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HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

China is believed to be one of the earliest areas of human inhabitation in Asia and possibly Europe. The remains of Peking Man date back to 500,000 years ago, the Stone Age.

The Chinese claim a lineage that goes back 5,000 years. The first Dynasty was the Xia and lasted until 1700 BCE. The preceding emperors of this empire were said to have had god-like qualities and were accredited with the developments China made in the writing system, agricultural advances, production of tools and weaponry and cultural development.

The Zhou period saw the emergence of Confucianism (1100-221 BCE), and with it, the mandate to rule being a divine right. Only the just had the power to rule.

Under the Qin Dynasty, China became unified. This dynasty (221-207 BCE) standardized the writing system and built the Great Wall of China to keep out the invaders.

The Han Dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE) saw military conflicts and the creation of the Three Kingdoms. The arts and Buddhism flowered.

Unity followed under the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the latter now regarded as the Chinese Golden Age. China dealt in international trade with control over the silk routes. Zen and Pure Land Buddhism became two schools of Buddhist thought, developed in China.

During the Yuan Dynasty, Marco Polo visited Kublai Khan, who established Beijing as the capital.

The Portuguese were the first Europeans to arrive in China on a trade mission. The British soon followed, and, to enhance their trading, they forced China into treaties following the Opium Wars whereby Hong Kong was ceded to Britain.

The last century was not kind to China. Civil war was on the horizon when the Japanese attacked. Following World War II, civil war did in fact follow, with the Communist party, under Mao Tse-Tung taking power.

Both Hong Kong and Macau have been returned to China, along with Taiwan, which has agreed in theory to the "One China" principle, if not in reality.

4000 BCE, logographic Chinese (S - T, Siniticj China, Singapore, Thailand, Pg. 1 Vietnam, USA, Canada China's name for herself is Zhongguo which means Middle Kingdom, Central Nation. This comes from her early encounters with other nations that were culturally and technologically challenged; the Chinese saw themselves as superior to their "barbarian" neighbours. After all, China was npt conquered by a foreign nation until the Mongols under Genghis Khan arrived in the 13th century, 4,200 years after their first dynasty.

The word China is believed to come from the name of the Qin (pronounced Chin) dynasty. LINGUISTIC BACKGROUND

Mandarin Chinese is a member of the Chinese branch of the Sino-Tibetan family of languages. Sino-Tibetan is the world's second-largest language family after Indo-European, and it has the most speakers of any language in the world. Sino-Tibetan has more than 300 languages and major dialects.

Han Chinese is spoken by roughly 1.1 billion people in the People's Republic of China, 20 million in Taiwan, seven million in Thailand, five million in Hong Kong, five million in Malaysia, 1.75 million in Singapore and one million in Viet Nam, with large communities in the United States, Canada and England, as well as others in Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia (Java and Bali), Laos, Mauritius, Mongolia, the Philippines and Russia.

The majority of people living in mainland China are the Han Chinese. They comprise 90 percent of the population and are found for the most part in the eastern two-thirds of China. The 6.7 percent that make up minorities are represented by about 50 ethnic groups. Han Chinese speak Mandarin, a northern dialect, which makes up 70 percent of the population, or they speak a regional dialect. The others speak southern dialects such as Wu, Cantonese, Hunanese (Hsiang) and Fukinese (Min). Chiang Kai Shek was a Wu speaker, and Mao Tse-Tung, a Hunanese speaker.

Mandarin, or Modem Standard Chinese, is the radio and school-spoken language of the People's Republic of China (PRC) Singapore and Taiwan. Hong Kong uses Cantonese as the spoken vernacular for education and communication, and all Chinese speakers use the Modem Standard Chinese written form. Cantonese is spoken in Canton, Hong Kong and Macau. Chinese, as a writing system, was one of the first to appear in the world.

Written Chinese, which links the various Chinese languages and dialects, is unique in that it is the only major modern writing system that uses thousands of ideographic-phonetic symbols, rather than a phonetic alphabet or syllabary.

The earliest examples of Chinese writing were found on 3,500-year-old "oracle bones". These were used for divining purposes to question the gods. The oracle bones were made of turtle shells or ox shoulder blades. Heat was applied and the patterns of cracks were "read".

The Chinese writing system itself has been in use for more than 3,000 years and could be as old as 6,000. This system uses characters that, at one point, resembled the object they represented. In 1716 CE, a Chinese dictionary contained 40,545 characters. Since then, attempts have been made to simplify the system to reflect the 4-5,000 characters in common use today. In 1919, a phonetic script, much like the Japanese kana, was developed for Mandarin. Then, in 1929, a National Romanization alphabet was developed. Latinxua was also developed by the Communists. However, an attempt to reduce the number of characters to 1,000 met with difficulties as it could not produce a basic form of Chinese to reflect Chinese vocabulary. All these methods failed, and Modern Standard Chinese is accepted.

4000 BCE, logographic Chinese (S - T, Sinitic) China, Singapore, Thailand, Pg.2 Vietnam, USA, Canada Modern Standard Chinese, thus, is a result of a combination of three factors: 1. written post-Classical language 2. spoken standard language of Imperial times (Mandarin) 3. the vernacular of BeijIng On May 4, 1919, Hu Shih rejected Classical Chinese as the written standard in favour of this new standard which was applied across China in an effort to boost the literacy rate. In 1958, the last stage of development was pinyin zimu (pinyin phonetics). It is a Romanized script that phonetically transcribes Modern Standard Chinese. This script is used to teach non-Chinese nationals and foreigners Modern Standard Chinese, and it is used in schools to teach reading. It is thought that pinyin may replace characters in the future. Writing System Written Chinese is based on the Beijing dialect, but has been heavily influenced by other varieties of Northern Mandarin. Putonghua is the official form taught in schools. • Handwriting The pict09raph category was the earliest to appear. Chinese writing, as did the Egyptian hieroglyphics, .originated with increasingly stylized drawings of concrete objects. Ideographs of more abstract notions accompanied the pictographs. Phonetic borrowings and phonetic ideographs were used to a far lesser extent. Over time, the form changed so that the original part of the character is now referred to as its phonetic, and the added element, the radical. Calligraphy is seen as the highest form of visual art. A person's character is judged on the elegance of his or her handwriting. Chinese calligraphy displays a varied collection of stroke and script styles. It uses the regular, running and cursive. These are added to the other two: small seal and scribal. Since the second century BCE, the large seal script has been the standard script used in carving a name chop, a block of wood with a character on it. The small seal style was later developed, based on a combination of ancient and large seal script styles. The small seal style is characterized by thin, meticulously rendered lines. A less-complicated script style, the plainer official script style, was used for clerical purposes to speed up the processing of official documents. In contrast, the fancier cursive script emerged as a more artistic alternative. Later, the regular script, based on the official script, was developed in the second century CEo The regular script dispensed with the wavy, thickened stroke of the official script and established a standard, despite the increasingly fanciful cursive scripts. It is the standard script used today. The running script was developed in the second century CEo It is a flowing style that falls somewhere between the regular and cursive scripts. • Script All Chinese script characters are made up of eight r~ulated basic strokes. Thus, a Chinese speaker may carry over this regulated manner in "drawing English letters.

EX: t - English 1. I 2. t - Chinese 1. - 2. t = the bar is drawn first

4000 BCE, logographic Chinese (S - T, Sinitic) China, Singapore, Thailand, Pg.3 Vietnam, USA, Canada The strokes are drawn from top to bottom, left to right and outside to inside, similar to most English letter formations. • Characters There are eight basic strokes of a Chinese character, hanzl , which orginated during the Han dynasty. (For this reason, Mandarin is called Han Chinese.) Variations of the stroke patterns bring the total to 17. A character, though, can consist of up to 48 strokes. Dictionaries organize the characters by the number of strokes they have.

Each character is given the same amount of space to be written, regardless of the number of strokes. There is also no space between characters in a mUlti-syilablic word. Chinese uses a logographic or character system. The majority of characters consist of two parts: 1. significators or radicals, used for meaning 2. phonetics, used for sound

There are 214 radicals, which indicate the family the meaning belongs to. Therefore, the wood family vocabulary would contain words such as tree and table that have a wood radical in them. A phonetic is a word that is added to the radical, as the radicals share a common pronunciation. EX: ocean = water (radical) + sheep (phonetic) Sheep has the same sound as the spoken word for ocean. Chinese characters are dassified into six different methods of character composition and use. These six categories are called Llu Shu.

The Uu Shu categories are ­ 1. Pictographs: Pictographic characters are simplified line drawings of concrete objects.

EX: /shan/, meaning mountain, the character is a stylized representation of the peaks of a mountain range. It is drawn three times to represent the concept of many. 2. Ideographs: These are graphic representations of abstract ideas that do not have a physical form that can be easily rendered into a line-drawing format. In this case, an abstract symbolic representation is created.

EX: the character, Alslungl, meaning malevolent, represents a deep pit, into which an unsuspecting traveller has fallen. It indicates danger and the feeling of fear and surprise at an unexpected fall. 3. Compound ideographs: These combine two or more character elements into a new compound character. EX: a thing that is large, /talat the bottom and gradually becomes small, !hsiao! at the top is pointed, so the characters for small and large combined would form the character !chlen!, meaning pointed, sharp. 4. Compounds with both phonetic and meaning elements: The term for phonetic compounds, hslng sheng, literally means form and sound, and characters in this category are a combination of a visual meaning element with a phonetic element.

4000 BCE, logographic Chinese (S - T, Sinitic) China, Singapore, Thailand, Pg.4 Vietnam, USA, Canada EX: /shuV, meaning sleep. The phonetic element in /shui/ is /ch'uV, meaning to hang down n and the meaning element is /mut, meaning eye, and when a person's eyes "hang down , she or he is asleep. 5. Chuan chu: There is a great deal of disagreement among scholars as to what exactly chuan chu is. According to one school of thought, it refers to characters whose pronunciation have changed over time: these new characters are created to better reflect the new pronunciation.

EX: the character /k'ail was created in response to the emergence of a new pronunciation of its original character, /ch'V. 6. Chla chieh: In this method, a character is borrowed to represent an unrelated word because of its phonetic similarity to that word.

EX: the character, /peil is a representation of two people standing back to back, and first meant back. However; this character was later borrowed to represent the sound /peV, meaning north. To resolve the confusion resulting from one character being used to represent two dtfferent words, a component meaning flesh, pronounced /joulwas added underneath the /peilcharacter, resulting in the character /peV, to represent the original meaning of back Today, on the mainland, Chinese communists have promoted the use of a simplified form of characters. In Taiwan, however, the traditional, standard forms of Chinese characters are the only ones in general use, thus providing everybody with full access to China's classics and other writings in standard script. LINGUISTIC COMPARISON ENGLISH CHINESE

LANGUAGE Indo-European Sino-Tibetan FAMILY (West Germanic branch) (Sinitic branch) Han (Mandarin, cMI servant language), basis of written language WRITING - alphabet, Latin script - Wades-Giles official transcription system = SYSTEM - non-phonetic Pinyin phonetic spelling (1958) - written from left to right - Latinized version of Standard C~linese - logographic system (symbols represent words) - written in ideograms - non-phonetic - simplified script for everyday useltyping - TaiwanIHong Kong use older script, modified character script for phonetics # OF LETTERS 26 4-5,000 characters - 1,000 characters for common usage

4000 BCE, logographic Chinese (S - T, Sinitic) China, Singapore, Thailand, Pg.5 Vietnam, USA, Canada CHINESE TONES: - tones indicate a difference in meaning - 4 (Mandarin) - 6 (Cantonese), 2 tones = change of meaning

EX: a syllable/character such as ma can be said at 4 different levels and have 4 meanings. 1. ma (high tone) = mother 2. ma (rising tone) = hemp 3. ma (faling and rising tone) = horse 4. ma (falling tone) = to curse

Even among tones, homonyms occur as they do in English (hear/here).

N. B. It is the use of tones that gives Chinese its non-linking or staccato quality in sound. A Chinese speaker, when reading aloud, will naturally pause after syllable breaks.

EX: an English speaker would read tomorrow as to-mar-row, linking between the syllables and accenting the middle syllable. A Chinese speaker would read it to-mo{r)-ow. This is because the language consists of syllables that represent meaning. syllables - 1,300 (Mandarin) - 2,200 (Cantonese) - 8,000 (English) VOWELS 6 written, 15-16 spoken 9 and clusters (Mandarin) - vowel alteration in words occurs among word families, similar to English's sing, sang, sung

Mandarin has 9 vowel sounds and can also have up to 3 vowel combinations (diphthongs). Cantonese, on the other hand, has more and shorter vowels sounds and can have only 2 vowel combinations. Syllables in Cantonese usually end in vowel sounds. DIFFERENT th (this,the), w, ng (sing) - 22 (Mandarin has I, r ) CONSONANTS r, I - fewer initial consonants (Cantonese) - very few final consonants . - m, ng as syllables with no vowels (Cantonese) - more nasal sounds in Cantonese CAPITALIZATION - begins new sentences - no capitalization with capitals COMBINATION - each syllable has a - spoken vowel or vowel + consonant OF LETTERS vowel/consonant sound - many vowel clusters - many consonant clusters - single syllable structure - words one or more syllables, each carrying an element of meaning (affixes) or indMdually, carry no distinct meaning unless in that combination EX: t'en =sky, heaven, day (1 syllable) jih-t'ou (2 syllables) = sun (jih = sun, day), but cannot occur as a separate word (Jih)

4000 BCE, logographic Chinese (S - T, Sinitic) China, Singapore, Thailand, Pg.6 Vietnam, USA, Canada Southern Chinese languages use more monosyllabic words and word elements than the northern ones. NUMBERS ;. written from left to right - written from left to right - Math uses Arabic numerals like English ORDER • sentence - subject + verb + object - subject + verb + object - time words at end - time words at beginning of sentence or beginning sentence

• adjective - adjective + noun - adjective + noun - Mandarin more like English structures - usually has 1 character (syllable) ARTICLESI NOUNS - has more than 1 character (syllable) • indefinite - a, an+ noun - a = one (number) + noun

• definite - the + noun - this, that (prefix) attached to noun - usually a collective noun - noun + suffix = time/space relationship VERBS - subject is separate - subject = character - verb inflected onlyfor - characters added to verb to change time some verbs (to be) - verb form does not change and in some tenses - voiced initial stops in verbs = intransitive verb - voiceless initial stops in verbs = transitive verb - verbs and nouns can be the same word, but are pronounced with di1ferent tones - usually has 1 character (syllable) - verb suffixes = modes/aspects - can be irreversible in order series EX: take + come = bring PREPOSITIONS Chinese word order shows the relationship, so prepositions are redundant. Chinese supplements this with the use of co-verbs which operate as half verblhalf preposition. A Chinese co-verb phrase equals an English prepositional phrase (in the cupboard). Time and space relationships can be shown by adding suffixes to the noun. PRONOUNS • SUbject - always written - not always written

• object - differs from subject - differs from subject - appears after the verb - appears after the verb

• possessive - differs from the above - differs from the above (adj) - appears before the noun - appears before noun

4000 BCE, logographic Chinese (S - T, Sinitic) China, Singapore, Thailand, Pg.7 Vietnam, USA, Canada PLURALS - adds suffix s, es, ies - noun form never changes, uses numbers - has a few irregular forms - number + plural character marker added before a noun - plural marker differs for animate, inanimate objects and people as well as countable and uncountable nouns - counted/modified by demonstrative pronoun - uses non-collective noun classifiers to modify the noun EX: Man = all human beings One person man =a man TENSES - 3 forms of the verb: - no change present, past, past part. - special characters are added to the root - tenses changed with ed verb to emphasize or change the tense . suffix, whole word or with - time words also used to be, to have, will COMMANDS - infinitive form of the verb - root verb form, drops subject - final sentence affix added ?FORM - question word/auxiliary verb - written no change, spoken tone added to - verb + subject inflect last word - final sentence affix added

NEGATIVE - uses auxiliary verbs + not - negative word + verb FORM - tobe + not

VERBI - verb + to + infinitive - two verbs connected, no change 2ND

MODAlS - modal + infinitive (no to) - word + verb FORMALITY - 3 levels - politeJformal lEVELS - levels changed by use - word added in front of verb of modals and longer sentence structures When addressing others, the Chinese will use a polite and formal style. A character is added in front of the verb to denote respect. SWEARING! - involves the subjects of - opponent's father's name mentioned in fight OATHS sexlbodily functions - being called a pig in some areas as considered a dirty animal - bodily functions - curses to future generations and on ancestors VOCABUlARYI - higher level of writing, - originally Indo-Aryan borrowing through FOREIGN GreeklLatin India (Buddhism), but found Chinese INFLUENCE equivalents

4000 BCE, Iogographic Chinese (S - T, Sinitic) China, Singapore, Thailand, Pg.8 Vietnam, USA, Canada - avoided influence as phonetic problem not fit Chinese pattern - character script unable to take loan words - tends to borrow from Classical Chinese - word formation/syntax influenced by EnglishIRussian - from southem dialects as a result of statesmen (MaolShek) - Cantonese, from British influence, affect pronunciation (dark = clock) LEARNING OF - word recognition, phonics, - word recognitionltones WRITING! syllables - memorizes characters READING - children use Latin pinyin script to connect sound with character until Grade 3 Students are required to master 2,000 characters before they are considered literate. SKILLS OF - heavily dependent on - grammarlword memorization READING! - sight recognition - sight recognition WRITING Literacy rate: 81.5%: 89.9% males, 72.7% females Spelling Children learn characters through word recognition and tones. They use the Latin pinyin script to connect sound with character until Grade 3. This explains why after Grade 3, pupils have no problem with the Latin script of English. Also, many will use this script to phonetically transcribe new words they have learnt in English. It is this system used by electronic dictionaries. CULTURAL BACKGROUND

EDUCATION In mainland China, at six, children begin school where they remain until Grade 9, but in farming areas, this is not as tightly controlled. Teachers are strict and demand total obedience. A child will speak only when given permission to do so by the teacher. Elementary school children sit on their hands dUring the teacher's instructions or lessons. Classes are large, and children are taught, especially in math and reading, through rote. Classes run from 8:00 to 12:00 a.m., lunch break goes until 2:00 p.m., and then, pupils return until 4:00 or 5:00 p.m. in the afternoon. Children of all ages are assigned homework that takes one to two hours, minimum, to complete. As universities have few places, the competition is fierce. University preparation begins at a very early age. Education is reaching a crisis stage in China due to the scarcity of professionals. This is due to the low social status of teachers because of low salary levels. In an effort to have teaching seen as a more desirable and respected profession, September 10th has been designated Teacher's Day, salaries have been raised, and teachers' college tuition is free. Teachers are also sent to train local school teachers in remote and rural areas where the quality of education has fallen. Rural teachers must take time from teaching to maintain plots of land to meet village production quotas as well as

4000 BCE, logographic Chinese (S - T, Sinitic) China, Singapore, Thailand, Pg.9 Vietnam, USA, Canada supplement their wages, as poor local communities have to pay their salary as opposed to the state paying their salaries in urban areas. Primary education lasts for six years. Secondary education is over six years and is divided into general secondary education and vocational and technical secondary education. Both have two stages: junior middle secondary and senior middle school. Entrance to senior secondary schools is based on a competitive examination. A Graduation Examination is also taken at the end. Access to higher education is based on the Senior High School Graduation Diploma and the Chinese University Entrance Examination (or Matriculation Examination). The national admission system is characterized by fierce competition for places. Education is compulsory from seven to 16.

SChool system: 1. Primary School (6 years), ages 6 to 12

2. Junior Secondary, Junior Middle School (3 years), ages 12 to 15 • Certificate/diploma awarded: Competitive Entrance Exam to Senior Middle Schools

3. Senior Secondary, Senior Middle School (3 years), ages 15 to 18 • Diploma awarded: Senior High School Graduation Diploma

4. Specialized Secondary, Senior Middle Specialized School (3 years), ages 15 to 19 • Certificate awarded: Certificate of Graduation

5. Vocational SecondarySchool (4 years), ages 15 to 19 • Certificate awarded: Certificate of Graduation

Academic year: September to July Language of Instruction: Chinese Admission to university: Secondary school credential required: Senior High School Graduation Diploma Entrance exams required: National University Entrance Examination: Minimum Mark: 550-600 Grading system in secondary school: Description: The Chinese University Entrance Examination is marked on a percentage scale per subject, with a maximum mark for the examination of 750. The minimum usually required for entry to a university or teacher college ranges from 550-600 to 370.

NAMES Names are given in the following order: family name, middle name and then personal name.

4000 BCE, logographic Chinese (S - T, Sinitic) China, Singapore, Thailand, Pg. 10 Vietnam, USA, Canada First The first or second name is taken from the family tree to honour an ancestor. Part of the name reflects the name shared by the siblings. For example, Hong Min's brothers' names are Jing Min and Ei Min. Other parts of the name can reflect attributes with which it is hoped the child will be endowed. Surname All surnames in China come from the "One Hundred Family Chinese Surname Usf. Although China has over one billion people, with approximately 1,000 surnames, only 60 of these are common. Most Chinese surnames are only one syllable and are of characteristics or descriptive in nature. Ttle most common Chinese names are Wang (yellow), Wong (field or wide water), Chan (old) and Chui (mountain). Since almost all Chinese names are one syllable and easy to pronounce, and due to strong family and ancestral ties, few names have been changed. The father passes on his surname to his children. Upon marriage, women do not change their family names. It is also a form of respect to refer to a person by their profession without the person' s name ­ teacher! In English schools, students will quite often provide an English name to be used. They do this to facilitate communication by teachers and other students, and, in some cases, it may be that mispronunciation of their names has become something vulgar or something that is bad luck. RELIGION Wittl the notable exception of the persecution of the Falun Dong, the People's Republic of China allows many different religions now to be followed and tolerated. The traditional Chinese religion is a mixture of local beliefs and ceremonies. China never had a centralized state religion. However, three great schools of thought have influenced the people, educated and peasants alike: Confucian teachings, as seen in the Chinese classics, Taoist teachings, whictl are drawn from ancient Chinese tradition, and Buddhist teachings, which originated in India.

According to the Taoist theory of life, the world consists of five elements: metal, water, wood, fire and earth, giving life to each other. Metal becomes water when melted. Water feeds into wood (tree). Wood burns, giving all to earth (soil). When earth hardens, it becomes metal, thereby completing the cycle. Each Chinese letter has an element in it. For example, Chinese letters for river, pond, creek, ocean, etc., all have a water element in them. Words derived from water such as pure, irrigate, filthy, saliva, swirl, bathe, etc., also have a water element. TRADITIONAL MARRIAGE CUSTOMS Nowadays, conCUbines, child brides and arranged marriages are things of the past. Still, sorne will consult astrologists as to auspicious partners and wedding dates. In traditional Weddings, the bride will wear red, the colour of luck and good fortune.

Yellow is not a colour seen at weddings as its pronunciation resembles the word for broken, and this could bring the bad luck of divorce to the couple. A week before the wedding, the groom's family goes to visit the bride's house bearing gifts

4000 BCE, logographic Chinese (S - T, Sinitic) China, Singapore, Thailand, Pg. 11 Vietnam, USA, Canada arranged in red baskets, boxes or containers. Each basket is carried by a male member of the groom's immediate family. The contents of the basket determine who carries which basket. The baskets contain various items: fruit, clothes and gold jewelry for the bride. Some are gifts from the groom, and others are gifts from the family of the groom. Another basket contains uang susu (milk money).

The bride's family accepts the baskets and sorts them in another room. Half of the gifts are placed back in the baskets and returned to the family of the groom. The baskets are then returned to the person that brought them, and all go home. A few days before the wedding, the bride's family reciprocates and bears red baskets to the groom's house. Tilese baskets are carried by the females of ttle bride's immediate family. The baskets contain clothes for the groom, shoes and fruit. Some of the baskets contain personal things for the bride. This symbolizes the groom's family's acceptance of the bride into their house. On her wedding day, when she moves in, all of tier personal belongings will already be in the groom's house. Again, the gifts are sorted through, and half are returned. On the morning of the wedding day, the groom is "dressed" by his parents by helping tlim put on his jacket and the flower in his lapel. The groom and his parents then go to the bride's house. The wedding couple serve tea to both sets of parents, kneeling down in front of ttlem. This symbolizes paying respect to, as well as asking permission from, their parents. The bride and groom then go to the church or temple together in the same car. The service is not considered important, and only immediate family attend. The more important event follows at the reception. Then, the photographer takes their pictures in 20 different poses, so they have something to show ttleir children 20 years later. After the photo session, the newlyweds go on to the reception. Tile reception is run by an MC. It begins wittl a welcome speectl. Ttle Speectl is followed by the cake-cutting ceremony. The wedding cake is usually a monstrous size. It is a lapis Surabaya (a layer cake), as the layers symbolize a ladder that one can climb to success. Couples cut the cake from the bottom layer and work their way upwards. The cutting of the cake is the only event at the reception. The bride and groom cut the cake together and feed cake to each other. Then, a piece of the cake is also cut for each of the parents and grandparents, and they, too, are fed by the bride and groom. After the cake-cutting, the guests are invited to shake hands with the newlyweds and their parents on the stage. At more elaborate weddings, there is a sit-down wedding reception. CALENDAR The Chinese follow a lunar calendar that is also linked to the seasons. Each year begins with the Spring Festival which falls in January or February. The traditional calendar follows a 12-year cyde in

4000 BCE, logographic Chinese (S - T, Sinitic) China, Singapore, Thailand, Pg. 12 Vietnam, USA, Canada which each year is represented by an animal. The cycle begins with the rat (1996). Each animal embodies certain characteristics, and in traditional families, it is important to choose a profession and marriage partner that are compatible with one's birth year animal.

CELEBRATIONS

• New Year's, January 1st and first full moon of new year

• Women's Day, March 8th

• Ancestors' Day, April 5th is when all spend the day honouring their ancestors.

• May Day, May 1st is a workers' holiday.

• Youth Day, May 4th

• Children's Day, June 1st

• Red Army Day, August 1st

• National Day, October 1st

• Mao's Birthday, December 23rd/24th

LITERATUREICULTURE

Book of Documents (Book of History), ancient collection of speeches and historical matters

Wen-yan Literary Style Phrases that are usually made up of four characters are equivalent to the phrases used for the final line of proverbs. English also uses the last line of a proverb or the proverb itself to illustrate a point.

EX: Sour grapes. Look before you leap.

Philosophers: Fuzi Kong (Confucius) Lao Zi (Lao Tse)

PoetsJWriters: Bai U, Fu Du, Xueqin Cao, Guanzhong Luo, Naiyan Shi

Poetry is a highly valued form of literature. Chinese drama and song are branches of poetry. Novels are full of rhyming couplets, and storytelling is composed of lyrical speech and song. A poetic quality is important in the fields of diplomacy and official life. It is the mark of an educated person.

Most Chinese indulge in the writing of their own poetry. Poetry is written for all occasions: farewells, gift giving, compliments, celebrations and even complaints. It captures a reflective moment,and what is implied is more important than what is said.

The most priZed poetic form is the four-line long Chlieh (inexhaustible).

4000 BCE, logographic Chinese (S - T, Sinitic) China, Singapore, Thailand, Pg. 13 Vietnam, USA, Canada Arts: • Calligraphy is an art form that is highly developed and respected. • Chinese theatre includes music. Originally, it was performed only by male actors called dan. • Acrobatics, martial arts and stylized dance are other art forms. OTHER • Heroes Many young Cantonese speakers seem enthralled by the prowess of martial arts experts, and so, it is little wonder Bruce Lee and Jackie Chan are their heroes.

• Myths The central myths in Chinese folklore reflect stages of development in Chinese civilization. The first myths' themes are based on the stage that precedes the first dynasty when humans were children of nature, and there was no social order. FU-hsl, who is associated with cooking and the hearth, appears as the first cMlizer. He is also known as the first hunter and fisher, and he introduced marriage and initiation rights. The second cultural hero is Shen-nung (Divine Husbandman) or Yen-ti, Lord of Fire. Innovations such as the hoe and plough leading to agriculture and the market, and, thus, the division of labour are attributed to him. The third cultural hero, Huang-tl, the Yellow Emperor, or August Lord, introduced the bow and arrow, house, pottery, carriage, mortar and pestle, boat and oar, grain planting, musical instruments, the calendar and divination. He founded a capital city that warded off the invasions of nomadic tribes. Emperor Yao is also an important semi-historical cultural hero who is known as the priest king who linked religion with the stars. From this time period, astronomy and calendar-making became associated with the emperor and are symbols of his sovereignty. Following Emperor Yao is Shun, an eastern barbarian. In time, Yao became Shun's servant and this abdication of power to the more worthy adversary was used as a legitimate reason for overthrowing established leaders. Shun, himself, abdicated his power to the Great Yii. He based the Chinese economy on agriculture and recognized the need to harness water. Forced labour was introduced to control the floods. The Great Yii added two features to Chinese society: compulsory labour and control of the waterways. Yii was also the founder of the first Chinese dynasty, Hsla. • Feng Shul (wind and water) The Feng Shul theory was introduced by the Cantonese poet, Po Kwok, 1,700 years ago. The theory's main tenet is that when positive forces are properly channelled in a home, good luck will follow. Many developers and builders in Canada, and other parts of the world, consult geomancers and Feng Shui experts to help them plan houses that will bring luck and prosperity to home dwellers and businesses.

4000 BCE, logographic Chinese (S - T, Sinitic) China, Singapore, Thailand, Pg. 14 Vietnam, USA, Canada Here are some examples: • staircases should not be near the front door lest luck flow out of the house • aligning the front and backlpatio door will also allow luck to escape • a house should not be near a cemetery as negative energy will invade the home • winding streets, rivers, creeks beside the house create strength and energy • it is also good to have running water on the property that runs in the same direction as the door faces, ie: south-west. Yet, the sound of the water shouldn't be heard inside the house as so much positive energy will make the occupants restless, and they will not be able to remain at home • number 4 is never in any part of a house number or floor. Its English sound and the Chinese word for death sound too much alike • the numbers 8 and 9 sound like the words for long life and good luck • at different periods/cycles of time a door needs to be placed in a strategic position to capture the flow of energy (In 1996, the best position was south-west.) • there is no tree in front of the front door as it will block future luck and chances of promotion • a weeping willow on the property will ensure that good luck will flow into the ground • a home should not be located facing an intersection as it resembles a tiger's mouth, and therefore, is dangerous • Superstitions

<> Animals The dragon represents the male and heaven, and so boys' names carry the Chinese word for dragon. The phoenix represents the female. The lion is the animal of imperial power and dignity, and was used to guard the spirit-way to heaven. The tiger is the symbol of strength and authority. The crane is seen as a symbol of long life, and folding 1,000 cranes was believed to ensure the folder long life and health. Snakes and crows are considered bad omens.

<> Colours White is the colour of death and mourning. Black and blue are thought to bring bad luck, yellow means the colour for something broken, while red is the colour of luck.

<> Luck Cantonese speakers will take the symbol for good luck and put it into a box shape and turn it upside-down. It is believed that this way luck, happiness and love will flow down to the person and not flow upwards and escape. During the Spring Festival, this symbol is used in its upside down position. Jade is seen as a stone of health and luck. Children are also encouraged to sit still and not to shake their legs if their legs are crossed; otherwise, they will shake good luck away.

4000 BCE, logographic Chinese (S - T, Sinitic) China, Singapore, Thailand, Pg. 15 Vietnam, USA, Canada • Ying -Yang Symbol

The ying-yang symbol is used on medallions, flags, martial arts paraphernalia and healing arts insignias. The outer circle represents "everything", while the black and white shapes within the circle represent the interaction of two energies, ying (black) - yang (White). In the two hemispheres, the black half has a small white circle in it, and conversely, the white half has a small black circle in it The two halves represent the two primary forces in the universe. The white symbolizes day, positive energy, light, hardness, heat, energy, movement, and sometimes aggression, and is the male symbol. The black symbolizes night, negative energy softness, coolness, calmness, introspection and healing..., and is the female symbol. Ying-yang shows that both halves are complements, making the universe whole. The small circles remind us that in something positive, there is a negative aspect, and in something negative, there is a positive aspect, and we must learn to accept that to benefit the most from both. The shape of the ylng and yang sections of the symbol gives a sense of the continual movement of these two energies, from ying to yang. • Foot-binding There are many legends as to how foot-binding began, as foot-binding did not occur at the same time or in all regions. Eventually, thougl"l, it became widespread. It is generally believed that foot­ binding began in the Tang Dynasty (618-906) and was spread among the imperial family and upper classes by the Song Dynasty~ It took hold among the other classes and areas in China through the subsequent dynasties. In the thousand-year period in which one million women's feet were bound, only the Manchu conquerors, Mongols, Tibetans, the Hakka Chinese and the poorest of the poor did not follow this custom. One of the legends tells that a Chinese prince's conCUbine had such tiny feet, she glided when she walked. She was named the "lily-footed woman", and became the model for others to follow. Some say the palace dancers loosely tied their feet with ribbons, and the grace and the exoticism of the bindings contributed to it becoming fashionable. Foot-binding was attempted to stop the growth of the feet. It usually began when a girl was between four and seven. If the family were poor and needed the girl to help in the fields, binding began later. A bandage of 10 to 20 feet in length and two inches wide was wrapped tightly around the foot, forcing the four small toes under the sole of the foot, literally bending it in half. Then a big stone was put on top and the arch was crushed. This created a narrower and smaller foot with the big toe and heel coming together.

4000 BCE, logographic Chinese (S - T, Sinitic) China, Singapore, Thailand, Pg. 16 Vietnam, USA, Canada Each day the foot was bathed and the bindings reapplied, but tighter. The foot was forced into smaller and smaller shoe sizes. Pus would ooze from the toes, toes would fall off and dead flesh would need to be removed. The girl was in constant pain and could not walk unassisted. This process took about two years. At that point, the foot was "dead". The foot would achieve the ideal size of three inches. At this point, the girl would have to walk with very small steps with all her weight on her heel, causing a tottering gait, and the need of the support of others or a wall. Due to pain, she could only be on her feet for very short periods of time. Gangrene often claimed the life of the girl, with 10 percent of girls not surviving the process. Yet, society demanded the foot be bound. It kept the woman totally dependent on her husband and made sure she stayed at home and faithful. It was also a status symbol as at first, only the very rich could afford to have a girl bound in such fashion as she would need others to care for her and not work. Eventually, only girls with bound feet could marry. The famed writer and scholar Zhu Xi waxed eloquent on the bound foot as he believed that it was in keeping with Confucianism as it reinforced the idea of a woman's subservience to her husband. Bound feet were in keeping with t~le Confucian ethics of cMlity and mial piety. The bound l:oot was also an object of sexuality. Pornography of that time period always depicted the bound foot. It was believed that the process, creating a lotus foot, concentrated the major nerves into one small place, the smaller, the better, and thus, the bound foot was seen as an erogenous zone. Chinese males had the same fascination with the bound foot as Western males have had for breasts.

The Golden Uly foot of three inches was seen as a sign of gentility and high-class. The first thing a perspective mother-in-law would do was to raise the skirts of the girl to see her feet. If they were too big or unbound, no match would be made. This would bring s-harne to the girl and her family. The bound foot was believed to show a woman's character. It took great discipline and acceptance of extreme pain to be bound, and thus, this molded the woman's character. A bound foot also showed she was appropriately attired and was a visible sign of order and control. Unbound feet were signs of chaos, nonconformity and barbarianism. A mother that would not bind her daughter's feet would be despised by the daughter for having a weak soul and condemned the girl to a solitary life with no hope of social standing. In 1895, an anti-foot-binding society was formed in China. It countered the mystique and status of the bound foot in three ways:

1. Western women did not have bound feet, and China lost face among the "barbariansn who ridiculed them for this practice. 2. The advantages of natural feet and disadvantage of bound feet were expounded. 3. Natural foot societies, in which women pledged not to bind their daughters' feet and not allow their sons to marry those with bound feet, were created. Finally, in 1911, it was outlawed during the Revolution of Sun-Yat Sen. Due to the efforts of the anti-foot-binding societies, foot-binding disappeared within a generation. As the bound foot symbolized a period when women were kept subservient at great personal sacrifice and as sexual objects, Chinese movies, depicting the time period prior to 1911, do not

4000 BCE, logographic Chinese (S - T, Sinitic) China, Singapore, Thailand, Pg. 17 Vietnam, USA, Canada include women in bound feet, and Chinese museums will not display the beautifully embroidered silk lotus slippers.

• Inventions o horse collar 3rd century BCE • harness100 years later, allowed horse to pUll 1.5 tons

o wheelbarrow 1st century BCE • 1,300 years later in the West

o plough 3rd century BCE • from iron, arrival in Holland in 17th century CE, began an agricultural revolution

o paper money 9th century CE • used in exchange for coins that were deposited, began in Sweden in 1661

o cast iron 4th century BCE • use of coal and furnaces; toolslweapons were made

o decimal system 14th century BCE • use of characters, wrrtten in columns

o seismograph 2nd century CE • by inventor C~lang Heng, Han Dynasty

o matches 6th century CE • pinewood soaked in sulphur by court ladies during a siege

o paper 2nd century BCE • from hemp fibers

o brandylwhisky 7th century CE • from central Asian tribes whose wine "froze out", left alcohol behind

o kite 4thl5th centuries BCE • used for entertainment, fis~ling and to send messages during war

o rockets 11 th/12th centuries CE· bamboo sticks attached to fireworks

o domestication of dog 12,000BCE

o pottery 7900BCE

o rice/millet cultivation 7500BCE yangtze delta

o silk 3200BCE oink 2500BCE o Irrigation, canals 2400BCE • increase in food production, transport o abacus 190 • the first calculator o porcelain 850 o printed books 868 o canal lock 983

4000 BCE, logographic Chinese (S - T, Sinitic) China, Singapore, Thailand, Pg. 18 Vietnam, USA, Canada o gunpowder 1000 o movable type 1041 o mechanical clock 1092 o magnetic compass 1190 o Toothbrush 1498 with bristles at right angles WORDS FROM MANI)ARIN: China, ginseng (image of man), Japan (rising sun), kowtow (bump head), kung fu (merit master), sampan (three sails), shanghai (on the sea), typhoon (big wind), yin and yang WORDS FROM CANTONESE: chop suey (mixed bits), kumquat, dim sum, gung ho (trigger happy), Iyctlee, tong (meeting place), wok, won ton, yen • Notes You may find among the Chinese from the PRC two areas that are still unbearable for them to . discuss as many witnessed or whose families were the first-hand recipients of these events: the Cultural Revolution and the massacre at Tiananmen Square. The two women who worked on this profile are such examples. Hong Min grew up without a father and lived through the prejudice and pain of having a father removed to be reeducated. His error was answering the government's call as to how China could improve. Wei spoke of how the event of the massacre was the turning point for her in leaving the country. Due to world-wide pressure on human rights, China does not advertise the birth control methods that it still employs. It is still following the policy of one family, one ctlild. Only srnall ethnic groups are allowed two children. During the 60s and early 70s, this policy was allowed to lapse for those who had the means to support other children. City families typically consisted of ttlree children. However, as the population topped one billion, the policy was reintroduced with a vengeance. Under this policy, when a woman becomes pregnant for a second time, she is visited by government workers to encourage her to abort. She could be even in her seventh month, and she is still encouraged to have an abortion. If she has the child, the child could be forcibly taken from her and euthanized or put into an orphanage. For the mother to keep the child, she would lose her job and her housing. She would also have to pay a penalty. The child would not be registered, and thus, have no name and no 1.0. card. To receive food, education and housing, a child must be registered. If the mother tries to flee to the city or to family members, she jeopardizes ttle family for harbouring her. This policy is particularly harsh to those who have a daughter. Basically, the parents' pension plan is their son, who is obliged to care for them in their old age. For the farmer, a son means another field hand. As a result of this policy, many female fetuses are aborted. SOURCEs/SUGGESTED REFERENCES films: o The Last Emperor o Tears of the Bride o Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon o Enter the Dragon

4000 BCE, logographic Chinese (S - T, Sinitic) China, Singapore, Thailand, Pg. 19 Vietnam, USA, Canada books: o Chong, Denise The Concubine's Children o Choy, Wayson The Jade Peony o Clavell, James TaiPan o Lord, Bao Li Legacies o Tan, Amy Joy Luck Club o Tan, Amy Kitchen God's Wife o Tan, Amy One Hundred Secrets o Tan, Amy The Bonesetter's Daughter

Axtell, Roger E. Do's and Taboos Around the World John Wiley and Sons Inc. New York 1993

Collier Encyclopaedia Vol.6

Coulmas, F. Writing Systems of the World Blackwell Publishing Oxford 1992

Enc}/Clopaedia Britannica Languages of the World Vol.22 Ed.15

Katzner, Kenneth The Languages of the World Routledge and Kagan Paul Ltd Guernsey, Channel Islands

Reader's Digest The Good Luck Charm of Feng Shui April,1996

Toronto Star Chinese Philosophy Challenge for Builder August 5,1995 1995

WEBSITES • askeric.oom • mayrand.org • ciaworldbook.com • mvkarate.com • ethnologue.com • omniglot.com • krysstal.com • unesco.org • lonely planet.com • US Library of Congress - World Studies Reference linguistic/Cultural "ambassadors": Hong Min Cao, Wei Guo

4000 BCE, logographic Chinese (S - T, Sinitic) China, Singapore, Thailand, Pg.20 Vietnam, USA, Canada