Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-42216-1 — an Introduction to Modern Astrophysics Bradley W

Home , 3C 47, Abell 370, FH Serpentis, Gliese 784, M96 Group, NGC 1265

Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-42216-1 — An Introduction to Modern Astrophysics Bradley W. Carroll , Dale A. Ostlie Index More Information

Index

υ Andromedae, 849 661–667, 718, 857, 1111, Adams, John Couch, 775 1E1740.7−2942, 932 1123 Adams, Walter, 558 2003 UB313, 827, 828 in an AGN, 1111–1113 Adaptive optics, 159 21-cm radiation, 405 luminosity, 663–664, 693 Adiabatic density fluctuations, 2M1207, 855 radial extent of, 665 1248–1251 2MASS catalog, 891 structure of, 1113 Adiabatic gamma, 320 2MASSWJ1207334−393254, around supermassive black Adiabatic gas law, 320 855 hole, 1112 Adiabatic process, 320 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey temperature profile, 662–664 Adiabatic sound speed, 321 (2dFGRS), 1076–1077 viscosity, 661 Adiabatic temperature gradient, 3C 236, 1095, 1125 Accretion formation of planets, 321–322, 324 3C 273, 1096, 1097, 1126, 1128 863, 866 Adoration of the Magi (Giotto), 3C 279, 1105 Accretion luminosity, 1111, 1121 817, 818 3C 324, 1065 Accretion shock, 533 Advanced Camera for Surveys 3C 47, 1106 Achondrites, 840 (ACS), 161 47 Tucana, 894 Acoustic frequency, 505 Advanced Satellite for 51 Pegasi, 848 Acoustic oscillations, Cosmology and 55 Cancri, 850 1259–1262, 1273 Astrophysics, 170 61 Cygni, 59, 1038 in early universe, 1252, 1259, AGB, see Asymptotic giant 1263–1267 branch A0035–335, 1006 model of, 1263–1267 Age-metallicity relation, A0620−00, 644, 672, 698 Active corona, 390 885–886 Abell 2199, 1014 Active galactic nuclei (AGN) AGN, see Active galactic nuclei Abell 2218, 1136, 1171, 1255 central engine of, 1109–1110 Airy disk, 146 Abell 370, 1136 classes of, 1107 Airy, Sir George, 146, 775 Abell 697, 1171 evolution of, 1129–1130 Albedo, 350, 725 Aberrations, 144, 150–151 galactic companions, 1129 Aldebaran, 222–224 Absolute magnitude, 61 polarization, 1104 Alexandre Correia, Alexandre, Absorption, 241 spectra of, 1087, 1114, 741 Absorption coefficient, 241 1116–1120 Alfvén speed, 379 Absorption lines, 112, 126, 203 superluminal velocities, 1125 Alfvén waves, 378, 379 photosphere, 362 synchrotron radiation, 1114 Alfvén radius, 692 Abundance of elements timescales of variability, 1104 Alfvén, Hannes, 378, 820 in Sun, 541–542 unified model of, 1108–1121 Algols, 672 Acceleration equation, 1161, X-ray generation by, 1115 ALH84001, 764–766, 842, 862 1192 Active galaxies, 1085–1139 Allende meteorite, 838–839, 862 Accretion, 423 Active optics, 156 Allowed transitions, 136 Accretion disks, 429, 643, Active prominences, 388 ALMA (Atacama Large

I-1

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-42216-1 — An Introduction to Modern Astrophysics Bradley W. Carroll , Dale A. Ostlie Index More Information

I-2 Index

Millimeter Array), 167 Apogalacticon, 904 transparency, 167 Alpher, Ralph, 1162, 1164 Apparent magnitude, 60, 75 of Triton, 800 Altitude–azimuth coordinate Archaeoastronomy, 15–16 of Uranus, 778, 785 system, 8 Arcseconds (unit), 58 of Venus, 741–743 Altitude–azimuth mount, 158 Arcturus, 112 Atmospheric escape parameter, Alvarez, Luis, 843 Arecibo Observatory, 163, 164 728 Alvarez, Walter, 843 Aristarchus, 5 Atomic mass units, 299 AM Herculis stars, 675, 685 Arnett, W. David, 983 Atomic structure, 119–127 Amalthea, 722 Asteroid belt, 716–717 Bohr atom, 121–125 Ambipolar diffusion, 421 Asteroids, 717, 830–838 early models, 119 Amorphous galaxies, 945 Amors, 832 electron orbitals, 133 Anders–Grevesse abundances, Apollos, 832 excited state, 124 250 Atens, 832 first excited state, 212 Anderson, Carl, 136, 550 classification, 835–837 ground state, 124, 212 Andromeda galaxy, 887, 888, Hirayama families, 833 orbits, 124 959, 966, 1059, 1060 internal heating, 837 transitions, 136 Angle of inclination, 184, 185, Kirkwood gaps, 831 AU (astronomical unit), 25 188–190 reflection spectra, 841 Aurora, 753 Angles spacecraft missions to study, australis, 373 law of cosines, 17 833–835 borealis, 373 law of sines, 17 Asteroseismology, 512 Australian Virtual Observatory, Angstrom (unit), 65 Asthenosphere, 751, 752 172 Angular diameter distance, Astigmatism, 151 Autumnal equinox, 10, 11 1215–1217 Astrogrid, 172 Avogadro’s number, 318 Angular magnification, 154 Astrometric binary star system, Azimuth, 8 Angular momentum, 43, 133 181 of black hole, 640 Astrometry, 59 B2FH, 1164 in Solar System, 858–859 Astronomical unit (AU), 25 Baade’s window, 892 quantization, 121, 123 Astrophysical Virtual Baade, Walter, 578, 892, 1041, quantum numbers, 133 Observatory project, 172 1163 Angular power spectrum, Asymptotic giant branch (stellar Babcock, Horace, 391 1267–1270 evolution), 463, 478 Backer, Donald, 701 Anomalous Zeeman effect, 135 early, 463, 464 Bahcall, John, 357, 360, 1183 Ant nebula, 473 mass loss and, 467–468 Bahcall–Soneira model, 980 Antenna pattern Atacama Large Millimeter Array Baker, Norman, 496 radio telescope, 165 (ALMA), 167 Baldwin, Ralph, 842 Antennae galaxies, 1009, 1011 Atlas, 805 Balmer jump, 247 Antimatter, 136, 308 Atmosphere Balmer series (Balmer lines), matter–antimatter of Earth, 746–749 120, 121, 126, 127, 203, annihilation, 1246 of Europa, 796 204, 215, 217 matter–antimatter asymmetry of giant planets, 778, 785, 788 Balmer, Johann, 120, 125 in early universe, of Jupiter, 777, 785 Bappu, K. Vainu, 1039 1245–1247 of Mars, 767 Barium binaries, 673 Antineutrinos, 308 of Neptune, 778, 785 Barnard, Edward, 1040 Antonucci, Robert, 1108 of extrasolar planets, 854 Barnes, Joshua, 1012 Apastron, 557 of Pluto, 816 Barred spiral galaxies, 942, 946, Aperture, 145 of Saturn, 777, 785 947 of telescope, 154, 163 of Sun, 777 Barrier penetration, 132 Aphelion, 26, 47 of Titan, 797–798 Barringer’s Crater, 843

Index I-3

Baryonic matter, 1150, 1152, Binding energy, 299 Blue magnitude, 75, 76 1179 per nucleon, 314–315 Blue stragglers, 478 Baryons, 1230 Birkhoff’s theorem, 1161 Blue supergiant stars (BSG), 522 Basalts, 756 Birkhoff, G. D., 1161 Blueshift, 98 BCDs, see Blue compact dwarf Birth line, 429 Bode’s rule, 716, 717 galaxies BL Lac objects, 1106, 1107 Bode, Johann Elert, 716 Bell, Jocelyn, 586, 587, 589 BL Lacertae, 1105 Bohr atom, 121–125 Bender, Ralf, 989 Black holes, 534, 583, 633–646 Bohr radius, 124 Benz, Willy, 740 angular momentum of, 640 Bohr, Niels, 121, 122 BeppoSAX spacecraft, 546 binary supermassive black Bok globules, 408, 409 Bernoulli, Johann, 30 holes, 1015–1016 Bok, Bart, 408 Beryllium defined, 635 Bolometric correction, 75–77 abundance in Sun, 541 ergosphere, 641 Bolometric magnitude, 60, 75 Bessel, Friedrich, 59, 557, 1038 evaporation, 136 Boltzmann equation, 209–213, β Cephei stars, 491, 498 event horizon, 635 215 Beta Pictoris, 437, 439, 440, 857 formation, 689 Boltzmann factor, 209 Betelgeuse, 68, 69, 203, 221, 224 frame dragging, 640 Boltzmann, Ludwig, 70, 206 Bethe, Hans, 311, 1162 Hawking radiation, 644–646 Bolyai, János, 1185 Big Bang, 19, 1057–1058, 1163 magnetic field of, 1114–1115 Bondi, Hermann, 1163 ,see also Early universe mass ranges of, 639 Bonnor–Ebert mass, 414 cooling of the universe “no hair” theorem, 640 Boomerang observatory, 1263 following, 1164 primordial, 639, 645 Boron flatness problem, 1238, 1244 proof of existence of, 643–644 abundance in Sun, 541 horizon problem, 1236, 1243 Schwarzschild radius, 635 Bose, S. N., 136 monopole problem, 1238, singularity, 635 Bose–Einstein statistics, 294 1244 stellar-mass, 639, 643, 645, Bosons, 136, 294, 1230, 1231 nucleosynthesis, 1177–1179 698 Bottom-up galaxy formation, problems with, 1236–1238 supermassive black hole in 1256–1258 solutions to problems with, Sgr A*, 929–931 Bound–bound transitions, 245 1243–1245 supermassive black holes, Bound–free absorption, 245 Big blue bump, 1089, 1098, 959–962 Boundary conditions 1113, 1114 Black widow pulsars, 702 stellar structure equations, 332 Binary Maker (software), 195 Blackbody, 68 Boxiness, 989–991 Binary stars, 180–195 Blackbody radiation, 68–74, 119, Brachistochrone problem, 31 accretion disks, 661–667 232, 234, 237 Brahe, Tycho, 23, 24, 59, 524 classification, 180–182, 658, energy density, 234 Bremsstrahlung, 246 659 radiation pressure, 236–237, Brightness computer modeling, 193–195 295 magnitude scales, 60–63 computer program for, source function, 257 of image in telescope, A-18–A-22 Blandford, Roger, 1114 151–154 evolution, 669–670 Blandford–Znajek mechanism, Broad-line radio galaxies interacting, 668–673 1115, 1122 (BLRGs), 1092, 1107, mass determination, 183–185 Blazars, 1105, 1107, 1114, 1128 1116 mass function, 188 Blizzard line, 860 Broadening mass transfer rate, 658–661 BLRGs, see Broad-line radio of spectral lines, 268–271 radial velocity, 186–187 galaxies Brown dwarfs, 204, 428 Binary X-ray systems, 689 Blue compact dwarf galaxies distinguishing from extrasolar eclipsing, 694–696 (BCDs), 984, 985 planets, 855 pulsars, 691 Blue edge, 497 Brown, Mike, 826

I-4 Index

Bruno, Giordano, 195 CCDs (charge-coupled devices), 827 Brunt–Väisälä frequency, 508 160–161 density and compensation, 814 BSG, see Blue supergiant stars cD galaxies, 984, 985, discovery of, 813 Bulk modulus, 321 1013–1015 formation of, 815 Bunsen, Robert, 111 CDM, see Cold dark matter orbit, 814–816 Buoyancy frequency, 508 Celestial equator, 3, 10, 12 Chauvin, Gael, 195, 855 Burbidge, Geoffrey, 1163 Celestial poles, 3 Chemical differentiation, 730 Burbidge, Margaret, 1163 Celestial sphere, 3, 8 Chemical elements, 309 Burkert, Andreas, 1019 altitude–azimuth coordinate Big Bang nucleosynthesis, Burney, Venetia, 813 system, 8 1177–1179 Butcher, Harvey, 1030 daily and seasonal changes, in Sun, 277–278 Butcher–Oemler effect, 1030 9–10 isotopes, 298 Butler, R. Paul, 195, 196 equatorial coordinate system, nucleus, 298 Butterfly diagram, 381, 382 11–12 Chicxulub site (Mexico), 843 Butterfly planetary nebulae, 473 motion, 16 Chiron, 828 BY Draconis stars, 672 precession, 12 Chondrites spherical trigonometry, 17–19 carbonaceous, 840, 844, 862 CAIs, see Calcium- and Centaurs, 828, 829 ordinary, 840 aluminum-rich inclusions Centaurus A, 162, 1007, 1095 Chondrules, 840 CAL 87, 699 Centaurus group, 1061 formation of, 868 Calcium Centaurus X-3, 691, 695 Chromatic aberration, 150 spectral lines, 218 Center of mass, 40 Chromosphere, 364–365 Calcium- and aluminum-rich Center-of-mass reference frame, Circumstellar disks, 437, 438 inclusions (CAIs), 839 39–43 formation, 440 formation of, 868 Centrifugal force, 654 CK Vulpeculae, 680 Calendars, 14 Cepheid distance scale, CL 0939+4713, 1064, 1065 Callisto, 716, 790, 791, 796, A-2 1039–1041 Clark, Alvan G., 557 evolution, 792 Cepheids, 483–487, 1039–1041 Classical Cepheids, 483, 486, surface of, 794 Cerenkov light, 358 487, 489, 491 Cameron, Alastair G. W., 740 Ceres, 716, 717, 830, 837 Classical KBOs, 828, 829 Canada-France-Hawaii Cerro La Silla (Chile), 148 Classical novae, 673, 680–685 Telescope, 149 Cerro Pachón (Chile), 148, 159 Close binary star systems Cannon, Annie Jump, 202, 203 Cerro Paranal (Chile), 148, 159 evolution, 670, 671 Carbon Cerro Tololo Inter-American gravity in, 653–658 fusion, 313–314 Observatory, 148 Clumps, 408 Carbon stars, 466 Cetus, 483 Cluster ages, 476 Carbonaceous meteorites, 403 CfA redshift surveys, 1073–1076 Clusters (galaxies), 1058–1076 Carina Nebula, 433 CGRO (Compton Gamma Ray classification of, 1058 Cartwheel galaxy, 1005, 1006 Observatory), 169, 170 intracluster gas, 1066, 1069 Casimir effect, 1239 Chadwick, James, 136, 578 intracluster medium, 1066 Casimir, Hendrick, 1239 Chandra X-ray Observatory, 170 irregular, 1059 Cassegrain telescope, 157, 158 Chandrasekhar limit, 468, luminous arcs in, 1135 Cassini division, 801, 802, 805, 569–571 poor, 1058 868 neutron stars, 583 regular, 1059 Cassini–Huygens mission, 777, Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan, rich, 1058 797 170 superclusters, 1069 Cassiopeia A, 162 Charge-coupled devices (CCDs), CMB, see Cosmic microwave Cat’s eye nebula, 472 160–161 background Cataclysmic variables, 672, 673 Charon, 716, 717, 723, 813–816, CMBFAST (software), 1268

Index I-5

CME, see Coronal mass ejections Comets, 717, 816–825, 829 stellar, 322–329 CNO cycle, 311–312, 522 coma, 817 stellar pulsations and, 498, COBE (Cosmic Background composition of, 820, 821 507, 508 Explorer), 168, 892, 1166 deuterium-to-hydrogen ratio, Convection zone Cold dark matter (CDM), 918, 830 solar, 511 1233, 1256 “dirty snowball” theory, 817, Convergent point, 920 Collapsar model, 548, 549 820, 822 Converging lens, 142 Collision cross section, 240 disconnection events, 820, 822 Converging mirror, 143 Collisional broadening, 270 halo, 817 Cooling Collisions, 805 Kuiper belt, 826 of white dwarfs, 572–577 during formation of Solar long-period comets, 825 Cooling function, 1021 System, 860 nucleus, 817 Cooling timescale, 1020 of meteorites with Earth, Oort cloud, 825–826 Coordinate distance, 1148 842–844 short-period comets, 825 Coordinate speed, 630 Color spacecraft missions for study, Coordinate speed of light, 635, of stars, 75 820–825 636 Color excess, 402 sun-grazing comets, 825 Coordinate systems Color index, 75–79 tails, 371, 373, 817–819 altitude–azimuth (horizon), 8 Color temperature, 239 Comins, Neil F., A-26 equatorial, 11–12 Color–color diagram, 79 Comoving coordinate, 1148, Coordinated universal time Color–magnitude diagrams, 475, 1190, 1209–1210 (UTC), 13 477 Comoving space density, 1100, Copernican model, 5–7 Column density, 272 1102 Copernicus, Nicolaus, 5, 7 Coma, 151 Compact sources, 1104 Core-collapse supernovae, Coma cluster, 993, 999, 1000, Compton effect, 118 529–541 1049, 1064, 1066, 1067, Compton Gamma Ray long–soft GRBs and, 547 1069, 1075 Observatory (CGRO), pulsars from, 592 Comet 1861 I, 842 169, 170 Core-dominant radio sources, Comet Biela, 842 Compton scattering, 247 1104 Comet Borrelly, 823 Compton wavelength, 119 Coriolis force, 654, 730–732 Comet Churyumov– Compton, Arthur H., 118 Corona, 366–369, 390 Gerasimenko, Comte, Auguste, 111 Coronal holes, 370–372 824 Conduction, 315 Coronal mass ejections (CME), Comet Encke, 842 Conic sections, 28, 45 389, 390 Comet Giacobini–Zinner, 821, Conjunction, 6 COROT, 856 823, 842 Conservation of energy, 39 Corotation radius, 967 Comet Halley, 816, 825, 842 Constancy of speed of light, 88, Corotation resonance (CR), 980, spacecraft rendezvous with, 90 981 820–823 Constants (software), A-16 Correlation function, 1079 Comet Hyakutake, 820, 822 Constellations Cosines Comet Kohoutek, 825 table of, A-3–A-4 law of, 17 Comet Mrkos, 816 Constitutive relations, 331 Cosmic Background Explorer Comet P/Shoemaker–Levy 9, Constructive interference, 64 (COBE), 168 786–788, 823 Contact binary, 658, 659 Cosmic Background Explorer Comet SOHO-6, 825 Continuous spectrum, 68 Satellite (COBE), 892 Comet Swift–Tuttle, 842 Continuum, 245 Cosmic Censorship, Law of, 636 Comet Tempel 1, 824 Continuum opacity, 248 Cosmic microwave background Comet West, 825 Convection, 315 (CMB), 1057, Cometary dust, 818–820 criterion for, 325 1162–1183, 1247, 1254

I-6 Index

anisotropy of, 1270–1273 Critical density, 1150 Deceleration parameter, 1162 dipole anisotropy, 1167–1168 Cross section, 240, 246, 303 Declination, 11 discovery of, 1165–1166 Crustal plates, 750 Decoupling, 1180, 1247, 1254 origin of, 1179–1183 Crystallization Deep Impact, 823 smoothness of, 1237, 1239 white dwarfs, 576 Deep Space 1 spacecraft, 823 Sunyaev–Zel’dovich effect, Curtis, Herber D., 941 Defects, 1238, 1245 1169, 1171, 1218 Curvature density fluctuations, Deferent, 3, 4 Cosmic rays, 385, 386, 410, 1248 Deflagration, 689 550–553 Curvature of field, 151 Degeneracy sources, 550–553 Curvature of spacetime, ,see also Electron degeneracy; Cosmic string, 1245 1185–1190 Neutron degeneracy Cosmological constant, 1190 Curvature radiation, 592 complete, 452 Cosmological distance ladder, Curve of growth, 273–276 conditions for, 565–566 1039 Cutoff frequency, 116 electron degeneracy pressure, Cosmological principle, Cutoff wavelength, 116 563, 567–570 1145–1146 Cyclic universe, 1273 Fermi energy, 563–565 Cosmological redshift, 1054, Cyclotron frequency, 686 neutron degeneracy pressure, 1055, 1099, 1199–1201 Cygnus A, 162, 163, 1090–1092, 578 Cosmology, 1144–1218 1123–1125 Degenerate gases, 452, 563–569 ,see also Early universe Cygnus Loop, 538 Degenerate orbitals, 133, 452 cosmic microwave Cygnus X-1, 644, 672, 698 Degenerate system, 210 background (CMB), Degrees of freedom, 1172, 1173 1162–1183 D–σ relation, 1048–1050 Deimos, 769 cosmological principle, da Costa, L. Nicolaci, 1076 δ Scuti stars, 490, 491, 512 1145–1146, 1247, 1254 Dactyl, 830, 833 Density fluctuations formation of first stars and Damping profile, 270 in early universe, 1247–1251, galaxies, 1255–1256 Damping wings, 271 1253, 1259 inflation, 1238, 1241–1244 Dark cloud complexes, 408 Density parameter, 1151, 1152 matter–antimatter asymmetry, Dark energy, 687, 1191, 1240 total, 1193 1245–1247 Dark matter, 914, 1232–1233 Density waves, 867 Newtonian, 1144–1162 Dark matter halo, 884 theory, 967–968, 981 observational, 1199–1218 Milky Way, 896–897, 914 Descartes, René, 857 Olbers’s paradox, 1145 Darwin mission, 857 Destructive interference, 64 pressureless “dust” model of Darwin, Charles, 1144 Detached binary, 658, 659 universe, 1146–1156 Darwin, George, 760 Detonation, 689 relativistic, 1183–1199 Davidson, Kris, 520 Deuterium-to-hydrogen ratio two-component model of the Davis, Don R., 761 (D/H ratio), 830 universe, 1170, 1175 Davis, Raymond, 356, 359 Dicke, Robert, 1165, 1166 Coudé telescope, 157, 158 de Broglie frequency, 128 Difference equations, 333 Coulomb barrier, 301 de Broglie wavelength, 128 Differential star count, 880–881 Coulomb’s law, 121 de Broglie, Louis, 127, 128 Diffraction Counterjet de Sitter, Willem, 1053, 1191 circular aperture, 146–148 radio galaxy, 1092 de Vaucouleurs profile, 892, 950, single-slit, 145–146 Cox, John P., 496 951 Diffraction grating, 113 Crab Nebula, 524, 525, 591, 592, de Vaucouleurs, Gerard, 945, Diffuse H I clouds, 406 595, 599, 601 1069 Diffuse molecular clouds, 407 Crab pulsar, 591, 594, 599 De-excitations, 245 Digitized Sky Survey, 172 Cretaceous–Tertiary boundary, Debris disks, 438, 857 Dipole anisotropy 843 Decaying orbits, 148 of CMB, 1168

Index I-7

Dirac equation, 135, 136 light, 63–65 eras and events, 1231 Dirac, Paul A. M., 135 DQ Herculis stars, 681, 685 false vacuum, 1241, 1243 Diskiness, 989–991 Draper, Henry, 203 formation of first stars and Disruption radius, 692 Dressler, Alan, 1028, 1070 galaxies, 1255–1256 Dissipative collapse model, Dreyer, J. L. E., 941 fundamental particles, 1020–1023 Drifting subpulses, 595 1230–1232 Distance Dunlop, James S., 1103, 1104 inflation, 1238, 1241–1244 angular diameter distance, Dust clouds, see Interstellar dust matter–antimatter asymmetry, 1215–1217 Dust formation phase 1245–1247 luminosity distance, classical novae, 685 origin of structure, 1247–1275 1211–1212 Dust grains, 409, 411 Silk damping, 1252 proper distance, 1189, 1211 “Dust” model of universe, Early-type galaxies, 943, 945 to most remote objects, 1201 1146–1156 Early-type stars, 202, 220 units of, 58 Dust-lane elliptical galaxies, Earth, 715, 745–754 Distance measurement 1006, 1007 atmosphere of, 726–727, 729, brightest galaxy in a cluster, Dwarf elliptical galaxies (dE), 746–749 1050 984, 985, 987, 989 Earth–Moon distance, 722 Cepheids, 1039–1041 Dwarf novae, 673, 675–680 formation of, 857, 866 D–σ relation, 1048–1050 mass transfer rate, 677–678 global warming, 748 extragalactic distance scale, Dwarf spheroidal galaxies greenhouse effect, 725, 1038–1051 (dSph), 891, 984, 985, 747–748 luminosity functions, 987 interior structure of, 749–751 1045–1047 Dwarf spirals, 945 magnetic field of, 753 novae, 1044 Dwarf stars, 221 meteorite collisions with, secondary distance indicators, Dyce, Rolf B., 737 842–844 1044 Dynamical friction, 1001–1004 moon of, see Moon (of Earth) supernovae, 1041 Dynamical instability, 570 orbit, 6, 9, 10 surface brightness fluctuation pulsating stars, 503 plate tectonics, 750–751 method, 1047 white dwarfs, 570 precession, 12 Tully–Fisher relation, 1048 Dynamical timescale, 1020 rotation, 10 Distance modulus, 61 seismology, 749, 750 Distances E corona, 367 sources of internal heat, 752 motion-based methods, E-mode, 1271 synchronous orbit, 723 919–922 Eagle Nebula, 433, 434 tides, 719–722 Distortion of field, 151 Early universe, 1230–1275 weather systems, 732 Diurnal motion, 8 ,see also Big Bang; Earthquakes, 749 Diverging lens, 142 Cosmology Eccentricity, 26, 187 Diverging mirror, 143 acoustic oscillations, 1252, Eclipsing binary star system, Domain wall, 1245 1259, 1263–1267 181, 186–193 Doppler broadening, 269–270 Big Bang nucleosynthesis, Eclipsing binary X-ray pulsars, Doppler cores, 271 1177–1179 694–696 Doppler shift cosmic microwave Eclipsing semidetached binary light, 97 background origin, systems, 667 sound, 97 1179–1183 Ecliptic, 9 spectrum binary, 181–182 dark matter, 1232–1233 Eddington approximation, transverse, 98 density fluctuations, 262–263, 360 Doppler, Christian, 97, 98 1247–1251, 1253, 1259 Eddington luminosity limit, Double-slit experiment energy of the vacuum, 341–342, 520, 603, 1104 electrons, 128, 129 1239–1241 Eddington, Sir Arthur Stanley,

I-8 Index

262, 488, 494, 495, 559, Electroweak theory, 359 Epicycles, 3, 4, 7 612 Electroweak unification, 1236 Epoch, 13 Eddington–Barbier relation, 280 Elements, see Chemical elements ǫ mechanism, 495 Edgeworth, Kenneth E., 826 Elements (Euclid), 1183 Equants, 4 Edgeworth–Kuiper belt, 826 Ellipse, 25–28, 45 Equation of radiative transfer, Effective gravitational potential, Elliptical galaxies, 942, see Transfer equation 655, 656 983–989, 1014 Equatorial coordinate system, Effective radius, 950 boxiness and diskiness, 11–12 Effective temperature, 70, 238 989–991 Equatorial coordinates Eggen, Lynden–Bell, Sandage characteriestics of, 985 transformation to/from collapse model, see ELS classification of, 984 Galactic coordinates, collapse model color of, 986 900, 902 Eggen, Olin J., 1016 dust and gas in, 985–986 Equatorial mount, 158 Einstein cross, 1135 Faber–Jackson Relation, 987 Equinox, 10, 11 Einstein Observatory, 170 formation of, 1028 Equipotential surface, 656, 657 Einstein ring, 1133 fundamental plane, 988 Equivalence principle, 613–616, Einstein source, 932 mergers of, 1013–1015 619 Einstein’s field equations, 622, metallicity and, 958, 985, 986 Equivalent widths, 267 630, 641, 643 morphology–density relation, Eros, 834–836 Einstein’s postulates, 88–90 1028 Eruptive prominences, 388, 389 Einstein, Albert, 20, 63, 71, 87, rotation of, 988–989 Escape speed, 39 116, 117, 119, 609, 612, shells, 1014 Eta Carinae, 433, 518–520 614–615, 1055, 1190, surface brightness of, 985, 986 Ether, 84 1191 Elliptical geometry, 1184, 1185 Euclid, 1183–1184 Einstein–Rosen bridge, 642 Elliptical orbits, 23–29, 185, 187 Euclid’s Fifth postulate, Eisenhauer, Frank, 882 ELS collapse model, 1016–1017 1184–1185 Electromagnetic spectrum, 66 Emden, Robert, 335 Euclidean geometry, 1184 transparancy of Earth’s Emission, 252 Eudoxus of Cnidus, 3 atmosphere towards, 167 Emission coefficient, 256 Eulerian codes, 333 Electromagnetic waves, 65 Emission lines, 112, 126, 203 Europa, 716, 790, 791, 795 Poynting vector, 66 T Tauri stars, 434 evolution, 792 radiation pressure, 67 Emission nebulae, 431 orbit, 793 Electron degeneracy pressure, Encke gap, 801 surface of, 793, 795 563, 567–570 Endothermic reactions, 314 European Southern Observatory, Electron orbitals, 133 Energy 148 Electron scattering, 246–247 Newtonian mechanics, 37–39 Evanescent wave, 132 Electron screening, 306 quantization, 71–75 EVLA (Expanded Very Large Electron spin, 135 relativistic kinetic energy, Array), 166 Electron–positron annihilation, 102–104 Evolutionary tracks, 422, 423, 1231 rest energy, 103 426 Electrons stellar energy sources, Excitation temperature, 238 discovery, 119 296–315 Excitations, 245 double-slit experiment, 128, Energy conservation, 39 Excited state, 124 129 Energy density Exclusion principle, 135, 136 mass of, 299 blackbody radiation, 234 Exoplanets, see Extrasolar orbitals, 133 of relativistic particles, 1173 planets orbits, 124 Energy transport, 315–317 Exosphere, 726, 727 transitions, 136 Entropy, 330 Exothermic reactions, 314 Electroweak era, 1231, 1232 Epicycle frequency, 973 Expanded Very Large Array

Index I-9

(EVLA), 166 Filling factor, 1119, 1120 Fundamental plane, 988 Expansion of the universe, Fireball expansion phase FUSE, see Far Ultraviolet 1052–1058, 1207 classical novaes, 684 Spectroscopic Explorer Extinction, see Interstellar First dredge-up phase, 461 Fusion, 299 extinction First excited state, 212 of carbon and oxygen, Extinction coefﬁcient, 401 First overtone, 492, 493 313–314 Extrasolar planets, 195–198, Fisher, J. Richard, 952 CNO cycle, 311–312, 343 714, 848–857 Fission reaction, 299 of helium, 312 atmosphere of, 854 Five-minute solar oscillations, proton–proton chain (PP I), brown dwarfs distinguished 509 309–311 from, 855 Flare stars, 392 triple alpha process, 312 density of, 853 Flash spectrum, 365 Fusion crusts, 838 formation of, 867 Flatness problem, 1238, 1244 future search missions, Fleming, Williamina P., 202 G-dwarf problem, 1020 856–857 Flocculent spirals, 964, 965 g-modes, 505, 506, 508, 509, 511 image of, 855 stochastic, self-propagating white dwarfs, 561 mass distribution of, 850 star formation (SSPSF), Gaia mission, 59, 172, 922 metallicity of, 852–853 983 Galactic center, 882, 922 multi-planet systems, 849 Flora family, 833 high-energy emission lines orbital eccentricity in, Fluence, 544 from, 931–932 850–852 Fluid equation, 1161, 1191 mass distribution near, radii of, 853 Fluid mechanics, 316 923–926 reﬂex radial velocity to detect, Flux, 60 radio sources in, 926–929 848 Focal length, 142, 154 Galactic clusters, 474 Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer, Focal plane, 143–144 Galactic coordinate system, 170 Focal points, 26, 142 898–901 Focal ratio, 153 Galactic evolution, 1016–1032, F corona, 367 Forbidden transitions, 136 1064 f-mode, 505 Force-carrying particles, 1230 bottom-up formation, Faber, Sandra, 987, 1070 Fowler, Ralph H., 563 1256–1258 Faber–Jackson relation, 987, Fowler, William, 1163 dissipative collapse model, 1048 Fragmentation 1020–1023 Fabricius, David, 483 of collapsing clouds, 417–419, ELS collapse model, Faint ancient Sun paradox, 747 430 1016–1018 False vacuum, 1241, 1243 Frail, Dale, 195 G-dwarf problem, 1020 Fanaroff, B. L., 1105 Frame dragging, 640 hierarchical merger model, Fanaroff–Riley luminosity Fraunhofer lines, 111, 114, 115 1023, 1028 classes, 1105 Fraunhofer, Joseph, 202 initial mass function (IMF), Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Free–free absorption, 246 1018, 1020 Explorer (FUSE), 890 Free–free opacity, 246 star formation rate (SFR), Fast novae, 681 Free-fall timescale, 416, 425, 446 1018, 1020 Fath, Edward A., 1085 Frenk, Carlos, 918 stellar birthrate function, 1018 Fermi energy, 563–565 Frequency, 63 thick-disk formation, Fermi, Enrico, 135, 308, 552 Friedmann equation, 1190–1197 1025–1027 Fermi–Dirac statistics, 294 Friedmann, Aleksandr, 1190 thin-disk formation, 1027 Fermions, 135–136, 294, 563, FU Orionis events, 860, 861, 869 top-down process, 1256, 1257 564, 1230 FU Orionis stars, 436 Galactic fountain model, 890 FH Serpentis, 682 Fundamental blue edge, 470 Galactic Legacy Mid-Plane Field stars, 894 Fundamental mode, 492, 493 Survey Extraordinaire

I-10 Index

(GLIMPSE), 893 classification, 547 Geosynchronous orbit, 723 Galaxies models, 548–550 Giacconi, Riccardo, 359 ,see also Milky Way Galaxy short–hard, 547 Giant elliptical galaxies (gE), Bahcall–Soneira model, 980 sources of, 544–547 989 brightness of background sky Gamow peak, 305 Giant molecular clouds (GMCs), and, 950 Gamow, George, 305, 1162, 1163 407, 410, 414, 417 classification of, 942–948 Ganymede, 716, 776, 790, 791 Giant planets, 715, 718, 775–790 clusters, 1058–1076 evolution, 792 atmosphere of, 778, 785, 788 color of, 956, 1028 orbit, 793 cooling timescale, 785 elliptical, 943 surface of, 794, 796 cores of, 783 ellipticity of, 943, 989 Gas giants, 715 energy budgets and effective formation of, 1016–1032, composition of, 859 temperatures, 784 1255–1256 formation of, 865 gravitational moments, 781 fundamental plane, 988 moment of inertia, 781 interior structure of, 785, 786 groups, 1058–1061 resonance effects, 868 internal heat of, 784 Hubble sequence, 940–948 Gases magnetic fields, 790 Hubble type, 942, 948, 951, adiabatic gas law, 320 mass-radius relationship, 778 983, 991 bulk modulus, 321 moons of, 790–801 interactions of, 999–1016 ideal gas law, 288, 291–293 oblateness of, 779–783 island universes, 940 internal energy, 318 ring systems, 801–807 merger of, 1013–1015, 1029, sound speed and, 321 spacecraft missions to, 1069, 1129 specific heat, 318–320 776–777 metallicity and, 958, 1028 specific volume, 319 Giant stars, 205, 220 rotation curves, 951–952 Gaspra, 833, 835 Ginga satellite, 644 Shapley–Curtis Debate, Gaunt factors, 250 Giotto, 817, 818 941–942 Gaunt, J. A., 250 Giotto spacecraft, 821, 822 spiral structure of, 964–983 Gauss (unit), 134 Glashow, Sheldon, 1236 tuning-fork diagram, 942 Gauss, Carl Frederich, 1185 Gliese 229B, 428 velocities of, 1054 Gavitational time dilation, 621 Gliese 876, 197, 850 X-ray luminosity, 958 Geller, Margaret, 1073 GLIMPSE, see Galactic Legacy Galaxy (software), A-26–A-28 Geminga, 590 Mid-Plane Survey Galilean moons, 775, 790–797 Gemini North, 148, 149, 159 Extraordinaire ,see also Callisto; Europa; Gemini South, 148, 159 Global warming, 748 Ganymede; Io General theory of relativity, 88, Globular cluster luminosity composition of, 859 609, 610 function, 1045–1046 evolution of, 791 ,see also Spacetime Globular clusters, 474, 1009, formation of, 859 bending of light, 613, 617–618 1028 Galilean transformations, 84–86 curvature of spacetime, dynamical friction, 1003–1004 Galilei, Galileo, 29–31, 84, 141, 609–613, 622 luminosity function, 381, 775, 875 gravitational redshift, 1045–1046 Galileo spacecraft, 777, 833 619–621, 631 Milky Way, 894–895 Galle, Johann Gottfried, 776 principle of equivalence, specific frequency of, 962, 963 GALLEX, 358, 359 613–616, 619 Gluons, 1230, 1231 Gamma ray astronomy, 170 time dilation, 621, 631 GMCs, see Giant molecular Gamma rays, 66 Genzel, Reinhard, 923 clouds γ -mechanism, 497 Geocentric universe, 2–3 Gold, Thomas, 589, 1163 Gamma-ray bursts (GRB), Geodesics, 628 Goldreich, Peter, 806, 867 543–550 Geometry, 1183–1185 Gondwanaland, 751 as long–soft, 547–550 Georgi, Howard, 1236 Goodricke, John, 483

Index I-11

Gran Telescopio Canarias Greenstein, Jesse, 1097 HDM, see Hot dark matter (GTC), 159 Greenwich mean time, 13 Headlight effect, 102 GRANAT spacecraft, 932 Gregorian calendar, 14 HEAO satellites, see High Grand unification era, 1231 Grotrian diagram, 136 Energy Astronomical Grand unified theories (GUTs), Ground state, 124, 212 Observatory (HEAO) 359, 1236, 1246 Groups, 1058–1061 satellites Grand-design spirals, 964, 981 GTC (Gran Telescopio Canarias, Heisenberg’s uncertainty Granulation 159 principle, 130–132, 268, solar atmosphere, 363–365 Guide Star Catalogs, 158, 172 301, 567, 568, 1233, Graphite Guillotine factor, 250 1247 in interstellar medium, 402 Gunn, James, 1256 Heisenberg, Werner, 130 Gravitation Gunn–Peterson trough, 1256, Heliocentric Julian Date (HJD), Newton’s law of, 32–36, 609 1257 15 Gravitational instability Guth, Alan, 1238, 1246 Heliocentric model, 5–8, 29 formation of planets, 862 GUTs, see Grand unified theories Heliopause, 374 Gravitational lensing, 195, 897, Gyroradius, 552 Helioseismology, 349, 509–512 1130–1133, 1135, 1232 Heliosheath, 374 Gravitational potential, 780, 781 H− ion, 248 Helium, 112 Gravitational potential energy, H–R diagram, see Big Bang nucleosynthesis, 37, 38, 42, 50, 296–297 Hertzsprung–Russell 1178–1179 stellar evolution and, 457 diagram electronic energy levels, 137 Gravitational radiation, 669, 688 Hadley circulation, 730, 731, in giant planets’ atmosphere, Gravitational redshift, 619–621, 789, 854 778 631 Hadrons, 1230, 1232 nucleus, 299 Gravitational separation, 730 Half-power beam width triple alpha process, 312 Gravitational waves, 589, 688 (HPBW), 165 Helium core flash, 461–462, 572 Gravity Hall, Asaph, 769 Helium partial ionization zone, in close binary star system, Halley, Edmond, 816 497 653–658 Harmonic Law (Kepler), 25 Helium shell flash, 463, 464, 466 relativity and, 611 Harmonic mean, 249 Helix nebula, 471, 472 Gravity Probe B, 641 Haro, Guillermo, 437 Henry Draper Catalogue, 203 Gray atmosphere, 260, 263 Hartmann, William K., 761 Hensler, G., 1019 GRB, see Gamma-ray bursts Harvard spectral classification, Herbig Ae/Be stars, 437 GRB 030329, 547 202 Herbig–Haro objects, 437, 438 GRB 970228, 546 Hawaiian islands Hercules cluster, 999, 1001 GRB 980425, 547 creation of, 768 Hercules X-1, 694 Great Attractor (GA), 1070 Hawking radiation, 644–646 Herman, Robert, 1164 Great Dark Spot of Neptune, Hawking, Stephen, 644 Herschel, John, 518, 940 788, 789 Hayashi track, 425 Herschel, William, 775, 875, Great Debate, 941–942 HB, see Horizontal branch 882, 940, 1062 Great Pyramid (Giza), 15 HD 149026, 854 Hertz, Heinrich, 65 Great Red Spot of Jupiter, 788 HD 168443c, 196 Hertzsprung gap, 477 Great Wall, 1076 HD 209458, 196, 197 Hertzsprung, Ejnar, 220, 486, Greatest eastern elongation, 5, 6 HD 209458b, 853 1039, 1040 Greatest western elongation, 5, 6 HD 39801, 203 Hertzsprung–Russell diagram Greek astronomy, 2–4 HD 80606, 852 (H–R diagram), 219–224 Greenhouse effect HD 80606b, 852 instability strip, 489 Earth, 725, 747–748 HD 80607, 852 main sequence, 221 Venus, 743 HDE 226868, 698 pulsating stars, 490

I-12 Index

Hess, Victor F., 550 Hubble Space Telescope (HST), molecular tracers of, 406 HET (Hobby-Eberly Telescope), 148–150, 158, 160, 161 partial ionization zone, 215 159 Hubble time, 1058, 1158 proton–proton chain (PP I), Hewish, Anthony, 586, 587, 589 Hubble type, 942, 948, 951, 983, 309–311 Hierarchical merger model, 991 quantum numbers and 1023, 1028 Hubble Ultra Deep Field energies, 212 Higgs field, 1238 (HUDF) image, 1030, spectral lines, 120, 121, High Energy Astronomical 1031 124–127, 203, 213, 215, Observatory (HEAO) Hubble’s law, 1052, 1054, 1056, 216, 218, 226 satellites, 1066 1145, 1149, 1211 stellar evolution and, 431–432 High Energy Astrophysical Hubble, Edwin, 157, 519, Hydrogen partial ionization Observatories, 170 942–945, 1040, 1052, zone, 497–498, 562 High-z supernovae, 1214, 1217 1053, 1055, 1085, 1163 Hydrostatic burning phase High-velocity clouds, 890 Hubble–Sandage variables, 519 classical novae, 683 High-velocity stars, 894 Huchra, John, 1073 Hydrostatic equilibrium, High-Z Supernova Search Team Hulse, Russell, 700, 703 284–288 (HZSNS), 1214 Hulse–Taylor pulsar, 688, 703, Hyperbolas, 29 Highlands, 756, 759 706 Hyperbolic geometry, 1184, 1185 Hill radius, 864–865 Humason, Milton, 1052 Hypernova model, 548 Hipparchus, 3, 12, 60 Humphreys, Roberta, 520, 1045 HZSNS, see High-Z Supernova Hipparcos Space Astrometry Humphreys–Davidson Search Team Mission, 172, 922, 1041 luminosity limit, 523 Hirayama, Kiyotsugu, 833 Huygens probe, 777, 797 Ibata, Rodrigo, 891 Hobby-Eberly Telescope (HET), Huygens, Christian, 63 Iben, Icko, Jr., 425, 447, 451 159 Hyades galactic cluster, 920, IC 4296, 945 Hohl, F., 981 1038 ICE, see International Cometary Holmberg radius, 950 Hydra–Centaurus supercluster, Explorer Homologous collapse, 414–417 1069–1071, 1168 Ice giants, 715 Horizon coordinate system, 8 Hydrodynamic ejection phase composition of, 859 Horizon distance, 1203 classical novae, 683 formation of, 865, 867 Horizon problem, 1237, 1243 Hydrodynamic equations Ice line, 860 Horizontal branch, 462–463 for solar atmosphere, 376 Ida, 830, 833, 835 Horsehead Nebula, 408 Hydrogen Ideal gas law, 288 Hot dark matter (HDM), 1233, 21-cm radiation, 405–406, 913 Illumination, 153, 154 1256 atomic structure, 120, 123 Image intensity, 152 Hot Jupiters, 849, 853, 861, 867 CNO cycle, 311–312, 343 IMBHs, see Intermediate-mass Hot Saturns, 854 deuterium-to-hydrogen ratio, black holes Hot-spot volcanism, 768 830 IMF, see Initial mass function Hour angle, 12 electron orbitals, 133 Inelastic collisions Hour circle, 12 in giant planets’ atmosphere, kinetic energy, 104 Hoyle, Fred, 587, 1163 778 Inertia HPBW (half-power beam width), ground state, 211 Newton’s first law, 31 165 HI,404 Inertial reference frames, 31, 84, HST (Hubble Space Telescope), H II, 404, 431–432 86 148–150, 158, 160, 161 H− ion, 248 Inferior conjunction, 6 Hubble constant, 1052, 1056, in interstellar medium, Inferior planets, 5, 6 1163, 1214 404–407 Inflation, 1231, 1238, 1241–1244 Hubble flow, 1055, 1070 isotope, 299 Inflaton field, 1241 Hubble sequence, 940–948 liquid metallic hydrogen, 785 Infrared Astronomical Satellite

Index I-13

(IRAS), 168, 892 heating and cooling of, IUE (International Ultraviolet Infrared bump, 1089 410–411 Explorer), 169 Infrared light, 66 hydrogen in, 404–407 Infrared Space Observatory massive stars and, 523 J0737–3039A/B, 705 (ISO), 168 Interstellar reddening, 401 J114816.64+525150.3, 1253 Infrared telescopes, 167–168 Interval, 109 Jackson, Robert, 987 Initial mass function (IMF), 430, Intracluster gas, 1066, 1069 James Webb Space Telescope 1018, 1020 Intracluster medium, 1066 (JWST), 160 Inner core, 749 Invariant, 102 Jansky, Karl, 161, 926, 1090, Inside-out collapse, 417 Inverse Compton scattering, 1165 Instability strip, 488, 490 1116 Jeans criterion, 412–413, 419 Integrated star counts, 879 Inverse square law, 61, 62, 75 Jeans length, 413 Intensity, 151, 231–232, 241, 400 Io, 49, 716, 722, 790, 791 Jeans mass, 413, 419, 1250, Interacting binary stars, 668–673 and Jupiter’s magnetic field, 1251, 1253 types, 672–673 795 Jeans, James, 72, 412 Interference pattern, 64 evolution of, 792 Jefferson, Thomas, 838 Intergalactic clouds internal structure of, 794 Jets density distribution of, 1139 orbit, 793 active galaxy, 1092 Interior luminosity, 308 surface of, 792 charged particles in, 1125 Interior mass, 286 tidal forces, effect on, 793–795 generation of, 1122–1123 Intermediate polars, 685 torus, 795 one-sided jets, 1128 Intermediate-mass black holes Ion torus, 1113 Jewitt, David, 826 (IMBHs), 639 Ionization, 123 Jovian planets, 715 Internal energy, 318 Ionization temperature, 238 Julian calendar, 13, 14 International Cometary Explorer IRAS, see Infrared Astronomical Julian Date, 14 (ICE), 821, 823 Satellite Julian year, 14 International Sun–Earth Iron Jupiter, 715, 719 Explorer 3, 821 bump, 499 atmosphere of, 778, 785 International Ultraviolet core, 531 Comet P/Shoemaker–Levy 9, Explorer (IUE), 169 photodisintegration, 532 786–788, 823 International Virtual Irregular galaxies, 942, 945, 948, composition of, 859 Observatory, 172 952, 956 cooling timescale, 785 Interstellar clouds characteristics of, 949 core of, 783 classification, 407 IRS 16, 924, 925, 928 energy budgets and effective dense core, 408, 414, 417, 421 Island universes, 940 temperatures, 784 hot cores, 408 ISM, see Interstellar medium evolution, 792 Interstellar dust, 398–411 ISO (Infrared Space formation of, 865, 867 ,see also Interstellar medium Observatory), 168 gravitational moments, 781 composition, 403, 404 Isochrones, 476 Great Red Spot, 788 extinction, 399–401 Isocurvature density fluctuations, interior structure of, 785, 786 Mie theory, 401, 402 1248 magnetic field, 790 origin of dust grains, 411 Isophotes, 950 magnetosphere, 790 polarized light scattered from, Isothermal core, 451–452, mass-radius relationship, 778 404 454–456 migration of, 868 Interstellar extinction, 399–401, Isothermal density fluctuations, moment of inertia, 781 877, 878, 910, 1041 1248, 1253 moons of, 715–716, 722, 775, Interstellar medium (ISM), Isothermal sound speed, 414 776, 790–797, 859 398–411 Isotopes, 298 orbit, 6, 196 chemistry of, 409–410 Isotopomers, 407 planet formation affected by,

I-14 Index

866 Koronis family, 833 variables ring system, 802, 804 Koshiba, Masatoshi, 359 Leap second, 13 spacecraft missions to, 777 Kramers opacity law, 250, 496 Leavitt, Henrietta S., 483, 485, JWST (James Webb Space Kramers, H. A., 250 1039 Telescope), 160 Kuhn, Thomas, 8 Leclerc, Georges-Louis, 857 Kuiper belt, 717, 718 Legendre polynomials, 780 K corona, 366 Kuiper Belt Objects (KBOs), Leighton, Robert, 509 K–T boundary, 843 717, 826–828, 868 Lemaître, Abbé Georges, 1190 K-correction, 949, 1214 resonant, 828, 829 Length contraction, 95, 97 Kamiokande neutrino research, scattered, 828, 829 Lenses 358, 359 Kuiper, Gerard P., 797, 826 optics, 142 Kant, Immanuel, 807, 857, 875, Lensmaker’s formula, 142 940 ℓ nodal circles, 503 Lenticular galaxies, 942, 943, Kaon, 1246 La Palma Observatory, 148, 159 946, 985, 987 κ-mechanism, 497 Lagrange points, 160 Leptons, 308, 309, 1230, 1231 Kapteyn universe, 876, 877 Lagrangian codes, 333 Leverrier, Urbain, 775 Kapteyn, Jacobus C., 876, 882 Lagrangian points, 655 Lewis, G. N., 117 KBOs, see Kuiper belt objects $ era, 1194 LHB, see Late heavy Keck Telescopes, 149, 154, 159 $CDM model, 1233 bombardment Keenan, Phillip C., 225 Landolt, Arlo, 561 Life Kellman, Edith, 225 Lane, J. Homer, 335 basic building blocks, 844 Kelvin, Lord, 753, 1145 Lane–Emden equation, 334–338, Light Kelvin–Helmholtz timescale, 414 bending of, 613, 617–618 298, 425, 427, 446, 458, Laplace, Pierre-Simon, 807, 857 coordinate speed of, 635, 636 477 Large Binocular Telescope Doppler shift, 97 Kepler mission, 856 (LBT), 159 doublt-slit experiment, 63–65 Kepler’s laws, 180 Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC), electromagnetic spectrum, 66 derivation, 39, 43–49 467, 519, 891, 945, 948, gravitational lensing, 195 ﬁrst law, 24, 26, 43–45 1059 gravitational redshift, second law, 24, 27, 45–48 Cepheids in, 487, 488 619–621, 631 third law, 25, 26, 32, 48, 184 Large-aperture telescopes, 159 inverse square law, 61, 62, 75 Kepler’s supernova, 524 Larmor radius, 552 magnitude scale, 60–63 Kepler, Johannes, 23, 24, 49, 524 Larson, Richard, 422, 1011 photoelectric effect, 116–118 Keplerian shear, 805, 806 LASCO, 389 photons, 117, 118 Kerr metric, 640 Laskar, Jacques, 741 polarization, 65 Kerr, Roy, 640 Late heavy bombardment (LHB), Poynting vector, 66 Kinetic energy, 39, 42 760 radiation pressure, 67 average kinetic energy per Late-type galaxies, 943, 948 spectral lines, 111–116 particle, 294 Late-type stars, 202, 220 speed of, 63, 87, 88 relativistic kinetic energy, Laurasia, 751 superposition principle, 64 102–104 Law of cosines, 17 wave nature of, 63–67 Kinetic temperature, 239 Law of Cosmic Censorship, 636 wave–particle duality, 127 Kippenhahn, Rudolph, 496 Law of inertia, 31 Light cones, 623–624, 626 Kirchhoff’s laws, 111–112, Law of reﬂection, 143 Light cylinder, 596, 600 126–127, 362, 436 Law of sines, 17 Light-years (unit), 58 Kirchhoff, Gustav, 111 Law of Universal Gravitation, 33 Lightlike interval, 109 Kirkwood gaps, 831, 868 LBT (Large Binocular Limb darkening, 254, 264–266 Kitt Peak National Observatory, Telescope), 159 Lin–Shu density wave theory, 148 LBVs, see Luminous blue 967–968

Index I-15

Lindblad resonance, 979 LPV, see Long-period variables M33, 1059 inner, 980, 981 LSR, see Local standard of rest M51, 964, 965, 979, 1009, 1010 outer, 980, 981 LTE, see Local thermodynamic M66 group, 1061 Lindblad, Bertil, 979 equilibrium M81, 528, 946, 947, 980, 1013, Line blanketing, 238 Luminosity, 60, 70, 307, 419 1048 Linearized hydrodynamic accretion, 1111, 1121 M82, 1012, 1013 equations, 500 accretion disks, 663–664, 693 M84, 1062 LINERs, see Low ionization Eddington limit, 341–342, M86, 1062 nuclear emission-line 520, 1104 M87, 961, 1062, 1063, 1093, regions(LINERs) Fanaroff–Riley classification, 1094, 1111 Lithium 1105 M96, 1007 abundance in Sun, 356, 542 Humphreys–Davidson limit, M96 group, 1061 solar lithium problem, 542 523 M101, 941, 946, 947, 964, 979 Lithosphere, 750, 752 monochromatic, 74 M104, 946 LMC, see Large Magellanic of quasars, 1097 M105, 1008 Cloud spiral galaxies, 956 Mab, 807 LMC X-3, 644, 698, 699 stellar evolution and, 450, 457 MACHOs, see Massive compact LMXBs white dwarfs, 575, 577 halo objects ,see also Low-mass X-ray Luminosity class, 225 Maeder, Andrés, 523 binaries of spiral galaxies, 947 Magellan spacecraft, 744, 779 Lobachevski, Nikolai, 1185 Luminosity density, 885, 1067 Magellanic Clouds, see Large Lobe-dominant radio sources, Luminosity distance, 1211 Magellanic Cloud; Small 1104 Luminosity function, 991, 1050 Magellanic Cloud Local Group, 1059–1061, 1069, globular clusters, 1045–1046 Magellanic Stream, 891, 1059, 1168 planetary nebula, 1046 1061 Local sidereal time, 12 quasars, 1101 Magic nuclei, 314 Local standard of rest (LSR), Luminosity Gradient Equation, Magnetars, 603 901–907 307 Magnetic dipole radiation, 597 Local Supercluster, 1069, 1070 Luminous blue variables Magnetic dynamo theory, Local thermodynamic (LBVs), 519–521 391–392 equilibrium (LTE), 239 Lunar highlands, 756, 759 Magnetic energy density, 378 Lodge, Oliver, 1130 Lunar samples, 756 Magnetic field Long–soft GRBs, 547–550 ,see also Moon (of Earth) reconnection, 387 Long-period comets, 825 radioactive dating, 756–759 Magnetic field strength, 134 Long-period variables (LPVs), Luu, Jane, 826 Magnetic flux 465, 483, 491 LX Serpentis, 667, 668 neutron stars, 585 Lookback time, 1158 Lyman lines, 120, 121, 127 Magnetic monopole, 1238 Lorentz factor, 91 Lyman-α forest, 1137–1139, Magnetic pressure gradient, 378 Lorentz force equation, 371 1255 Magnetic ropes, 392 Lorentz profile, 270 Lynden-Bell, Donald, 1016 Magnetically sub/supercritical Lorentz transformations, 87–92 cloud, 421 derivation, 88–91 M–K classification, 225 Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD), Lorentz, Hendrik A., 88 M1-67, 521 377–380 Low ionization nuclear M13, 475 Magnitude, 60 emission-line regions M2-9, 473 Main sequence, 221, 340–343 (LINERs), 1106, 1107 M3, 476 evolution, 446–457 Low-mass X-ray binaries M31, 888, 942, 966, 1040, 1059, massive stars, 453 (LMXBs), 697, 700, 702 1060 Schönberg–Chandrasekhar Lowell, Percival, 762 M32, 941, 961, 966 limit, 451, 453–456

I-16 Index

width of, 447 307 737 zero-age main sequence Mass–volume relation surface of, 738–740 (ZAMS), 429 neutron stars, 583 3-to-2 spin-orbit coupling, Main-sequence fitting, 475, 921 white dwarfs, 569–570 737–739 Malmquist bias, 1056 Mass-to-light ratio, 886 Meridian, 9 Mantle, 749 spiral galaxies, 956 Mesons, 1230 Marcy, Geoffrey, 195, 196, 848 Massive compact halo objects Messier catalog, 431, 940 Maria, 754 (MACHOs), 897, 898, Messier, Charles, 940 Mariner 10 spacecraft, 737, 763 1232 Metal-poor stars, 474 Markarian, E. B., 1086 Massive stars, 433 Metallicity, 852–853, 885 Mars, 715, 762–770 formation, 428, 522 age-metallicity relation, ALH84001, 764–766 luminous blue variables, 885–886 atmosphere of, 767 519–521 of elliptical galaxies, 985, 986 canals of, 762 Wolf–Rayet stars, 521–522, of galaxies, 1028 exploration of, 762–763 534 spiral galaxies, 958 iron on, 768 Massive X-ray binaries velocity–metallicity relation, moons of, 722, 769 (MXRBs), 698, 700, 702 906 orbit, 6, 7, 25, 27, 28 Mathilde, 834, 837 Metastable states, 368 past geological activity, 768 Matter era, 1174 Meteor Crater (Arizona), 843 polar caps, 766 Matter–antimatter asymmetry in Meteor shower, 718, 842 retrograde motion, 3, 4, 6, 7 early universe, Meteorites, 717–718, 838–844 sidereal and synodic periods, 7 1245–1247 age of, 862 spin axis fluctuations, 767 Matthews, Thomas, 1095 ALH84001, 862 water on, 764 Mauna Kea Observatories, 148, building blocks of life and, Mars Exploration Rovers, 763 149, 159, 167 844 Mars Express Orbiter, 763 Maunder minimum, 384, 392 chemically differentiated, 840 Mars Global Surveyor, 763 Maury, Antonia, 202, 225 chemically undifferentiated Mars Odyssey, 763 Maximum visible age, 1208 stony, 840 Mars Pathfinder mission, 763 Maxwell, James Clerk, 65, 84, classification, 840 Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, 206 collisions with Earth, 842–844 763 Maxwell–Boltzmann velocity sources, 841 Maser emissions, 468 distribution, 204–209, Meteoroids, 717 Mass 211, 301, 302 Meteors, 718 nuclear particles, 299 Mayor, Michel, 195, 848 Methane stars, 224 McGinn, Martina T., 923 in giant planets’ atmosphere, visual binaries, 183–185 MCLS, see Multicolor light 778 Mass conservation equation, 288 curve shapes (MCLS) Metrics Mass flux, 327 method for flat spacetimes, 626–628 Mass fraction, 249 McLure, Ross J., 1103, 1104 Kerr metric, 640 Mass function, 188, 1020 Mean free path, 239, 240 Schwarzschild metric, 630, Mass loss Mean intensity, 232 634, 635, 638, 639 AGB evolution and, 467–468 Mean molecular weight, Meynet, Georges, 523 Mass number, 299 291–293 MG1131+0456, 1133, 1134 Mass transfer Menzel 3, 473 MHD, see interacting binary systems, Mercury, 715, 737–740 Magnetohydrodynamics 668–669 global magnetic field, 756 Michell, John, 633 Mass transfer rate, 658–661 interior of, 740 Michelson, Albert A., 86 dwarf novae, 677–678 magnetic field of, 740 Michelson–Morley experiment, Mass–luminosity relation, 189, orbit, 5, 609, 610, 612, 703, 86, 97

Index I-17

Microwaves, 66 1025–1027 maria, 754 Mie scattering, 402 thin and thick disks, 883–886 moon rocks, 756, 862 theory, 401, 402 thin-disk formation, 1027 moonquakes, 755 Mie, Gustav, 401 velocity–metallicity relation, radioactive dating, 756–759 Migration 906 Moons, 715–716, 769 during planetary formation, Miller, Joseph, 1108 ,see also Galilean moons; 867–868 Millikan, Robert A., 118 Moon (Earth’s) Mikheyev–Smirnov–Wolfenstein Millisecond pulsars, 590, 700 Galilean moons, 775, 790–797 effect (MSW effect), 359 Mimas, 798, 799, 805, 861 of giant planets, 790–801 Milky Way Galaxy, 29, 171, 473, Minimum Mass Solar Nebula, of Jupiter, 775, 776, 790–797, 488, 595, 874–932, 1059, 864 859 1060 Minkowski, Hermann, 92 of Neptune, 800–801 3-kpc expanding arm, 893 Minor planets, see Asteroids of Pluto, 813–816 age-metallicity relation, Mira, 483, 484, 490 of Saturn, 776, 797–799 885–886 Mira variable stars, 465 shepherd moons, 805 central bar, 893 Miranda, 716 of Uranus, 799 central bulge, 884, 891, 1027 surface of, 799, 861 Morgan, William W., 225 circumnuclear ring, 927 Mirrors Morgan–Keenan luminosity cold dark matter, 918 optics, 143 class, 225, 270 components of, 882–884 Mixing length, 326 Morley, Edward W., 86 cylindrical coordinate system, Mixing-length theory, 328 Moving cluster method, 919 901, 903 Modified Julian Date (MJD), 14 Mrk 1157, 1086, 1087 dark matter halo, 884, Molecular clouds, 406, 407, 411 Mrk 1243, 1086 896–897, 914 collapse of, 861 Mrk 3, 1121 differential rotation, 908–913 Jeans criterion, 412–413, 419 MSW effect, see Mikheyev– distance to Galactic center, magnetically sub/supercritical, Smirnov–Wolfenstein 882 421 effect Galactic center, 882, 922–932 protostellar collapse, 412–419 Mueller, M. W., 983 Galactic coordinates, 898–901 Molecular tracers Multicolor light curve shapes globular clusters, 894–895 of hydrogen, 407 (MCLS) method, 1042 H I warp, 889 Momentum Muons, 95–96 historical models, 875–878 Newton’s first law, 31 Murchison meteorite, 844 hydrogen 21-cm line profile, relativistic momentum, 102, MXRBs 913–914 105–106 ,see also Massive X-ray interstellar gas and dust, 884, Monatomic gas, 318, 320 binaries 889–891 Monochromatic flux, 75 kinematics of, 898–922 Monochromatic luminosity, 74 N-body simulations, 981–983, local standard of rest (LSR), Monochromatic opacity, 241 1008, 1029 901–907 Monopole problem, 1238, 1244 Narrow-line radio galaxies magnetic field, 897–898 Moon (NLRGs), 1092, 1107 mass-to-light ratio, 886 orbit, 36 National Radio Astronomy morphology of, 881–898 Moon (Earth’s), 716, 718, Observatory (NRAO), nuclear disk, 926 754–762 166 peculiar velocity, 907 Earth–Moon distance, 722 National Virtual Observatory rotation, 908–913 formation of, 760–762 project, 172 rotation curves, 914–916, 919 global magnetic field of, 756 Natural broadening, 268 spiral structure, 887 highlands, 756, 759 Navarro, Julio, 918 stellar halo, 884, 894, 896 internal structure of, 754–756 Navier–Stokes equations, 316 thick-disk formation, late heavy bombardment, 760 Neap tides, 723

I-18 Index

NEAR–Shoemaker (Near Earth Neutronization, 580 NGC 4476, 961 Asteroid Rendezvous Neutrons NGC 4564, 945 mission), 834 Big Bang nucleosynthesis, NGC 4594, 946 Nebular theories, 857 1177–1178 NGC 4622, 966 Neptune, 715, 776 isotopes, 298 NGC 4623, 945 atmosphere of, 778, 785 mass of, 299 NGC 4650A, 1007 composition of, 859 New General Catalog (NGC), NGC 5128, 1007, 1095 core of, 784 941 NGC 5194, 964, 1010 discovery of, 775–776 New Horizons mission, 816 NGC 5195, 964, 1009, 1010 energy budgets and effective Newton’s law of gravitation, NGC 520, 1002 temperatures, 784 32–36, 609 NGC 5457, 946 gravitational moments, 781 Newton’s laws of motion, 30–32, NGC 6240, 1015, 1103 Great Dark Spot, 788, 789 71 NGC 6420, 1015 interior structure of, 785 first law, 31 NGC 6522, 893 mass-radius relationship, 778, law of inertia, 31 NGC 7096, 946, 947, 980 779 second law, 31–32, 122 NGC 891, 889 migration of, 868 third law, 32, 33 Nicholson, J. W., 121 moment of inertia, 781 Newton, Isaac, 30, 141 Nieto, Jean-Luc, 989 moons of, 723, 800–801 Newtonian cosmology, NLRGs, see arrow-line radio ring system, 805 1144–1162 galaxies spacecraft missions to, 777 Newtonian mechanics, 29–39 Non-Euclidean geometry, 1185 Neutrino decoupling, gravitation, 32–36 Normal Zeeman effect, 134 1172–1173, 1231 motion, 30–32 North Galactic pole, 899, 900 Neutrinos, 308, 1172, 1230–1232 work and energy, 37–39 Northern lights, 373 from SN 1987A, 539–540 Newtonian telescope, 156 Nova Mus 1991, 699 solar neutrino problem, NFW density profile, 918 Nova Persei, 685 356–360 NGC 175, 947 Nova-like binaries, 672 Neutrinosphere, 533 NGC 1023 group, 1061 Novae Neutron degeneracy pressure, NGC 1068, 1085 ,see also Classical novae; 578 NGC 1084, 1043 Dwarf novae; Neutron drip, 581 NGC 1265, 1092, 1094 Supernovae Neutron star binaries, 703 NGC 1300, 947 distance determination with, Neutron stars, 136, 534, NGC 1600, 989 1044 578–586, 589, 690, 693 NGC 224, 888 speed class, 681 accretion disks, 664–665, 693 NGC 2525, 947 Noyes, Robert, 509 Chandrasekhar limit, 583 NGC 2841, 964, 965 NRAO (National Radio density, 578 NGC 2998, 915, 916 Astronomy Observatory), equation of state, 579 NGC 3031, 946 166 formation, 689 NGC 3034, 1012, 1013 Nuclear reaction rates, 302–307 light cylinder, 600 NGC 3379, 985, 986 electron screening and, 306 magnetic field, 585 NGC 3384, 1008 Gamow peak, 305 magnetosphere, 601 NGC 3923, 1014 power laws, 307 models, 581–583 NGC 4038, 1009, 1011 resonance and, 306 neutron degeneracy, 578 NGC 4039, 1009, 1011 Nuclear reactions, 298 rapid rotation, 584 NGC 4151, 1087, 1116, 1120 and stellar energy, 298–300 surface layers accreting on, NGC 4251, 945 binding energy per eucleon, 696, 697 NGC 4261, 1121 314–315 temperatures, 586 NGC 4340, 945, 948, 980 nucleosynthesis, 308–309, 314 tidal capture, 690 NGC 4365, 945 reaction rates, 302–307

Index I-19

spallation reactions, 388 sources, 244–247 P waves, 749, 750 Nuclear timescale, 300, 446 total opacity, 248 p-modes, 505, 508, 510–511 Nuclear winter, 844 Open clusters, 474 Pacini, Franco, 599 Nucleons, 298 Oppenheimer, J. Robert, 582, PAHs, see Polycyclic aromatic Nucleosynthesis, 308, 314 634 hydrocarbons Big Bang nucleosynthesis, Opposition, 6 Pallas, 837 1177–1179 Optical axis, 142 Palomar Observatory Sky Null interval, 109 Optical depth, 242–244, 264 Survey, 1072 Numerical modeling vertical, 259 Pandora, 805 stellar structure equations, Optical double, 180 Pangaea, 751 333–334 Optical telescopes, 154–161 Parabola, 28 Numerical N-body simulations, adaptive optics, 159 Paraboloids, 150 981–983 best sites, 148 Parallax, 16 mounts, 158 spectroscopic, 225, 475, 1039 o Ceti, 483 reflecting, 141, 155–158 Parallax angle, 57, 58 OB associations, 433 refracting, 141, 154–155 Parallax, secular , 1039 OBAFGKMLT scheme, 202, Optically thin phase Parallel postulate, 1184–1185 204, 205 classical novae, 684 Parker spiral, 380 Objective lens, 154, 155 Optically violently variable Parker wind model, 375–376 Oblate spheroidal galaxies, 943, quasars (OVVs), 1106, Parker, Eugene, 375 944 1107 Parsec (unit), 58 Oblateness, 779–783 Optics Parsons, William, 941 Observational cosmology, aberrations, 144, 150–151 Partial ionization zone, 215 1199–1218 adaptive optics, 159 Particle horizon, 1203–1205 Observatories basic concepts, 141–154 Particles radio observatories, 166–167 lenses, 142 standard model of, 1230–1232 space-based observatories, seeing, 148 virtual particles, 1239 160, 171 telescopes, 154–161 Partition function, 214 virtual observatories, 172 Orbit (Bohr atom), 124 Paschen series, 120, 121, 127 Oemler, Augustus, Jr., 1030 Orbit (software), 49, A-17 Pauli exclusion principle, 135, Of stars, 522 Orbital angular momentum, 42, 136, 567 OGLE-TR-10b, 853 44 degeneracy and, 563, 568 OGLE-TR-56b, 197 Orbital resonances, 805 Pauli, Wolfgang, 135, 308 OH/IR sources, 468 Orbitals, 133 Payne, Cecilia, 219 Olbers’s paradox, 881, 1145 stellar spectra and, 203–204 Pb–Pb system, 839 Olbers, Heinrich, 881, 1145 Orion, 68 Peculiar velocity, 903, 906, 907, Olympus Mons, 769 Orion A complex, 408, 431, 433 1054 Omega Centauri, 891 Orion Nebula, 431, 440, 441 Peebles, P. J. E., 1165, 1166 Oort cloud, 717, 825–826 Orion–Cygnus arm, 887, 888 Penrose, Roger, 642 Oort constants, 911 Outer core, 749 Penumbra, 382, 383 Oort, Jan, 825, 908 OVVs, see Optically violently Penzias, Arno, 1165, 1166 Opacity, 241–251 variable quasars Perigalacticon, 904 continuum opacity, 248 Owen, Tobias C., 816 Perihelion, 26, 47 defined, 241 Oxygen Period–density relation iron bump, 499 fusion, 313–314 pulsating stars, 491–492 Kramers opacity law, 250 Ozone, 749 Period–luminosity relation, 1040 pulsating stars, 496 pulsating stars, 483–487 Rosseland mean opacity, P Cygni, 518 Period–luminosity–color relation 249–250, 260 P Cygni profile, 435, 436 pulsating stars, 487

I-20 Index

Perlmutter, Saul, 1214 loss of atmospheric Playfair, John, 1184 Permittivity of free space, 122 constituents, 727–730 Pleiades, 402, 475 Perseus–Pisces supercluster, of Earth, 726–727, 729 Plutinos, 828 1069 Planetary motion Pluto, 813–816, 827 Peterson, Bruce, 1256 heliocentric model, 5–7 atmosphere of, 816 Pettengill, Gordon H., 737 Ptolemaic model, 3–4 density and composition, 814 Phaeton, 842 Planetary nebula luminosity discovery of, 813 Phobos, 723, 769 function (PNLF), 1046 migration of, 868 Photodisintegration, 531 Planetary nebula nuclei (PNN), moons of, 716, 723, 813–816 Photodissociation, 248, 730 562 orbit, 813–816 Photoelectric effect, 116–118 Planetary nebulae, 470–474 spacecraft missions to, 816 Photographic magnitude, 681 Planetary ring systems, 801–807 surface of, 815 Photoionization, 245 formation of, 807 PNLF, see Planetary nebula Photon–baryon ﬂuid, 1247, 1267 of Jupiter, 802, 804 luminosity function Photons, 117, 118 of Neptune, 805 PNN, see Planetary nebula nuclei emission, 252 physical processes affecting, Poe, Edgar Allan, 1145 free–free absorption, 246 805–807 Poisson’s equation, 335 in expanding universe, 1206 of Saturn, 801–804, 806 Polar-ring galaxies, 1006, 1007 Photosphere, 217, 238–240, 242, of Uranus, 804, 807 Polaris, 486 274, 277–278, 360–362 Planetary systems Polarized light, 65 absorption lines, 362 ,see also Extrasolar planets; from interstellar dust, 404 Alfvén speed, 379 Planets; Solar System Polars, 675, 685–686 chemical composition, 541 formation and evolution of, Poloidal ﬁeld, 391 granulation, 363–364 857–869 Polycyclic aromatic sound speed, 379 mass distribution in, 861 hydrocarbons (PAHs) Piazzi, Giuseppe, 716 Planetesimals, 718, 861, 862, in interstellar medium, 403 Pickering, Edward C., 202, 484 866 Polytropes, 333, 335 Pioneer missions, 744, 777 Planets Polytropic index, 336 Pisces–Cetus supercluster, 1078, atmospheres, see Planetary Pope, Alexander, 71 1079 atmospheres Population I/II/III stars, 474, Pitch angle, 944 Bode’s rule, 716–717 490, 885 PKS 2349−014, 1103 characteristics, 714, 715 Position angle, 17 Plages, 385 composition of, 859 Positron, 136 Planck era, 1231 extrasolar, 195–198, 714, Post-asymptotic giant branch, Planck function, 73–74, 126 848–857 469, 478 Planck length, 1234 giant planets, 775–790 Post-common-envelope binaries, Planck mass, 1234 moons, 715–716, 775–801, 673 Planck time, 1233, 1234, 1236 A-2 Post-main-sequence stellar Planck’s constant, 73, 116, 118, size of, 715 evolution, 448, 457 121 surface of, 861 core-collapse supernovae, Planck, Max, 72, 119 table of orbital and satellite 530–534 Plane-parallel atmosphere, 259 data, A-1 massive stars, 518–523 Plane-polarized waves, 65 table of physical data, A-1 Potential energy, 37 Planet temperatures of, 725 Power laws, 307 inferior, 5 Plasma, 375 Poynting vector, 66 superior, 6 Plasma drag, 806 Poynting, John Henry, 66 Planetary atmospheres, 724–730 Plate scale, 144 Poynting–Robertson effect, 806, chemical evolution of, 726 Plate tectonics, 750–751 819 circulation patterns, 730–732 Plato, 2, 4 PP I, see Proton–proton chain

Index I-21

Pre-main-sequence evolution, homologous collapse, Quantum numbers, 124, 133, 425–441 414–417 135, 136 Precession, 12 inside-out collapse, 417 Quantum state, 135 Pressure Jeans criterion, 412–413, 419 Quaoar, 717 defined, 286 numerical simulations, 422 Quark era, 1231 Pressure broadening, 270–271 Proxima Centauri, 59 Quark–hadron transition, 1231, Pressure equation of state, PSR 0031−07, 598 1246 288–296 PSR 0329+54, 595 Quarks, 1230, 1231, 1246 Pressure integral PSR 0531−21, 599 Quasars, 1095–1104, 1107 defined, 290 PSR 0633+1746, 590 discovery of, 1096 Pressure scale height, 316–317 PSR 1237+25, 598 evolution of, 1100–1104 Pressure-supported galaxies, 989 PSR 1257+12, 703 high cosmological redshifts, Pressureless “dust” model of PSR 1641−45, 596 1099 universe, 1146–1156 PSR 1744−24A, 703 luminosity of, 1097 Primary star, 658, 659 PSR 1913+16, 700, 703, 704 Lyman-α forest, 1137–1139 Prime focus, 156 PSR 1919+21, 587, 588 polarization, 1104 Primordial black holes, 639, 645 PSR 1937+214, 701 spectra of, 1095, 1097–1098, Principal focus, 26 PSR 1957+20, 702 1137–1139 Principal quantum number, 124, Ptolemaic model, 4, 7 Quasi-stellar objects (QSOs), 133 Pulsars, 538, 586–602, 1114 1099, 1107 Principle of equivalence, as rapidly rotating neutron Quasi-stellar radio sources 613–616, 619 stars, 590 (QSRs), 1096, 1107 Principle of relativity, 88, 89, 102 characteristics, 588–589 Queloz, Didier, 195, 848 Probability, 129 emission mechanism, 600 Quiescent prominences, 388, 389 Procyon, 112 glitches, 590, 602 Quiet corona, 390 Prolate spheroidal galaxies, 943, millisecond, 590 Quintessence, 1192 944 models, 589–590, 596–599 Prometheus, 792, 805 origin, 592 r1/4 law, 892 Prompt initial enhancement, period derivatives, 599, 601 r-process nucleosynthesis, 542 1020 structure of pulses, 595 Rabinowitz, David, 826 Proper distance, 626, 1189, 1211 wind, 601 Radial velocity, 16, 98 Proper length, 95, 626 Pulsating variable stars, 63, 68, binary stars, 186–187 Proper motion, 17, 112 251, 589 to detect extrasolar planets, Proper time, 93, 625 ,see also Stellar pulsation 195, 196 Proplyds, 440 Pulse period, 587 Radians (unit), 58 Proto-Galactic cloud, 1017, 1023 Pythagoras, 2 Radiant, 842 Proton–proton chain (PP I), Radiant flux, 60 309–311, 352 Q0142−100, 1131 Radiation, 315 PP I reaction chain, 309 Q0957+561, 1130, 1133, 1136 Radiation constant, 234 PP II reaction chain, 310 Q2237+031, 1135 Radiation era, 1174 PP III reaction chain, 310 QSOs, see Quasi-stellar objects Radiation field, 231–237 Protons QSRs, see Quasi-stellar radio intensity, 231–232, 235 Big Bang nucleosynthesis, sources radiation pressure, 236–237 1177–1178 Quantization radiative flux, 234–235 isotopes, 298 of energy, 71–75 specific energy density, mass of, 299 Quantum, 73 233–234 Protostars, 412–424 Quantum mechanical tunneling, Radiation pressure, 67, 236–237, ambipolar diffusion, 421 131, 132, 300–302 295 birth line, 429 Quantum mechanics, 116, 132 Radiation pressure gradient, 255

I-22 Index

Radiation torus, 1113 Red supergiant stars (RSG), 522 Retrograde rotation, 741–742, Radiative flux, 234–235 Reddening 816, 861 Radiative temperature gradient, interstellar reddening, 401 Reverberation mapping, 1117 316, 325 Redshift, 98 RGB, see Red giant branch Radiative transfer, 251–266 cosmological redshift, 1099, Riemann, Bernhard, 1185 Eddington approximation, 1199–1201 Rigel, 68, 69, 112 262–263 Redshift parameter, 99 Right ascension, 12 limb darkening, 254, 264–266 Redshift surveys, 1073–1076 Riley, J. M., 1105 radiation pressure gradient, Redshift–magnitude relation, Ring galaxies, 1005–1008 255 1212–1215, 1217 Ring systems, see Planetary ring random walk, 252–254 Reduced mass, 42, 122, 125 systems transfer equation, 255–266 Reflecting telescopes, 141, of Jupiter, 802, 804 Radio astronomy, 161 155–158 of Neptune, 805 Radio galaxies, 1093, 1107 Reflection, 143 of Saturn, 775, 801–804, 806 core, 1092 Reflection grating, 113 of Uranus, 802, 804, 807 halo, 1092 Reflection nebula, 402 Ritchey–Chrétien telescope, 158, radio lobes and lets, 1092 Reflex motion, 196, 197 160 Radio interferometry, 164–165 Reflex radial velocity, 848 roAp stars, 512 Radio lobes, 1090–1092, 1122 Refracting telescopes, 141, Robertson, Howard Percy, 1189 formation of, 1123 154–155 Robertson–Walker metric, 1189, Radio map, 161, 162 Refractories, 756 1201 Radio telescopes, 161–167 Refractory inclusions, 839 Roche limit, 723–724 Radio waves, 66 Regolith, 739 Roche lobes, 658, 659, 670 Radioactive dating, 756–759 Reionization, 1256 Roche, Edouard, 658, 723 Radioactive decay Relativistic beaming, 1128 Roemer, Ole, 63 supernovae, 534 Relativistic cosmology, Roentgen Satellite (ROSAT), 170 Radius of curvature (lens), 143 1183–1199 ROSAT (Roentgen Satellite), 170 Radius–luminosity relation, 956 Relativistic Doppler shift, 98 Rosetta spacecraft, 824 Ram-pressure stripping, 985 Relativistic jets, 548, 549, 699 Rosseland mean opacity, Random walk, 252–254 Relativistic kinetic energy, 249–250, 260 Rapidly oscillating roAp stars, 102–104 Rosseland, Svein, 249 see roAP stars Relativistic momentum, 102, Rotation Rayet, G., 521 105–106 of stars, 380 Rayleigh criterion, 147 Relativistic velocity of Sun, 380 Rayleigh scattering, 247, 402 transformation, 100 Rotation curves, 915–917, Rayleigh, Lord, 71 Relativity, 88, 89 951–952 Rayleigh–Jeans law, 72, 73 ,see also Special relativity,see Rotationally supported galaxies, Reaction rates also General theory of 989 electron screening and, 306 relativity; Spacetime Rovibrational bands, 407 Gamow peak, 305 Resolution, 147 RR Centauri, 194 nuclear reactions, 302–307 Resolving power, 113 RR Lyrae, 470 resonance and, 306 Resonance, 306 RR Lyrae stars, 490, 491, 877, Recessional velocity, 1054 Resonance effects 895, 921, 1040 Recombination, 1181–1182, in eary Solar System, 868 P –V diagram, 494, 495 1253 Rest energy, 103 partial ionization zone, 496 Red edge, 498 Rest frame, 93 RS Canum Venaticorum stars, Red giant branch (stellar Rest length, 626 672 evolution), 460 Rest mass energy, 299 RSG, see Red supergiant stars Red giant tip, 461 Retrograde motion, 3, 6–7 Rubin, Vera, 915

Index I-23

Runge–Kutta algorithm, A-25 801–804, 806 Sellgren, Kristen, 923 Russell, Henry Norris, 221 spacecraft missions to, 777 Semidetached binary, 658, 659 Rutherford, Ernest, 119 Scalar Higgs boson, 1230, 1231 accretion disks, 661, 662 Rydberg constant, 120, 125 Scale factor, 1148 eclipsing systems, 667 Rydberg, Johannes, 120 Scaliger, Joseph Justus, 14 mass transfer rate, 658–661 Ryle, Martin, 587 Schödel, Rainer, 923 white dwarfs in, 673–686 Schechter, Paul, 991 Semimajor axis, 25 S Doradus variables, 519 Schiaparelli, Giovanni Virginio, Semiminor axis, 26 S waves, 749, 750 762 Sensitivity function, 76, 78 s-process nucleosynthesis, 467, Schmidt telescope, 158 Sérsic proﬁle, 951 542 Schmidt, Brian, 1214 Seyfert galaxies, 1085–1087, S-star binaries, 673 Schmidt, Maarten, 1096 1107, 1108, 1116, 1117, S2, 923, 924 Schönberg–Chandrasekhar limit, 1129 Sachs–Wolfe effect, 1260 451, 458, 478 Seyfert 1 galaxies, 1085, Sagan, Carl, 763 derivation, 453–456 1086, 1107, 1108, 1117 SAGE, 358, 359 Schrödinger’s equation, 132–133 Seyfert 2 galaxies, 1085, 1086, Sagittarius Schrödinger, Erwin, 132 1107, 1108, 1117, 1120 radio sources in, 926–929 Schroeder, M. C., A-26 Seyfert, Carl K., 1085 Sagittarius A (Sgr A), 927 Schuster–Schwarzschild model, SFR, see Star formation rate Saha equation, 213–215, 1181 272, 273 SGB, see Subgiant branch Saha, Meghnad, 214 Schwarzschild metric, 630, 634, Sgr A, 927, 929 Sakigake spacecraft, 821 635, 638, 639, 1185, 1189 Sgr A East, 928 Salam, Abdus, 1236 Schwarzschild radius, 1111 Sgr A West, 928 Salpeter, Edwin E., 1019 Schwarzschild throat, 642 Sgr A*, 928, 932 SALT (Southern African Large Schwarzschild, Karl, 630 supermassive black hole in, Telescope), 159 Sco X-1, 691 929–931 Sandage, Allan, 519, 1016, 1041, SCP, see Supernova Cosmology SGRs, see Soft gamma repeaters 1095 Project Shadow zones, 749 Sanduleak, Nicholas, 524, 699 Sculptor group, 1061 Shapley concentration, 1071 SAS-1 (Small Astronomy SDSS, see Sloan Digital Sky Shapley, Harlow, 487, 877, 882, Satellite–1), 170 Survey 894, 941, 1039, 1040 Satellite SDSS 023137.65−072854.4, Shapley–Curtis Debate, 941–942 orbit, 631–633 1099 Shelton, Ian, 524 Satellites, see Moons SDSS 1030+0524, 99, 100, Shepherd moons, 805 Saturn, 715, 719 1056, 1159 Shklovsky, I., 592 atmosphere of, 778, 785 SDSS 17100.62+641209.0, Shock front, 377 composition of, 859 1099 Shock wave, 377 cooling timescale, 785 Second dredge-up phase, 463 Shoemaker, Eugene M., 834 core of, 783 Second overtone, 493 Short–hard gamma ray bursts, energy budgets and effective Secondary star, 658, 659 547, 705 temperatures, 784 Sector boundary, 820 Short-period comets, 825 gravitational moments, 781 Secular parallax, 922, 1039 Shu, Frank, 869 interior structure of, 785, 786 SED, see Spectral energy Sidereal period, 6 mass-radius relationship, 778 distribution Sidereal time, 10 moment of inertia, 781 Sedna, 717 Silk damping, 1252 moons of, 715–716, 723, 776, Seeing, 148 Silk, Joseph, 1252 797–799 Seismic waves SIM PlanetQuest mission, 59, orbit, 6 on Earth, 749, 750 172, 856, 922 ring system, 724, 775, Selection rules, 136 Simon, George, 509

I-24 Index

Simultaneity, 92 spectral lines, 275–276 Solar model, 350 Sines, law of, 17 Soft gamma repeaters (SGRs), Solar motion, 904 Single-line spectroscopic binary 603 Solar nebula star system, 188 Softening factor, A-27 temperature gradient in, 859 Single-slit diffraction, 145–146 SOHO (Solar and Heliospheric Solar neutrino problem, Sirius, 76, 112, 224 Observatory), 172, 825 356–360, 540 Sirius A, 557, 558 Solar antapex, 906 Solar neutrino unit (SNU), 357 Sirius B Solar apex, 906 Solar oscillations, 509, 512 discovery, 557–559 Solar atmosphere, 360–380 Solar prominences, 388, 389 electron degeneracy, 566, 569 chromosphere, 364–365 Solar spectrum, 112, 114, 238 gravitational redshift and, 622 corona, 366–370, 390 Solar System SIRTF (Spitzer Space coronal holes, 370–372 ,see also Asteroids; Comets; Telescope), 168 granulation, 363–365 Moons; Planets Skyview, 172 hydrodynamic equations, 376 age of, 350 SL9, see Comet magnetohydrodynamics, angular momentum P/Shoemaker–Levy 9 377–380 distribution, 858–859 Slattery, Wayne, 740 Parker spiral, 380 collisions and bombardment, Slipher, Vesto M., 941, 1052 photosphere, 274, 277–278, 860 Sloan Digital Sky Survey 360–362, 379 composition trends in, 859 (SDSS), 172, 204, 1078, plages, 385 evolution, 840 1099 solar flares, 386–388 formation, 718–719 Slow novae, 681 solar prominences, 388, 389 formation of, 857, 861–869 Small Astronomy Satellite–1 solar wind, 370–374 minor bodies in, 832 (SAS-1), 170 spicules, 365 planetary atmosphere, Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC), sunspots, 381–385 724–730 467, 484, 891, 945, 948, supergranulation, 365 resonance effects in, 868 1059 transition region, 365–366 survey of, 714–719 Cepheids in, 486 Solar circle, 883 synchronous rotation, SMBHs, see Supermassive black Solar constant, 61 722–723 holes Solar convection zone, 511 tidal forces, 719–724 SMC, see Small Magellanic Solar cosmic rays, 386 water in, 829 Cloud Solar cycle, 381–393 Solar time, 9 SMC X-1, 696 coronal mass ejections, 389, Solar wind, 370–374 SN 1006, 524, 553 390 Parker wind model, 375–376 SN 1963p, 1043 magnetic dynamo theory, Solid angle, 151 SN 1987A, 524, 525, 536–541 391–392 Solstice, 10, 11 SN 1993J, 528 plages, 385 Sonic horizon distance, 1262 SN 1997ff, 1214 solar flares, 386–388 Sound SN 1998bw, 547 solar prominences, 388, 389 Doppler shift, 97 SN 2003dh, 547 sunspots, 381–385 Sound speed, 377 SNAP spacecraft, see Solar eclipse adiabatic, 321 Supernova/Acceleration bending of starlight, 613 isothermal, 414 Probe Solar flares, 386–388 Source function, 257, 258 Snell’s law, 141, 142 Solar galactocentric distance, Southern African Large Snow line, 860, 865 882, 883 Telescope (SALT), 159 SNR, see Supernova remnants Solar granulation, 363–364 Southern lights, 373 SNU, see Solar neutrino unit supergranulation, 365 Southern Wall, 1076 Snyder, Hartland, 634 Solar irradiance, 61 Space Interferometry Mission, 59 Sodium Solar lithium problem, 542 Space-based observatories, 160,

Index I-25

171 solar, 362, 365 N-body simulations, 981–983 Spacelike interval, 109 Sun, 112, 114 radius–luminosity relation, Spacetime, 92 T Tauri stars, 434 956 curvature of, 609–613, 618, Voigt profile, 271–273 rotation curves, 915, 917, 951 622, 628, 1185–1190 Zeeman effect, 134 structure of, 964–983 diagrams, 623 Spectral types, 202, 204, 205 X-ray luminosity, 958 frame dragging, 640 A, 204, 205 Spiral structure, 964–983 intervals, 624, 625 B, 204, 205 closed orbits in noninertial metric for flat spacetimes, C, 205, 466, 467 frames, 977–979 626–628 F, 205 density wave theory, 967–968 Schwarzschild metric, 630, G, 205 small-amplitude orbital 634, 635, 638, 639 Harvard spectral classification, perturbations, 969–976 worldlines, 623–624 204, 205 stochastic, self-propagating Spacetime interval, 109 K, 204, 205, 466 star formation (SSPSF), Spallation reactions, 388 L, 204, 205 983 Special relativity, 88, 102 M, 205, 466, 467 trailing and leading spiral ,see also General theory of O, 204, 205 arms, 966, 968 relativity S, 205, 467 winding problem, 966–967 space in, 94–95 T, 204, 205 Spitzer Infrared Telescope, 169 time in, 92–94 Spectrographs, 113 Spitzer Space Telescope Specific energy density, 233–234 Spectroscopic binary star system, (SIRTF), 168 Specific heat, 318–320 182, 186–193 Spitzer, Lyman, Jr., 168 Specific intensity, 231, 235 Spectroscopic parallax, 225, 475, Spring tides, 723 Specific radiative flux, 234–235 1039 Sputtering, 795 Specific volume, 319 Spectroscopy, 111 Squire, J. C., 71 Spectral classification, see Spectrum binary star system, SS 433, 699–701 Spectral types 181–182 SS Cygni, 679 Spectral energy distribution Speed of light, 63, 87 Stability coefficient, 503 (SED), 1088 constancy, 88, 90 Star counts Spectral flux density, 161–162 Spherical aberration, 150 differential star counts, Spectral index, 1088 Spherical harmonics 880–881 Spectral lines, 111–116, 220 stellar pulsation, 503, 504 integrated star counts, 879 ,see also Stellar spectra Spherical trigonometry, 17–19 Kapteyn’s method, 876, 878 active galactic nuclei, 1087, Spheroidal mirror, 143 modern methods, 881 1116–1120 Spicules, 365 Olbers’s paradox, 881 broadening, 268–271 Spin angular momentum, 135 Star formation calcium, 218 Spiral density waves, 806 stochastic, self-propagating, collisional broadening, 270 Spiral galaxies, 942, 944, 946, 983 curve of growth, 273–276 948–958 Star formation rate (SFR), 1018, Doppler broadening, 269–270 characteristics of, 949 1020 equivalent widths, 267 color gradient, 957–958 Starburst galaxies, 1011, 1013 hydrogen, 120, 121, 124–127, color of, 956 Stardust spacecraft, 823 203, 213, 216, 218, 226 gas and dust in, 957 Stars natural broadening, 268 luminosity class, 947 ,see also specific types of stars; optically thin, 267 luminosity function, 991 headings under Stellar pressure broadening, 270–271 mass and mass-to-light ratio, atmosphere, see Stellar quasars, 1095, 1097–1098, 956 atmosphere 1137–1139 merger of, 1029 constellations, A-3–A-4 Seyfert galaxies, 1108 metallicity gradients, 958 energy sources, 296–315

I-26 Index

evolution, see Stellar evolution binding energy per nucleon, massive stars, giant stars, A-11 314–315 post-main-sequence gravitational potential energy, burning, 312–314 evolution, 518–523 296–297 chemical processes, 298 post-asymptotic giant branch, hydrostatic equilibrium, CNO cycle, 311–312 469, 478 284–288 energy transport, 315–317 pre-main-sequence evolution, interior, 284 gravitational potential energy, 425–441 magnetic activity in, 392–393 296–297 protostar formation, 412–424 main sequence, 340–343 Kelvin–Helmholtz timescale, r-process nucleosynthesis, 542 main-sequence stars, 298 red giant branch, 460 A-9–A-10 nuclear reactions, 298–300, red giant tip, 461 mass–luminosity relation, 189, 302–307 s-process nucleosynthesis, 307 nuclear timescale, 300 467, 542 masses, 224 proton–proton chains, Schönberg–Chandrasekhar OB associations, 433 309–311 limit, 451, 453–456, 458, pressure equation of state, quantum mechanical 478 288–296 tunneling, 300–302 stellar clusters, 474–479 rotation, 380 thermodynamics, 317–329 subgiant branch, 457, 458 spectra, see Stellar spectra triple alpha process, 312 thermal-pulse asymptotic stellar structure equations, Stellar evolution, 220, 285,see giant branch, 463–465 330–340 also Post-main-sequence timescales, 446 supergiant stars, A-12 stellar evolution, 857 zero-age main sequence, 429 table of brightest stars, accretion, 423 Stellar halo, 884 A-5–A-6 asymptotic giant branch, 463, Milky Way Galaxy, 894, 896 table of nearest stars, A-7–A-8 467–468, 478 Stellar nucleosynthesis, Starspots, 393 binary star, 669–670 308–309, 314 State function, 318 Chandrasekhar limit, 468, Stellar parallax, 57–59 Static limit, 641 569–571, 583 Stellar pulsation, 329, 331, 340, Statistical weight, 210 early asymptotic giant branch, 483 StatStar (software), 334, 463, 464 acoustic frequency, 505 A-23–A-25 Hayashi track, 425 angular rotation frequency, Steady-state model of the helium core flash, 461–462, 506 universe, 1163 572 brightness, 483, 487 Stefan, Josef, 70 helium shell flash, 463, 465, buoyancy frequency, 508 Stefan–Boltzmann equation, 70 466 classes, 489–491 Stefan–Boltzmann law, 221 horizontal branch, 462–463 convection, 498, 507, 508 Stellar atmosphere, 219, hydrogen and, 450, 457 ǫ mechanism, 495 231–278 initial mass function, 430 γ -mechanism, 497 model atmosphere, 277 intermediate-mass stars, 457, instability strip, 488, 490, 497, opacity, 241–251 459 498 optical depth, 242–244 isothermal core, 451–452, κ-mechanism, 497 radiation field, 231–237 454–456 modeling, 499–503 radiative transfer, 251–266 late stages, 457–474 nonadiabatic, 502 thermodynamic equilibrium, low-mass stars, 447–451, 457, nonlinear, 499 238–239 458 nonradial oscillations, Stellar birthrate function, 1018 main sequence, 446–457 503–508 Stellar clusters, 474–479 massive stars, 453 one-zone model, 500–502 Stellar convection, 322–329 massive stars, main-sequence opacity, 496 Stellar energy evolution, 453 partial ionization zones,

Index I-27

497–498 Sun, 224, 349–393 Sunspots, 381–385 period, 491, 492 ,see also under Solar cycles, 383 period–density relation, adiabatic sound speed, 321 magnetic dynamo theory, 392 491–492 adiabatic temperature Maunder minimum, 384, 392 period–luminosity relation, gradient, 328 penumbra, 382, 383 483–487, 1040 atmosphere, see Solar polarity, 392 period–luminosity–color atmosphere umbra, 381, 383 relation, 487 atmosphere of, 778 Sunyaev, Rashid, 1169 phase lag, 488 beryllium abundance, 541 Sunyaev–Zel’dovich effect, physics of, 491–499 central pressure, 287 1169, 1171, 1218 pulsation period, 491, 492 central temperature, 295–296 Super Bowl gamma-ray burst, radial modes, 492–494 chemical elements in, 511, 544 as thermodynamic heat 541–542 Super-Kamiokande neutrino engine, 494 composition, 351, 356 observatory, 357–359 valve mechanism, 495, 502 convection zone, 511 Superadiabatic convection Stellar radii coronal mass ejections, 389, mixing-length theory, 325–329 Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, 390 Superadiabatic temperature 220–224 curve of growth, 275 gradient, 322, 325 Stellar spectra, 202–225 electron degeneracy, 567 Superclusters, 1059, 1069 Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, evolutionary history, 349–350, Superconductivity, 581 219–224 447–450 Supercooling, 1241 Morgan–Keenan luminosity, five-minute oscillations, 509 Superfluid, 581 225 gravitational potential energy, Supergiant stars, 221, 224 T Tauri stars, 434 297 Supergranulation, 365 types, 202–204 helioseismology, 509–512 Superior planets, 6 Stellar structure interior structure, 350–356, Superluminal velocities, 1125 StatStar code for, 450 Supermassive black holes A-23–A-25 limb darkening, 254 (SMBH), 639 Stellar structure equations, luminosity, 70 Supermassive black holes 330–340 mass loss rate, 374 (SMBHs), 959–962 boundary conditions, 332 nuclear energy, 299 accretion disks around, 1112 constitutive relations, 331 p-modes, 510–511 in active galactic nuclei, numerical modeling, 333–334 Parker spiral, 380 1117–1118 Vogt–Russell theorem, 332 photosphere, 274, 277–278, binary, 1015–1016 Stephenson, Bruce, 699 360–362, 379, 541 in Sgr A*, 929–930 Steradian (unit), 151 plages, 385 Supernova Cosmology Project Stochastic, self-propagating star pressure at center, 287 (SCP), 1214 formation (SSPSF), 983 rotation, 380 Supernova remnants (SNR), 537 Strömgren radius, 432 rotation rate, 364 Supernova/Acceleration Probe Strömgren, Bengt, 221, 432 solar flares, 386–388 (SNAP) spacecraft, 1044 Stretch method solar neutrino problem, Supernovae (SN), 522, 524–541, light curves, 1043 356–360 578, 673 Strutt, John William, 71 solar prominences, 388, 389 classification, 526–529 Subduction zone, 751 spectral lines, 112, 114, core-collapse supernovae, Subdwarf stars, 272 217–219 529–541 Subgiant branch (stellar sunspots, 381–385 evolution, 670 evolution), 457, 458 tachocline, 364 for extragalactic distance Suisei spacecraft, 821 tidal effects from, 723 measurement, 1041 Summer solstice, 10, 11 Sunspot cycles, 383 gamma-ray bursts and, 548

I-28 Index

light curves and radioactive gamma ray astronomy, 170 807 decay, 534–537 infrared telescopes, 167–168 Tidal stripping, 1006, 1009 radioactive elements, 840 large-aperture telescopes, 159 Tidal-tail galaxies, 1009, 1011 Type I supernovae, 526, 527, light-gathering power, 153 Tides 529 optical telescopes, 154–161 effects of, 721–722 Type Ia light curves, radio relescopes, 161–167 physics of, 719–721 1042–1044 reflecting, 141, 155–158 Roche limit, 723–724 Type Ia supernovae, 526, 542 refracting, 141, 154–155 Sun, effect of, 723 Type Ib supernovae, 526, 533 resolution, 148 Time Type Ic supernovae, 526, 533 ultraviolet astronomy, 168 in special relativity, 92–94 Type II supernovae, 526, 527, X-ray astronomy, 170 universal simultaneity, 92 529, 534 Temperature gradient Time dilation, 93, 95, 97, 621, Type II-L supernovae, 527, adiabatic, 321–322, 324 631 528 superadiabatic, 322, 325 Time measurement, 14 Type II-P supernovae, 527, Temperature scale height, 239 Timelike interval, 109 528, 534 Tenerife Observatory, 148 Tinsley, Beatrice, 1011 Superposition principle, 64 Terrestrial planets, 714, 715, Titan, 716 Superwind, 468 737–770 atmosphere of, 797–798 Supranova model, 549 composition of, 859 surface of, 798 Surface brightness fluctuation formation of, 866 Titius, Johann, 716 method, 1047 Terrestrial Time (TT), 15 Titius–Bode rule, 716, 775 Surface flux, 70 Texture, 1245 TNOs, see Trans-Neptunian Surface of last scattering, 1181 Theory of Everything (TOE), Objects Swift, Jonathan, 769 1235 TOE, see Theory of Everything SX Phoenicis stars, 512 Thermal bremsstrahlung, 1062, Tombaugh, Clyde W., 813 Symbiotic binaries, 673 1066, 1068, 1116 Toomre, Alar, 1009, A-26 Symmetry breaking, 1235, 1236, Thermal-pulse asymptotic giant Toomre, Juri, 1009, A-26 1243 branch, 463–465 Top-down galaxy formation, Synchronous orbit, 723 Thermodynamic equilibrium, 1256, 1257 Synchronous rotation, 722–723 239 Total internal reflection, 131 Synchrotron radiation, 102, 592, Thermodynamics, 20, 317–329 Total opacity, 248 593, 1114, 1121, 1125 adiabatic gas law, 320 Total relativistic energy, 103 power-law spectrum of, 1089 first law, 318 TP-AGB, see Thermal-pulse Synchrotron self-absorption, stellar convection, 322–329 asymptotic giant branch 1090 Thick disk Tracers Synodic period, 6, 7 Milky Way, 883–886 of hydrogen, 407 Thin disk Trans-Neptunian Objects T Tauri stars, 434–436, 439 Milky Way, 883–886 (TNOs), 717, 826 T-Tauri systems, 860, 861 Third Cambridge Catalog, 1095 Transfer equation, 255–266 Tachocline, 364 Third dredge-up phase, 465 Transition region (solar Tammann, Gustav, 1041 Thomson scattering, 246–247 atmosphere), 365–366 Tangential velocity, 17 Thomson, Joseph J., 119 Transition Region and Coronal Taylor, Joseph, 700, 703, 705 Thorne, Kip, 691 Explorer (TRACE), 172 Tectonic activity, 750 Thorne–Zytkow˙ object, 691 Translucent molecular clouds, ,see also Plate tectonics Tidal bulges, 719, 721 407 Telescopes Tidal capture, 690 Transmission grating, 113 aberrations and, 150 Tidal force, 719 Transverse Doppler shift, 98 aperture, 154, 163 effect on Io, 793–795 Transverse velocity, 17 brightness of image, 151–154 ring system formation and, Transverse waves, 65

Index I-29

Trapezium cluster, 431, 433 Ultraviolet light, 66 V1500 Cyg, 681 Tremaine, Scott, 806, 867 Ultraviolet magnitude, 75, 76 V404 Cygni, 644, 672, 698 Triaxial spheroidal galaxies, 943 ULXs, see Ultraluminous X-ray V616 Mon, 644 Trigonometric parallax, 57, 58 sources Vacuum Trimble, Virginia, 16 Umbra, 381, 383 energy of, 1239–1241 Triple alpha process, 312 Uncertainty principle, 130–132, Valles Marineris, 763, 765, 768 Triton, 723, 827 268, 301, see Valve mechanism atmosphere of, 800 Heisenberg’s uncertainty pulsating stars, 495, 502 surface of, 800 principle Van Allen radiation belts, 373, Trojan asteroids, 657, 829, 831, United Kingdom Schmidt 753 833, 837 Telescope sky survey, van den Bergh, Sidney, 947 Trujillo, Chad, 826 1073 van Maanen, Adrian, 941 Trumpler, Robert, 1040 Universal Gravitational Variable stars Truran, James W., 1019 Constant, 33 naming, 393 Tully, R. Brent, 952 Universal time (UT), 13, 1190 Vector gauge bosons, 1230, Tully–Fisher relation, 952–956, Universe 1231, 1236 1048 ,see also Cosmology; Early Vectors, 31 Tunguska event, 842 universe Vega, 77, 112, 116, 203, 437 Tuning-fork diagram, 942, 943 age of, 1156–1158, 1176 Vega missions, 821 Tunneling, 131, 132, 300–302 Big Bang, 1057–1058 Vela spacecraft, 543 Turn-off point, 476 expansion of, 1052–1058, Velocity dispersion, 906 Turner, Michael, 1191 1175, 1207 Velocity ellipsoids, 906 Turnover magnitude, 1046 extragalactic distance scale, Velocity–metallicity relation, 906 Twinkling 1038–1051 Venus, 715, 740–745 stellar images, 148 ﬂatness of, 1237–1238 atmosphere of, 741–743 Two-body problem, 41–43 large-scale motion, 1070–1072 formation of, 866 Two-component model of the large-scale structures, greenhouse effect, 725, 743 universe, 1170, 1175 1072–1080 lack of magnetic ﬁeld, 742 Two-Micron All Sky Survey sky surveys, 1073–1078 orbit, 5 (2MASS), 172 steady-state model, 1163 retrograde rotation, 741–742 TwoStars (software), 194, Uranus, 715, 719, 776 spacecraft missions to, A-18–A-22 atmosphere of, 778, 785 744–745 Tycho’s supernova, 524 atmospheric dynamics, 789 surface of, 744–745 Type Ia supernovae, 686–689, composition of, 859 Vernal equinox, 10–12 1042, 1044, 1214 core of, 784 Vertical optical depth, 259 models, 687–688 discovery of, 775 Vertical oscillation frequency, energy budgets and effective 973 U Geminorum, 675 temperatures, 784 Very Large Array (VLA, New UBV system, 75 gravitational moments, 781 Mexico), 166 UHURU, 170 interior structure of, 785, 786 Very Long Baseline Array ULIRGs, see Ultraluminous mass-radius relationship, 778 (VLBA), 166 infrared galaxies moment of inertia, 781 Very long baseline interferometry Ultraharmonic resonance, 980 moons of, 715–716, 799 (VLBI), 165 Ultraluminous Infrared Galaxies ring system, 802, 804, 807 Vesta, 837, 841 (ULIRGs), 1099, 1107 spacecraft missions to, 777 Viking missions, 763 Ultraluminous X-ray sources URCA process, 586 Virgo A, 1093 (ULXs), 639 UT1, 13 Virgo cluster, 992, 993, 1041, Ultraviolet astronomy UTC (coordinated universal 1045, 1048, 1049, 1051, telescopes, 168 time), 13

I-30 Index

1062–1063, 1066, 1069 in inner solar system, 829 673–686 Virgo consortium, 1258 Wave spectra, 560–561 Virgocentric peculiar velocity, light as, 63–67 X-rays from, 685 1070 Wave–particle duality, 132 ZZ Ceti stars, 490, 491, 498, Virial mass, 960 Wavelength, 63 561, 562 Virial of Clausius, 50, 51 WC stars, 522 White holes, 642 Virial temperature, 1021 WC4 stars, 522 White, Simon, 918 Virial theorem, 50–53, 314, 330, WC9 stars, 522 Wide Field and Planetary 412, 420, 454, 1069 WCE stars, 522 Camera (WF/PC 2), 161 Virtual observatories, 172 WCL stars, 522 Widmanstätten patterns, 840 Virtual particles, 1239 WD95 (software), 195 Widmanstätten, Count Alois von, Visible light, 66 Weak equivalence principle, 614 840 Visual binary star system, 180 Weakly interacting massive Wiedemann, Gustav, 116 mass determination with, particles (WIMPs), 896, Wien’s displacement law, 69, 70, 183–185 1233 72, 126, 432, 1112, 1166, Visual magnitude, 75, 76 Wedgewood, Thomas, 68 1167 VLA (Very Large Array), 166 Wei-T’e, Yang, 524 Wien, Wilhelm, 69, 72 VLBA (Very Long Baseline Weinberg, Steven, 1183, 1236 Wilkinson Microwave Array), 166 Weisberg, Joel, 705 Anisotropy Probe VLBI (very long baseline Wheeler, John A., 615, 635 (WMAP), 1057, 1150, interferometry), 165 Whipple, Fred L., 817, 820 1183, 1270–1273, A-29 Vogt, Steve, 196 Whirlpool galaxy, see M51 Wilkinson, David, 1057 Vogt–Russell theorem, 332, 340, White dwarfs, 136, 221, 469, Wilson, Olin C., Jr., 1039 349 492, 559–563, 589 Wilson, Robert, 1165, 1166 Voids, 1061, 1074 accretion disks, 664–665, 693 Wilson–Bappu effect, 1039 Voigt proﬁle, 271–273 central conditions, 559–560 WIMPs, see Weakly interacting Volatiles, 756 Chandrasekhar limit, 569–571 massive particles Volkoff, G. M., 582 classiﬁcation, 559 Winding problem von Fraunhofer, Joseph, 111 cooling, 572–577 spiral galaxies, 966–967 Voyager Interstellar Missions, crystallization, 576 Winget, Don, 562 777 DA, 559–561 Winter solstice, 10, 11 Voyager missions, 777, 789 DAV stars, 561 WMAP, see Wilkinson Voyager spacecraft, 374 DB, 559, 561 Microwave Anisotropy VV Cephei Systems, 672 DBV stars, 562 Probe VW Hydri, 675 DC, 559 WN stars, 522 DQ, 559 WN2 stars, 522 W Serpens, 672 dynamical instability, 570 WN9 stars, 522 W Ursae Majoris contact DZ, 559 WNE stars, 522 systems, 672 electron degeneracy, 569 WNL stars, 522 W Virginis stars, 489, 491, 877, energy transport, 572–574 WO stars, 522 1040, 1041 evolution, 560, 670 Wolf, C. J. E., 521 W50, 699 helium, 560, 572 Wolf–Rayet stars (WRs), Walker, Arthur Geoffrey, 1189 luminosity, 575, 577 521–522, 699, 924 Warner, Brian, 675 mass–volume relation, Wollaston, William, 111 Warped disks, 1010 569–570 Wolszczan, Alexander, 195 Warping oxygen–neon–magnesium, Woosley, Stan, 548 Milky Way H I warp, 889 560 Work function, 117 ring systems, 807 pulsating, 561–563 Worldlines, 623–624 Water in semidetached binaries, geodesics, 628

Index I-31

Wormhole, 643 nuclei, 1115 Zenith, 8 WR 124, 521 X-wind model, 869 Zenith distance, 8 Wright, Thomas, 875, 940 XMM-Newton (X-ray Zero velocity surface, 1059 WRs, see Wolf–Rayet stars Multi-Mirror Newton Zero-age main sequence Observatory), 170 (ZAMS), 429, 447, 449, X-ray astronomy 450 telescopes, 170 Yerkes Observatory, 156 ζ Aurigae systems, 672 X-ray binaries, 672 Young, Thomas, 64 Zhevakin, S. A., 496 X-ray burster, 696, 697 YY Sagittarii, 182 Znajek, Roman, 1114 X-ray Multi-Mirror Newton Zodiacal light, 367, 718 Observatory Z Chamaeleontis, 675–678 Zone of avoidance, 877 (XMM-Newton), 170 ZAMS, see zero-age main Zwicky, Fritz, 578, 1064, 1066, X-ray nova, 698 sequence 1130 X-ray pulsars, 691 Zeeman effect, 134–136, 382, Zytkow,˙ Anna, 691 eclipsing, 694–696 384 ZZ Ceti stars, 490, 491, 498, X-rays, 66 Zeeman, Pieter, 116 561, 562 generation by active galactic Zel’dovich, Yakov, 1169