should be made avail- 7) An intemational meeting should be convened able intemationally and without delay in the form to bring together engineers and biodiversity spe- of refereed publications. Results should include cialists to explore meaningful mitigation measures the preparation of field guides and other identifi- to counter biodiversitv loss resulting from infra- cation tools. structure and other development projects, and out of that to produce a handbook of relevant case 4) Efforts should be made to seek positive miti- studies and best practice. gation options and to forge partnerships between engineers, economists and biodiversity specialists. 8) EAs should be designed to obtain sound data on which to base practicable monitoring of the 5) When considering introductions of freshwater impacts of the project on biodiversity. These species, the alternative of improvement without should include the search for undisturbed sites or introduction, should first be considered. Tests rivers which will not be affected by the project (or should be conducted with the native fauna to as- other on-going or planned projects) and which can certain their suitability for use in aquaculture. If, be used as controls. after due consideration, it is decided that an exotic introduction is warranted, then extensive pre- 9) Any proposed species recovery program must project surveys should be conducted and the ex- first address the reasons for the initial decline or isting codes of practice implemented (see Coates, loss of the species concerned. If habitat restora- 1995). tion is not possible, captive breeding programs should be considered, but they are no substitute for naturally maintained biodiversity. Recommendations47

Policies and Strategies Economic Assessment

10) Freshwater biodiversity should be explicitly 16) The benefits of proper management of all lev- covered in National Environmental Action Plans, els of freshwater biodiversity and the cost of un- Biodiversity Action Plans, National Conservation favorable management should be quantified, and Strategies, National Wetland Action Plans, and valuation systems developed. It is recommended Country Assistance Strategies. that a World Bank Research Grant be sought for this purpose. 11) Protected area and fisheries legislation needs to be reviewed to deternine how the best interests 17) Devise protocols which would allow a rapid of freshwater biodiversity can be accommodated. assessment of water quality and biological health, and could be used to compare one river with an- 12) The management and conservation of fresh- other and as a basis for monitoring. water biodiversity should be wholly adopted as part of water resources policy. Indicators

Knowledge Development 18) The use of freshwater organisms as indicators of environment and water quality has often been 13) Concern for freshwater biodiversity implies advocated, but very few steps have been taken in that prior knowledge be available. The freshwa- that direction. A prior knowledge of the habitats ters of very few Asian countries has been sur- and biology of individual species is required in veyed in detail, and only for the most conspicuous order to select those suitable as indicators. animal groups. Clearly a major priority is large- scale collection of baseline data (species lists, Priorities for Surveys and Identification distribution maps, understanding of ecological Material requirements, reproduction and migration infor- mation). The information so gained needs to be As already stated, there is an urgent need for basic disseminated and this can be developed well survey work and knowledge development in many through the production of local language field Asian countries. guides. Priorities are listed below. Countries for which there is little or no reliable 14) Additional support should be considered to data and thus where broad surveys are required: increase the breadth and depth of Fishbase, coor- Burma, Laos, Cambodia, Bhutan (and Afghani- dinated by ICLARM in Manila, and to the devel- stan and North Korea when politically feasible). opment and application of the Wetland Database of Wetlands International. Countries for which some data are available, but their quality and the existing geographical gaps Capacity Building justify extensivefield work: Philippines, Nepal, Vietnam. 15) A major training program should be instigated to build up indigenous capacity in freshwater bio- Countriesfor which some good and recent data as diversity and wetland subjects. Efforts should fo- well as identification tools are already available, cus on young, motivated students, giving them a but where there are still huge geographical gaps solid background in locally-relevant biology from to be covered and extensive surveys are needed: the start. This is the only way that competent and Indonesia, Papua New Guinea innovative researchers will be trained. 48 FreshwaterBiodiversity in Asia

Countries in which critical or sensitive habitats aquatic community correctly, their reports will be should be surveyed: caves in China, peat swamps of little use and the adequacy and appropriateness in Indonesia and Malaysia. of the decisions taken will always be in doubt.

Countries in which there is an abundance of lit- Countries with no comprehensive or accessible erature, but in which the quality of knowledge is field guides, the compilation of which would re- poor and the threats to the freshwater communi- quire prior surveys: Burma, Laos, Cambodia, ties so severe, that competent and critical field Bhutan, Afghanistan. work is urgently needed: India Countries with no comprehensive or accessible In most countries, there is a very urgent need field guides, the compilation of which could be for basic literature and especially field guides. achieved quite rapidly through collaboration be- The proper identification of organisms is the key- tween local and foreign scientists. Thailand (this stone of all biodiversity work. If surveyors and could form an important basis for guides for Laos researchers are not able to identify the local and Cambodia). Literature cited

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Appendix A. Fish species exclusively known from caves in South and East Asia

CHINA INDONESIA Gibbibarbuscyphotergous (Guizhou) Bostrychussp. (Sulawesi) Sinocyclocheilusanatirostris (Guangxi) Puntius sp. "microps"(Java) Sinocyclocheilusangularis (Guizhou) Sinocyclocheilusanophthalmus (Yunnan) MALAYSIA Sinocyclocheilushyalinus (Yunnan) Sundoreonectestiomanensis (Tioman Island) Sinocyclocheilusmicrophthalmus (Guangxi) Typhlobarbus nudiventris (Yunnan) PHILIPP[NES Protocobitistyphlops (Guangxi) Caecogobiuscryptophthalmus (Samar) Oreonectesanophthalmus (Guangxi) Triplophysa gejiuensis (Yunnan) THAILAND Triplophysaxiangxiensis (Hunan) 'Puntius'speleops(Chaiyaphum) Nemacheilustroglocataractus (Kanchanaburi) INDIA Schisturajarutanin (Kanchanaburi) Horaglaniskrishnai (Kerala) Schistura oedipus(Mae Hong Son) Schisturasijuensis (Meghalaya) 'Homaloptera'thamicola (Mae Hong Son) Pterocryptessp. (Kanchanaburi) Appendixes 57

Appendix B. Considerationsfor AquaticBiodiversity Studies in EnvironmentalAssessment (Basedon: Kottelatet al. 1993. Freshwater Fishes of Western Indonesia and Sulawesi. Periplus, Jakarta)

Some pointers are given below for people often occurs to the detriment of a larger number conducting environmentalimpact assessments or of others, resulting in an overall loss of diversity. writing environmental management plans for Species enhancementcan very often be a tempo- aquatic biodiversityin the context of development rary phenomenon, as seen in the initial fish projects. Many such reports do not do justice to 'bloom' and subsequentdecline that is commonin the importance of the freshwater environment, new reservoirs. and it is hoped that these ideas may lead to some An initial prediction of potential impacts improvements. (usually referred to as 'scoping') can greatly im- prove the efficiency of subsequentdata collection Pre-planning stage. Consider the nature of and management interpretation. However, the the project and its likely impacts on an aquatic scopingexercise is dependenton: system. The project may have one or more of the * the existence of a reasonable species inven- followingeffects: tory for the aquatic system; * direct destructionof habitat such as filling in * an understandingof the habitat requirements of wetlands,removal of sand/gravelsubstrate, of important species and of whether those river channeling; habitatsexist in the area of impact; and * direct alteration of flow regimes such as pro- * at least some knowledge of the impact similar vision of instream storage, diversionof water development/industrialprojects have had on for consumptionpurposes; comparableaquatic systemselsewhere. - direct changes to the physical and chemical characteristicsof the water such as discharge Where such information does not exist, some of effluents, or change of water temperature initial baseline inventory must precede scoping, due to the discharge of cooling water from and the scoping exercise itself becomes increas- power plants; ingly uncertain. Scoping should be prudent and * direct changes to the aquatic community by inclusive:it is better to eliminate issues from con- the addition/introduction of exotic species, sideration later on than discount important im- selective removal of some species, or en- pacts at the beginning. hancementof others; * alteration of watershed characteristicssuch as Planning stage. Consider the nature of the loss of vegetation and resulting soil erosion, project and its likely impacts on a river or lake; loss of storage due to land use changes re- i.e. which problems are paramount - toxicity, or sulting in accentuatedflood or low flows; temperature rise, or organic load, or increased * alteration of riparian/littoralvegetation such sediment. This will help in the design of the as stream bank cleaning and timber harvest- fieldwork. Tributaries, swamps and ditches near ing. to the project site should also be noted and sur- veyed because they may act as refuges or as Impacts are normally thought of as negative, breeding sites. The filling in of a swampy area but some changes may actually benefit some spe- may have as much effect as an effluentdischarge. cies. Water control structures, for example, may lessen both the destructivenessof scouringduring Fieldworkstage. A single samplingof a lake floods and the severity of low-flow conditions, or of a stretch of river is unlikely to give a very thereby possibly improving the productivity of good picture of the species present or their rela- some fish species. It must be kept in mind, how- tive abundanceor life histories becauseof diurnal ever, that the enhancement of one species very and seasonal movements, and of year to year 58 FreshwaterBiodiversity in Asia natural variations in abundance. The project pro- are measured impacts and do they warrant further ponent should not be expected to compensate for management attention or cast doubt on project the shortcomings of government fisheries invento- acceptability?). Of these two functions, the first ries programs, but at least one full year of inten- should be the most 'scientific', however, in many sive sampling in the zone of potential impacts cases our knowledge of cause-effect relationships should be regarded as the minimum requirement is so poor that impact quantification becomes de- for an impact assessment. pendent on the best technical judgment of the as- The first step in the program is to undertake a sessment specialist. Impact significance is a much survey and mapping (at an appropriate scale) of more a 'value judgment' and will be determined the major aquatic ecosystems or habitat types. within the context of government policy and po- This mapping should then be used to organize litical decision-making. Significant fisheries im- subsequent sampling of fish distribution and pact might be one which affects the ability of the abundance. Such sampling should be taken at fisheries sector to meet its objectives, whether regular intervals (e.g. once per month) and in- such objectives are expressed in production tar- clude both night-time and day-time sampling. gets by a government fisheries management, or Sampling on each occasion should continue until the desire of local fishermen to maintain their repeated efforts result in no extra species. Sam- livelihood. The responsibility of the environ- pling of fishermen's catches and market stalls can mental assessment planning specialists should be provide some useful information if the location of to provide political decision makers with the best the catch can be verified, and that not too much possible technical information and scientific confidence is placed in local names as a means of judgments to serve as a basis for their decisions. counting species, particularly the small, uneco- The prediction and quantification of impacts nomic species. Perhaps the most valuable infor- must take into consideration the complexity of mation that can be gained from fishermen and inter-relationships in aquatic systems. Some im- fishing stalls is an indication of the current level portant considerations are: of fishing effort and catch, and thus a measure of * Riparian trees and other vegetation provide the social and economic significance of the re- shade, moderate the temperature, and reduce source that may be placed at risk by the develop- the amount of silt washed into the water. They ment project. It must be kept in mind though, that also provide organic material such as leaves, current catch is not necessarily a reflection of the fruits and flowers and invertebrates which are potential or capability of the fishery. It must be fed upon by fishes and other animals and remembered that there is no substitute for the sur- which 'drive' the energy flow in the water in vey workers catching the fish themselves, or at an environment with very low primary pro- least accompanying fishermen, and that smaller ductivity. Thus the removal of vegetation meshes than those used by fishermen must be along a water course can have profound ef- used in addition to standard nets, in order to catch fects on productivity. the important small species and the young of * Consider the requirements of the important larger species. species within an aquatic system throughout their whole life cycle - breeding, spawning, Assessment stage. As previously explained, larval stages, migration, feeding, and shelter the function of initial scoping is impact prediction from predators. An adverse impact on just one (i.e. what are the potential consequences of the requirement may negate the best-intentioned project?). Environmental assessment should be efforts to protect the others. fully integrated into project feasibility planning so * Organic effluents with a high biological de- that the project is designed to avoid impact and mand reduce the oxygen concentrations in the comply with environmental standards. The major water below the thresholds of many species. role of impact assessment is impact quantification Some fish will remain, even in polluted water, (what will be the magnitude of unmanageable im- but they will be the most tolerant, widespread, pacts?) and impact significance (how important and often the least desirable of the species that Appendixes 59

inhabit an aquatic system. In other words, opment of a plan to manage impacts. Such a plan biodiversity will have been lost. should include a program of impact mitigation * When considering major water diversions or and a monitoring program. Mitigation activities concentrations of pollutants, impact assess- should include avoidance, modification or aban- ments must be based not just on the river donment of particularly damaging project compo- characteristics observed at the time, but on nents, treatment or re-use of waste materials and, predicted potential low flows (e.g. the I in 10 finally, site rehabilitation or restoration. For miti- years, I in 20 years, or even the I in 30 year gation to be fully effective, the impact assessment low flows. process must be integrated into project design and * Consider the impacts of the whole project, not feasibility studies from the very beginning. All just in the area immediately adjacent to the unnecessary clearance of vegetation should be project but on important downstream re- avoided. Replacement of trees along the river sources also. Will the project interact with banks and lake sides should be encouraged - even existing activities downstream to produce cu- if the project itself has not been directly responsi- mulative impacts which are significant? ble for their loss. Species planted should be na- * What are the driving forces or critical limiting tive, not introduced. Consider recommending components of the system - detritus, marginal regulating ponds that could prevent effluent dis- or submerged vegetation, low flows - and charge during times of low flow. Consider the what will be the impact of the project on possibilities of utilizing or treating the effluent. these? Monitoring should serve two purposes; first, to provide a measure of the effectiveness of the After the surveys are complete it should be possi- management program, and second, to provide ble to draw out food webs and thus cause-and- early warning of unpredicted impacts. Project effect networks which will serve as a context for monitoring should be linked to the baseline discussions of impact. aquatic inventories carried out early in the envi- ronmental assessment process and have a sound Management Stage. The final, and most im- statistical base. portant, stage of impact assessments is the devel-

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RECENT WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPERS (continited)

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