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Home , Exclusionary zoning, Zoning

ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE Volume 1, Number 4, 2008 © Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. DOI: 10.1089/env.2008.0506

How Planning and Contribute to Inequitable Development, Neighborhood Health, and Environmental Injustice

Sacoby Wilson, Malo Hutson, and Mahasin Mujahid

ABSTRACT

In this commentary, we discuss the ways in which planning and zoning contribute to inequitable devel- opment and how this has implications for the design of neighborhoods, health and health disparities, and environmental injustice. We first discuss the history of zoning and planning in this country and their con- tribution to inequitable development and urban fragmentation. We then describe how the distribution of resources within and between neighborhoods has an impact on neighborhood health by linking neigh- borhood conditions to health outcomes such as obesity and cardiovascular disease. In this commentary, we also discuss the contributions of planning and zoning to environmental injustice and the production of riskscapes. We conclude with a discussion on the importance of social justice and equity in urban re- vitalization efforts and make recommendations that can be adopted to improve local social and physical environments and access to health-promoting resources in disadvantaged neighborhoods.

ODAY MANY OF the largest metropolitan regions within HISTORY OF PLANNING AND ZONING Tthe are fragmented with who are in competition with each other for businesses and The basis for many of our current zoning and planning the most affluent residents. These municipalities utilize regulations and standards stem from efforts during the their police powers to control local through zon- sanitary movement of the industrialization era of the nine- ing and planning regulations. Zoning and planning con- teenth century. Efforts to decrease the spread of infectious tribute to inequitable development and this has impor- diseases were rooted in the dominant view that popula- tant implications for the design of neighborhoods, health, tion concentration and the proximity between businesses and health disparities. In this article, we provide a brief and homes was unhealthy.2 In the twentieth century, New history of zoning and planning in the United States and York pioneered the first comprehensive zoning or- its contribution to inequitable development and urban dinance in 1916 to separate land uses in order to limit hu- fragmentation, how zoning and planning inequities have man exposure to toxic chemicals and biological agents, led to the differential distribution of resources across ad- improve environmental quality, and protect public vantaged and disadvantaged neighborhoods, and nega- health. The zoning approach established by the City of tive outcomes. We conclude with a discus- was implemented nationally through the Stan- sion on the importance of social justice and equity in dard Zoning and Enabling Act (SZEA) and still provides urban revitalization efforts and make recommendations the foundation of contemporary zoning regulations. In that can be adopted to improve the social and built envi- 1926, the landmark United States Supreme Court case of ronments and resource allocation in disadvantaged Ambler Realty Co v. Village of Euclid codified that zoning neighborhoods.1 ordinances are a proper exercise of the state’s police power because they protect the health and safety of the community. Thus, this case provided legal support for the Dr. Wilson is at the Institute for Families in Society, Univer- segregation of land, usages, and people in neighborhoods sity of South Carolina in Columbia, SC; Dr. Hutson is at the De- and .3 Schilling and Linton write that this case fore- partment of City and at the University of Cal- ifornia, Berkeley; and Dr. Mujahid is at the Department of shadowed —the illegal practice of ex- Epidemiology, at Harvard University in Boston, MA. cluding low-income and minority residents under the

211 212 WILSON, HUTSON, AND MUJAHID guise of zoning use classifications—which municipalities, and nephritis #9).6 One reason for this epidemiologic shift planners, and the legal system are challenged by in con- is the improvement in sanitary conditions (i.e., water and temporary community development and planning.4 sewer services) that allowed for better control of infec- tious diseases. Additionally, while people live longer EXCLUSIONARY ZONING AND through medical advancements, more chronic health con- NEIGHBORHOOD DEVELOPMENT ditions have developed. Euclidean-based zoning and planning initiatives have been instrumental in separating Presently, we observe exclusionary practices when many unhealthy land uses from people, thus preserving the ad- municipalities in fragmented metropolitan regions use vancements made during the sanitary movement. How- both incorporation and zoning as a way to insulate their ever, current restrictive zoning and planning laws and investment and enhance their values. Specifically, practices have limited our ability to construct and main- these regions control local land use including schools and tain health-promoting built environments in neighbor- business development, and exclude undesirable popula- hoods across metropolitan regions. tions (e.g., people of color, poor people, immigrants) and For example, the nation’s obesity epidemic may be a undesirable industries. They also employ exclusionary result of the lack of neighborhood and metropolitan level zoning to create special districts (e.g., residential, business, infrastructure that supports physical activity, active school, fire) to protect their political and economic self-in- lifestyles, and equity in healthy food access. In addition, terests. In most cases, the courts have upheld the rights of the culture of consumption and convenience related to the municipalities to craft their own zoning ordinances and nation’s overuse of automobiles as a means of trans- planning standards allowing them to serve their commu- portation plays an important role in this epidemic. Amer- nity best and to define the public welfare for their own ju- icans spend a tremendous amount of time in their auto- risdictions as they deem necessary. However, this further mobiles driving to work, school, and amenities which encourages municipalities to develop and implement plan- leaves little time for regular physical activity. According to ning and zoning regulations and standards that benefit ad- The Surgeon General’s Call to Action to Prevent and Decrease vantaged populations and ignore the needs and concerns Overweight and Obesity, the costs of the obesity epidemic in of disadvantaged populations. As a result, discriminatory 2000 were more than $117 billion dollars. For the past planning and exclusionary zoning contribute to unequal twenty five years, obesity rates have increased in the development within metropolitan areas limiting access of United States. In 2006, more than 66% percent of Ameri- all citizens to , public transportation, can adults were overweight or obese, up from 47% in the good school systems, and economic infrastructure (e.g., late 1970s. The current adult obesity prevalence rate of 33% high paying jobs in technology, health, and service sectors). is two times greater than the Healthy People 2010 goal of This results in segregated communities along the lines of less than 15%. Currently, 17% of children and adolescents race and class and the creation of an urban underclass that are overweight. Since the mid-1970s, the prevalence for is denied access to mainstream opportunities.5 children aged 2–19 has increased from 5% to 17%.7 Furthermore, we observe disparities in physical activ- PLANNING, ZONING, AND ity and healthy food access between whites and non- NEIGHBORHOOD HEALTH whites and affluent and disadvantaged populations. For example, more than 50% of whites obtain the recom- Historically, there has been a natural connection be- mended levels of physical activity, while only 40% of tween planning, zoning, and public health. During the blacks and Hispanics obtain the recommended level. In sanitary movement, public health was a central goal of addition, we observe health disparities in obesity. The , but that changed during the middle of CDC reports that among women aged 40–59, 53% of non- the twentieth century. After progress was made to con- Hispanic black women and 51% of Mexican-American trol the spread of infectious diseases through advances in women were obese compared to 39% of non-Hispanic environmental health engineering, public health and ur- white women in the same age group. Latinos, African- ban planning diverged in mission and perspective. The Americans, and American Indians and Pacific Islanders planning of cities and zoning ordinances focused more on are 1.9, 2, and 2.6 times more likely to have Type 2 dia- aesthetics, economics, and the property rights of the priv- betes than whites in the same age group, respectively. ileged and less on public health. Concurrently, public These statistics reveal a grim future for Americans par- health professionals focus less on meso- and macro-level ticularly if steps are not taken to better understand the factors such as the and metropolitan impact that zoning and planning has on the production level planning and development and more on individual and maintenance of neighborhoods that can have benefi- level risk factors (i.e., health behaviors, genetics). Current cial or deleterious effects on public health.8 trends in the nation’s health call for a reemergence of the public health ethic of urban planning present in the nine- EMERGING NEIGHBORHOOD teenth and early twentieth centuries. The diseases that HEALTH EFFECTS LITERATURE primarily kill Americans in the twenty-first century are not infectious diseases, but chronic diseases. In fact, seven An increasing interest in the impact of place on health of the top leading causes of death are chronic in nature by researchers in the public health and epidemiologic lit- (heart disease #1, cancer #2, stroke #3, chronic lower res- erature has the potential to help reconnect urban plan- piratory disease #4, diabetes #6, Alzheimer’s disease #7, ning and public health. There has been an explosion of PLANNING, ZONING, HEALTH, AND INJUSTICE 213 public health literature investigating “neighborhood mental justice (EJ) literature. A wealth of EJ literature has health effects.” The neighborhood environment is one im- demonstrated that many low-income populations and portant context because it has both physical and social populations of color live in neighborhoods that are dif- characteristics that may result in health consequences. ferentially burdened by noxious land uses such as land- Studies have shown that living in disadvantaged neigh- fills, hazardous waste sites, incinerators, publicly owned borhoods is positively associated with increased disease treatment works (POTWs) (e.g., sewer treatment plants), morbidity, mortality, and mental illness, independent of Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) facilities, energy produc- other individual-level factors. Most of these studies have tion facilities, petrochemical plants, and heavily trafficked defined neighborhoods as administratively defined areas roadways due to discriminatory and exclusionary zon- (census tracts or block groups) and employ available US ing.12 census indicators of neighborhood socioeconomic char- Other literature has recognized the lack of access to acteristics (SES) in health studies.9 , green space, recreational facilities, pedestrian- Although neighborhoods have been studied in relation friendly residential environments, and the dispropor- to a wide range of health outcomes, some of the most con- tionate burden of pathogenic infrastructure such as fast sistent evidence comes from the study of cardiovascular food , liquor stores, and check cashing facili- disease (CVD) related risk factors and outcomes. Cardio- ties as environmental justice issues as well. This body of vascular disease is the leading cause of death in the United literature has shown that the disproportionate burden of States killing approximately 700,000 people in 2002. Many noxious land uses and pathogenic infrastructure leads to of the CVD related risk factors stem from chronic condi- higher exposure to unhealthy physical environments, in- tions like obesity which itself is a condition linked to the creased health risks, negative health behaviors, deleteri- quality of the neighborhood environment. We can use this ous health effects, and health disparities in diseases such body of literature to highlight two important points that as asthma, cancer, obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular elaborate on the importance of planning and zoning in the disease in urban environments. Exposure to such noxious production of the neighborhood environment. First, asso- conditions have been linked to the exacerbation of co- ciations between neighborhood disadvantage and poor morbid conditions, asthma related morbidity, premature CVD health begs the question of how and why neighbor- adult mortality, infant mortality, low birth weight babies, hood environments impact such outcomes. Neighborhood psychological stress, and higher body burdens of toxic socioeconomic position is a proxy for specific features that chemicals (e.g., lead).13 may actually be relevant for CVD risk. For example, neigh- The lack of healthy and equitable planning and zoning borhood SES may proxy characteristics of the built envi- in poor communities of color leads to their differential ex- ronment conducive to walking or physical activity and the posure to neighborhood stressors and unhealthy land availability and price of healthy foods. In addition, neigh- uses and limited access to salutogenic resources (i.e., med- borhood SES may proxy features of the social environment ical facilities, grocery stores, parks, open space, healthy such as neighborhood disorder, crime, social cohesion, schools); these high risk geographic settings have been and collective efficacy. Studies have begun to show asso- classified as “riskscapes.” Several researchers have dis- ciations between these specific features and insulin resis- cussed how “riskscapes” burden poor communities of tance, hypertension, obesity/body mass index, physical color in New York, Southern California, Detroit, and other activity, and diet.10 metropolitan areas. Living in or exposure to these A second important issue is how neighborhood envi- riskscapes lead to poor populations of color being the ronments contribute to health disparities across racial/eth- most vulnerable to the effects of environmental hazards, nic and socioeconomic lines. Because of the severe and per- air pollution, , man-made and natural disas- sistent degree of residential segregation in the United ters, and climate change. States, racial and ethnic minorities and poor individuals live in very different areas than their white and wealthier URBAN REVITALIZATION, EQUITY, AND counterparts. Moreover, these poor and minority neigh- SOCIAL JUSTICE borhoods are often under-resourced with health promot- ing facilities such as supermarkets and recreational outlets Recently, urban revitalization has introduced an era of (e.g., parks, gyms, basketball courts) to promote healthy urban planning with the potential to benefit all citizens diets and physical activity. These neighborhoods are also regardless of color or class by improving living and built over-resourced with health-restricting facilities (e.g., liquor environment conditions and providing new housing, ed- stores, fast food restaurants), chronic stressors (e.g., crime, ucational, and job opportunities. Urban planners are us- physical disorder), and advertisements for risky behaviors ing “,” a planning framework that focuses (e.g., tobacco and alcohol billboards) that encourage un- on “the development of livable spaces where people can healthy behaviors and limit ability of local residents to lead work, play, and shop without depending on automo- healthy lifestyles.11 biles.”15 Smart growth includes conservation of open and green space, mixed land use, diversity in housing options, PLANNING, ZONING, AND denser development, and the of compact ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE neighborhoods that are walkable, livable, and sustainable. Many affluent residents who either moved to the The issues presented in the neighborhood health effects during the era or are the progeny of sub- literature also have been documented in the environ- urbanites desire the benefits of city living. Several factors, 214 WILSON, HUTSON, AND MUJAHID including the frustration of long commutes from bedroom structure, transportation, housing, and protection of communities to jobs in the big city and the draw of trendy open space. “smart growth” and “sustainable” communities, are dri- • Establish a regional tax sharing system like the one ving urban revitalization efforts in metropolitan regions managed by The Metropolitan Council in Minneapo- nationally. Unfortunately, the planning philosophy that lis-St. Paul. drives urban revitalization focuses predominantly on ur- • Pass land bank legislation similar to that passed in the ban design and aesthetics and less on social equity and State of Michigan in 1999 that led to the establishment justice. Thus, revitalization is expanding the pattern of in- of the Genesee Land Bank (GCLB) to stabilize equitable development and fragmentation in metropoli- neighborhoods and revitalize the City of Flint and sur- tan regions that occurred during the suburbanization and rounding areas. eras of the twentieth century, particularly • Development of Environmental Preservation Districts in resource-poor and segregated neighborhoods where (EPDs)16 that would be modeled on historic districts many disadvantaged populations reside. These neigh- created through the Federal Historic Preservation Act. borhoods are being replaced by upscale rental These districts will help empower communities to have and homes for wealthier individuals and families with- more control of land use, zoning and planning initia- out providing an adequate amount of or tives in the Environmental Preservation Districts. mixed-income housing for current residents. • Green planning and zoning should be implemented in With the emphasis of urban planning on more “walk- underserved urban neighborhoods. There are many ex- able and livable” neighborhoods without the inclusion of amples of green zoning and planning initiatives in equity and social justice principles to improve the living places like Boulder, Chicago, Portland, and Seattle to conditions of disadvantaged residents, these groups are name a few. The greening process should go beyond being priced out of communities and can not take ad- and include open space, public transit, and vantage of new schools, economic opportunities, and support of and farmers’ markets, and health-promoting resources that accompany this devel- green jobs. opment. Inequitable development is concentrating dis- • Smart growth and new for all, not just ad- placed disadvantaged residents in hypersegregated vantaged populations. Social justice and equity have to urban neighborhoods or decaying suburban neighbor- be at the core of all “smart growth” and “new urban- hoods. Furthermore, the consequence of the dispropor- ism” projects. tionate burden of urban revitalization on disadvantaged • Cities should expand the use of conditional use per- urban populations and disproportionate benefit on sub- mits (CUPs) as the foundation for local “healthy zon- urban and affluent urban populations is the exacerbation ing” initiatives (e.g., ’ use of CUPs to con- of social, economic, and environmental inequalities. For trol alcohol outlets). urban planning to address these inequalities, undo met- ropolitan fragmentation, and provide more comprehen- CONCLUSION sive and equitable development for all residents regard- less of race and class, it must learn from other disciplines Planning and zoning are central to efforts to improve particularly public health. the physical and social environments in which individu- als exist. We know that these environments are currently ACTION STEPS not designed to facilitate healthy behaviors and often pro- mote sedentary lifestyles. Additionally, because zoning We make the following recommendations to improve and land use policies are often discriminatory and exclu- the living conditions in urban environments and better sionary, the consequence is the inequitable distribution of quality of life and health outcomes for disadvantaged health enriching resources to poor and minority commu- populations: nities. The time is now to challenge communities and cities across the country beset by fragmentation, envi- • Public health, urban planning, and environmental law ronmental injustice, and health disparities to use zoning, must work together to understand how zoning reform planning, and community development to preserve ur- can be used to decrease inequitable development, met- ban , limit the distribution of pathogenic in- ropolitan fragmentation, and health disparities in ur- dustries, and improve built environment conditions for ban environments. urban populations. This requires a comprehensive strat- • Following the model of economic development zones, egy focused at mobilizing residents at the grassroots level communities that are overburdened by unhealthy land and using research to address public policy. To improve uses should have the opportunity to create healthy the health of communities and to reduce racial, ethnic, community zones that place limits on the number of and socioeconomic health disparities, we must consider noxious land uses and pathogenic, health-restricting fa- comprehensive strategies that integrate the best of new cilities. urban planning approaches such as “smart growth,” “sus- • Region-wide focused organizations such as metropoli- tainability,” “,” and “active living” with the tan transportation organizations (MTOs) or association best evidence-based health and social justice practice that of governments (e.g., Association of Bay Area Govern- public health has to offer in order to achieve more equi- ments) should focus on better regional governance and table regional development and zoning and planning re- coordination of social services, development, infra- form. 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