ERT cover 30-2 15/3/06 14:24 Page 1

CONTENTS Theme: International Evangelical E

The Future of and its Missionary V A

Challenges in the Church of the 21st Century N G

ROLF HILLE E L I page 100 C A

Creation, Christians and Environmental Stewardship L R

KEN GNANAKAN E V I

page 110 E W Evangelicals and Mary: Recent Theological Evaluations O

DAVID PARKER F T

page 121 H E Prophetic Preaching as Social Preaching O L CHANG HOON KIM O G

page 141 Y V

Well-being Syndrome in Korea from the Perspective of O Articles and book reviews reflecting L

Biblical Counselling U

M global evangelical theology for the purpose KYU MYEONG WHANG E

page 152 3 of discerning the obedience of faith 0 ,

Is Christianity a Korean Religion? One Hundred Years of N Protestant Churches in Korea O 2

HEUNG SOO KIM , A

page 162 p r i l

Completing the circle: The Resurrection according to 2 0 0

John 6 DEREK TIDBALL page 169 Book Reviews page 184

Volume 30 No. 2 April 2006 Evangelical Review of Theology

EDITOR: DAVID PARKER

Volume 30 • Number 2 • April 2006 Articles and book reviews reflecting global evangelical theology for the purpose of discerning the obedience of faith

Published by

for WORLD EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE Theological Commission ISSN: 0144-8153 Volume 30 No. 2 April 2006

Copyright © 2006 World Evangelical Alliance Theological Commission

Editor David Parker

Committee The Executive Committee of the WEA Theological Commission Dr Rolf Hille, Executive Chair

Editorial Policy The articles in the Evangelical Review of Theology reflect the opinions of the authors and reviewers and do not necessarily represent those of the Editor or the Publisher.

Manuscripts, reports and communications should be addressed to the Editor and sent to Dr David Parker, 17 Disraeli St, Indooroopilly, 4068, Qld, Australia

The Editors welcome recommendations of original or published articles or book reviews that relate to forthcoming issues for inclusion in the Review. Please send clear copies of details to the above address.

Email enquiries welcome: [email protected] http://www.worldevangelicalalliance.com/commissions/theological.htm

Typeset by Profile, Culmdale, Rewe, Exeter, Devon EX5 4ES and Printed in Great Britain for Paternoster Periodicals, PO Box 300, Carlisle, Cumbria CA3 0QS by Polestar Wheatons Ltd., Exeter, Devon. ERT (2006) 30:2, 99 Editorial: International Evangelical Theology

IN THIS ISSUE WE ARE pleased to present which the author, Heung Soo Kim, some papers from the Third Interna- examines the cultural influences on tional Conference on Evangelical The- the development of Protestant ology, held at Sungkyul University, churches over the last century. Ayang City, Korea in 30 September-1 We hope to publish more papers October 2005 at which the WEA Theo- from the conference later, but this logical Commission was generously issue concludes with the detailed Bible hosted by the University and the Korea study article by Dr Derek Tidball, Prin- Evangelical Theological Society. First, cipal of the London School of Theology, we have the keynote address by TC which is appropriate to the Easter sea- Chair, Dr Rolf Hille of Tuebingen, Ger- son. Dr Tidball shows how the resur- many—an outstanding statement of rection accounts in the Gospel of John the role and nature of evangelical the- ‘complete the circle’ which is estab- ology in relation to the church and its lished in the opening chapter, giving ‘a mission. Then follows a lucid declara- rich and varied exposition of the resur- tion of one of the themes for which the rection which leads us to see in him the TC vice-chair, Dr Ken Gnanakan of glory which his first disciples saw India, has become rightly well while he lived among them, and, like known—Christians and the environ- them, to believe’. Such a view should ment. The editor’s paper on recent help us reflect on and preach the res- evangelical approaches to Mary the urrection without some of the ‘monoto- Mother of Jesus is next. nous voice of predictability’ which is The following three papers come often the case for those who have from Korean theologians—the social passed through many Easter seasons. responsibilities of Christians from the This study shows that ‘There is so perspective of the OT prophets is the much more to the wonder of the resur- subject of Kim Chang Hoon’s study. rection than “dead man comes back to Looking at one aspect of contemporary life” or “the classic apologetic”’. culture, Kyu Myeong Whang provides Instead, we can see that the ‘The res- an interesting analysis of the ‘well urrection is God’s “yes” to , to being’ phenomena from the view point new life, to sins forgiven, to the of his speciality, biblical counselling. restoration of creation itself. It draws To provide a helpful background for the from us the same reaction as it did from amazing phenomena of Korean Chris- Thomas. When we “see” it with our tianity, we have pleasure in re-publish- own eyes, we too want to fall down in ing an article from the new Asia-Pacific worship and in wonder.’ Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, in David Parker, Editor ERT (2006) 30:2, 100-109 The Future of Evangelical Theology and its Missionary Challenges in the Church of the 21st Century

Rolf Hille

KEYWORDS: Mission, , size their unity beyond all historical Spirit, , teaching, liberalism, confessions and denominations. When Reformers, ecumenical John Mott sent out invitations for the first Conference on World Missions in 1910 in Edinburgh, his main argument has a very impres- was that the Christian churches could sive history of nearly two thousand have a future only if they were united years. But we live in a secular world in confessing their faith. At that time, with a plurality of ideologies, philoso- the mainline churches and the different phies and powerful religions; and so we denominations were willing to look for- need to ask: Does Christian theology ward to confirm the common ground of also have an impressive future? Since all Christian theology and to stand the century of the Enlightenment, and together in order to win the future for especially the religious criticism of the Christian theology and the Christian influential philosophers of the Nine- Church. teenth century, the future of Christian- Therefore, we have to ask today if it ity has been written off. The spectacu- makes sense to proclaim one specific, lar success of the modern sciences and and relatively new, form of Christian the Industrial Revolution put the theology at the beginning of the Christian faith and the old privileges of twenty-first century, with all its chal- the Christian churches aside. lenges to the Christian church and its Therefore, it is no wonder that at thinking. If we claim a future for evan- the beginning of the twentieth century gelical theology, we have to clarify the Christians were concerned to empha- way in which evangelical theology is

Dr Rolf Hille is Executive Chair of the World Evangelical Fellowship Theological Commission and Principal of Albrecht Bengel Haus, Tübingen, Germany. Rolf Hille received his Th.D. from the University of Munich (Germany) and his M.Ph. from the University of Tuebingen (Germany). As well taking an active part in his own church, he is also a leading figure in the Evangelical Alliance movement and theological associations in his own country and elsewhere in Europe. This paper was the keynote address at the Third International Conference on Evangelical Theology held at Sungkyul University, Anyang City, South Korea Sept 30-Oct 1, 2005 jointly sponsored by Korea Evangelical Theological Society and the WEA Theological Commission. The Future of Evangelical Theology and its Missionary Challenges 101 rooted in Christian theology, and ask biblical basis for a missionary theol- where the differences are that make it ogy. I believe evangelical theology has necessary to distinguish evangelical a future only in as far as it serves its mis- theology from (for example) Roman sionary task. One can have a future only , Orthodox, Lutheran or if one has a real presence. Evangelical Methodist, theology. What is the spe- theology has a presence because mis- cific shape of evangelical theology? sion is in God’s time. Within the frame- work of biblical salvation, mission is on God’s agenda for this period of time. 1. The Missiological Shape of The Christian church is created by the Evangelical Theology through the word of the Evangelical theology is inextricably risen Lord. He, in his authority, has put intertwined with the fortunes of the mission at the top of his agenda and the evangelical movement as a whole. The- only thing that we as Christians have to ology both influences the development do is to remain in step with the Spirit of the evangelical movement and, at and God’s own purpose. The future of the same time, is also dependent on the evangelical theology is not guaranteed development of . by any academic standard or by any Evangelicalism is primarily an evan- human thinkers, but only by the gelistic and missionary movement within promises of himself. the worldwide Christian church. It is a Therefore, I will propose an outline gathering of Christians who are com- in what follows, at least in part, of what mitted to Christ and his mission it really means to define theology as a throughout the world, transcending all function of the mission of the Lord the divisions of Protestant denomina- Jesus Christ. In order to accomplish tions. Evangelicalism unites Chris- this theological program, I will give a tians from different theological back- systematic commentary on the Great grounds and traditions and, to some Commission from the perspective of degree, emphasizes by its missionary our question: What should evangelical engagement new theological profiles theology be in order to have a future within the diversity of historic Christ- guaranteed by Christ? ian faiths. The fundamental factor of integration of those different Christian 2. The Christological traditions which unite in the evangeli- cal movement is their commitment to Authority of Evangelical world evangelization, as expressed for Theology example in the Lausanne Covenant of Immediately before his ascension, 1974. Jesus proclaimed his lordship in the Here, I would like to examine how presence of his disciples: ‘All authority this fundamental commitment to mis- in heaven and on earth has been given sions is shaping evangelical theology to me.’ By this, the Lord emphasized and why it is important that we should within the itself the reaffirm the evangelical movement in fact that all theological truth is per- its evangelistic task by developing a sonal truth. 102 Rolf Hille

This makes the truth of the Christ- Christ is the one who builds the ian faith fundamentally different from bridges between transcendence and that of the founders of religions or immanence, heaven and earth. By his great philosophers of the past. Their incarnation, he sustains the ongoing personal mandate has unquestionably relationship between God and men ended with their deaths. After their among his disciples and within his deaths, their words were collected as church. Because of this, evangelical literature and have to be carefully pre- theologians can never follow the athe- served. The only influence that istic statement of modern science founders of religions and philosophers which claims that we should think etsi have in the history of philosophy and deus non daretur, as if God were not ideas is that the finalized traditions there; on the contrary, all real theology which they left behind have been pre- flows forth out of this powerful served. Those who follow them have to dynamic relationship between the deal with merely historical events and teaching Christ and the learning disci- facts. This kind of a closed situation is ple, between the revealing God and the something completely different from a reflecting theologian. This reality of living communication process between interaction between Christ and the the- persons living today who interact with ologian in all theological thinking and and react to one another. writing demands, as one consequence, Therefore, evangelical theology that the theologian respects the glori- must be aware that it has to deal not ous presence of his Lord. Theological only with a great historical past, but reflection can be done only in the atti- with the living God who is present in tude of a humble servant who hears his the Spirit of the risen Christ. Because Lord’s voice and bows before him. Christ is given all power, theologians Paradoxically, this attitude of ser- cannot confront his words only in vanthood is the foundation of all theo- terms of literature, but in interaction logical self-awareness and every with the real Christ who reveals him- authoritative statement. The authority self by his living Word. I think that is of the Lord who sends out is given to one of the deepest divides between the apostles and, on the basis of their evangelical theology and the so-called written testimony, to all missionaries historical-critical theologians who deal who follow in church history. There- with the Bible only on the level of his- fore theology has the supreme author- torical interest. There is a great differ- ity to defeat every ideology, religion, ence between trying to restore a former and philosophy that dares to direct teaching of a prophet or philosopher opposition against Christ’s word. The- who has already died and hearing the ology does not take place in the sense Word of the almighty powerful Lord of a Platonic dialogue in which nobody who speaks and works his miracles knows the truth and where the part- throughout history. The words spoken ners want to find truth as they gather two thousand years ago have the same to answer one another and enlighten relevance and dynamic power today one another by their questions. Instead because Christ is the same yesterday, of this understanding of dialogue, today, and forever (Hebrews 13:8). Christian theology has a prophetic The Future of Evangelical Theology and its Missionary Challenges 103 mandate. The Christian teacher or the- ness. They hear the word of redemp- ologian has to proclaim the truth in the tion and the Spirit moves their hearts prophetic sense of the Old Testament to repent and he makes them into dis- prophets who spoke ko amar Jahwe, ciples of Christ. The Word of God pro- that is, ‘This is what the Lord Almighty claimed in the name of the Father, the says’. Furthermore, as long as theolo- Son, and the Holy Spirit is, in itself, the gians stay in this humble attitude effective means of making a sinner into before the Lord and proclaim his word, a child of God and an heir of the com- he reveals his power today through the ing blessings. By the Word, the reality words spoken in human weakness. The of heaven is brought to mankind, and future of evangelical theology depends vice versa: people are brought to Christ exclusively on the authority of the in order to become heirs of the heav- Christ who sends forth and proclaims enly kingdom. his gospel through his disciples. Whoever denies that Christian the- ology is only a function within the process of discipling cannot be a the- 3. The Evangelistic Purposes ologian in the sense of the New Testa- of Evangelical Theology ment. Whenever theology becomes a master of Scripture and separates from The Great Commission commands us the church and its evangelistic tasks, it to all people. This should be perverts itself. done by two instruments of grace: by The liberal understanding of theol- and by . Baptism baptizing teaching ogy cannot, therefore, by definition, be emphasizes the objective dimension in called evangelical because the empha- the conversion process of an unbe- sis of liberal theology is to liberate liever becoming a Christian and teach- human thinking from the authority of a ing is a subjective application to this given authentic revelation. Instead of powerful sign of grace given in bap- leading people in the obedience of tism. In the context of our topic today, faith, it longs for liberation from any I do not want to emphasize here the authority outside the rational dignity of objective side in terms of the person. It is no wonder that the and teaching about baptism, but, sim- modern rationalism of the West tends ply, to ask the question: ‘What is to uproot churches from their biblical meant by Christian teaching?’ foundation and ends in alienation from Firstly, we have to recognize and the historic Christian faith. One of its reflect upon the fact that the founda- consequences is declining churches. tion of all theology lies exclusively in Liberalism, in the way it views itself, the mandate to teach what the risen will not agree to use the intellectual Lord has given to his apostles. Thus, potential of man simply as a tool in the Christian theology is implicated as one possession of a servant who is con- function of the overall missionary task cerned about ministering only his of the church. By the teaching of the Lord’s teaching. There is a fleshly fas- gospel, people will recognize who God cination in leading people to the aban- is in his and learn that they are donment of heteronomic influences. to become aware of their sin and lost- Consequently, every theologian has to 104 Rolf Hille decide whether he is willing to serve reflection, it longs for the repentance Christ in teaching others and, through and conversion of non-Christians and his teaching, to bring them to Christian the edification of Christians through maturity, or whether he is to liberate the increasing of their them from God’s revealed truth in the lives. A good evangelical theologian name of the human capability of ratio- looks forward to bearing eternal fruit nal thinking. through a humble ministry of the Word Last, but not least, evangelical the- of God. ology has its source in the repentance (or transformation of and renewing) of the mind and intellectual behaviour 4. Biblical Teaching and the (see Rom. 12:1-2). It comes from con- Practical Profile of version and leads to conversion. The Evangelical Theology criteria for all theology that claims to The Lord commands his disciples to be evangelical must be formed by bibli- cal thinking and must be empowered teach all nations to obey everything he by the Holy Spirit to make disciples has told the apostles. The word ‘every- and to build them up in maturity thing’ implies two principles for our through the process of sanctification. understanding of the Scriptures. The It is not any particular academic stan- reformers of the sixteenth century dard that makes theology worthwhile emphasized their theological position and relevant, but only the biblical foun- in two fundamental hermeneutical dation of its content and the mission- tags: sola scriptura and tota scriptura. ary purpose for which it is spoken. They were convinced that Christ has Evangelical theology cannot strive for bound himself to the written word of the scientific ideal of sine ira et studio Scripture. In Scripture and only there, (without deep personal engagement can his will be found. There is no other and commitment). Theology is no sci- source of divine revelation where peo- ence in the modern sense of a purpose- ple can find true knowledge of God and less enterprise on the intellectual his eternal will and the way of redemp- level. tion. This completeness of godly truth Spiritual ambition is what makes is what is meant by the principle of sola not only the difference between evan- scriptura (scripture alone) and tota gelical and liberal theology, but also scriptura. This principle has to be main- between evangelical and Orthodox the- tained in evangelical theology today, ology. On the one hand, there is unity not only against the between Orthodox theologians and doctrine of a combination between evangelical theologians in terms of the ecclesiastical tradition and Scripture, objective contents of Christian theol- but also against the modern ecumeni- ogy, which must be based on a biblical cal approach to inter-religious dialogue foundation. On the other hand, there is with non-Christian faiths. an important difference between them, It is indeed very humbling for the as evangelical theology longs for and human wisdom that likes to put its con- prays fervently to promote revival. In fidence in the so-called ‘eternal truth of all its aspects of thinking and depths of reason’ rather than in the contingent The Future of Evangelical Theology and its Missionary Challenges 105 events of salvation history. But there is tion, creation, sin, redemption, and no true knowledge of redemption aside sanctification, and ending with the from biblical revelation. Jesus is the eternal consummation of God’s king- only way to truth and life for every man dom. Moreover, if theologians teach on earth throughout history. and provide God’s people with eternal On the other hand, evangelical the- truth, this teaching is, by no means, ology also has to defend the hermeneu- simply a theoretical affair. For ‘All tical principle of tota scriptura against Scripture is God-breathed and is useful every form of liberalism that searches for teaching, rebuking, correcting, and to find a new canon within the biblical training in righteousness so that the canon. Every attempt to select and dis- man of God may be thoroughly tinguish within the Bible between an equipped for all good work’ (2 Tim. everlasting authentic word of God and 3:16f). mere words of human writers will be a Therefore, it is not the strength, failure. The history of Protestant the- but, rather, the weakness of the acade- ology throughout the last 250 years mic tradition of western theology that has demonstrated the chaos of theo- it strives for the ideal of mere theoreti- logical opinions. Theologians who cal knowledge in terms of philosophy tried to build up theology on the basis or even traditional theology. Biblical of a selected or restricted Bible could truth is very practical and all theologi- not find a common basis for confessing cal research must be validated by the Christ today. All attempts to develop spiritual relevance it has for the prac- theology by selecting between divine tice of godly living. The theoretical and human statements in the Bible end approach to theology leads to danger- sooner or later in pure relativism. ous pitfalls. This is clear from the his- There is no convincing argument— tory of the early church with its Hel- even on the intellectual level—as to lenistic background, throughout how a theologian could, after a period Scholastic theology in the Middle Ages of more than two thousand years, pos- and the period of the so-called ‘Protes- sibly distinguish between those events tant Orthodoxy’ of the Sixteenth and of salvation history that really hap- Seventeenth centuries even to today’s pened and those phrases in the Bible scholars with their high academic stan- that were spoken by the ‘historical dards. Jesus’. Every intellectual decision insu- Evangelical theology has to refer to lated from the grassroots problems of the whole of the Scriptures without any the church, is, at best, ineffectual and, amendment to the Bible. This is a basis at worst, extremely dangerous for for evangelical theologians to become God’s people. A good theologian is one good stewards who can be trusted to who struggles in a responsible position serve in God’s house and to make as teacher with all the temptations of known all mysteries of God’s revealed his age and who searches for relevant, truth. They are not allowed to leave contemporary answers found in the any Christian untaught or ignorant Bible in close contact with his fellow concerning any aspect of the biblical disciples. Those scholars who hide revelation, beginning with predestina- themselves behind the walls of monas- 106 Rolf Hille teries or modern universities are often words when he compels us to invite incompetent in relation to the ques- nations to his kingdom, insisting that tions of everyday life in the church. The the apostles should ‘make disciples of opposite, though, is evident in the lives all nations’ (see, for example, the Para- of those theologians who have shared ble of the Great Banquet in Luke 14:15- the needs and the problems of a con- 24). The different ministries of pro- gregation as vital members of the claiming, preaching, and teaching the church. They have a fruitful public min- gospel are spiritually one in their foun- istry in teaching and writing. Paul was dation in scriptural truth and its mis- an excellent theologian because he sionary purpose. But the ecumenical was such a dedicated missionary. Or, outreach of missions leads us to the one could cite the bishop of Hippo, point where we have to study sincerely Augustine, or the enormous outreach the abundant variety of different gifts of the Reformers, or the ministry of given by the Holy Spirit and the variety John Wesley or contemporary theolo- of ministries in the church. Because of gians, such as John Stott, who have a the very different situations of the peo- fruitful ministry today. ples to be reached with the gospel, The future of evangelical theology there is a need for different missiologi- lies in this indispensable combination cal applications in teaching the gospel. of solid biblical thinking regarding and It is an ongoing process of Christian understanding the meaning of salva- teaching, starting with the elementary tion history and the capacity to apply truth of redemption, to develop every this biblical knowledge to different sit- Christian into the full potential of uations in the church in a practical knowledge that God has prepared for manner. For it is the practice of biblical us. Therefore, the proclamation of the truth that convinces the non-Christian gospel leads to the necessity to distin- world and makes our teaching and guish between the specific input that preaching effective for the hearer. The has to be provided by evangelists, pas- message will be heard when love is tors, and teachers in different ways. seen. Evangelical theology looks for- Evangelists and pastors are also teach- ers and must teach what the gospel ward not to winning academic debates, implies and what is the distinctive con- but to winning for Christ those who are text of revealed truth that should be lost in their sins. known and understood in order to be believed. In that sense, the Great Com- 5. The Ecumenical Outreach mission’s injunction, ‘teach them’, is an unlimited request. and Eschatological Drive of But an evangelist or pastor can Evangelical Theology teach others only after he has been The Greek word oikumene means the taught and discipled himself. This is, totality of mankind living worldwide in therefore, one of the main tasks of a colourful diversity of nations, tribes, teachers and, in the deeper sense, of and tongues within different societies, theologians. Theologians first should political systems, and cultures. This aim their research and teaching diversity is implied in our Lord’s own towards providing a solid Christian The Future of Evangelical Theology and its Missionary Challenges 107 doctrine for the next generation of a particular situation today. Further- evangelists and pastors. more, it is a matter of wisdom to study I stress this because there is an diligently the history of the church and ongoing temptation in all theological its mission to gain spiritual insight. It education not to train and teach evan- is one of the characteristics of evan- gelists and pastors, but only to repro- gelical theology that it is not bound to duce theologians for an academic any particular systematized forms of career. Let me say clearly that I am not Christianity or theology, but includes denying the importance of intellectual knowledge and experience from differ- training for every Christian worker, to ent Christian traditions and tests them enable him to fulfil potentially the out in the light of the Scriptures. In this apologetic task of 1 Peter 3:15 sense, evangelical theology is ecu- (‘Always be prepared to give an answer menical theology with a broad aspect to everyone who asks you to give the of freedom to test everything and to reason for the hope that you have’). retain the best. But this intellectual apologetic task is With the wisdom that arises from that of defending the faith and sustain- the study of history, evangelical the- ing the proclamation of the gospel with ologians will be sensitive to problems solid argumentation in different chang- that come up in similar situations in ing situations. The need for contextu- the church today and they will become alizing the gospel in very different cul- capable of avoiding the mistakes of tural situation requires a solid intellec- recent generations. We should not tual education in theology. repeat unvaryingly all the practices of Moreover, this apologetic outreach, former generations. Last, but not least, which arises from an urgent search for there is a necessity to use all the tools those who are lost in sin and error, of the social sciences and humanities must be rooted in a basic and profound in terms of education, mass communi- understanding of the Scriptures. Bibli- cation, theory of communication, soci- cal thinking, therefore, must not only ology and so on. be planted in the consciousness of a But all these treasures of knowl- theologian, it must become his second edge should be integrated into a clear nature and it must shape his thinking perspective of discipling nations for and his attitudes very deeply, permeat- Christ’s sake. No theological knowl- ing his unconscious personality. This edge and education should replace this is a life-long process and implies a deep eschatological awareness of the com- commitment from every disciple to ing Christ and the sense of responsibil- learning from his Master. ity to save the lost and to lead Christ’s Anyone who is sent to teach what flock to maturity and into the likeness Jesus taught must carefully study the of Christ through sanctification. Scripture in order to become able to The missionary outreach of theol- handle spiritual questions properly. ogy can be threatened by a tendency for This includes the capacity to connect our teaching to become pure special- biblical lines between the Old and New ization. It has been said, harshly, but Testaments and to recognize how the with some truth, that ‘a specialist in meaning of the revelation is to apply to the area of theology is someone who 108 Rolf Hille knows everything about nothing’. If a Christian theology must lead to mis- theologian reflects for many years on sions, for it is the Holy Spirit who con- the same subjects and does research in tinually guides and enlightens the the- only one area of a single theological ologian in his work of research and discipline, the temptation arises to teaching; it is the very same Spirit who confuse one’s own specific research involves himself in missions to accom- subject with the mandate and needs of plish the unfinished task of world evan- the whole church. To stand firm gelization. against this temptation, every scholar In this context, I want to add one should challenge himself every day remarkable fact which we as theolo- with this provoking question: ‘Why gians should especially note. Since the should anyone hear the gospel twice period of Romanticism, with its empha- before everyone has heard the gospel sis on originality and individual devel- once?’ opment, everyone who works as a Theologians have a tendency to sit scholar feels compelled to pioneer and down and remain seated, as the rabbis publish something new. In many cases, did in Jesus’ time. But it was while the drive for originality leads theolo- Jesus was walking throughout Pales- gians to heretical statements and tine that he taught and discipled the sometimes even to heretical concepts apostles. Evangelical theology has to of theology. In the Great Commission, be mobile. It is the eschatological rest- the Lord commands us to teach only lessness and the challenge of the unfin- what he has taught, not our own mod- ished task of reaching and penetrating ern individual ideas. For this reason, every culture for Jesus Christ that evangelical theology has to remain gives theology a dynamic power. The conservative to be alert in protecting urgent need of going into depth in dif- the original Christian faith. But, as ferent areas and doing specific fallen beings, we evangelical theolo- research programs and projects to sup- gians also feel sometimes the fleshly ply evangelists and teachers with pro- impulse to oppose the historical Chris- found background knowledge must be tian doctrine in order to find our own balanced with the passion to reach place in provoking the church with everyone on earth for Christ. strange and controversial ideas. This It seems to me, then, that evangeli- should not be so. cal theology should be shaped by these What, then, is the answer to the two dynamic dimensions: first, to dig temptation to become stagnant in a con- into the depths of the Scriptures in servative and orthodox theology? order to be able to ‘demolish argu- Many theologians search for the ments and every present pretension answers in terms of liberal or syn- that sets itself up against the knowl- cretistic concepts. However, the right edge of God, and to take captive every biblical answer to this problem is not thought to make it obedient to Christ’ liberalism or syncretism, but, rather, (2 Cor. 10:5); then, to be characterized missions. If he keeps in step with the by the restlessness of ambassadors Spirit who goes forth to reach the with an urgent message to communi- unreached, the theologian is compelled cate. It is a spiritual fact that all real to think new thoughts, contextualizing The Future of Evangelical Theology and its Missionary Challenges 109 the gospel to different nations in order have the promise of bearing fruit in the to meet within the apologetic con- ministry of evangelists and pastors. frontations with new ideologies, reli- Evangelical theology has a future if gions, and philosophies the heights it is moved by the Spirit to go forth and and depths of Scriptural truth. to recognize what we should say in this Therefore, evangelists, pastors, and eschatological period of salvation his- theologians should not be at logger- tory, that is, to proclaim Christ until he heads, but they should have a mutual comes. The future of evangelical theol- exchange. Evangelists and pastors ogy is the coming Lord himself, who need from time to time some fresh will charge, test, and reward every the- input of deepening doctrine and ology, as Paul put it: ‘If any man builds renewed knowledge for their ministry. on this foundation [Jesus Christ] using In addition, theologians should occa- gold, silver, costly stones, hay or sionally cooperate with evangelists straw, his work will be shown for what and pastors in the grass roots experi- it is because the Day will bring it to ence of fulfilling the Great Commis- light. It will be revealed with fire, and sion. In this way, they ought to serve the fire will test the quality of each one another by performing a mutual man’s work. If what he has built sur- service to build up the whole church. vives, he will receive his reward’ Permanent contact between theolo- (1 Cor. 3:12-14). Evangelical theolo- gians and evangelists and pastors will gians may look forward with joy and help the theologians in theological edu- comfort to this climax of history cation to distinguish between specific because the living Lord gives his projects of research and things that are promise also for their task of research- necessary to teach to every student of ing and teaching. ‘And surely I am with theology. They will recognize what you always’, he says, ‘to the very end research projects are useful and will of the age’ (Matt. 28:20).

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Paternoster, 9 Holdom Avenue, Bletchley, Milton Keynes MK1 1QR, UK ERT (2006) 30:2, 110-120 Creation, Christians and Environmental Stewardship

Ken Gnanakan KEYWORDS: Dominion, image of and selfish exploitation of creation. God, anothropocentrism, biocentrism, These Old Testament texts have theocentrism, interconnectedness, received much scholarly attention commonalty, steward, conservation. recently, and renewed attempts have been made to understand their mean- WITH SOME CHRISTIANS even today ques- ing within their right context. But the tioning the need for getting involved in burden rests heavily on us to correct environmental issues, we must con- any such impressions that the Bible tinue to be reminded of some theologi- has actually commanded us to misuse cal foundations that compel us to act. natural resources. A strong attack on the biblical doctrine Lynn White Jr. added further: of creation was issued by Lynn White Especially in its Western form, Jr. and this could be a good starting Christianity is the most anthro- point.1 White argued that the teaching pocentric religion the world has that ‘it is God’s will that man exploit seen. Christianity, in absolute con- nature for his proper ends’, has largely trast to ancient paganism and contributed to our present crisis. The Asia’s religions (except, perhaps, Genesis passages commanding Adam Zoroastrianism), not only estab- and Eve to ‘rule’ and have ‘dominion’ lished a dualism of man and nature, are shown to have led to an arrogance but also insisted that it is God’s will that man exploit nature for his proper end. Lynn White’s small but seminal 1 Lynn White Jr. ‘The Historical Roots of the article raises two questions. The first Ecological Crisis’. The article, a lecture deliv- question is—does the Bible authorize ered in 1966 in UCLA, California, has exploitation of the created order ? And appeared in many publications all over the world and has been very widely quoted since it second, is Christianity an anthropocen- was first published in Science, Vol 155 (1967), tric religion? There are various ways in pp. 1203-1207. which we can respond to these chal-

Ken Gnanakan (PhD, King’s College, University of London) is President of the International Council for Higher Education (ICHE) and continues to head up ACTS the ministry he founded 27 years ago. He is Vice Chair of the WEA Theological Commission. He has written Kingdom Concerns (TBT and IVP-UK), God’s World (SPCK) and Responsible Stewardship of God’s Creation (TBT-WEA-TC) among other books. Gnanakan resides in Bangalore, India Creation, Christians and Environmental Stewardship 111 lenges and the scope of our treatment God and his creation. In saying God is can be even wider. But we can make a Creator, we are affirming that it is God start with some familiar material. who is Lord, and that it is God who is the initiator, the sustainer and there- fore continues to graciously relate to a I What is the Basis of Our creation of which we are only a part. Involvement? The Bible claims that it is through cre- Let us begin on a positive note and con- ation that even God may be known. sider one of the main reasons for our ‘The heavens proclaim his righteous- involvement in environmental action. ness and all the peoples see his glory’ These are our opening words as we (Psalm 97:6). Several other portions of often repeat the Apostles’ Creed—‘I the Scriptures, such as Psalm 19:1f., believe in , maker of bear testimony to God’s glorious mani- heaven and earth.’ In doing this we festation through creation. affirm our faith in a Creator God. This The Old Testament scholar Walter means that in our environmental action Bruggeman graphically depicts the we cannot help but demonstrate that systemic beauty of harmony and obedi- we are God’s created beings and live ence between the Creator and creation within the wider created order. Such a as a process of communication. He positive start will help us negate the calls it ‘speaking and listening’. God attitude that many Christians still creates by speaking and therefore the hold—the world is evil and too much responsibility of creation is to listen involvement in the world (or with cre- and answer. Communication between ation) will make us ‘worldly’. partners is built on speaking and lis- The Word of God starts with the glo- tening. Creation is an intimate and rious account of God’s creation. God valuable partner with its creator, not promised the best of created things to just an object constructed or put the people he made to be his own. The together for our pleasure.2 prophets looked forward to a renewed In becoming a partner God does not creation. Jesus displayed a very posi- lose his distance from creation. He is tive attitude to all that was around him. both transcendent and immanent. This There is not much direct reference to bond between the Creator and the cre- such concerns in the , ation is aptly explained by Bruegge- but Paul’s reference to creation’s mann in terms of ‘closeness’ and a ‘dis- groaning must be underlined to grasp tance’. While closeness signifies a con- the wider implications of redemption. stant care between creator and cre- ation, distance underlines the individu- Beginning with Creation ality, identity and the respect that one One of the first things to do is to shows to other. And this applies to recover a positive attitude towards cre- ation and challenge the notion that the world and creation is evil. We must 2 W. Brueggeman, The Land: Place as Gift, start with the powerful truth that there Promise, and Challenge in Biblical Faith (Lon- is an ongoing relationship between don: SPCK, 1977), p. 6. 112 Ken Gnanakan both Creation and Creator. Each has its We are Created in the Image place of honour and purpose, and each of God is related to the other through this The biblical concepts of ‘image of God’ inextricable bond. and ‘dominion’ have been topics of end- This kind of a relationship avoids less debate within discussions of envi- any confusion caused by pantheism or ronmental exploitation. Briefly, to be dualism. Pantheism states that God is made in the image of God implies that everywhere and in everything. Some humans have been created in order to environmentalists sound the praises of responsibly represent God in creation, Hinduism, claiming that it evokes a and in this sense exercise ‘dominion’ sense of respect for creation, which is not ‘domination’ over creation. lacking in the Christian religion. But Humans are the climax of creation, we monistic Hinduism, pantheistic in often assert, implying that we are most essence, confuses the Creator with cre- special to God and all else is sec- ation, making even humans to be iden- ondary. Critics show that the concept tical with God. Added to this confusion of image of God is included in the idea is the teaching of maya or illusion. Cre- of dominion and both stem from the ation is only illusion, even if it is seen anthropocentric approach to creation to have an identity in God. Dualistic which has led to exploitation and abuse Hinduism, on the other hand, distances of nature. God from creation to the extent that The meaning of the term, ‘image of there is no ongoing relationship. There God’, has been variously interpreted. is, in fact, an opposition between God Whatever it means, there is one thing and creation. that will be clear—God and human God alone, who is Lord and the beings have a link that is different from source of everything, is responsible for the link between God and the rest of all that is created and must not be con- creation. Humanity is entrusted with a fused with his creation. This teaching special task. ‘By virtue of being cre- comes through the concept of creatio ex ated, it bears a responsibility; human nihilo—out of nothing—which is a dignity and responsibility are insepara- dominant note in the biblical account of ble’, says Claus Westermann.3 God’s creative work. This doctrine Although ‘humanity exercises sover- refutes any pantheism that confuses eignty over the rest of creation’, we are the creator with creation, or a dualism reminded that ‘there is no suggestion that claims a confrontation between of exploitation’. Just like the king, God and evil. Further, God called whose rule responsibly serves the well everything ‘good’ and therefore there being of his subjects, so humans are to is no opposition between God and cre- care responsibly for creation. ation. Any implication of a conflict is because of and sin and the con- stant battle of sinful human beings to independently assume charge. 3 Claus Westermann, Genesis: a Practical Commentary, Text and Interpretation (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987), pp. 10f. Creation, Christians and Environmental Stewardship 113

Possessing God’s image and exer- God’s image must reflect something cising dominion, rather than being of God in us. God wants us ‘to keep’ seen in authoritative or hierarchical and ‘rule over’. We need to carefully terms, should instead reflect godly accept this combination. God’s love as attitudes and gracious action towards well as God’s authority must be nature. Too much is made of the spe- demonstrated through human beings cial status of humans over and above over all other creatures. On the one the rest of nature by Christians, and side there is caring love and responsi- hence it is hardly surprising that eco- bility, but on the other is creative logical disaster has been seen to be power. This power is not an unques- linked with the biblical doctrine of cre- tioned autocratic rule over creation but ation. The image of God in humanity a productive force that empowers other needs to be seen in terms of responsi- fellow creatures to live, create, recre- bility as well as privilege. Humans are ate, regenerate and fulfil their pur- given the privilege of possessing a poses here on earth. rational, moral and spiritual dimension There are two insights that help that enables them to act creatively and tone down any overemphasis on the responsibly towards the whole of cre- image of God and the special status ation. Being made in God’s image we given to us. First, there is a suggestion are to protect the environment in that this is a reminder that we are to accountability towards God, and rule in the same way as the sun and responsibility towards our fellow crea- moon ‘rule’ over the day and night tures and the rest of creation. (Gen. 1:16). It is not harsh or destruc- tive but purposeful. Human beings, made in the image of God, are called to Creation and the fall represent God’s righteous rule on We cannot bypass the biblical fact of earth. God is to be manifest in us not the fall. Sin and the fall clearly brought only in reverence for human life but in about a partial reversion to the chaos similar reverence for the non-human from which creation came. Creation is creation. continually being pulled back into Second, the New Testament refer- chaos by human sinful actions. Envi- ence to the image portrays Jesus Christ ronmental complications and ecologi- as the perfection of the image (2 Cor. cal disasters are to be expected with 4:4; Col. 1:15; Heb. 1:3; John 1:14-18). human beings fallen from God’s origi- The model of Christ underlines our nally intended purposes. But the fall serving in love—and this must be has not obliterated the image of God in underlined even more. If God’s image us. Hence, when we recognize that God was perfect in Jesus Christ, then this is the God of order and harmony, we, image is worthy of emulation. Jesus being God’s image, endeavour to bring came to heal and not to harm. He came order into the present chaos. A proper to carry out God’s desires, not to sat- assessment of the meaning of the isfy his own cravings. When we con- image of God in us should help us move sider such aspects of the image of God, into this kind of involvement in our the concept becomes a powerful tool in world today. bringing environmental care through 114 Ken Gnanakan the Christian in our world today. fallen-ness that we identify with But we should also consider that nature. when the reality of the image of God is Discord within relationships has placed in the context of human sin, fall now entered in because of sin. At the and destruction there are bound to be heart of sin is rebellion. And this is manifestations of human tendency to clearly at the heart of all broken rela- usurp and exploit authority. Sin is tionships. And when relationships are rebellion against God. It is a craving for broken there is an exploitation of the autonomy rather than life in obedience stronger over the weaker. The ecologi- to God. When God commands us ‘to cal crisis is characterised by this kind guard and keep’ creation, sinful of exploitation, whether it be humans humans would rebel and want to do the over creation, or within the wider cre- opposite. Creation, therefore, which ated order itself. was originally to be the source of bless- ing, has become a curse because Understanding Dominion in human beings chose to rebel against God. Context Sin brings disharmony within God’s It is now necessary for us to delve a lit- intended relationships for creation. Far tle deeper into the wider context within too many discussions on the environ- which the word ‘dominion’ is used. mental crisis make no reference what- Looking at the word by itself there is soever to the biblical account of sin and reason to accept the criticism men- the fall of humanity. Without any refer- tioned above. Interestingly, while God ence to this fact, the crisis becomes gave the commands to ‘be fruitful’ and inexplicable and therefore the attack ‘multiply’ to other creatures, to man on the doctrine of creation becomes and woman was given an even greater justifiable. Creation’s perfection is responsibility; Adam and Eve were marred by human imperfection. given the responsibility to ‘subdue’ and The fact that it is Eve who is first ‘rule’ and have dominion over all cre- enticed should not be taken to imply ation. any blame on women. That will miss The problem, to critics like White, the point. What started with Eve, obviously, is with the words used. The spread to Adam and then to all cre- Hebrew word kabas and radah are said ation. The universality of sin is the to be much harsher than the English underlining factor in this account. The translations. Kabas means ‘to tread consequences are just as universal as down’, to bring into bondage’ or even the fall. The divine relationship ‘to rape’ while radah means ‘to tram- between man and woman is now ple’ or ‘to press’ and therefore to rule affected. Man will exploit woman. The or dominate. The Hebrew words, like exploitation is to extend to the entire most of our Asian languages, have a world and creation itself suffers and rich array of meanings and need not groans.. The very fact that creation is necessarily be taken literally. As we also influenced by our fallen-ness look closer at the implications, we will shows the intricate interlinking. It is get nearer to the fuller understanding not only in our created-ness but also in of what was intended in the command. Creation, Christians and Environmental Stewardship 115

Let us consider some of the wider iii. God commanded dominion with context of the concept of dominion in responsibility: the Bible: Dominion did not permit an irresponsi- i. God sanctioned Dominion in love: ble exploitation. Though God gives great authority to men and women, Very often Israel is reminded of God’s there is the constant reminder that love. Ezekiel 34 depicts the prophet ‘this sovereign authority does not reminding the kings of Israel that God include the killing or slaughtering of is shepherd. In contrast they ‘ruled animals’. Similarly, when God gave harshly and brutally’. The word dominion to man over nature (Gen. radah—‘rule’—is here placed along- 1:26) it was not a mandate for total side the concept of a caring shepherd, annihilation. There are many other not the harsh and brutal leaders they such commands. Proper and responsi- are familiar with. We can confidently ble care over creation was expected. conclude that ‘dominion’ or ‘rule’ did Responsibility alongside God’s cre- not imply a cruel, heartless domina- ativity transforms authority into posi- tion, but the loving and caring relation- tive and productive expressions. ship of the shepherd to his sheep. Rather than destruction, there is the ii. God sanctioned dominion within a desire to bring something good even commonality: from the worst. God entrusts his prop- The Hebrew ‘adam’ taken from the erty to men and women, resources that word ‘adamah’ meaning ground must have limits but are blessed with the speak for itself. There is a commonalty potential to multiply phenomenally. that exists from the start and contin- The earth contained everything human ues right through to the end. Adam is beings needed but we were to be care- made from the ‘dust of the ground’ ful in managing these resources. (Gen. 2:7). There is an integral link iv. A Dominion in the interest of with the earth as well as with the envi- others: ronment around us. This is the reason ‘Mashal’ is another word that means why human sin had its toll even on the ‘ruling over’, and it is used to denote environment. Ecology implies total the authority of the sun to govern over interconnectedness of creation, and the day, and the moon to govern over this connectedness is not strange to the night (Gen. 1:16). This, interest- the biblical teaching. There is no blue ingly, is equivalent to the authority of blood that divides royalty from the man to govern or to rule over his wife common folk. Rightly, in the English (Gen. 3:16). Taken in its right perspec- language, we are referred to as ‘earth- tive, it did not mean harsh and domi- lings’. Dominion, seen within this con- neering rule with only selfish interests. text of commonalty, takes on a healthy The sun and the moon had purposes for perspective. It is a responsibility for which they were created, the purpose others with common rights. of service to the rest of creation, and it is for the fulfilling of these purposes that any power was vested in them. Similarly, man’s rule or dominion 116 Ken Gnanakan over woman is not to destroy her or but here we remind ourselves that we consume her totally for his benefit. are called to serve, keep and preserve Woman has her individuality. In the creation which God has entrusted to us same way, men and women are not to as trustees, or stewards. destroy or to totally annihilate living vii. Dominion with Respect: creatures on earth just for their selfish satisfaction. Ultimate dominion Any call to respect creation is immedi- belongs to Yahweh alone. One ately confused with calls to worship reminder that comes forcefully to our creation as in pantheistic practices. present world is that any rule or This is the plea of some environmen- authority, be it political, religious or talists today. Criticizing biblical doc- even domestic, carries privileges as trines, they eulogize the teachings of well as responsibilities. When privi- Hinduism or Buddhism, pointing to the leges are separated from responsibility deep respect these religions evoke exploitation is inevitable. towards creation. The biblical doctrine of creation, they claim, has ignored this v. A dominion in servanthood: attitude. Although this could be dis- Where we look at the commands given puted, a corrective is needed by the to Adam and Eve at creation, it is nec- Christian. essary to consider also the commands Does not the Bible teach respect for subsequently given. Man and woman creation? If God described creation as in the garden are instructed to ‘till’ and ‘good’ there must be some inherent ‘keep’ it. These are words that beauti- worth that makes it warrant much fully temper the harshness of the other more than we have shown to it. Cre- words. The command in Genesis 2:15, ation has a purpose for which it exists rendered ‘to dress it and keep it’ (KJV) and it is in the fulfilling of these pur- or ‘till it and keep it’ (NIV) demands poses that its existence can be fulfilled. the service of a ‘servant’ or ‘slave’, and Respect for creation will need to be so servanthood is definitely implied. seen as respect for the purposes of Humankind is to be available to serve each aspect of God’s world. Dominion creation, and in so doing serve the Lord does not call for domination but for all God. that we see in the wider context we have just considered. vi. A dominion with stewardship: An even more powerful the word is the Hebrew shamar, which means ‘to keep’. II Is Christianity The noun form is ‘steward’ or ‘trustee’ Anthropocentric? which implies watchful care and pro- We now move to the second question tection of the earth. These aspects are raised. White accuses the ‘western’ being heavily underlined today as the Christian doctrine of being anthro- ecological cause is assuming alarming pocentric, i.e. centred around human proportions. It is a shift in emphasis beings. He also claims that it is the from users to keepers, from consumers command to have dominion over cre- to conservers. This concept of steward- ation that has led to human exploita- ship must be developed much further, tion of nature. Science and technology Creation, Christians and Environmental Stewardship 117 have emerged from a need to have even self-centredness and the root of the greater control and this has not helped. problem does not go away. Second, Better relationships will need to be fos- humanistic society still approaches tered, ones that will show respect for environmental problems from an creation as in other religions. Our task anthropocentric perspective for a is clear: we will despite knowing that this attitude need to get back to the Genesis texts to is ultimately self-destructive. To explore the meaning and significance preserve wilderness areas for of these issues. recreational purposes, to convert to Anthropocentrism places humanity compact fluorescents for economi- at the centre. Everything in the uni- cal purposes, or to save the rain verse is seen in terms of human values forest because of the pharmaceuti- and human interests. The view was cal products it can yield is to act developed strongly in the post-Enlight- out of anthropocentric interests. enment period with confidence that There has been much environmen- humans can totally conquer nature for tal activity recently, but most of it their survival and the betterment of is, in one way or another, still their own kind. Anthropocentrism, we anthropocentric. Anthropocentrism will have to admit, has become a pre- seems to be so entrenched in soci- dominant part of the modern material- ety that there is an ingrained resis- istic way of life. The affluent lifestyles tance against accepting the obser- we are all gradually adopting within vation that humanity’s priority on our growing , industrializa- self is self-destructive.4 tion, and technological progress have If anthropocentrism is problematic, led us subtly to accept such views. the alternative that is recommended by What is achievable by humans seems various environmental movements is to be limitless, and all this with no biocentrism. Biocentrism teaches that miraculous interventions from God. everything in life, nature or creation Our attention has been drawn to the has equal value and must be respected deep-rooted anthropocentrism in the for what it is. Traditional societies tend western perspective even by western to be biocentric people, who relate in writers themselves. Here is an exten- very practical everyday terms to the sive quote from R. A. Young: environment around them. The earth’s The anthropocentric predicament is ecosystem is to be valued for its own somewhat paradoxical on two sake and not for human benefit. Bio- accounts. First, concern for person- centricism calls us to respect every- al well being and survival has thing in our biosphere without any raised ecological awareness to the level that many now question the anthropocentric basis for modern society. The motivating factor for 4 R. A. Young, Healing the Earth—A Theocre- change (self-preservation) and the ntric Perspective on Environmental Problems and source of the problem (self-preser- their Solutions (Nashville: Tenn., Broadman & vation) therefore only accentuates Holman Publishers, 1994), p. 117. 118 Ken Gnanakan accent on human commercial calcula- to stay biblically anchored, theocen- tions. trism is the viewpoint we must con- Biocentrism is the emerging ecolog- sider. ical worldview and advocated as the We could turn to Paul for a defini- only hope to save humanity. This is the tion of theocentricity as submission to product of the rising ecological aware- the Creator God: ‘…in him we live and ness in society, the influence of eastern move and have our being’ (Acts 17:28). religions and philosophies, quantum Transposing this to the entirety of physics, and a resurgence of primitive God’s creation, we affirm that every- paganism and native cultural insights. thing finds existence, meaning and All this seems to be fashionable to fol- purpose in its relationship to our Cre- low within a pop culture that has ator and God. Our being emerged. stands or falls in relationship to this Young comments: God. But with the ecological crisis and the reminders that have come, we need Environmentalists tend to embrace to clarify the focus on our theocentric- this new paradigm, for it coincides ity. not only with what the science of We can identify two varying ecology is teaching but also with approaches to theocentrism. One form the pop philosophy of eastern mys- would teach that everything exists for ticism. Biocentrism’s focus on the the sake of God and to serve his pur- web of life precludes human ascen- poses. The Bible would justify this; dancy. No one organism can claim except that some would take it to the supremacy over anything else, for extent of saying therefore God will rec- all are needed to support the tify the damage in the new Creation. ecosystem. As a result, humans are We do not need to do anything. But simply part of the complex whole, there is another kind of theocentrism no higher or lower than any other that fits more appropriately into our part of nature. And people are lis- eco-conscious world today. While tening with open ears. This sounds accepting that God ought to be the cen- like the ideal corrective for harsh tre of all that we are and do, we must anthropocentrism.5 not ignore the fact that God wants us to While biocentrism provides the do something by ourselves too. God needed alternative to anthropocen- created everything, but made each one trism, it conflicts with the biblically to fulfil distinct purposes. These pur- justifiable solution for the Christian. It poses refer back to the one overarching is certainly a valid corrective for the purpose that keeps it theocentric, but arrogance that we have been accused maintains the distinctive place for each of, but these insights need to be placed for its own sake. These roles should alongside our commitment to God as take into account even the biocentric Creator and one who continues to sus- accent that is needed in some measure. tain this creation. Therefore, if we are Everything in God’s created order has a distinctive place, keeping the ecolog- ical balance so essential to environ- 5 Young, Healing the Earth, p. 125. mental harmony. There are chains and Creation, Christians and Environmental Stewardship 119 cycles that function within creation ards in this magnificent created order, and these take into account the role recognizing that God is above all and in each individual part has to play. all that we experience. Theocentrism in any form must underline that our relationships within Being Stewards creation revolve around a transcendent Stewardship is an acceptable way to centre. Pure biocentrism tends to deify describe our position or place in rela- nature, while pure anthropocentrism tion to our role and responsibilities will divinize humans. A relationship by towards creation. John Hall stresses itself with nature will either idolize or the ‘stewardship’ metaphor ‘because it romanticize our dealings and not fulfil encapsulates the two sides of human the ultimate God ordained purposes relatedness, the relation to God on the that are intended. It is when we relate one hand and to nonhuman creatures to a Creator God that all else will take of God on the other’. If this is accepted, its rightful place. Paul Santmire sug- the steward metaphor would provide gests: the corrective for the flawed relation- … to avoid setting the human crea- ships that have caused devastation. ture over against nature on the one ‘The human being is, as God’s steward, hand (the tendency of anthropocen- accountable to God and responsible for trism),…to avoid submerging the his fellow creatures.’7 human creature and humanity’s In the Old Testament a steward is a cries for justice on the other hand man who is ‘over a house’ (Gen. 43:19; (the tendency for cosmocentrism). I 44:4; Is. 22:15, etc.). In the New Tes- am suggesting that we see both tament there are two words translated humanity and nature as being steward: epitropos (Mt. 20:8; Gal. 4:2), grounded, unified, and authenticat- i.e. one to whose care or honour one ed in the Transcendent, in God. has been entrusted, a curator or a This is the theocentric framework.6 guardian and this could appropriately The Bible gives a distinct place to describe our role in the world. Another God as Creator. Claiming ours to be a word is oikonomos (Lk. 16:2-3; 1 Cor. biblical theology, our starting point 4:1-2; Tit. 1:7; 1 Pet. 4:10), i.e. a man- must be the Bible and the forceful ager, a superintendent. Taken from the teaching that the transcendent God is word oikos (‘house’) and nemo to ‘dis- pense’ or ‘to manage’ there is refer- Creator. It is this God who continues to ence to the relationship within the motivate and energise us to become home, an ownership with which this involved in restoring creation, towards responsibility must be performed. becoming all that God has intended it However, the words are used to to be. We have the role of being stew- describe the function of delegated

6 H. P. Santmire, Travail of Nature—the Ambiguous Ecological Promise of Christian The- 7 Douglas John Hall, The Steward—a Biblical ology (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1985), p. Symbol Come of Age (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 49. 1990). p. 26. 120 Ken Gnanakan responsibility, as in the powerful para- Third, responsible stewardship bles of the labourers, and the unjust calls for demonstration in responsible steward. ‘More profoundly, it is used of lifestyles. Greed and materialism have the Christian’s responsibility, dele- caused havoc and disparity, which con- gated to him under “Christ’s kingly tinue unabated with human exploita- government of his own house”. All tion. We are called to a life of sharing things are Christ’s and Christians are in the world’s community rather than his executors or stewards’ (1 Cor. 9:17; accumulating for ourselves. While this Eph. 3:2; Col. 1:25).8 must start personally and then locally, it must be realized internationally. In Responsible Stewardship for fact, when nations start living inte- grally, their people automatically Today develop more responsible attitudes. Responsible stewardship acting in Some of the major ethical violations God’s love will result in practical out- are those that have emerged through working that will help develop right large scale international illegal opera- attitudes for living today. First, we tions. Christians who are called to care for Fourth, responsible stewardship creation will see the need for recogni- calls for an acceptance of the rights tion of the harmony, unity, purity, and and privileges of all of God’s commu- integrity in creation. A respect for cre- nity and creation. We must see the ation will elicit a respect for the rights importance of according rights to of creation. Our care for creation will nature as well as to other humans. One show in our love to protect, conserve other aspect that has emerged in and bring healing to a wounded world. recent times is the need for us to Ecology implies an interrelatedness, demonstrate a responsibility towards and this will show in our own feeling of future generations. The ecological cri- anguish for a creation that has been ill sis has brought people to recognize the treated. need to protect the rights of future gen- Second, we are called to conserve erations. The rate at which resources and preserve creation’s resources. are depleting in our world at present is Conserving calls for responsible use. alarming. The question is asked: How Conserving calls for protecting in the much longer will these resources last? present for future use. But we may Whatever we do must therefore ensure need to preserve some endangered the fundamental rights of those in the species by protecting them, and con- future to have sufficient resources. serve a forest by not only using it care- Finally, we have a responsibility fully for our present needs but protect- towards God to honour him for the way ing it for responsible use for genera- in which he has honoured us with tions in the future. responsibility over all of creation. All that we have said above will fall into its right perspective when we see God as 8 ‘Steward’, New Bible Dictionary (2nd ed.) the one who invests humans with (Leicester: Inter-Varsity, 1982), p. 1145 integrity, dignity, and responsibility. ERT (2006) 30:2, 121-140 Evangelicals and Mary: Recent Theological Evaluations

David Parker

KEYWORDS: Authority, grace, symbol- venerated Mary highly, as can seen in ism, discipleship, Christology, narra- his writings2, pilgrimages and above all tive exegesis, example, typology, piety in his funeral service. The report of a joint Anglican-Roman Catholic task force, Mary: Grace and Hope in Christ MARY IS WELL RESPECTED and honoured (known also as The Seattle Statement) by evangelical and other Protestant published in 2005 also highlights the Christians as the mother of Jesus and a continuing high-level interest in Mary. faithful woman of God. However, apart At the popular level, catholic Chris- from strong recognition of the tianity (that is, some sections of the Birth, evangelical Christians do not Anglican Church, the Orthodox usually single her out for any special churches and Roman Catholicism), attention. On the surface, this would often seems to go to extremes of devo- seem to be in accordance with Scrip- tion, although this is not necessarily ture. Jerry Sandidge’s comment about approved by the leaders. However, Pentecostals is also generally true of even at the level of official doctrine, evangelicals: ‘So, it could almost be Mary is given an important role which said that [they]… have no “view” or spills over into inter-church ecumeni- “theology” of Mary, unless it would be cal relationships, placing pressure on in negative terms, i.e., those things 1 all to recognize Mary as ‘the mother of which are not believed about her.’ all Christians’.3 However, other branches of the Church take a different view. Perhaps the best known and most influential example would be the late who 2 He decreed 1987-88 as a Marian year to commemorate her birthday and issued the , 25 March 1987 in support. 3 For a recent survey of the Catholic position, 1 Jerry L. Sandidge, ‘A Pentecostal Response see Lawrence S. Cunningham, ‘Mary in to Roman Catholic Teaching on Mary’, Pneuma Catholic Doctrine and Practice’, Theology (Fall, 1982), p. 34. Today, 56/3 (October 1999), pp. 307-318.

Dr David Parker is Editor of Evangelical Review of Theology and Director of Publications and Administration for the WEA Theological Commission. Dr Parker is a former Academic Dean of the Bible College of Queensland. He is also a member of the Baptist World Alliance Heritage and Identity Commission and has written extensively in the area of Baptist heritage. 122 David Parker

Protestant reaction to such trends and Roman Catholics over Mary is is often highly polemic, rejecting such actually a microcosm of what ulti- attitudes as completely unbiblical and mately separates the two faiths.’ He unhelpful to the gospel. However, even refers especially to the means of salva- among those who take a more moder- tion and biblical authority.7 The WEA ate line, it is agreed that there are seri- Theological Commission report there- ous differences on the matter. Accord- fore stated: ‘As evangelicals we con- ingly, Marian teaching and devotion sider the Roman Catholic doctrines continues as a prominent part of concerning Mary a formidable barrier Catholic practice. Yet on the other between ourselves and Roman hand, as Mackenzie observes, ‘the very Catholics…. We join the author of old naming of Mary arouses powerful feel- in saying: “The mother of Jesus is not ings of antipathy still amongst many the papal Mary”’.8 Protestants’, which, together with the use of exalted titles for her, leaves ‘many Protestants shaking their heads Evangelicals and renewed and wondering if the gulf between interest in Mary Catholic and Protestant can ever be In recent times, some evangelicals are bridged’.4 showing more interest in Mary on the This difference is no merely superfi- grounds that there has been an unnec- cial matter, for as Jürgen Moltmann essary, and even anti-biblical, over- has stated, ‘The discrepancy between reaction to the catholic position. They Church teaching and the New Testa- argue that Mary should not be ignored ment is nowhere as great as in Mariol- or worse still, discussion of her person ogy.’5 Oberman has identified Mariol- and role should not be prohibited sim- ogy as ‘the focus and locus where all ply because others may have taken up the heresies of Roman Catholicism are untenable positions. Evangelicals are welded together’.6 Kantzer concludes, being urged to adopt a position which ‘The difference between Protestants is more in accord with the biblical text and the attitude of Christ himself, and

4 J.A. Ross MacKenzie, ‘Mary as an Ecu- menical Problem’ in Alberic Stacpoole (edi- tor), Mary’s Place in Christian Dialogue (Mid- 7 Kenneth S. Kantzer, ‘A Most Misunder- dlegreen, Slough: St Paul Publications, 1982), stood Woman’, Christianity Today, Dec 12, p. 36. 1986, 20. cf also Barth: ‘Marian dogma is nei- 5 Jürgen Moltmann, in Hans Küng and Jürgen ther more nor less than the critical, central Moltmann (editors), Mary in the Churches, Con- dogma of the Roman … In the cilium (Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1983), xii. cf doctrine and worship of Mary there is dis- George Carey, A Tale of Two Churches: Can closed the one heresy of the Roman Catholic Protestants and Catholics Get Together? (Down- Church which explains all the rest’ (Church ers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1985), p. 25. Dogmatics, I.2.143). 6 Heiko A. Oberman, The Virgin Mary in Evan- 8 Paul G. Schrotenboer, Roman Catholicism: a gelical Perspective, (Philadelphia: Facet Books, Contemporary Evangelical Perspective (Grand 1971, p. 13, quoting Roger Mehl; see also Karl Rapids: Baker, 1988), 41; for the whole sec- Barth, Church Dogmatics I.2.143. tion on Mary, see chapter 3, pp. 31-41. Evangelicals and Mary: Recent Theological Evaluations 123 thus restore Mary to her rightful place special attention by Jesus on the cross, in our doctrine and spirituality. Timo- and she is described as ‘full of grace’ thy George9 refers to the story of the (Luke 1:28), ‘favoured by God’ and Scottish reformer, John Knox, who ‘blessed’ (Luke 1:42). The argument is once hurled an image of Mary out of a that if evangelicals are to be faithful to ship when he was being forced to their principles of biblical authority, respect it; George says it is time for they should not give Mary any less evangelicals to reverse this rejection of attention than Scripture does. Mary. In this paper I propose to examine This raises the question of whether some examples of recent evangelical evangelical theology and practice can thinking on Mary. But I will not pay give any greater place to Mary than has much attention to the Virgin Birth. been traditionally accorded her. For This is a doctrine which has been a many evangelicals, the answer would hallmark of evangelicals especially be a strong negative. With the various since the era of Fundamentalism and Catholic Marian doctrines in mind, there is much in common among evan- such as the gelicals on this topic. However, it is not and Bodily Assumption, they would so much about Mary herself as it is part doubt that biblical authority permits of our Christology. any advances at all. Certainly, there is Mary does, of course, sometimes opposition to anything like the Catholic figure strongly in the Christmas position, for as Oberman points out, ‘an preaching and celebrations of Protes- independent cannot do jus- tants, but simply as part of history or tice to the biblical presentation of the narrative and without any special inde- figure of Mary, the mother of Jesus’.10 pendent theological importance. According to Gottfried Maron, ‘In the Another context in which evangelicals strict sense there cannot be a Protestant are likely to focus on Mary is in associ- ation with family matters, especially “Mariology” as an independent topic, the virtues of motherhood and celebra- because Mary has no value in herself, tions of Mothers’ Day. While a focus on and can only be rightly seen in relation the family is praiseworthy, there is no to her Son.’11 particular biblical basis for Mother’s Yet, in Scripture, Mary as the Day and, as Daniel Migliore12 points mother of Jesus has a pivotal role in the out, associating Mary with this rather story of salvation; she is singled out for sentimental emphasis is probably the product of a romantic 19th century lib- eralism rather than anything else. 9 In Carl E. Braaten and Robert W. Jenson (editors), Mary, Mother of God (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004), pp. 100f. 10 Oberman, The Virgin Mary in Evangelical Perspective, p. 29f. 12 Beverly Roberts Gaventa and Cynthia L. 11 Gottfried Maron, ‘Mary in Protestant The- Rigby (editors), Blessed One: Protestant Per- ology’ in Küng and Moltmann (editors), Mary spectives on Mary, (Louisville: Westminster in the Churches, p. 46. John Knox, 2002), p. 119f. 124 David Parker

Biblical exegesis gelical commentators take this text in There is plenty of scope for evangeli- its straightforward historical and lit- cals to give more attention to Mary if eral sense, without seeing in it any jus- typical commentaries and theological tification for an exalted view of Mary. books are any guide. Evangelical Thus, in his popular exposition of thinking about Mary, as for any other Luke’s Gospel, David Gooding14 topic, needs a biblical basis and is con- expounds it as part of a simple histori- fined by biblical authority. This, of cal narrative with no special interest course, contrasts strongly with the for Marian issues. Similarly, Leon Mor- Catholic tradition where church tradi- ris, in the student oriented Tyndale tion and official teaching are so evi- New Testament Commentary,15 com- dent. ments, ‘It is, of course, complete mis- This biblical orientation is one pow- understanding which translates the erful factor limiting the extent of evan- words, “Hail Mary, full of grace”, gelical interest in Mary because there [derived from the translation is so little data available. The biblical which has influenced Catholic think- material is limited mainly to the birth ing] and understands them to mean narratives in the Gospels of Matthew that Mary was to be a source of grace and Luke, and a few references to Mary to other people. Gabriel is saying sim- and the family in the other sections. ply that God’s favour rests on her.’ The Gospel of John has only two refer- ences—the miracle at Cana in chapter 2 and the scene at the foot of the cross with the beloved disciple in chapter 19—but does not identify her by name 13 David F. Wells Revolution in Rome (Lon- (only as ‘the mother of Jesus’)! Not don: Tyndale, 1973): ‘Mary—an unresolved problem’, pp. 111-119. See also Elliott Miller only are there relatively few references and Kenneth R. Samples, The Cult of the Virgin to Mary in the New Testament com- (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1992), 32-34; pared with other great heroes listed in Karl Barth, Church Dogmatics I.2.139f. warned the ‘hall of faith’, but what is said in concerning the Christological context of Mar- these references is either limited or ian teaching in the NT, ‘In this category is to open to interpretation. Evangelical bib- be put the well-known kecharitomene of Lk. 1:28, which, translated gratia plena, has given lical scholarship as seen in commen- rise to so many mariological speculations, taries reflects this situation. against which it ought to have contributed a serious warning.’ The NIV rendering is, ‘Greetings, you who are highly favoured.’ The Luke 1:28ff Roman Catholic RSV translates as ‘Hail, full Leaving aside the first Gospel with its of grace’, while both RSV and RC-RSV rele- main focus on Joseph rather than Mary, gate the poorly attested ‘blessed are you David Wells points out that the key among women’ to the margin, although of doctrinal text used by Roman Catholics course it is found in Luke 1:42. 14 David Gooding, According to Luke (Leices- to support views on Mary (excluding ter: Inter-Varsity Press/Grand Rapids: Eerd- those relating specifically to the virgin mans, 1987). birth) is Luke 1:28ff; ‘Hail, O favoured 15 Leon L. Morris, Luke (TNTC) (London: one, the Lord is with you!’13 Most evan- Inter-Varsity Press, 1974). Evangelicals and Mary: Recent Theological Evaluations 125

At a more technical level, John Nol- of address in the NT and in Greek land16 documents two alternate mean- usage’.19 ings for the ‘quite rare Hellenistic verb’ in use, viz., either it means the ‘intrin- Revelation 12:1-6 sic qualities for which a person is to be commended’ or it means ‘the receipt of Likewise evangelical commentators do special graces or privilege by a bene- not give any credence to a Marian ref- factor’; he concludes that the second erence to the vision of the woman, the meaning is ‘undoubtedly to be pre- dragon and the male child in Revela- ferred’ in this case, where Mary’s priv- tion 12:1-6. Morris, for example, does not even mention the idea, instead indi- ileged role has already been set forth,17 cating that the ‘woman clothed with thus supporting the evangelical posi- the sun’ is Israel, an image which tion. I.H. Marshall18 reinforces this appears several times in the OT; in conclusion by noting that ‘There is no Revelation 12 it is possibly set in con- suggestion of any particular worthi- trast to the goddesses of the pagan cul- ness on the part of Mary herself’. But ture familiar to the first readers of the he also points out how Catholic views book.20 Robert H. Mounce21 takes the have been influenced by the Vulgate same approach, but states explicitly, reading, gratia plena. This, he says, is ‘The woman is not Mary the mother of open to misinterpretation by suggest- Jesus but the messianic community, ing that grace is a substance with the ideal Israel,’ while W. Hendrick- which one may be filled, and hence that Mary is a bestower of grace. He goes further and dissociates the initial word chaire from the messianic links often given to it by Catholic commentators 19 See also Mary J. Evans, Women in the Bible (e.g., Zeph. 3:13, 9:9), preferring (Exeter: Paternoster, 1983) 58, who rejects instead to regard it as ‘the normal form this link also. Note that the Catholic Bible Commentary (London: Geoffrey Chap- man, 1968) focuses merely upon ‘the source of goodness rather than upon its effects’, noting that Mary is ‘the object of God’s grace and favor’ with the participle indicating that she ‘has been chosen for a long time past’. It also points out Mary’s unique position because ‘in her, more than in anyone else, God’s mes- sianic fufillment is achieved’ and that accord- ingly ‘she has received more… than anyone 16 John Nolland, Word Biblical Commentary: else in the OT or NT’. Overall, the greeting sig- Luke 1-9:20 (Dallas: Word, 1989), p. 50. nifies ‘a particular office or special preroga- 17 BAGD, 879 offers only one meaning: ‘to tive’ (p. 122). bestow favour upon, favour highly, bless’ (i.e., 20 Leon L. Morris, Revelation (TNTC) endorsing Nolland). (Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 1969), pp. 18 I. Howard Marshall, The Gospel of Luke 155ff. New International Greek Testament Commentary 21 Robert H. Mounce, The Book of Revelation (Grand Rapids: Wm B. Eerdmans, 1978), p. (NICNT) (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977), p. 65. 236. 126 David Parker sen22 speaks specifically of the woman the kind of symbolic meaning that is as the church, emphasizing, as Mounce proposed by Raymond E. Brown.27 Not does, that ‘the Church in both dispen- only does Carson consider such a view sations is one’. Similar positions are ‘anachronistic’, but he argues that it is adopted by other commentators such contrary to the plain historical mean- as Michael Wilcock23, Philip Edgcumbe ing and ‘without adequate contextual Hughes24, and G.E. Ladd25 control;’ if it were to be symbolic, he argues, the interpretation could not be John 19: 26, 27 arbitrary but should be ‘in line with the historical reading’ (emphasis original) However, the passage in John 19 deal- and thus controlled by Johannine (and ing with Jesus’ words from the cross to possibly Synoptic) themes; but there and about Mary is the most difficult Marian text. This is because it is part are none that are relevant. G. Beasley of a book which is recognized to be Murray does consider the possibility of replete with deliberately intended dou- symbolism in this passage but limits it ble meanings, and so it may have sym- to the idea of Mary receiving what she bolic meaning itself. But evangelical had sought earlier at the wedding in commentators are generally agreed Cana through the agency of the beloved 28 that such a possibility does not exist in disciple. this case. In the words of Mary J. Evans, ‘there is no particular indica- tion in the text that the incident is The Witness of the Gospels meant to be seen as symbolic and no Overall, therefore, the literal hint of such a concept can be found hermeneutic prevails. Together with elsewhere in the New Testament’.26 the Synoptic texts that relate to Mary Donald A. Carson offers a detailed and her family (Matt. 2:23; Luke 2:41- explanation of the reasons for rejecting 52; Mark 6:3 pars), the evangelical tra- dition is left with an adequate founda- tion for the commonly held views about Mary. She fulfilled a unique function in 22 William Hendricksen, More Than Con- salvation history through the miracu- querors (London: Tyndale Press, 1940), p. 135. lous conception by the Holy Spirit, but 23 Michael Wilcock, I Saw Heaven Opened having given birth to Jesus in a non- BST (London: Inter-Varsity Press, 1975), p. miraculous manner, lived a normal 118. 24 Philip E. Hughes, The Book of Revela- tion—a Commentary (Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 1990), p. 135. 25 G.E. Ladd, A Commentary on the Revelation 27 D.A. Carson, The Gospel According to John of John (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1972), p. (Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 1991), pp. 166f. 616-8; for Brown’s comments, see The Gospel 26 Mary J. Evans, Women in the Bible, 60; but according to John (London: Geoffrey Chapman, contrast Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charis- 1966). matic Movements (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 28 G Beasley Murray, John (Word Biblical 1988) p. 585 which is sympathetic to the sym- Commentary) (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, bolic view. 1999), pp. 349f. Evangelicals and Mary: Recent Theological Evaluations 127 human and family life.29 role and ministry of her son was not So, as Mary J. Evans has it, neither always so exemplary as Catholic piety ‘by implication or by definite assertion’ might wish because it is evident from does the NT build on the narratives some gospel texts (Luke 2:50; Mark about Mary in a doctrinal sense, which 3:21; Mark 6:4) that there was a ‘means we must be very wary of assert- degree of tension between Jesus and ing that Mary has any further signifi- his family. Wright can even suggest cance, other than as a witness and an that ‘Mary was herself “the hated example’.30 It should also be noted that mother,” perhaps for most of Jesus’ any tendency to exalt Mary for her role three-year ministry’. The scene at the in the incarnation on the basis of cross (John 19:25-27) represents a def- Lukan texts is emphatically qualified inite turning point in this respect, by the account in Matthew, where which is confirmed by the fact that Mary plays no part at all in the Annun- Mary joined with the other disciples in ciation. the Upper Room awaiting the blessing Furthermore, the other element in of Pentecost. (Acts 1:14). these theological conclusions, Mary’s Therefore, although Marian devo- exemplary role, is reinforced by two tion did arise early in the history of the other New Testament passages (Luke church, from an evangelical perspec- 8:19-21; 11:27-28) which emphasize tive, there is no exegetical or theologi- the virtue of obedient faith on the part cal basis for it to have grown so of disciples. Mary is included in this strongly. What Donald G. Dawe points group of disciples, which rules out the out for classical Reformed theology is possibility of any special status in con- also true for evangelicalism in general, sequence of Mary’s physical relation- ‘Mary’s function was historically com- ship with Jesus. Even so, as Wright plete in the virginal conception and points out,31 Mary’s insight into the bearing of the Saviour. She had no ongoing function in the which is the work of the Holy Spirit alone.’ 32 Thus, as already noted, there 29 See Joel B. Green (editor), Dictionary of can be no independent Protestant Mar- Jesus and the Gospels (Downers Grove/Leices- ter: InterVarsity, 1992) pp. 70-72, 884f., and ISBE 3:269f for typical critical treatments along these lines. Note that there is nothing in the NT data to suggest Mary remained a vir- bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), p. gin, so evangelicals generally reject the 99, who notes that ‘all four Gospels to one Catholic belief in the perpetual virginity. degree or another indicate both that Jesus’ 30 Mary J. Evans, Women in the Bible, p. 58. mother failed at some point to completely 31 David F. Wright (editor), Chosen by God: understand or honour her Son… and that Mary in Evangelical Perspective (London: Mar- Jesus distanced Himself from her in the shall Pickering, 1989), p. 26; see also G.W. process of distinguishing His physical family Bromiley in ISBE 3:270, W.H. Griffith from His spiritual one’. Thomas, Principles of Theology (Grand Rapids: 32 Donald G. Dawe, ‘From Dysfunction to Baker Books, 1979), p. 226, and Ben Wither- Disbelief’ in Stacpoole (editor), Mary’s Place in ington III, Women in the (Cam- Christian Dialogue, p. 146. 128 David Parker iology, or Marian cult, but at most mother Mary by saying, ‘Blessed is the ‘petitionless praise of the Virgin’.33 womb that bore you’. Jesus’ reply, how- ever, deflects attention away from Mary and any virtue she might pos- Insights from the Narrative sess, and also from her physical and approach to Scripture family links to him. He says, ‘Blessed Against this traditional approach, it is rather are those who hear the word of interesting to examine a sample of the God and keep it!’ (v 28). Here Jesus new narrative approach to Scripture, asserts that blessedness is found in as presented by Joel B. Green.34 The obedient faith, not in religious or social value of the narrative technique for the status or family connection. readers is that it is potentially more This radical reinterpretation of tra- engaging than the traditional gram- ditional virtues is what Green argues is matical-historical approach which typ- at the heart of Luke’s portrayal of ically yields only factual and doctrinal Mary: ‘Mary’s appearance in the data. That is, ‘As narrative, Luke-Acts Lukan narrative assaults the theologi- invites its readers into its discourse as cal imagination of its readers, subvert- participants, ready to be prodded, and ing conventional wisdom….’ as is illus- encouraged, challenged and formed.’ trated by her lowly social status and Thus instead of the interpreter trying the theme of Magnificat (Luke 1:46- to ‘make sense’ of the text, Green sug- 55), which reflect a radical ‘inversion gests the value of the text lies in the of social realities’. Mary, who ‘seems way it presents Mary as an ‘accessible to measure low on any status scale… exemplar’. The text opens to us ‘a new turns out to be the one favored by God, way of seeing the world’ and it ‘invites the one who finds her status and iden- us to join Mary in that work to which tity ultimately in her embrace of God’s [Luke] repeatedly draws attention— blessing to her’.36 Thus ‘the character namely the sort of pondering that of the is reevaluated in allows for previously unimaginable the light of the newly found under- interpretations of the events and world standing of God’s purposes in the good around us’ (Luke 2:19, 51).35 news’.37 Thus, it is evident that instead Green commences with Luke 11:27- of providing any information that might 28 where an unnamed woman from the lead to an exalted view of Mary along crowd addressed Jesus, and praised his the lines of Catholic piety, Green’s exe- gesis shows Mary as an ‘exemplar of one who life is in sync with God’s sav- ing plan’. 33 George H. Tavard, The Thousand Faces of This approach is therefore a more the Virgin Mary (Collegeville, Minn: The Litur- engaging version of the common evan- gical Press, 1996), p. 127. gelical approach to Mary as an ideal 34 Joel B. Green, ‘Blessed is she who disciple, rather than anything more. Believed’ in Beverly Roberts Gaventa and Cyn- thia L. Rigby (editors), Blessed One: Protestant Perspectives on Mary (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2002), pp. 9-20. 36 Green, ‘Blessed is she’, p. 14. 35 Green, ‘Blessed is she’, pp. 10-11. 37 Green, ‘Blessed is she’, p. 10. Evangelicals and Mary: Recent Theological Evaluations 129

Undoubtedly, she had a special role to New Dictionary of Theology39 is simi- play in salvation history as the mother lar, containing two articles on the topic of Jesus, for which the terms ‘favoured’ by the same author—the first, ‘Mary’, and ‘blessed’ are entirely appropriate. is, as its introduction suggests, only a But they carry no further doctrinal sig- discussion of the ‘Roman Catholic doc- nificance. Mary must be seen as a trine of Mary’, while the second is woman of humble faith, enabled by the devoted to an evangelical understand- grace of God to fulfil her calling, like so ing of the virgin birth (i.e., virginal con- many others in the story of salvation ception). Neither article attempts to history. offer any positive theology of Mary. The authoritative Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels40 has no entry at all on Theology Mary but includes a brief factual state- In line with the biblical witness as ment of the NT data about her in a gen- revealed by our inspection of evangeli- eral article on ‘Women’. cal exegesis, standard evangelical the- Introductory textbooks in system- ology text books give very little atten- atic theology represent only a modest tion to Mary apart from discussions of advance over the reference material. the Virgin Birth itself. For example, For example, the popular Know the Evangelical Dictionary of Theology has Truth41 by the Baptist theologian, articles on the Virgin Birth and the Bruce Milne, treats Mary in Christo- main Catholic teachings such as the logical context only, which contrasts Bodily Assumption, Immaculate Con- with a comparable Roman Catholic vol- ception and Mother of God. Its article ume which devotes more than a chap- on Mary is limited to a terse listing of ter to her.42 From an Anglican perspec- biblical data and the observation that tive, Christian Theology: an Introduc- Roman Catholics: tion43 from the prolific contemporary have venerated Mary as entirely evangelical, Alister E. McGrath, offers sinless and as the most glorious of only a descriptive historical treatment God’s creatures. Feeling that this of Mary, with no reference to the virgin detracts from the centrality of birth. Christ Protestants have often neglected her unduly. Radical bibli- cal criticism in doubting the infancy 39 Sinclair B. Ferguson, David F. Wright narratives’ historicity often further (editors), New Dictionary of Theology (Leices- this neglect. However, the increas- ter: Inter-Varsity Press, 1988). ing importance of women’s issues 40 Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels, pp. 70- has spurred new interests in Mary 2, 884f.. among both Protestants and 41 Bruce Milne, Know the Truth (Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 1982), p. 138f.. Catholics alike.38 42 Jesus Maria Cavanna, Basic Christian Doc- trines (Manila: Carmelo and Bauermann, 1986), pp. 38-44. 38 Walter A. Elwell, (editor), Evangelical Dic- 43 Alister E. McGrath, Christian Theology: an tionary of Theology (EDTh) (Grand Rapids: Introduction (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994), pp. 45, Baker Books, 1984), pp. 696-670. 51, 53. 130 David Parker

In the case of Reformed theology, Pentecostals are similar to those of Donald G. Dawe points out that there evangelicals as a whole. Jerry San- was a decline of interest in Mary fol- didge’s conclusion has been noted lowing the first generation of Reform- above.49 As a participant in the Pente- ers, resulting in only ‘the most scat- costal-Roman Catholic dialogue, he tered and peripheral mention of Mary found little positive material on Mary in formal theology’ until the end of the from a Pentecostal perspective, con- 19th century and later; at this time, the cluding that there was only a ‘negative’ critical issue became the defence of the (ie, a polemical) theology, focusing on virgin birth over against liberal the rejection of perpetual virginity, denials.44 This trend can be seen in immaculate conception, bodily works by Charles Hodge45, L. Berkhof46 assumption and veneration. In the and J.O. Buswell47. Arminian theolo- ensuing dialogue, agreement emerged gians are in general agreement with on the belief in the virgin birth (at least their Reformed counterparts on Mary as understood as virginal conception), and the Virgin Birth.48 the validity of the term , and As might be expected, the views of Mary’s holiness and her role as an example of piety. But in terms of dia- logue, this was as far as the Pente- costals could go in the direction of a 44 Dawe, ‘From Dysfunction to Disbelief’ in positive theology of Mary. Stacpoole, Mary’s Place in Christian Dialogue, A similar situation exists in the case 146. In this connection, see the classic works of the of the on the subject by James Orr and J. Gresham Machen. charismatic Presbyterian, J. Rodman 45 , Systematic Theology 3 vols Williams. He strongly rejects the (Grand Rapids: Wm B. Eerdmans, 1981 Roman Catholic dogmas in a series of reprint). comprehensive footnotes. At the same 46 L. Berkhof, Systematic Theology (Edin- time he emphasizes in the main text of burgh: Banner of Truth Trust, 1958), pp. 334- his work the personal piety of Mary as 6. seen in her ‘humble and receptive 47 James O. Buswell, A Systematic Theology 50 of the Christian Religion (2 vols in 1) (Grand faith’, and her unique historical role Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1962, in the incarnation as the mother of 1963) Vol 2, pp. 40, 44f.. Jesus. 48 Charles W. Carter, Ed., A Contemporary Amongst the recent Baptist theolo- (2 vols) (Grand Rapids: Francis Asbury Press/Zondervan Publishing House, 1983); Benjamin Field, The Student’s Handbook of Christian Theology (London: Hod- der and Stoughton, 1883); John Miley, System- 49 Jerry L. Sandidge, ‘A Pentecostal atic Theology (2 vols) (Peabody, Mass.: Hen- Response to Roman Catholic Teaching on drickson, 1989 reprint from 1893 edition); Mary’, Pneuma (Fall, 1982), pp. 33-42. W.T. Purkiser, R.S. Taylor and W.H. Taylor, 50 J. Rodman Williams, Renewal Theology: God Man and Salvation (Kansas City: Beacon Systematic Theology from a Charismatic Per- Hill Press, 1977), ibid, Christian Theology, spective (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing (Kansas City: Beacon Hill Press, 1952) vol 2, House 3 vols in one, 1996), pp. 344-350, p. pp. 177, 148; 347. Evangelicals and Mary: Recent Theological Evaluations 131 gians, James Leo Garrett51 stresses the than in his earlier book, despite the Virginal Conception, but has little to fact that he had pointed out how some say on Mary herself. The late Stanley have seriously neglected Grenz is similar.52 Millard J. Erickson’s the topic. popular text book follows the same Wayne Grudem approaches the Vir- line, but in the process of explaining gin Birth from a biblical rather than a the doctrine of the virgin birth, it does theological point of view, asserting refer to the role and significance of that it is the mechanism of Jesus’ sin- Mary herself, even if this is somewhat lessness; this means that for him, negative.53 He says, although ‘Mary belief in the Virgin Birth is a test of manifested qualities which God could faith ‘in the God of the Bible’.55 It is use, such as faith and dedication’, she only in a footnote expressing his strong had no unique qualities of her own that rejection of the immaculate conception would mark her out from other young that Grudem alludes to any possibility women of her day as the one who would of a positive appreciation of Mary her- give birth to the Saviour; furthermore, self. In a defensive mode, he concedes she was unable to conceive without the that ‘the New Testament does highly aid of the Holy Spirit. honor Mary’ (by calling her ‘blessed’ In other parts of his work, Erickson and ‘favored’ by God), but points out also makes brief reference to Christo- that such honour is not in terms of spe- logical heresies and their implications cial grace or sinlessness; however, he for the role of Mary, and the relation- offers no discussion of what might be ship between the virgin birth and the an appropriate form of honour in strict general acceptance of the miraculous NT terms. and the supernatural.54 Surprisingly It is left to Gordon Lewis and Bruce however, in his full scale Christology, Demarest amongst the (and The World Become Flesh, he places less indeed most other evangelicals) to pro- emphasis on the Virgin Birth and Mary pose a positive theology of Mary. In their innovative ‘Integrative Theol- ogy’,56 they devote a whole section within a lengthy treatment of the incar- 51 James Leo Garrett, Systematic Theology nation to the topic because of concern (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1990) (vol 1), pp. about over-reaction by evangelicals to 584-597. 52 Theology for the Community of God, (Carlisle: Paternoster, 1994), pp. 409-423; see also his Revisioning Evangelical Theology 55 Wayne Grudem, Systematic Theology (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1993) (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, and Created for Community: Connecting Christ- 1994), p. 532. ian Belief with Christian Living (Wheaton: 56 Gordon R. Lewis and Bruce A. Demarest, Bridgepoint, 1996). Integrative Theology (Grand Rapids: Acadamie 53 Millard J. Erickson, Christian Theology Zondervan Publishing House, vol 2, 1990), (Grand Rapids: Barker, 1998 2nd edition), p. 275-8. They also include a ‘Josephology’, 757f.. being a summary of the biblical narrative and 54 Erickson, Christian Theology, pp. 694, the presentation of Joseph as a model of a spir- 713f, 727, 304. itual and devout foster father- 2/277f.. 132 David Parker

Roman Catholic abuses. They argue fies God’s strategy of using human that ‘An effective Protestant corrective agents and women in particular in the to an unbiblical Roman theology of accomplishment of his holy and loving Mary is not lack of thought about her. purposes’. In short, they focus on a fea- The antidote is a biblically founded the- ture of interest to feminist theologians: ology of Mary!’ They propose that the ‘a Protestant theology of Mary empha- virgin birth is ‘optional evangelisti- sizes God’s great esteem for a devout cally’ (i.e., not necessary for salvation) woman in bringing to pass the greatest and agree that ‘Mary may be honored event in history—the incarnation of as the most favored woman in history’. God’s eternal Word’. However, they firmly reject any further While several features of this development on biblical grounds: ‘The approach are purely traditional and biblical teaching indicates that the conventional, the final synthesis does moral miracle at his conception by the represent a positive recognition of the Holy Spirit freed Jesus, not Mary, from unique role of Mary without conceding a sinful nature. The child, not Mary, is any of the points with which polemic “the holy one”’ (Luke 1:35). Thus Mary evangelical theology is concerned. Yet was ‘not the bestower of it still remains as a factual statement but the recipient’ and therefore cannot which does not imply any further con- be ‘worshiped as sinless or divine’. sequences of a theological or practical Again on biblical grounds, they nature about Mary. That is, there is an reject the popular or literalistic use of acceptance of the unique historical role the title, ‘Mother of God’ since ‘God, of Mary and a recognition of her piety being eternal and self-existent, can and example, but no potential beyond have no mother’. However, in line with this for the growth of a developed the qualified, technical use of the term Protestant Marianism. theotokos, they do concede, ‘Mary was the mother of Jesus’ humanness, begotten supernaturally from the Holy Historical Development Spirit’, which accounts for the ‘hon- Evangelicals are not influenced by two orific’ use of the ascription, ‘Mother of key points in history which have pro- my Lord’ in Luke 1:43. vided impetus for the development of But, in contrast to many other evan- Catholic devotion to Mary. The first gelical theologians, they make an was the patristic idea of a symbolic attempt at articulating a theology of connection between Mary and Eve. Mary. They itemise this theology under Thus Justin Martyr in his work, Dia- a series of points, including the classi- logue with Trypho, states, ‘Christ cal evangelical emphasis on the ‘God- became a man by a virgin to overcome given dignity of women’, the virtue of the disobedience caused by the ser- her devout piety and faith and the pent… in the same way it had origi- importance of marriage and family val- nated.’ Playing on the meaning of Eve ues. In addition to noting the unique derived from the Hebrew verb ‘to live’ role of Mary in the history of salvation, and the idea that Eve was presumably they point out that in her faithful obe- a virgin at the time of the temptation, dience to the divine will ‘she exempli- the parallel is made between the virgin Evangelicals and Mary: Recent Theological Evaluations 133 who brought disobedience and death superstitions.’57 and the virgin who conceived the one Evangelicals therefore typically who is Life. Mary therefore becomes a acknowledge the truth of the title as a New or Second Eve. Thus Irenaeus precise, highly nuanced Christological wrote, ‘The knot of Eve’s disobedience statement (she bore the one who is was loosened by Mary’s obedience. divine), but reject its popular usage, The bonds fastened by the virgin Eve ‘mother of God’, wishing that some through disbelief were untied by the other simple translation could be used. virgin Mary through faith’ (Adv. haere- They regard it as a summary Christo- ses, 3:22). logical confession, ‘an auxiliary Chris- Despite firm adherence to the tological proposition’,58 if one is Adam/Christ typology (expounded in needed, from the perspective of Mary. Romans 5 and 1 Cor. 15:21-22), evan- They certainly reject the Catholic view gelicals reject this Eve/Mary symbol- that this is the beginning point for an ism as an invalid transference of the independent Marian theology and typology away from Jesus and Adam, piety, as stated for example in a popu- contradicting and going beyond Scrip- lar Catholic book of belief in this fash- ture. Thus, whatever virtues Mary may ion: have possessed as a woman of faith Protestants do indeed regard her as and whatever position she may have the Mother of God [i.e., the Mother held by God’s grace in salvation his- of Jesus who is divine], but that is tory, there is no justification for elevat- as far as they go, and that is the ing her in the way the Eve/Mary sym- point at which the Catholic Church bolism does. commences. Her dignity as Mother The second instance is more com- of God is the starting point for a plex—the use of the title ‘Theotokos’ very special devotion, and for all to refer to Mary. In the historical con- the prerogatives with which the text of the 5th century when the title Church endows her.59 was affirmed by the 3rd council of Eph- esus, it was entirely reasonable. From a Christological point of view, it was The ‘cascading piety’ of necessary to affirm that Mary was the Marian theology and bearer of the one who was not only devotion fully human, but also fully divine, thus The steady development of Marian countering the Nestorian heresy. But in popular use, the translation of Theotokos as ‘Mother of God’ carried 57 Quoted in ‘The Blessed Evangelical Mary with it the implication that May was in Evangelical Perspective’, in Carl E. Braaten coeternal with God (or even more) and and Robert W. Jenson (editors), Mary, Mother existed before Jesus and even God him- of God (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004), p. self. Thus Calvin warned, ‘To call the 110. 58 Barth, , I.2.138. virgin Mary the mother of God can only Church Dogmatics 59 John Greenwood (editor), A Handbook of serve to confirm the ignorant in their the Catholic Faith (New York: Image Books, 1956), pp. 238 134 David Parker devotion referred to here shows how mately led to the papal definitions of much ‘Mariology belongs to tradition, the immaculate conception and the not to scripture’.60 It developed first in bodily assumption, contrary to any the East as a matter of living piety, but explicit biblical teaching. It is impor- then in the West as a matter of dogma. tant also to note that a significant A great number of factors have been impetus for the development of Marian identified as contributing to this phe- devotion derived from heretical groups nomenon which contrasts so strongly in the early centuries, while its docu- with the evangelical approach, con- mentary sources were mostly non- trolled as it is by the authority of Scrip- canonical. In the modern period, one of ture. One important factor contributing the major factors has been the content to this ‘cascading piety’ 61 is the use of of apparitions of Mary.64 Scripture not as ‘source, but resource, This strong tendency to elevate not authoritative evidence but eluci- Mary beyond the historical role dating example’62 and the correspond- ascribed to her in the New Testament ing ideas of development of doctrine indicates that in the absence of the and the teaching authority of the restraints imposed by biblical author- Church. Closely related to this is the ity, there were other powerful factors way popular practice becomes ‘an that drove the development of Marian authority for faith instead of its activa- devotion. There was, for example, the tion’63 which is well illustrated by the growing attraction of asceticism, espe- fact that popular Marian devotion ulti- cially the virtues of virginity, and the attraction of the maternal characteris- tics of the feminine deities of other reli- gions65 which involved ‘a pre-disposed 60 G.W. Bromiley, ‘Mary the mother of yearning for a mother-queen goddess Jesus’, ISBE, 3:272; see also 3:271 where he figure’.66 Another important factor was notes Mariology involves a ‘refusal plainly to face up to the biblical data’. 61 John Reumann, ‘Mary’, in M. Eliade (edi- tor) Encyclopaedia of Religion (New York: 64 See Miller and Samples, The Cult of the Vir- Macmillan, 1987), 9:251. gin, pp. 79-135. 62 Oberman, The Virgin Mary in Evangelical 65 D.G. Bloesch, Jesus Christ: Saviour and Perspective, pp. 5-8; contrast the historical Lord (Carlisle: Paternoster Press, 1997), p. exegesis of Reformed theology in which com- 110 quotes S. Benko to show a link between munion sanctorum is the context, and tradition the worship of the goddess Artemis at Eph- is the resource (6). esus and the later decision of the 3rd Ecu- 63 Oberman, The Virgin Mary in Evangelical mencial Council in the same city to affirm the Perspective, p. 2; cf also E. Ann Matter, ‘Mar- title Theotokos. ian Devotion’ in Gordon S. Wakefield (editor), 66 Miller and Samples, The Cult of the Virgin, A Dictionary of Christian Spirituality (London: p. 65; ‘The phenomenon of modern marian SCM, 1983), p. 259: ‘The history of devotion to devotion shows that the need for a female, the Virgin shows the consistent pressure of specifically maternal, figure in Christian spir- popular belief on hierarchical definitions.’ ituality is an enduring part of the tradition’, Bromiley in ISBE, 3:272: ‘… in the later Dictionary of Christian Spirituality, p. 258f; period at least the theological definition seems Frederick W. Norris, The Apostolic Faith (Col- to be a product of popular demand rather than legeville, Minn., The Liturgical Press, 1992), the contrary.’ p. 63. Evangelicals and Mary: Recent Theological Evaluations 135 a growing emphasis upon divine tran- her cooperation can also be seen scendence which led to a need to pro- throughout her life as mother of Jesus, vide a softer, more approachable image especially at the cross when ‘she of the godhead and additional ways of united herself with a maternal heart to mediation. His sacrifice, and lovingly consented to According to G.W. Bromiley, a more the immolation of this Victim which important and decisive factor is the she herself had brought forth’.70 As issue of anthropocentricity, that is, the Weston observes, ‘Mary cooperates in ‘constant urge and need to fashion our the work of redemption, and so epito- own religion, to achieve our own salva- mises the view that human ability 67 tion, to be our own god’. This, he enables man to have some part in his argues, explains why Marian devotion own salvation.’71 could absorb the non-Christian and It should be noted further that heretical features mentioned above Mary’s cooperation in redemption nec- and why it developed so strongly at a essarily involves, as Barth points out, time when evangelical doctrines were ‘a relative rivalry with Christ’72—not neglected. Other commentators dis- only in devotion but also in the status cuss this issue in terms of the doctrine reflected in the titles which seem to of grace. As T.N. Finger puts it, ‘most parallel the attributes of Christ him- Mariological excesses… spring from self. Accordingly, evangelical theol- overestimating the human role in redemption. This ancient theological ogy, with its Christocentricism and issue may be the most fundamental one adherence to the principle of sola gra- surrounding Mariology.’68 tia, rejects any role Mary may be given As already noted, Mary is seen in as source (co-redemptrix) or channel evangelical theology as strictly the (mediatrix) of grace. obedient recipient of grace. But it is More generally there has been what regularly observed that Catholic teach- Oberman, refers to as the ‘Anselmian ing adopts a semi-Pelagian position, in rule’, according to which one should which Mary’s virtue or merit is that she ascribe to the Virgin Mary ‘so much cooperates with God in an act of con- purity that more than that one cannot gruous merit on behalf of all people as the new Eve in giving consent to the incarnation.69 According to this view,

70 Lumen Gentium # 58. 67 Bromiley, ISBE, 3:272f; Encyclopaedia of 71 Keith Weston, ‘Mary: an evangelical view- Religion, 9:251. point’ in Stacpoole (editor), Mary’s Place in 68 EDTh, p. 686. Christian Dialogue, p. 164. 69 Catechism of the Catholic Church # 494 quot- 72 Barth, Church Dogmatics, I.2.145 ‘For it is ing Irenaeus, ‘Being obedient she became the to the creature creatively co-operating in the cause of salvation for herself and for the whole work of God that there really applies the irre- human race’ Lumen Gentium #56, ‘cooperating sistible ascription to Mary of that dignity, of in the work of human salvation through free those privileges, of those assertions about her faith and obedience’; #57 ‘This union of the co-operatio in our salvation, which involve a Mother with the Son in the work of salvation’. relative rivalry with Christ.’ 136 David Parker possibly imagine except for God’.73 Christology and spirituality.77 Closely related to this is the principle Thus at the , it was not that ‘one can never say too much about surprising that biblical authority was Mary’ (de Maria nunquam satis) which brought to bear, severely curtailing as Maron states, ‘was a stimulus to Marian devotion and calling in ques- ingenious intellectual speculations’.74 tion the underlying theology, although Another powerful factor in the devel- the Reformers themselves were opment of Marian teaching, especially uneven in their individual attitudes. regarding such extra-biblical notions In the period since, the polemic sit- as the immaculate conception and the uation has been aggravated, leading to bodily assumption, is the principle the point now where Evangelicalism expressed in the words: potuit, decuit, has sometimes been defined by what it fecit: God could do a thing, it was fitting rejects about Mary in particular (as 75 that God should, therefore God did it. well as other matters) rather than The operation of these principles in what it believes in an affirmative the historical development of Mariol- sense. However, there is some justifi- ogy helps to explain why there has cation for a negative position, given the been a ‘predisposed ambition’ to add to developments in Catholicism since the the biblical record concerning Mary, a Reformation at both popular and offi- process which has puzzled evangeli- cial levels (especially with the official cals.76 These principles also offer some papal definitions of the doctrines of explanation for the pervasive feeling expressed in the sayings attributed to Immaculate Conception in 1854, the Bernard of Clairvaux, ‘Let him who Bodily Assumption 1950, and Mary as fears the Son seek refuge in Mary’ and ‘Mother of the Church’ 1964). The ‘Everything through Mary’, which are overall influence of prominent so much at odds with evangelical Catholics, especially the previous and present , has made it harder for Protestants to take an even-handed view despite the efforts of those who want to overcome this significant ecu- 73 Oberman, The Virgin Mary in Evangelical menical barrier. But even so, some Perspective, p. 7. evangelicals have tried to do so. Over 74 Gottfried Maron, ‘Mary in Protestant The- time, there have been several attempts ology’, Concilium, Mary in the Churches pp. 40, 46; illustrations of this principle at work may be seen in John de Satgé, ‘The evangelical Mary’, in Stacpoole (editor), Mary’s Place in Christian Dialogue, p. 28, and also in P. Toon, ‘Appreciating Mary today’ in Wright (editor), Chosen by God, p. 224f., who both express a need to say more about Mary than the biblical text indicates. 77 Encyclopaedia of Religion, 9:251; Jesus 75 Encyclopaedia of Religion, 9:251; Miller Maria Cavanna, Basic Christian Doctrines, 41; and Samples, The Cult of the Virgin, p. 38f.. this idea is described by Pope Paul VI in his 76 Miller and Samples, The Cult of the Virgin, letter Signum Magnum of May 13, 1967 as ‘the p. 44. general norm.’ Evangelicals and Mary: Recent Theological Evaluations 137 to revisit Mary78, but let us examine gelicals ‘have much to learn from read- some quite recent examples.79 ing Mary against the background of Old Testament foreshadowings’ espe- cially due to a Marcionite over-empha- Recent Contributions sis on the New Testament. But as we have seen, there is little Timothy George exegetical justification for such a view, and, as he concedes, this kind of rea- One of the most articulate is the pro- soning has been used by Catholicism to lific Timothy George of Beeson Divinity develop the Eve/Mary typology. Yet he School, a Reformation theologian, who also concedes a ‘note of dissonance’ has written on the ‘Blessed Evangeli- exists (p. 106), because there is also in 80 cal Mary’. Apart from acceptance of the Old Testament the idea of the the Virgin Birth and of the title unfaithful bride. This is welcome, Theotokos, which is typical of evangel- because, as we have noted above, the icals generally, George refers first to NT shows that Mary herself and her Mary in her place in the line of pious family do not always accept what Jesus women and mothers in the Old Testa- stood for in his ministry. ment. She appears at the intersection This picture of Mary in relation to of the old and the new covenants as a the Old Testament, therefore, does not ‘culminating’ figure (p. 104). He also take evangelicals much farther, but goes further and sees her as ‘the George’s attempt to reinstate Mary kairotic representative of the eschato- further by referring to her as ‘the logical and redeemed people of God: mother of the Church’ is even less suc- Israel itself’ (p. 105). He thinks evan- cessful. Using the scene of Mary at the foot of the cross (John 19) as a lonely but faithful believer, he focuses on Mary as the ‘archetype of the remnant 78 See, for example, David F. Wright, Chosen by God: Mary in Evangelical Perspective (Lon- church’ (p. 119). The figure of the per- don: Marshall, Morgan and Scott, 1989), and secuted mother of Revelation 12 A.T. Robertson, The Mother of Jesus: Her Prob- allows him to speak of Mary’s witness lems and Her Glory (London: Hodder and to ‘the pilgrim church’ (p. 120). He also Stoughton, 1925). calls again upon Mary as a ‘bridging 79 Another fruitful example could have been figure’ between the old and new D.G. Bloesch, Jesus Christ: Saviour and Lord covenants, and between the ministry of (Carlisle: Paternoster Press, 1997), pp. 107- 120, who devotes an special appendix to his Jesus and new age of the church, since chapter on the Virgin Birth to “The role of she was portrayed as among the last at Mary”. the cross and the first in the upper 80 ‘The Blessed Evangelical Mary in Evan- room at Pentecost (p. 119). gelical Perspective’, in Carl E Braaten and However, George’s references in Robert W Jenson (editors), Mary, Mother of support of this idea are all to Roman God (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004), pp. Catholic usage and lack any exegetical 100-122, and a simplified version in Christian- ity Today (December 2003), Vol. 47, No. 12, or theological basis. In truth, it is Jesus 34; on-line http://www.christianitytoday.com/ himself who is the faithful believer, the ct/2003/012/1.34.html one goes to the cross in humble obedi- 138 David Parker ence to the will of the Father and who, so there is no necessity to give her as the risen Lord, bestows the Spirit on more attention than any of the other his disciples. The New Testament heroes of faith listed in Scripture. assigns no role to Mary in salvation This contribution to the thinking history or the church apart from her about ‘the blessed evangelical Mary’ call to be the mother of Jesus. There is appears to be strained. Part of the no justification to link her with the problem is that it is not a spontaneous church, apart from being one of the dis- expression of evangelical piety, such ciples. George draws support for his as the drive for evangelism, the pursuit perspective from the decision of the of holiness or exalting the lordship of not to produce Christ. Instead, it is mainly an attempt a separate treatise on Mary but to treat to find something positive to say in her in the context of the church. How- response to an invitation to address a ever, this is of dubious value in itself, conference on the theme. since if Vatican 2 was to effect proper reform in this area, it would have been necessary to restore discussion to Mary fully and exclusively to the Chris- In the second example, Daniel Migliore tological context, as was done in the of Princeton Theological Seminary, is 5th century adoption of the title, also responding to a theme, but does so Theotokos. from a more positive and principled George has more success from an basis.81 He has the conviction that evangelical perspective in interpreting ‘Reformed theology should make its Mary as the ‘handmaiden of the Lord’ own distinctive contribution to con- (Luke 1:38) in terms of the Reforma- temporary rethinking of the signifi- tion principles of sola gratia and sola cance of Mary for Christian faith and fide. He explains that she is the object theology’ (p. 118). By this he means of divine grace in her call to be the the principles of grace, biblical author- mother of Jesus, and she responds to ity, the gospel and its transforming this call in exemplary humble faith. power (p. 122). George concludes that she should In developing this approach, therefore be ‘highly extolled in evan- Migliore joins with Timothy George gelical theology and worship’. He and other evangelicals in referring to blames the fact that she is not on ‘the the Annunciation as a demonstration pruning effect of the Scripture princi- of ‘Mary’s pilgrimage of faith’, showing ple’ (p. 116)—that is, that there is no her as an ‘exemplary witness’ (p. 123). explicit exhortation to extol her and to The focus is not on Mary herself who is do so would likely detract from the place of Christ. Secondly, he claims that the polemic situation in the post- Reformation period required evangeli- 81 ‘Woman of Faith: Toward a Reformed cals to downplay Mary to avoid any Understanding of Mary’, in Beverly Roberts Gaventa and Cynthia L. Rigby (editors), hint of compromise. But, as mentioned Blessed One: Protestant Perspectives on Mary above, there is nothing specially (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2002), unique about Mary’s call and response, pp. 117-130. Evangelicals and Mary: Recent Theological Evaluations 139 simply ‘favored and chosen by God’. greater significance than the exegesis Instead, we praise the ‘surprising, can possible justify. Instead, he sees it unmerited, electing grace of God.’ simply as an expression of her devout Thus, he argues, we should pay more spirituality, especially notable in the attention than we have to the mode of context of this passage with the events election in regard to Mary’s role in sal- of Pentecost. vation history. Here again, Mary is Yet even these two passages pro- seen as an example of faith and disci- vide only minimal foundation for any pleship—she is not a unique case, and elaboration of a position on Mary. They certainly not one who by some special contribute little to our understanding divine action can dispense grace in any of Christian ministry and spirituality in way. comparison with the great amount of Migliore also sees significance in material on these topics found in other Mary’s song, the Magnificat, of Luke 2, parts of the Scripture, such as, for as an indication of solidarity with the example, the gospels and epistles on poor and the ‘passionate cry for justice the nature of Christian ministry, or the and a transformed world’ (p. 125), much more detailed biographies of which is so typical of the biblical wit- heroes of faith such as Abraham, ness. Similarly, there is the note of fal- Moses, Paul or even Peter. More libility in Mary’s story, a reminder that importantly, for a theology and prac- discipleship includes the necessity of tice of spirituality, the material on continual reformation, semper refor- Mary is minimal indeed compared with manda. Thus Mary is good example of the Psalms or the prayers and teaching biblical piety and faith. of Paul and other passages. Further- In his final points, Migliore makes more, from a general perspective, Mary much better use of two other themes plays no great part in the apostolic than the traditional Catholic view, so exposition of the Christian life and sal- often toyed with by Protestants who vation history as recorded for example are sympathetic to increasing the hon- in the narrative of Acts or in key epis- our given to Mary. First, the scene at tles such as Romans, Galatians or the cross where the beloved disciple Corinthians. This is not to deny, of and Mary are given into each other’s course, that the narratives of Mary do care (John 19:26-27), portrays for provide valuable ‘testimonies to the Migliore a call to ministry ‘with and for grace of God in Jesus Christ by the others’ (p. 128) within the family of power of the Holy Spirit’ (p. 129), as God: ‘Mary’s vocation is not exhausted Migliore and others so helpfully point in her giving birth to the Son of God. out. She is given the further dignity of min- istry in the name of the Son that she bore’ (p. 127). Conclusion Likewise, he does not link the brief Thus our view of Mary must be deter- reference to Mary as one of those in the mined by the authority and sufficiency upper room at Pentecost (Acts 1:14) of Scripture, as for any other matter of with the genesis of the church as many faith and practice. Evangelicals have scholars do and thus accord it far plenty of spiritual dynamics that drive 140 David Parker them, such as the imperative for evan- as Donald G. Bloesch82 urges, in the gelism and mission, holiness, even the context of the whole company of faith. second coming and biblical authority. Thus we see her as a fellow believer However, unlike the Catholic position, with undoubted personal qualities there is no driving force within their which perhaps set her apart from oth- theological and spiritual system to ers; yet we may warmly acknowledge require them to say anything special her privileged role as the mother of about Mary in isolation. She is to be Jesus and marvel at God’s surprising seen and interpreted within the larger grace in choosing a lowly, humble per- context other doctrines of grace, eccle- son for such a role. This must surely be siology and prayer, but especially in a highly important lesson for Christ- terms of Christ himself whom we must ian’s in today’s world! continue to magnify in his unique posi- Truly, we can affirm the words of tion as the incarnate Son, and our Sav- Mary in her song: iour and Lord. My soul magnifies the Lord, and my However, by the same principle of spirit rejoices in God my Savior, for Scripture we need to rectify the rela- he has regarded the low estate of tive neglect and distortions in our view his handmaiden. For behold, hence- of Mary which have resulted from forth all generations will call me polemic reaction and readily acknowl- blessed; for he who is mighty has edge her as one ‘favoured’ by God and done great things for me, and holy as a ‘handmaiden of the Lord’. We can is his name…. he has scattered the see in her a sign of grace and faith, per- proud in the imagination of their haps in some special measure but not hearts, he has put down the mighty uniquely or exclusively compared with from their thrones, and exalted others in the hall of faith. In fact, to those of low degree; he has filled avoid tendencies towards the kind of the hungry with good things, and invalid doctrinal and devotional the rich he has sent empty away embellishment that have taken place in the Catholic tradition, she is best seen,

tentious issue of Mary and prayer. For similar 82 Bloesch, Jesus Christ, p. 118. He pushes ideas from another evangelical sources, See the boundaries of this concept to include dis- also Rodney A. Whitacre, John (Downers cussion of Mary’s role with the in Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1999) (IVP New heaven, thus addressing firmly the con- Testament Commentary Series), p. 461. ERT (2006) 30:2, 141-151 Prophetic Preaching as Social Preaching

Chang-Hoon Kim prophetic preaching to be just sermons KEYWORDS: Law, cult, morality, com- munity, social responsibility, corrup- which rebuke or judge the congrega- tion, the poor, homiletics, mission, tion or society with regard to social culture injustices; or they consider prophetic preaching only as a means to partici- pate directly in social or political THIS STUDY HAS ITS origin in the recog- affairs, or as the homiletical aspect of nition of a deep misunderstanding of the so-called liberation movement. ‘prophetic preaching as social preach- As a result of this misconception, ing’ in the contemporary homiletics.1 two mistakes have been made in terms Generally the prophets in the Old Tes- of the use of prophetic preaching in the tament have been viewed in a false church.3 On the one hand, prophetic light as social reformers who merely or preaching is considered undesirable in mainly proclaimed repentance, judg- local churches, because ministers ment and doom in the corrupt world regard sermons that merely challenge and were directly involved in social 2 and criticize people and situations to action to accomplish social justice. be harmful to a successful ministry. On Those who regard the prophets as the other hand, prophetic preaching is social reformers mistakenly see often used merely as a tool to perform a mission of the church in terms of its involvement in social action. The for- 1 Prophetic preaching can be discussed in mer mistake is mainly found in conser- diverse directions. But in this paper, I will vatively-inclined churches, the latter in argue just about its social aspect. liberally-inclined churches.4 In this 2 W Brueggemann, The Prophetic Imagination study, first of all I am going to examine (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1978), pp. 14-15; S. E. Balentine, ‘The Prophetic Message: Its Ori- the nature of the judgment message gin, Setting and Significance’, Faith and Mis- sion (1989), 16: 3-17, p. 10.; J. K. Wiles, ‘The Prophetic Critique of the Social and Economic 3 See the contributions in E. E. Shelp and R. Order’, Faith and Mission (1989), 16:18-40, pp. H. Sunderland (eds.), The Pastor as Prophet 18-19; M. Siler ‘Reflections on Prophetic (New York: Pilgrim, 1985). Preaching’, Faith and Mission (1989), 16:76- 4 Brueggemann, The Prophetic Imagination, 78. pp. 14-15.

Dr Kim is Assistant Professor of at Chongshin University, Korea and he holds a Master of Theology degree from Calvin Theological Seminary and a ThD from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa. This is a slightly edited version of a paper read at the Third International Conference on Evangelical Theology, held at Sungkyul University, Korea on Sept 30-Oct 1, 2005. 142 Chang-Hoon Kim concerning social injustice and corrup- declared that their cultic activities tion in Israel, because the misunder- were meaningless to God because they standing of prophetic preaching today, were isolated from their daily social in my judgment, is closely connected to lives. God abhors a dichotomy between a wrong or faulty evaluation of the role cultic life and unjust social life. and message of the Old Testament The situation sketched in vv. 4-9 prophets. And then, I will suggest what provides the background for the socio- the designation ‘prophetic preaching ethical demands on society.5 Their pre- as social preaching’ means, and how sent chaotic predicament is depicted as prophetic preaching as social preach- the result of God’s punishment—a pun- ing can be practically performed. ishment of social injustice in spite of a cultic ‘boom’.6 Israel faultily thought that they could be forgiven and be free I The prophets against social from God’s punishment by the cultic injustice acts of worship or that they fulfilled In attempts to explore the nature of the their duty in their relationship with God 7 judgment message concerning social by it. The prophet, however, empha- injustice and corruption in Israel, in my sized that their ethical behaviour or view, two types of approach are neces- social practices stood between forgive- sary: by examining some passages in ness and punishment (vv. 16-20). prophetic books and by investigating However, it should be noted that the the commandments regarding justice prophet did not condemn cultic activi- and the protection of the weak in the ties in themselves but proclaimed that Law as the source which is later worship without a corresponding daily (re)interpreted and applied in the prophetic message. 5 There is a general agreement that Is. 1:10- 17 is an inseparable literary unit. Also, many A. Prophetic books suggest that this passage should be read in the light of Is. 1:2-20. This means that Is. 1:16-17 Isaiah 1:16-17 (1:10-17) should be understood in the context of both 1:10-17 as the narrower context and of 1:2-20 This passage demands just social and as the broader one. moral behaviour in society through a 6 Even though the Assyrian invasion of 701 series of nine imperatives. The pre- BC (cf. Isaiah chapters 36, 37) is generally scriptions occur in the context of the suggested as the historical background to this passage, we cannot confirm this. The context critique of one-sided cultic practices, might also be the Syro-Ephraimite war of which the prophet directed at the lead- 734/5 BC (cf. Is. 7:1ff). ers and people (v. 10). In other words, 7 R.E. Clements, Isaiah 1-39 (Grand Rapids: the uselessness of their cultic prac- Eerdmans. 1980), p. 32; Y. Gitay, Isaiah and tices is connected with the proclama- His Audience: The Structure and Meaning of Isa- tion that the worshippers’ hands were iah 1-12 (Assen/Maastricht: Van Gorcum, 1991), pp. 14ff.; H Gossai, Justice, Righteous- full of blood, a term which is generally ness and the Social Critique of Eighth-Century understood as involvement in violence Prophets. New York: Peter Lang, 1993), pp. and injustice in society. The prophet 255-7. Prophetic Preaching as Social Preaching 143 life and social concern was worthless.8 directed mainly against the political In other words, in this passage the leaders who were responsible for prophet gave the instruction that true Zion’s wholeness in its relationship worship must be connected to the right with God.12 The passage is in the mid- way of living.9 dle of descriptions of the past, present In summary, in Isaiah 1:10-17 the and future status of Zion, which sym- prophet proclaimed judgment against bolically refers to the whole of Israel as the people and their rulers with regard God’s people. The prophet employed to their improper social and moral several metaphors such as ‘harlot’, behaviour. They brought sacrifices and ‘alloy of silver’, and ‘weakness of wine’ offerings without a corresponding and to describe the present perversion of appropriate life as God’s people. It Zion (vv. 21-22). This suggests that the therefore may be said that in vv. 16-17 main problems of Zion were its unfaith- Israel was challenged to an appropri- fulness in its relationship to God and ate social life and responsibility as its impurity. But this unfaithfulness God’s people in the contemporary soci- was expressed in horrible social injus- 10 ety. tices. These horrible social injustices and corruption, of which the upper Isaiah 1:23 (1:21-26) class was guilty, were presented as the This passage is again a prophetic main content of Zion’s sinful situation. verdict on the contemporary social cor- The prophet proclaimed that God ruption.11 The social critique was would punish Zion on account of her sins in order to restore her as she was before. In other words, the passage says that God will purify Zion as God’s 8 Gossai, Justice, Righteousness and the Social Critique, pp. 265-271. people so that it may be faithful in its 9 Clements Isaiah 1-39, p. 32; J. H. Hays and relationship with God by being S. A. Irvine, Isaiah: His Times and His Preach- cleansed of social corruption.13 This ing (Nashville: Abingdon, 1987), p. 70; H. suggests that the prophetic critique Wildberger, Isaiah 1-12 (Minneapolis: against the social corruption of the Fortress, 1991), p. 51; M. A. Sweeney, Isaiah 1-39 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996), pp 78- 79. 10 O. Kaiser, Isaiah 1-12 (London: SCM, 1972), pp. 13ff; Wildberger, Isaiah 1-12, p. 33; be better to divide 1:21-31 into 1:21-26 and 27- Sweeney, Isaiah 1-39, pp. 78-79. 31 mainly because v. 29 begins with the parti- 11 There has been considerable discussion cle ‘ki (because)’ which indicates a syntacti- regarding the immediate and broader context cally dependent and subordinate connection of this passage. Although attempts have been with the preceding verse. made to include Is. 2:1-5 in the unit which 12 Clements, Isaiah 1-39, p. 35; Wildberger, starts at 1:21 (or 1:2), I agree with many inter- Isaiah 1-12, pp. 65-66. The fact that rulers and preters that it is natural to regard the heading people appear in parallel in Is. 1:10 suggests at 2:1 as a mark of the beginning of a new unit. that the two can be understood as synonyms. Also, even though it is agreed that 1:21-31 13 Sweeney (Isaiah 1-39, p. 85) observes that should be interpreted as a unit in the same ‘the basic concern of this passage is not with context, there are different options in dividing the city’s leaders and their punishment but this unit into subunits. In my view, it seems to with the city itself and its restoration’. 144 Chang-Hoon Kim rulers of the people in verse 23 must be ness and adulteration. The social cor- understood in the context of the ruption of the leading class or the prophetic message against Zion (or social injustice in Israel was a repre- God’s people) for not fulfilling the sentative example of Zion’s (or social duties required by the covenant Israel’s) sinful life. Therefore it is fair relationship with God. to say that Isaiah 1:23 should be That the passage is concerned with regarded as the prophetic judgment the just life of God’s people in society against Israel’s disobedience to spe- as a duty imposed by their relationship cific social commandments required to God can be also shown from Isaiah within the covenant relationship. 1:27-31. Verses 27-31, as a conclusion of chapter 1,14 mention the salvation of Isaiah 5:8-23 Zion (v. 27) together with the warning This passage contains the prophetic of the coming judgment (vv. 28-31). critique of the corrupt society Moreover, it can be said that according expressed in a series of six woe oracles to this passage those who serve idols (i.e. ‘Woe to those who...’).15 In this were guilty of being the harlot of verse passage, the prophet criticized the 21, for the idolatry of the people was unjust acquisition of land, addiction to clearly an indication of a breach of the sensual pleasures, pride, the unrea- covenant relationship with God. In sonableness of the people, and the sin other words, 1:21-31 constitutes of taking bribes. Therefore the prophet ‘inclusio’ formed by the same motif. proclaimed the divine punishment of This implies that 1:21-31 concerns their sins. This passage occurs in the Israel’s inappropriate life in its rela- midst of the so-called vineyard song tionship with God—an inappropriate (vv. 1-7) and the judgment of God’s life as expressed in their unjust social people (vv. 25-30).16 This means that lives or their idolatrous practices. the judgment against social corruption Therefore, the social corruption and in Israel is best understood in the con- injustice in Israel (v. 23) and the idola- text of the rest of chapter 5. try of people (vv. 28-30) must be under- Through the parable of the vineyard stood in the same way. Both are tied to the prophet criticized Israel for not liv- the judgment of Zion, which aims at her ing up to God’s will and expectations, restoration or purification. The only yielding only bad fruit. This implies difference between them is that one focuses on social-moral aspects and the other on spiritual aspects. 15 It is generally recognized that this pas- In conclusion, Isaiah 1:21-26 shows sage is composed according to the indict- God’s special interest in Zion. The ment/punishment or woe/therefore pattern. prophet criticized Zion’s unfaithful- 16 Some commentators interpret Is. 5:1-7, 8- 24 and 25-30 as separate units because these passages seem to refer to different themes. However, chap 5, as we have it now, should be 14 J. N. Oswalt, The Book of Isaiah Chapters 1- understood as a unit because the themes of 39 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1986), pp. 108- these passages often appear together in the 9; Sweeney, Isaiah 1-39, pp. 65ff. same context in the book of Isaiah. Prophetic Preaching as Social Preaching 145 that the sins enumerated in vv. 8-24 tion in Israel can be defined as the vio- were due to Israel’s life being contrary lation of the Torah (or the Law) as the to God’s expectations. These sins are way of life given in the covenant rela- the bad fruit in terms of the parable. tionship between God and Israel (cf. Is. After criticizing the social corruption 1:10; 5:24).17 This conclusion will be of Israel, he also proclaimed God’s confirmed by examination of the refer- judgment of war against God’s people ences to the weak in the Law. as a whole (vv. 25-30). Israel’s corrupt social situation caused God’s judgment B. The ‘weak’ in the Law of her. From the context, we can say that in The references to the weak—the poor, Isaiah 5:8-24 the prophet criticized the widows, fatherless or the alien (the Israel’s inappropriate life as God’s sojourner)—are found in several con- covenant people as it was demon- texts in the Law. These can be classi- strated in allowing social injustice and fied as follows: corruption. The connection between 1. In connection with the judicial social injustice in Israel and Israel’s process (trial): Ex. 23:6; Dt. 24:17; life as God’s people is also confirmed in 27:19 (e.g. Dt. 27:19 says, ‘Cursed be the passage. Verse 12 says that ‘they anyone who deprives the alien, the do not regard the deeds of the LORD, orphan, and the widow of justice.’) or see the work of his hands!’. The pas- 2. In connection with their protec- sage concludes therefore that ‘they tion have rejected the instruction of the a) Regarding pledges: ‘Do not take LORD of hosts, and have despised the anything as a pledge from the poor word of the Holy One of Israel’. In sum- and the widow’ (Dt. 24:12-13; mary, the passage is related to their 24:17) social life as the responsibility of God’s b) Regarding wages: ‘Pay the poor and specially chosen people. the needy the wages each day before In the foregoing discussion of these the sunset’ (Dt. 24:14-15; cf. Lev. passages, I have argued that the con- 19:13) cern of the prophet with the social c) Regarding charity (kindness): ‘At injustice and corruption in Israel the harvest time, leave what should be understood in terms of the remains such as some fruit and a proper social life of Israel as God’s peo- sheaf for the poor, the widow, the ple and her social responsibility. God fatherless and the alien’ (Lev. commanded Israel to live properly in 19:10; 23:22; Dt. 24:19-21) society and to fulfil her social respon- d) Regarding their feasts: ‘At the end sibility as God’s specially chosen peo- of every three years, bring all the ple. In other words, God is concerned tithes for the weak to come, eat and not only with an inward obedience to the Law as ritual ceremony, keeping the Sabbath, fasting, etc., but also with 17 Importantly, we have to remember that in the appropriate life of justice relating the judgment message against the neighbor- to neighbours and society as outward ing nations the prophet did not mention the obedience. Therefore the social corrup- injustice and corruption in their society. 146 Chang-Hoon Kim

be satisfied’ (Dt. 14:28, 29; 26:12, social preaching in the contemporary 13). ‘At the Feast of Passover or homiletics should be understood in Tabernacles, be joyful with the terms of the social life and responsibil- weak’ (Dt. 16:11, 14) ity of God’s people. This suggests that e) Regarding help: ‘Lend freely to the prophetic preaching as social preach- poor whatever he needs’ (Dt. 15:7), ing should always recognize that: ‘Help the people who become poor’ 1) the hearers, as well as the preach- (Lev. 25:35-38) ers themselves, not only belong to f) In general: ‘Do not mistreat an alien the church, but are also members of or oppress him’ (Ex. 22:21; 23:9), society. This means that God’s peo- ‘Do not abuse the alien’ (Ex. 22:22). ple have a responsibility for the To conclude, the above shows that society to which they belong; the corruption of the juridical process 2) the church is not a closed commu- or system and the unjust accumulation nity; that is, the church can influ- of the wealth and property by depriving ence and is influenced by the society from the weak and the poor mentioning of which it is part; in the prophetic books were already 3) all social and political events that forbidden by the Law. Therefore it can happen on the earth are finally be said that the commandments related to God who rules over the regarding justice towards and protec- world; tion of the weak in the Law formed the 4) it is not appropriate to draw a sharp basis of the prophetic judgment line between the sacred and the sec- against social corruption and injus- ular. Prophetic preaching believes tices in the prophetic books, even that there is no realm over which though there was no direct quotation the kingdom of God does not extend; from the Law. In other words, the Law as the apostle Paul states, ‘there is (or the legal tradition) was (re)inter- no authority except that which God preted and applied in terms of a new has established’ (Rom. 13:1).18 historical, religious and social context. Now, it is order to explore how prophetic preaching as social preach- ing can be practically performed. II Practice As we have argued above, the demon- stration of the social concerns of the A. Involvement in social prophetic message does not mean that concerns the prophet was interested only in soci- The first practical means whereby ety itself or in social justice itself in a prophetic preaching as social preach- general humanistic sense. Rather, in ing can perform its task is to be this concern with society and social homiletically involved in social con- justice, the prophet commanded Israel to live a social life befitting God’s covenant people and to fulfil her social 18 Thus, P. S. Wilson, The Practice of Preach- responsibility as God’s specially cho- ing (Nashville: Abingdon, 1995) pp. 160ff sen people. states that social analysis is not something we Likewise, prophetic preaching as add to the gospel, but a part of the gospel. Prophetic Preaching as Social Preaching 147 cerns. This can be expressed in two J. A. Smith22 gives a longer list of social ways: the consideration of the social issues to be addressed in preaching, context of the hearers in a sermon and including the following: AIDS, abor- the preaching on current social issues. tion, human sexuality, euthanasia, bio- On the one hand, the task of ethics, economics, nuclear waste, ecol- prophetic preaching as social preach- ogy, affirmative action, race and ing can be fulfilled by reflecting on the racism, science and scientism, third social context of the hearers in sermon world and minority group concerns, formation and delivery.19 For example, apartheid, divestments of church bod- prophetic preaching should bring ies in financial institutions for reli- social situations such as starvation, gious/social/political reasons, the fail- wars, civil revolt, social disorder, eco- ure of the criminal justice system, non- nomic depression, political chaos and violence, war, and the religious baptiz- the like into the kerygmatic scope of ing of partisan politics. the text.20 These events should be dis- Prophetic preaching on social cussed in an appropriate way in a ser- issues should not remain in the realm mon. In addition, preachers should of the church. Prophetic preaching consider both national and interna- should often proclaim God’s will on tional social contexts in their mes- current issues in the public market- sages. Those that are considered to be place for the purpose of ‘awakening the national are also international and vice consciousness of the nation’.23 For this, versa because the world is getting preachers can visit local or national smaller on account of the remarkable governments or utilize the mass media. progress of communication and trans- However, we have to note that it is portation networks. not easy to preach on social issues. On On the other hand, prophetic the one hand, when we preach on top- preaching can be done by preaching on ics such as nuclear weapons, AIDS, current social issues. For instance, C. and abortion it is not as easy to find a M. Smith21 suggests that preachers biblical text on the topics as it is to should proclaim God’s Word in terms select a biblical passage addressing of social issues such as handicappism, the love of God for the world. More- ageism, sexism, racism, and classism. over, diverse opinions exist even within Christianity on these issues. On the other hand, we should not handle social issues in a broad and general way, but from a specific and insightful perspective. Therefore, authentic, rele- 19 A. Van Seters (ed.), Preaching as a Social Act (Nashville: Abingdon, 1988), p. 264. 20 K. M. Smith, Social Crisis Preaching (Macon: Mercer University Press, 1984), p. 22 J. A. Smith, ‘Preaching and Social Con- 34. cerns’ in M. Duduit, (ed.), Handbook of Con- 21 C. M. Smith, Preaching as Weeping, Confes- temporary Preaching (Nashville: Broadman, sion and Resistance: Radical Responses to Radi- 1992) p. 509. cal Evil (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 23 Shelp and Sunderland, The Pastor as 1992). Prophet, p. 13. 148 Chang-Hoon Kim vant and authoritative prophetic munity. In other words, prophetic preaching on social issues requires preaching is to nurture the church, special preparation. As J. A. Smith24 either as individuals or as a whole, as states, ill-prepared preaching on social a prophetic community in order to issues can be more deadly and destruc- carry out its task in relation to soci- tive than sermons that do not consider ety.27 I would suggest two strategies in the social context and current issues. this connection: reinforcement of the For preaching on social issues, two identity of the church, and emphasis on things are necessary: a disciplined its responsibility to or mission within looking at texts from a social view society. point (or a clear theological view on current social issues derived from a biblical text) and full awareness of the Reinforcement of church’s social issues themselves.25 For the well identity prepared sermon on social issues, K. I have argued that the Old Testament M. Smith26 suggests the following: tap prophets reflected the social, political available human resources, i.e. spe- cialists; utilize published materials and economical context and contempo- that address current social issues, and rary issues in their message. In these become directly involved in the issues, messages, the prophets accentuated i.e. identification. the identity of Israel as a community of To conclude, prophetic preaching as social concern. First of all, prophets social preaching does more than emphasized that God had specially merely reflect the social context of elected and protected Israel, and that hearers in its message. It should actu- God would continually take care of ally address such concrete social and/or restore her. In other words, issues as AIDS, abortion and racism. they highlighted the idea that Israel was a special community in the world B. Nurturing the prophetic community 27 Brueggemann, The Prophetic Imagination; The second, but more important, prac- S. M. Hauerwas, ‘The Pastor as Prophet’ in E. tical means by which prophetic preach- E. Shelp and R. H. Sunderland (eds.), The Pas- ing as social preaching can accomplish tor as Prophet (New York: Pilgrim, 1985); Van its task is to build up a prophetic com- Seters, Preaching as a Social Act; W. H. Willimon, ‘Would that All the Lord’s People Were A Prophet’, Journal for Preachers 16/4 (1993), pp. 16-21; C. L. Campbell, guided by 24 J. A. Smith, ‘Preaching and Social Con- Hans Frei’s work, argues that the preacher’s cerns’, p. 509. task must be seen not as that of creating expe- 25 R.J. Sider and M.A. King, Preaching about riential events for individual hearers, but Life in a Threatening World (Philadelphia: rather as that of building up the church: that Westminster, 1987) give examples of preach- is, the up-building of the church is the central ing on some social issues—abortion, eco- function of preaching (Preaching Jesus: New nomic justice, human rights, the earth, and Directions for Homiletics in Hans Frei’s Postlib- war and violence. eral Theology [Grand Rapids: Eerd- 26 Smith, Social Crisis Preaching, pp. 37-40. mans,1997]. p. 221ff). Prophetic Preaching as Social Preaching 149 because God had separated Israel from Israel through the Exodus was not just other nations. Secondly, the prophets in the interest in a new religion or a stressed God’s otherness. We often new religious idea, but marked the find phrases indicating God’s unique- appearance of a new social community ness such as, ‘To whom will you com- in history—a community governed by pare God?’ ‘Who is like YHWH?’ or new laws and a new order. The partic- ‘There is none like YHWH’. Thirdly, ipants in the Exodus had to be involved prophets declared that God wanted in the intentional formation of a new Israel to be a specific community social reality to match the vision of unlike the neighbouring nations; in God’s freedom. Thus, the church other words, that Israel should live in should recover its distinctive tradition faith and have a life distinct from that of faith if it wants to accomplish its of the neighbouring nations. In sum- prophetic ministry—to dismantle dom- mary, the prophet asserted that Israel inant culture and consciousness in was elected to be a holy and dedicated society. In conclusion, he claims that community in the world, i.e. both sepa- the main task of prophetic ministry is rate from the other nations and dedi- to struggle to evoke, form, and reform cated to God, and that this separation an alternative or counter-community is grounded in Israel’s God as sepa- with a counter-consciousness.29 rated. In a like manner, prophetic preach- ing as social preaching should rein- Emphasis on church’s force the identity of the church, as indi- responsibility or mission viduals and as a whole, for the purpose In connection with the identity of of nurturing the identity of the Israel as a specially separated people, prophetic community as a community the prophets also emphasized Israel’s with a God-given social responsibility. In other words, prophetic preaching should intensify the conviction that the 29 W.H. Willimon, ‘Would that All the Lord’s church is a special community, having People Were A Prophet’, takes a similar line a distinctive identity, especially in the regarding the task of prophetic ministry. He way it exists in the world. states that prophetic ministry is to urge the In this regard, Brueggemann’s church towards the formation of a counter- community. Interestingly, in Resident Aliens, argument is persuasive. He states that S. Hauerwas and W.H. Willimon (Nashville: ‘the contemporary American church is Abingdon, 1989) designate the church as a so largely enculturated to the Ameri- ‘colony’ and Christians as ‘resident aliens’ in can ethos of consumerism’ and that order to stress that the church should regain ‘the internal cause of such encultura- its identity. They state that ‘The church is a tion is our loss of identity through the colony, an island of one culture in the middle 28 of another. In baptism our citizenship is trans- abandonment of the faith tradition’. ferred from one dominion to another, and we According to him, the emergence of become, in whatever culture we find our- selves, resident aliens’ (p. 12). They argue that the church should be concerned about 28 Brueggemann, The Prophetic Imagination, how it is to be in the world, in what form, for p. 11. what purpose (p. 43). 150 Chang-Hoon Kim responsibility or mission to society. community of prophets. Therefore, our Israel’s responsibility was expressed summertime preaching has as its goal in terms of her being a ‘light for the the evocation of prophetic schoolteach- Gentiles’ (Is. 49:6). Furthermore, the ers, shopkeepers, nursing home resi- prophet proclaimed that when God dents and sixteen year olds who can chose Israel he looked for something speak the truth to power.’33 from her which may include social Regarding the social responsibility responsibility (Is. 5). of church as prophetic community, Likewise, prophetic preaching as prophetic preaching should remember social preaching should urge the that there are social and political needs church, as individuals or as a whole, to which can be fulfilled by the church. perform its responsibility in society. Social needs means needs that people Prophetic preachers should emphasize have economically and physically in that the church does not exist simply terms of their social life. Political for itself.30 As D. J. Bosch argues, the needs means needs which the political church lives in a double relationship: to victims have under unjust political sys- God and to the world.31 The social tems or in unjust situations. The responsibility of the church is an church should not overlook these essential part of the gospel, not an needs. The church is charged with the extra duty. In other words, prophetic responsibility of fulfilling the needs preaching should challenge the church practically by taking action. Prophetic as to why God chooses it as separated preaching should proclaim that the people and should help it to discover its church, as individuals or as a whole, is social responsibility. In a sense, from under the obligation to respond to the this perspective, prophetic preaching social and political needs in proper is ‘struggling with’ the church not ways. ‘over against it’ for its social role.32 In In conclusion, in order to nurture a this regard, W.H. Willimon states the prophetic community (the church’s main task of prophetic preaching well: relation to society and its role in it), I ‘The purpose of prophetic preaching is would stress that the church should the production and equipment of a neither be totally isolated from society nor be totally included in it. In this regard, Müller and Smit34 point out that ‘the church tells its own story in ways 30 B. A. Müller and D. J. Smit, ‘Public Wor- ship: A Tale of Two Stories’ in J. Mouton and between the extremes of becoming B. C. Lategan (eds.), The Relevance of Theology merely a repetition of the public stories for the 1990s (Pretoria: Human Sciences already at hand, or of being so radically Research Council, 1994), p. 405. different from the public stories that no 31 D. J. Bosch, Witness to the World (London: meaningful connection is possible’. Marshall, Morgan & Scott, 1980), p. 222. He also states that ‘Without a faithful and sus- tained contact with God the church loses her transcendence. Without a true solidarity with the world she loses her relevance.’ 33 Willimon, ‘Would that All the Lord’s Peo- 32 Van Seters, Preaching as a Social Act, p. ple Were A Prophet’, p. 20. 252. 34 Müller and Smit, ‘Public Worship’, p. 389. Prophetic Preaching as Social Preaching 151

We can also say that the nurturing passages in the book of Isaiah and ref- of the prophetic community, by rein- erences to the protection of the weak in forcing its identity and stressing its the Law, I have suggested that: responsibility to or mission within soci- 1)The prophetic message against the ety, can be an effective means of social injustice and corruption in prophetic involvement in social affairs Israel was proclaimed on the basis and a valid instrument to accomplish of the Law; that is, it was a (re)inter- the social responsibility of the church. pretation and application of the Furthermore, the idea of nurturing the legal tradition. prophetic community provides us with 2) It was mainly concerned with a clear understanding of prophetic Israel’s proper social life as God’s preaching as social preaching. First of special people and her social all, this suggests that prophetic responsibility as God’s chosen peo- preaching as social preaching is more ple. than a reflection of the social context of As the result of the examination of the hearers or a discourse on such some passages in the book of Isaiah, I social issues as AIDS, abortion and have also suggested how prophetic racism.35 It requires the church to be preaching as social preaching in the involved practically in society to fulfil contemporary homiletics should be understood. I have suggested as fol- its responsibility. Secondly, however, lows: prophetic preaching as social preach- 1) prophetic preaching should reflect ing does not mean that preachers the social context of the hearers in should ‘participate in marches, serve the sermon, as leaders of movements, address pro- 36 2) it should actually preach on current testers, and serve as negotiators’. social issues, 3) more importantly, it should nurture Conclusion the church, as individuals or as a whole, as a prophetic community or In this study, we have defined an alternative community. prophetic preaching as social preach- Especially, in nurturing the ing. Through the examination of some prophetic community, prophetic preachers should emphasize the iden- tity of church as a specially elected people both separated from society and 35 Siler, ‘Reflections on Prophetic Preach- dedicated to God. Moreover, prophetic ing’, p. 77; Willimon, ‘Would that All the preaching challenges the church to dis- Lord’s People Were A Prophet’. cover its social responsibility practi- 36 Smith, Social Crisis Preaching, p. 11; W. K. McElvancy, Preaching from Camelot to cally and to fulfill its responsibility in Covenant. Announcing God’s Action in the World society by responding actively to the (Nashville: Abingdon, 1989), p. 57. social and political needs. ERT (2006) 30:2, 152-161 Well-being Syndrome in Korea: a View from the Perspective of Biblical Counselling

Kyu Myeong Whang

KEYWORDS: Consumerism, health, What then is the next wave that will hedonism, desire, morality, industri- impact our society? Paul Zane Pilger alism, cosmetic industry, food indus- predicts a ‘well-being revolution’ as try, class, chemyun culture, coun- the next wave. According to Pilger, the selling, self-love well-being phenomenon will change the current social structure as well as I. Introduction individuals. It will bring a global change of consumer culture and new Alvin Tofler wrote in his book, The industries and products with a big mar- Third Wave, about the end of industri- ket. In 2001, he claimed, the volume of alism and the beginning of a new civi- lization. According to Tofler, the first products and markets related to well- wave was the agricultural revolution being in the U.S.A. was 230 billion dol- 2 which took place ten thousand years lars. ago and the second wave was the The well-being revolution is hap- industrial revolution which began in pening in Korea too, in a massive way. 1750. The third wave, which began in In 2002, Korean mass media began to 1955, has been described in many use the word ‘well-being’ and before ways, including the space age, infor- long this concept drew a great deal of mation age, electronic era, global vil- attention from the general population. lage, and super-industrial society.1 The term began to be used widely, such

1 Alvin Tofler, The Third Wave (New York: 2 Young Han Kim & Hee Jung Im, Well-being Morrow, 1980), translated by Je Chun Yu Marketing (Seoul: Dasan Book, 2004), pp. 16- (Seoul: Joo Woo, 1981), pp. 26-7. 17,

Dr Kyu Myeong Whang earned a Doctor of Ministry degree from Westminster Theological Seminary on the theme of Christian counselling in his native country of Korea. He is an experienced pastor and Associate Professor of Counselling, Chongshin University; he was previously Assistant Professor of Practical Theology at Westminster. He is also President, Korean Evangelical Counseling Society and has published several articles on Christian counseling. This paper was delivered at the Third International Conference on Evangelical Theology held in Anyang City, Korea, Sept 30-Oct 1, 2005. Well-being Syndrome in Korea 153 as ‘well-being food’, ‘well-being II. The Concept of ‘Well- clothes’, ‘well-being house’, ‘well- being’ being travel’, well-being resort’, ‘well- In 1948, WHO defined ‘health’ as fol- being cosmetics’, etc. and collectively, lows: ‘Health is a state of complete a ‘well-being lifestyle’. This concept physical, mental and social well-being includes the notions that ‘health is the and not merely the absence of disease number one priority’ and one should or infirmity.’4 Then, what is ‘well- ‘pursue quality of living’. This is a new being’? According to Webster’s dictio- social phenomenon.3 nary, the definition of ‘well-being’ is It seems that well-being has become ‘the state of being happy, healthy, or almost everyone’s goal in life. The cur- prosperous’.5 rent available studies about well-being From a philosophical point of view, mainly relate to consumer marketing, the concept of well-being can be seen as what is ultimately good for a person. or management, and fail to delve Often, the term ‘well-being’ is associ- deeply into the underlying nature of ated with good health. That being said, this well-being movement. Therefore, health, while very important for my it is necessary to study the meaning of well-being, may not be all that matters well-being which is implied in the cul- for my well-being. We use the term, tural aspect of social interaction. As ‘happiness’ to refer to a short-lived Christians, what should we do about state of a person, such as a feeling of this well-being syndrome? Christianity contentment. For example, we say, has existed in relationship with cul- ‘You look happy today.’ When we dis- ture. The gospel was delivered in the cuss, however, what makes life good context of a particular culture and con- for the individual living that life, it is tinues to be delivered in the context of better to use the term, ‘well-being’ many different cultures. It has changed instead of ‘happiness’. old cultures and created new cultures. Well-being is generally about what is good for one’s person. Thus, it is As such, Christians ought to under- often related to ‘self-interest’, which is stand the culture in which they are the interest of myself, and not others. engaged. In this article, concepts and Sometimes, however, this principle theories of well-being will be examined breaks down in light of certain ethical and also a view through biblical coun- theories which challenge this notion selling will be discussed. that one’s self-interest is all that mat- ters. In Aristotle’s view, for example, if a friend’s well-being is closely bound

3 Mee Sook Lee, ‘Looking at Well-being in 4 Hoon Chul Kim, Well-being Marketing terms of Lifestyle: Healthy or Trendy?’, (Seoul: Come On Books, 2004), p. 12. Department of Sociology, PaiChai University, 5 Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary Summer Symposium of Korean Life Science (Springfield: Merriam-Webster, 2004), ‘well- Society, 2004, p. 477. being’. 154 Kyu Myeong Whang up with mine, it is possible for the dis- The argument is that if happiness were tinction between what is good for me the ultimate good, you would want to and what is good for other person to plug into the machine. But if you think break down. In this situation, my friend you should not, then happiness is not could be regarded as ‘another self’, so the ultimate good.8 In response to this that what is good for my friend is also argument, hedonists might insist that good for me. But this notion should be their theory rests on ‘common sense’ taken ‘either as a metaphorical expres- intuition. They will also point out the sion of the dependence claim, or as an ‘paradox of hedonism’, that pleasure is identity claim which does not threaten most effectively pursued indirectly. If a the notion of well-being’.6 person consciously tries to maximize his own pleasure, he cannot immerse himself in those activities, such as III. Theories of Well-being reading or playing games, which actu- ally give him pleasure. Hedonism According to ‘evaluative hedonism’, Desire Theories well-being consists in the greatest bal- On the experience machine, many of ance of pleasure over pain. Well-being your desires are likely to remain unful- means what is good for me, and plea- filled in reality. For example, if you sure seems good to me. If a person has desire to write a great novel, you may more pleasantness in his life, it will be believe that you are writing a great better. If he encounters more painful- novel if you are hooked up to the expe- ness, it will be worse. How can we mea- rience machine, but in fact it is only a sure these two? According to Jeremy hallucination. Your desire is to write a Bentham, the central measurements great novel in fact, not necessarily to are their duration and their intensity.7 have the experience of writing a great One argument against hedonism is novel. The experience machine objec- the ‘experience machine’ objection. tion is one of the reasons for the emer- Suppose there is a machine which gence of desire theories. But the main gives you any experience that you reason for the current dominance of desire. You can plug into the machine desire theories is the emergence of for life, and have pre-programmed welfare economics. Economists see experiences of happiness. But the people’s well-being as consisting in the problem is that after you plug into the satisfaction of preferences or desires. machine, you do not know you are This made possible the ranking of pref- attached to the machine. You think it is erences, and methods for assessing the actually happening but it is not real. value of preference-satisfaction. One of the popular standards is money.

6 Roger Crisp, ‘Well-being’ in Stanford Ency- clopedia of Philosophy; available from 8 Brad Thompson, ‘PHIL 1318: Contempo- http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/well-being/ rary Moral Problems’; available from 7 Crisp, ‘Well-being’. http://faculty.smu.edu/bthompso/lecture6.pdf Well-being Syndrome in Korea 155

Objective List Theories force of any moral reason rests on well- These theories list items constituting being. This view poses a problem for well-being that consist neither merely those who believe that morality can in pleasurable experience nor in desire- require actions which benefit no one, satisfaction, such as knowledge or and harm some, such as punishments. friendship. The list should include The ancient moral philosopher’s cen- everything good. According to the the- tral question was, ‘Which life is best ory of perfectionism, which has influ- for one?’ The rationality of egoism was enced objective list theories, what assumed. But morality is thought to makes things constituents of well- concern the interests of others. One being is their ability to ‘perfect’ human way to defend morality is to claim that nature. But how can we decide what a person’s well-being is in some sense goes on the list? The best we can do is constituted by his virtue or the exer- 11 to deliver a reflective judgement, or cise of virtue. rely on intuition. Because of this, objective theories can be regarded as less satisfactory than the other two IV. Well-being and Korean theories. But those theories also can be Society based on reflective judgement. Objec- The majority of Koreans who pursue tive list theories are the strongest this ideal of well-being are relatively defence available to hedonists who younger than those in the United attempt to undermine the evidential States and Japan—they are usually in weight of our natural beliefs about their 20s and 30s. What they seek is what is good for people.9 more than just a healthy body. They emphasize even more a ‘leisurely Well-being and Morality mind’. They are concerned not only about food and exercise to be healthier. There are views that take the position They are even more concerned about that well-being is all that matters housing and environment so they can morally. One such view is ‘welfarism’. have a leisurely mind. Well-being cul- To explain welfarism, Roger Crisp ture affects not only one’s choice in quotes Joseph Raz’s ‘humanistic prin- eating but also what to do in one’s ciple’: ‘the explanation and justifica- whole life.12 tion of the goodness or badness of any- thing derives ultimately from its con- tribution, actual or possible, to human Industrial Changes Due to Well- life and its quality’.10 If we expand this being Syndrome principle, it becomes welfarism, Young Ho Han categorized a number of according to which the justificatory ‘well-being’ trends or industries in

9 Crisp, ‘Well-being’. 11 Crisp, ‘Well-being’. 10 Joseph Raz, The Morality of Freedom 12 Jae Ho Choi, Public Culture and Biblical (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986), p. 194; World View (Seoul: Ye Young Communication, quoted in Crisp, “Well-being’. 2003), pp. 13-19. 156 Kyu Myeong Whang

Korea. They are the ‘health care indus- try: Larger industries represent the old try’, ‘cosmetic and beauty industry’, industrial era and smaller unions rep- ‘food processing industry’, ‘food distri- resent the new well-being era. In this bution and dining industry’, ‘electron- era, success is not dependent on the ics and electric appliance industry’, size of industry but on the quality it ‘building and housing industry’, and provides. Because of mad cow disease, ‘clothing industry’. fast food industries have greatly suf- Health Care Industry: Health has fered. Thus they tried to overcome this been a great concern of people for a crisis with the ‘well-being fast food’. long time. But it has become an even Recently, well-being hamburgers (fat greater concern as a result of this well- free) appeared at fast food stores. being syndrome. One trend in the well- Electronics and electric appliance being health industry is the increasing industry: As people’s concern about service industry which takes care of well-being increases, companies are health itself rather than just selling promoting ‘well-being electronics and health products. Fitness centres and electric appliances’, using high tech- hospitals have surpassed their tradi- nology. tional roles. California Fitness Center, Building and Housing Industry: As for example, which was introduced in the well-being culture is expanding, 2000, provides expensive machines the demand for pro-environmental and expert trainers so clientele can building materials is increasing. It has seek to build the perfect body. Well become popular to build in apartment Park Hospital in Yang Pyung applies complexes not only a fitness centre but the concepts of rest and leisure as a also rock or wall-climbing courses on part of its health examination process. the outside wall of an apartment build- Cosmetic and Beauty Industry: One ing, making sports and recreation of the trends in this area is the mer- available within a stone’s throw of gence of food and beauty. Beauty one’s place of residence. industries present ‘beauty food’ which Clothing and Textile Industry: Well- has progressed from general health- being consumers are interested in supporting food to special food specifi- clothing not only for their appearance cally addressed to beauty care. but also as good for their health. Food Processing Industry: This Responding to the wishes of mothers industry, along with the food distribu- wanting to raise well-being babies, tion and dining industry, is perhaps one of the most sensitive industries to companies are even making infants’ the well-being trend. This is more clothing using materials from organic farms where chemicals are not used in directly related to health than any 13 other area. It is no longer true that cultivating plants. inexpensive and tasty food is the best. Some cheap food, while tasty, can be toxic. In this era, people are paying 13 Young Ho Han, ‘The Concept of Well- more attention to what they are eating being Trend and the Analysis of Consumer than any other time. Trend, in the Current Society’ (M A Thesis: Food Distribution and Dining Indus- Chung Ang University, 2004), pp. 12-27. Well-being Syndrome in Korea 157

Social Influence of Well-being harming their health to buy well-being Syndrome health products. Well-being now cre- The popularization of the concept of ates social disharmony between well-being through mass media has classes and commercialism, thereby helped to cause a fast expansion of the distorting the good intention of the social recognition about health and original meaning. quality of life. Mass media actively functions as a research tool because it Che Myun Culture and Well- offers various items of information, being and thus it has a positive function. Korean people are accustomed to che- However, on the negative side, mass myun culture. ‘Che’ means body and media has produced a term, the ‘well- ‘myun’ means face. Chemyun means being tribe’, which means ‘rich people’ honour, dignity or reputation. If you and the commercialism behind ‘well- lose face, you can say you lose your che- being’ causes people to spend money myun. You must show people some dig- extravagantly. The hot wind of well- nity to save face. This is important being positively brought improvement because you don’t want to be ashamed; of health and quality of life, but nega- you want to have self-respect. The tively brought a danger to individuals emphasis is more on other people’s and the society. opinions about you rather than virtue In a sense, well-being is not any- or value in yourself.15 thing new. Even in the past, rich peo- Talking about approval of others, ple pursued a lifestyle that the well- Kyu Tae Lee explained, ‘Because of being followers aspire to nowadays, chemyun, sometimes you have to but lower class and lower middle class refrain from eating when you are starv- people could not do the same. As indus- ing, and you have to eat even when trial development took place, the your stomach is full. Sometimes, you incomes of people increased and the cannot put on more clothes even when well-being kind of lifestyle became you are freezing, and you cannot take available to lower class and lower mid- off your clothes when you are sweat- dle class. Therefore, well-being is not a ing. Besides, you cannot cry or laugh in totally new lifestyle but a basic human response to those things happening.’16 desire, to ‘eat well and live well’ which In chemyun culture, it is a virtue to is popularized and commercialized.14 refrain from boasting about oneself, The current concept of well-being but people, deep inside, want to be raises a thought in people’s minds: admired and envied. So they try to have ‘What if you don’t have money and you what others recognize and to do what cannot enjoy a healthy life?’ It makes others approve. Such behaviours rep- people who cannot afford it anxious. Some people work day and night,

15 Sang Jin Choi, Korean Psychology (Seoul: Chung Ang University, 2000), p. 174. 14 Hoon Chul Kim, ‘The Concept of Well- 16 Kyu Tae Lee, Korean’s Way of Thinking being Trend’, pp. 20-21. (Vol. 3), (Seoul: Shin Won, 1983), p. 291. 158 Kyu Myeong Whang resent their desire for psychological out the Redeemer’s grace cannot be satisfaction through their superiority saved or restored to the way intended being recognized by others.17 Many by God in his creation. well-being people seem to buy things over their budget to show off and not to The Human problem is the feel cheap. From chemyun culture, the problem of the human heart tendency to conceal one’s desire In the Gospel of Mark, the Pharisees decreased and the tendency to show off criticized Jesus: ‘Why don’t your disci- increased. ples live according to the tradition of the elders instead of eating their food with unclean hands?’(Mk. 7: 5). Jesus V. Well-being and Biblical replied, ‘You have a fine way of setting Counselling aside the commands of God in order to observe your own tradition’ (7: 9). The Principles of Biblical Later, he said to his disciples, ‘Don’t Counselling you see that nothing that enters a man from the outside can make him It is a worthwhile exercise to survey unclean? For it doesn’t go into his some biblical counselling principles so heart but into his stomach and then out that we can understand the biblical of his body’(7:18-19). The human heart approach to the well-being syndrome. is the centre of human behaviour. The purpose of counselling is change. With- The Human being is created in out change of heart, there is no real God’s image change of a person and his life. The existence and life of human beings Usually people blame their prob- is supposed to depend upon God. In the lems on the situations around them. second chapter of Genesis, the Lord But the main reason for the problems is spoke to the first man and guided him their heart responding to those situa- on how to live. Without God’s counsel, tions. What occupies your heart will human beings cannot live a life in the control your behaviour, and who or way proper to the purpose of creation. what you worship will dominate your heart. In Numbers chapter 11, we can The Human being fell and is see an example. When the rabble with corrupted the people of Israel began to crave Human beings used to live according to other food, the Israelites started wail- God’s counsel only. But another coun- ing and said, ‘If only we had meat to sellor came to them and they followed eat!’(Num. 11: 4). This was the begin- the counsel other than the Creator’s ning of a long period of trouble for the (Genesis 3). Disobedience to the Lord Israelites. is the beginning of tragedy. Human beings are totally corrupted, and with- Principles and Methods of counselling come from the Bible Without the Word of God, we can nei- 17 Sang Jin Choi, Korean Psychology, p. 268. ther understand nor change the heart Well-being Syndrome in Korea 159 of a human being. It is said in Hebrews • We never find things in the culture 4:12, ‘For the word of God is living and around us in a neutral context or active, sharper than any double-edged setting.19 sword, it penetrates even to dividing The well-being syndrome, as a cul- soul and spirit, joints and marrow; it ture, has to be seen in relation to God. judges the thoughts and attitudes of Well-being people can be either glorify- the heart.’ The Bible is the main tool ing God or worshipping an idol. for both diagnosis and treatment.18 Self-love in the Pursuit of Well- Biblical Issues about Well-being being Syndrome Taking care of one’s health is not nec- essarily a sin. In Ephesians 5:29, it is said, ‘After all, no one ever hated his Well-being as a Culture around own body, but he feeds and cares for it, Christians just as Christ does the church.’ You Like other people, Christians also live should take good care of your body to in a culture. What should we do about glorify God. However, if you do that for the culture around us? In this world your own glory, not his, you are wor- things are hardly neutral. Christ said, shipping an idol. ‘He who is not with me is against If you are pursuing your own well- me’(Mt. 12:30). For example, language being at the cost of others’ well-being, as individual words and the sounds you are doing it for selfish reason. that they make are neutral, but when it Some might say, ‘What is wrong with is employed, language always conveys loving my self?’ Some people even some kind of meaning and is no longer teach self-love from the Lord’s com- neutral. Paul Tripp suggests that there mandment, ‘Love your neighbor as are certain things we must acknowl- yourself!’ (Mt. 19;19). They say, edge as we think about the institu- ‘Right, to love your neighbour is good, tions, relationships, media, and prod- but to love him as yourself, you must ucts of the culture around us: love yourself first.’ • All things that God created are It seems very logical, but the prob- good. lem is that we love ourselves too much • All things that we encounter have already. I asked people whenever I lec- been put together, or are used, in a ture on this subject if there is anyone way that carries meaning. who loves his neighbour to more than • Everything can be used for good or half of the level to which he loves him- evil. self. So far, no one has answered that • Everything in culture expresses the he does! To love yourself is good, but to perspectives of the creator and/or love yourself so much that you do not user love others is a problem. It is said in the

18 Kyu Myeong Whang, ‘Counseling and Pas- toral Practice’, The Bible and Counseling, Jour- 19 Paul Tripp, Age of Opportunity (Phillips- nal of Biblical Counseling, (Vol. 2, 2002):55- burg: Presbyterian & Reformed, 1997), pp. 62. 144-5. 160 Kyu Myeong Whang first two verses of 2 Timothy: ‘But dependent upon others’ opinion.20 In mark this: There will be terrible times Korea, chemyun culture intensifies this in the last days. People will be lovers of problem. Nevertheless, no matter themselves, lovers of money, boastful, whether it is an eastern or western proud, abusive, disobedient to their context, the human problem is the parents, ungrateful, unholy.’ And a same, that is, the sinful heart. long list of evil things follows in the Fear of man has to do with fear of next four verses. The beginning of that God. We live in a pluralistic culture list is ‘lovers of themselves’. which says, ‘You do your thing and I do I heard about a Christian lady who mine.’ Even in regard to God, people keeps bottles of supplementary health say, ‘You have your version of God, and food on the table in her house, making I have my version of God.’ Thus, to say it look like a pharmacy. Whenever she that your version of God is to takes out something from the refriger- anyone else’s is an immoral act in this ator for her guests, she explains that it culture. When they talk about God, is an organic food, or a well-being so many people use the expression, ‘God and so. When she eats out with a as we understand him’. Certainly, this group, the group has to take a long is not the God in the Scriptures, where drive to eat what she wants. After they we read, ‘For what I received I passed eat, they have to go to a place where on to you as of first importance: that herb tea can be served. If anyone takes Christ died for our sins according to the coffee, she puts some bamboo salt in it, Scriptures, that he was buried, that he without asking the person, to get rid of was raised on the third day according caffeine. You can say she is obsessed to the Scriptures’ (1 Cor. 15:3-4). As by well-being. It may be true, but what fear of God is eroded, the fear of man is is really dominating her heart is ‘self- intensified in the heart of human love’ behind the well-being. being.21 A question has to be raised for well-being people, ‘Which is your Fear of Man in Relation with biggest concern—what people think Well-being Syndrome about you, or what God thinks about Some well-being people spend so much you?” money that they get into financial diffi- culties. They do this not only for their good health but also for what other IV. Conclusion people would think of them. That is In 20th century, capitalistic society fear of man. has changed from a labour-production Modern people are very much con- oriented life style to the leisure-con- cerned about self-esteem. Most of the sumption oriented life style. As a self-esteem books say that the two best ways to raise your self-esteem are: first, achieve some successes which 20 Edward Welch, When People Are Big and are then compared to what others do. God Is Small (Phillipsburg: Presbyterian and Second, surround yourself with people Reformed, 1997), p. 74. who affirm you. As a result, you will be 21 Welch, When People Are Big, pp. 78-9. Well-being Syndrome in Korea 161 result, the well-being syndrome tle Paul said to Timothy, ‘Have nothing appeared in the beginning of 21st cen- to do with godless myths and old tury. The meaning of well-being is to wive’s tales; rather, train yourself to be pursue better life and enjoy it. godly. For physical training is of some As we face the culture around us, value, but godliness has value for all we must be equipped with a Christian things, holding promise for both the world view which includes a Christian present life and the life to come’ (1 perspective on the world, and the con- Tim. 4:7-8). tent of what Christians understand Well-being people seek not only about the world. Therefore, a funda- physical health but also quality of life mental issue here is how a Christian and peace of mind. But how can you get exists and what he thinks.22 them? To plug into the machine to get What then is well-being for Chris- pre-programmed experiences of happi- tians? Health is important and peace of ness will not work. Welfarism tries to mind is more important. But the most make sense of life in dependence on important thing of all is ‘spiritual well- human virtue, but it is not dependable being’ in relation with God, because because the human being is totally cor- the human being is a spiritual being rupted. What then is the solution? The created by God. That is why the apos- Bible answers, ‘Since, then, you have been raised with Christ, set your hearts on things above, where Christ is seated at the right hand of God. Set your 22 Seung Goo Lee, What is Christian World minds on things above, not on earthly View? (Seoul: SFC, 2003), p. 16. things’ (Col. 3:1-2).

NEW FROM PATERNOSTER Zion Symbolism in Hebrews Hebrews 12:18-24 as a Hermeneutical Key to the Epistle Kiwoong Son This book challenges the general tendency of understanding the Epistle to the Hebrews against a Hellenistic background and suggests that the Epistle should be understood in the light of the Jewish apocalyptic tradition. The author especially argues for the importance of the theological symbolism of Sinai and Zion (Heb. 12:18-24) as it provides the Epistle’s theological background as well as the rhetorical basis of the superiority motif of Jesus throughout the Epistle. Kiwoong Son completed his doctorate at London School of Theology and served as a chaplain to Korean and Asian students at Royal Holloway College, University of London, UK, before returning to South Korea.

ISBN: 1-84227-368-X / 229 x 152 mm / 266pp / £19.99

Paternoster, 9 Holdom Avenue, Bletchley, Milton Keynes MK1 1QR, UK ERT (2006) 30:2, 162-168 Is Christianity a Korean Religion? One Hundred Years of Protestant Churches in Korea

Heung Soo Kim

KEYWORDS: Buddhism, Christianity has become Korea’s sec- Confucianism, Shamanism, Minjung, ond largest religion after Buddhism. Missions, Self-movement, colonializa- Recent statistics show that member- tion, Independence movement, indige- ship in Protestant churches is nearly nization, church growth ten million out of 47 million South Koreans. Certainly, Christianity in Korea is not only highly visible, but THREE RELIGIONS have played major also dynamic in mission activities as roles in moulding Korean culture. Bud- well as in the political life of the Korean dhism and Confucianism have power- people. Even if the influence of Chris- fully worked to produce Buddhist or tianity is apparent everywhere in Confucian states for more than one Korea today, it does not necessarily thousand five hundred years. Shaman- mean that Christianity is a religion ism failed to produce a certain form of which is characteristic of Korea. This state although it has dominated paper traces Korean Protestant church Korean people’s lives for more than history in order to answer whether two thousand years. Korean Protes- Christianity in Korea is a Koreanized tantism has existed in the midst of religion. such a religious situation for more than 100 years. Apparently the historical process of incarnating the gospel in Protestant Beginnings Korean society has been a rough road. With the opening of the nation to for- Nevertheless, Christianity has eign interests, foreign missionaries enjoyed unique success in Korea. Since have poured into Korea since 1884. the introduction of Roman Catholicism The first Protestant missionaries to in 1784 and Protestantism in 1884, begin evangelizing efforts in Korea

Dr. Heung Soo Kim (PhD., Seoul National University) is Dean of the College of Theology and Professor of Korean Church History at Mokwon University College of Theology, Daejon, Korea. Dr Kim holds advanced degrees from Boston University, and is currently President of Society for Korean Church History. Dr. Kim’s academic interests and publications range from studies on Korean church history to the relations between church and state. This article is re-printed with permission from Asia-Pacific Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies Vol 1, no. 1 (February 2004), pp. 108-115. Is Christianity a Korean Religion? 163 came from Presbyterian and Methodist the following principles for missionary churches in the United States. Later work: (1) emphasis on spreading the the Church of England (1890), Aus- faith by individual Christians, not pro- tralian Presbyterians (1889), Canadian fessional evangelists; (2) emphasis on Presbyterians (1898), and the Russian self-government; and (3) emphasis on Orthodox (1898) arrived in Korea self-support. Added to these principles before the turn of the century. It is due of promoting indigenous evangelistic to the early mission activities of the work on the part of the Korean church Presbyterian and Methodist churches was the focus on women and the work- that the majority of churches existing ing class. in Korea today are Presbyterian and Although American missionaries in Methodist. Korea stressed these ‘self’ elements in By the time the first western mis- missionary work, they were not neces- sionaries came to Korea, it had become sarily taken as diagnostic of an indige- axiomatic that a church that was ‘self- nous movement. In the earlier stages governing, self-supporting, and self- of evangelistic work, American mis- propagating’ was, by definition, an sionaries launched a spiritual crusade ‘indigenous church’. Such an indige- against Korean traditional religions nous church was the goal of Christian which continued for several decades.2 missions. This missionary thinking Arthur Judson Brown, the executive was made clear in the Edinburgh World secretary of the Board of Foreign Mis- Missionary Conference of 1910 in sions of the Presbyterian Church, which the leading purpose of the mis- U.S.A. from 1895 to 1929, reported sionary enterprise was to bring into that American missionaries also being self-governing, self-supporting and self-propagating churches in every imposed on Korean churches an Amer- region.1 ican brand of religious fundamental- The model of indigenous church ism. The typical missionary of the first was also the goal of early missionaries quarter century after the opening of who worked in Korea. As early as the Korea ‘was strongly conservative in 1890s, missionaries, especially Pres- theology and biblical criticism, and he byterians, established a set of mission held as a vital truth the pre-millenarian principles called the Nevius Method. view of the second coming of Christ. The method was named after John L. Higher criticism and liberal theology Nevius, a missionary to China who vis- ited Korea in 1890. Nevius established

2 Sung-Deuk Oak, ‘The Indigenization of Christianity in Korea: North American Mis- 1 William A. Smalley, ‘Cultural Implications sionaries’ Attitudes Towards Korean Reli- of an Indigenous Church,’ in Perspectives on the gions, 1884-1910’ (Th.D. diss., Boston Uni- World Christian Movement. A Reader, ed. Ralph versity School of Theology. 2002), p. 472. Of D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne course, the crusade against Korean religions (Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library, 1981), is not the whole story. Some of the missionar- p. 494; Dictionary of the Ecumenical Movement ies viewed Korean religious history as a part (Geneva: WCC Publications, 1991), p. 325. of the divine salvation history. 164 Heung Soo Kim were deemed dangerous heresies.’3 ese movements. Finally they were suc- At the early stage of Protestant his- cessful in de-politicizing the Korean tory in Korea, theology stressed heav- churches through the emotion-laden ily the exclusiveness rather than the revival meetings of the early 1900s. inclusiveness of the gospel, especially The revival meetings were designed to among Presbyterian churches. This be a search for purely religious experi- type of theology, however, appeared to ences, an attempt to spiritualize the be comparatively indifferent to the Christian message and, thus to de- social and cultural applications of the nationalize Korean Christianity. gospel. Accordingly, the breach Many Korean Christians, however, between the traditional religious cul- participated in anti-Japanese strug- ture and the Christian gospel was more gles, and were arrested and tortured. emphasized than the possibility of find- On March 1, 1919, a nationwide inde- ing some point of contact between pendence movement was formed them. Although there were exceptional against the Japanese colonial govern- missionaries and institutions, broadly ment. The movement was organized by speaking, the general type of Korean Korean laypersons and pastors, Christianity during the early period together with Chondogyo followers, a was individualistic rather than social. new religion growing across the This shows that American Protes- Korean peninsula in the late nine- tantism in its first Korean incarnation teenth century. Sixteen of the thirty- was apolitical, individual, and exclu- three signatories of the ‘Declaration of sive. From the earliest days to the pre- Independence’ were Christian leaders. sent this type of American Protes- Christian groups organized 25-38% of tantism has formed the main currents the rallies and demonstrations across of Korean theology. the country.4 At that time Christians composed only 1.5% of the population of Korea. The Independence Movement Historical Background of of 1919 was the culmination of the Korean Theology political application of the Christian Around the time that Christianity was message. In this regard, Protestantism being introduced into Korea, the coun- in Korea can be explained in some mea- try was in danger of being invaded by sure by the association of Christianity Japan. Japanese colonizers were dis- with a sense of Korean nationalism. trustful of the church from the outset Following the Independence Move- because nationalist sentiments were ment of 1919 and its subsequent fail- strong in Christian circles. Missionar- ure, Christians lost their leading roles ies counselled moderation and sought in anti-Japanese struggles, so to avoid involvement in the anti-Japan-

4 Lee Man Yol, Hankuk Kidokkyowa Min- 3 Arthur Judson Brown, The Mastery of the Far zokyiesik (Korean Christianity and National East (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, Consciousness) (Seoul: Zisiksanupsa, 1991), 1919), p. 540. pp. 349-350. Is Christianity a Korean Religion? 165 churches had to face a series of inter- sizes the pastoral theology of church nal and external crises. Internally, growth. young people and other politically While the majority of Christians aspiring groups left the church, as have remained in the fold of churches church leaders were becoming more with little concern for society, Chris- and more apolitical and religiously con- tianity in Korea has been identified servative, although there were minor- with nationalism and democratic ity followers of Christian socialism and development. A new page of political social gospel within the church. The resistance and engagement began unusual phenomenon of mysticism when the Rhee Syngman regime was swept Christian circles during the late overthrown in 1960, following a cor- 1920s and 1930s. Externally, after rupt election. Park Chung Hee took 1935, the church faced a serious prob- control of South Korea through mili- lem with the demand by Japan for it to tary rule, which began in 1961. Park, embrace Shintoism. however, did not alienate Korean Since gaining independence from Christians. Opposition developed when Japan in 1945, churches have again the oppressive military dictatorship suffered, this time because of the silenced nearly all of its political oppo- Korean War in 1950-1953. The Korean sition, using national security as a pre- War was one of the most disastrous text to limit the freedom of Park’s crit- events in Korea during the twentieth ics, many of whom were in the church. century. Koreans went through what Much of the opposition of the church social psychologists describe as a ‘dis- to Park turned on human rights issues aster syndrome’ as a result of the war and development ideology, which cre- and widespread destruction and loss of ated a wide gap between the rich and life. Having suffered as much as they the poor. The church, particularly its did, many Koreans came to count on dissident wing, maintained its active the Christian faith to save them from opposition to Park and his successors. any disaster, and churches gave them Park was assassinated in 1979. The messages of comfort and material Korean Christian Declaration of 1973 blessing. Many hundreds of thousands and the Theological Statement of took refuge in the churches that gave Korean Christians of 1974 were repre- the message of comfort. These groups sentatives of the church’s dissenting continued the utilitarian tradition of movement. The dissident community Korean shamanism, a religious phe- in the 1980s was linked with the nomenon that developed in the cultural church leadership and often used and psychological milieu of post-war church facilities. Thus, this minority Korea. The Full Gospel Church in community of Christians believed in a Seoul, the largest congregation in the Christian duty to struggle for economic world, represents this type of Chris- and social justice, and was involved in tianity. Its founding pastor, Paul politics. The struggle produced a new Yonggi Cho, imparts a message that Korean-style theology called Minjung stresses God’s material blessing and theology. health in the present life. The church is Liberation, the taste of indepen- aggressive in its mission and empha- dence, and the Korean War provided 166 Heung Soo Kim

Korean theologians with the opportu- western theological authors into the nity to reflect in a new way on Korean Korean language. In the 1960s a move- society. Some theologians debated ment to seek an understanding of the Korea’s distinctive cultural character- gospel more in terms of the Korean sit- istics, and this became even more evi- uation and less in terms of the western dent in the early 1960s.5 In particular, tradition was born. Methodist theolo- they have been wrestling with the gians were pioneers in the formation of question of how to approach the study indigenization theology, especially in of theology in the predominantly non- the studies of Korean Confucianism Christian culture of Korea. This ques- and Korean Shamanism. They were tion developed into an indigenization of concerned about how the seed of the theology, which encouraged theolo- gospel can become implanted and grow gians to study their own traditional in the cultural soil of Korea. Professor religions such as Confucianism, Bud- Pyun Sun Whan, for instance, is well- dhism, and Shamanism. known for his insistence on a Christ- ian-Buddhist dialogue and religious pluralism. This led to accusations of Theological Trends in heresy by a number of leading Contemporary Korea Methodist evangelists in 1982, and Current theological endeavour in resulted in the Whan’s expulsion from Korea may be divided into two streams, the Methodist church in 1993. namely, one following the traditions of Indigenization theology is an attempt to Koreanize Christianity, western theology, and the other thereby making it relevant to the cul- attempting to develop a Korean theol- tural environment of the country. The ogy. The latter is subdivided into indi- development, however, of indigenized genization theology, Minjung theology, theology appears dangerous to conser- and pastoral theology of church vative theologians. They warn against growth. the introduction of liberal theology, which, according to their logic, Indigenization Theology requires Christianity to adjust to situa- As noted, there was no indigenous tions, histories and local cultures. development of Korean theology in the They contend that dialogue with other pre-war period. Even in the post-war religions and learning about other reli- period, theological liberals of gions is important only in so far as Methodist and Presbyterian seminar- proselytizing and conversion may fol- ies were busy introducing western the- low. ologies and translating the writings of Minjung Theology While the indigenization of theology mainly concerns Korean culture, Min- 5 Ryu Tong Shik, ‘Rough Road to Theological Maturity,’ in Asian Voices in Christian Theol- jung theology grew out of the socio- ogy, ed. Gerald H. Anderson (Maryknoll, NY: political situation of Korean society in Orbis Books, 1976), p. 171. the middle of 1970s. Minjung is a Is Christianity a Korean Religion? 167

Korean word for ‘people’ or ‘mass,’ but ety. This tendency on the part of Chris- it refers specifically to the oppressed, tians to expect comfort rather than jus- to the poor, or to the marginalized. It is tice is encouraged by the shamanistic a theological response to the oppres- orientation of Korean Christianity as sors, and a response of the minjung to well as Robert Schuller’s notion of the Korean church and its mission. ‘positive thinking’. Missiologically While minjung theology as a Korea- speaking, the expansion of the Christ- made theology is a minority movement ian population in the country is rooted even among contemporary intellectu- in Donald A. McGavran’s pragmatism als, it has exercised a far-reaching of the church-growth school associated effect upon Korean Christianity. with Fuller Theological Seminary in Minjung theology holds that the his- Pasadena, California, USA. tory of the Korean people is a history of It should be noted that in the early oppression and frustration, which has 1970s the number of Protestants given rise to a unique mind-set called across the nation was about two mil- han, a pent-up anger mixed with the lion, but by the early 1980s the number suffering and hopelessness of the had risen to nearly ten million. The oppressed minjung. Minjung theolo- stress on positive thinking and ‘this- gians read and interpret the Bible, worldly blessing’ is an important addi- church history, and Korean history out tion to the previous character of con- of the experiences of suffering and han, servatism. Thus, the new groups and with the eyes of the poor and the promise not only victory in the world to oppressed, thereby finding minjung as come, but also material success in the the subjects of history. Of central here and now. Unlike Minjung theol- importance to Minjung theology is the ogy, no connection is made with the concept of the minjung as the subjects root causes of poverty and alienation in of history and as messiah. In addition the church-growth strategy. The to history, minjung theologians also church-growth school of the Fuller consider Korean culture such as music, Theological Seminary takes on some- drama and masked dances as a source what different meaning in Korea when of power for people’s liberation. Min- this shamanistic orientation is under- jung theologians, however, are less stood. concerned about the religious culture of Korea when compared to the theolo- gians of indigenization. Conclusion Christianity experienced remarkable growth in Korea and has produced Pastoral Theology of Church even a Korean-style theology, namely, Growth Minjung theology. In the eyes of foreign While minjung theologians are advo- observers, Christianity seems to be cating the church’s involvement in now a Korean people’s religion and no social change, minjung of the Korean longer a foreign import. Writing in churches would rather choose a com- 1986, Donald Clark noted, ‘Today’s forting and reassuring message of church is a Koreanized church with Christian religion in this troubled soci- theological and organizational under- 168 Heung Soo Kim tones that echo Korean traditions.’6 Korean people both as a national These traditions, of course, are church and as a minjung church, and Shamanism and Confucianism. Min that it has been reshaped in the image Kyung Bae, a well-known Korean of Korean Shamanism. Christianity in church historian, in Hankuk Kidokoe- Korea has produced a theology, i.e., hoesa (Korean Church History) Minjung theology, on its own terms. describes the Korean church as an Although Christianity is now a example of a national church in a sense Korean religion in a number of ways, that it was dynamic in the political the question remains as to what degree struggle of the independence move- it has formed and developed the per- ment from Japanese colonial rule. sonality of the Korean people. Ryu This essay pointed out that the his- Tong Shik, for instance, claims that the religions that formed the personality of tory of the Korean church is the history the present-day Koreans are Shaman- of living together with the oppressed ism and Confucianism. Ryu’s view rep- Korean people. Thus Min emphasizes resents the theologians of indigeniza- the national identity of the church as a tion. This writer argues that Christian- Korean religion. Yong-Bock Kim ity is a Korean religion, but it remains argues that the Korean church is a min- foreign to the Korean people because of jung church and can be rightly under- its alien creed and its exclusive atti- stood from the perspective of minjung. tude towards Korean culture. Thus, He stressed that the Christian ‘mes- the majority of the Korean churches sage as received by the people was his- are concerned mainly with the task of toricized and became the religio-politi- fishing out souls from a non-Christian cal language of an oppressed people’ society. In this case, it does not matter from the beginning of Christianity in whether Christianity is culturally and Korea.7 It cannot be denied that Chris- theologically a Korean religion. This tianity is now a Korean religion, based calls for a continuing debate on the on the fact that it has served the issue.

6 Donald N. Clark, Christianity in Modern 7 Kim, Yong Bock. ‘Messiah and Minjung: Korea (Lanham, MD: University Press of Discerning Messianic Politics over against America, 1986), p. 51. See also David Martin, Political Messiahnism’, in Minjung Theology, Tongues of Fire (Oxford, UK/ Cambridge, MA: ed. Kim Yong Bock (Singapore: CCA Publica- Blackwell, 1990). tions), 1981. ERT (2006) 30:2, 169-183 Completing the circle The Resurrection according to John

Derek Tidball

KEYWORDS: Creation, life, light, mis- more than unsubstantiated assertion, sion, rejection, fathers, Word, flesh, wishful thinking of cosmic proportions Spirit, belief, sight, reunite, baptism, on the part of John. The resurrection seeking, finding, turning provides the vital proof that the claims were not empty. ‘Until’, as George Beasley-Murray wrote some years ago, 1 THE ‘CLOSE FIT’ between the Prologue a person ‘is reasonably sure of the of John’s Gospel and his account of the veracity of these events it is useless to in chapter 20 has build a theology on them, let alone often been observed in recent years. stake one’s life on them.’ 3 That is why, The reverberations between the two as Wright has written much more sound so clearly that at least one recently, ‘it matters for John that scholar takes it as proof that the chap- Easter actually happened’.4 Without ters were composed with each other in chapter 20, John’s Gospel would be mind, obviating the need to argue that like an unfinished symphony whose the Prologue was a late addition to the music was left suspended mid-score, Gospel from another source.2 With waiting for the final closing chords.5 John 20, the Gospel comes full circle, With John 20 the Gospel is brought to and necessarily so. completion. The hope of the earliest Without John 20, the magnificent chapter is fulfilled, the cosmic claims claims of John 1 would be just that — claims: but they may in fact be nothing

3 G. R. Beasley-Murray, Christ is Alive! (Lon- don and Redhill: Lutterworth, 1947), p. 24. 1 N. T. Wright, The New Testament and the 4 N. T. Wright, The Resurrection of the Son of People of God (London: SPCK, 1992), p. 417. God (London: SPCK, 2003), p. 668. 2 Wright, The New Testament and the People of 5 Wright, Resurrection, p.668, uses the God, p. 417. metaphor to make a somewhat different point.

Dr Derek Tidball, PhD (Keele), is Principal and Senior Lecturer in Sociology of Religion at London School of Theology (formerly London Bible College), with special interests in preaching and postmodernity. He served for twenty years as a Baptist pastor, and also as head of the Mission Department for the Baptist Union of Great Britain. He is widely experienced in interdenominational work and as a convention speaker and lecturer at seminaries worldwide. He is the author of numerous articles and books including Introduction to the Sociology of the New Testament and Skilful Shepherds: Explorations in Pastoral Theology. His latest books are The Message of the Cross and The Message of Leviticus (IVP’s Bible Speaks Today Series) He is editor of the Bible Themes Series of BST. 170 Derek Tidball of the Word are found to be rooted in to issues that John has introduced in human reality, resurrected human the Prologue.8 reality. God provides convincing evi- Beverley Gaventa assumes the rela- dence that he is able to deliver on the tionship, rather than proving it, as she claims. This is not simply superb liter- explores the ending of John’s Gospel. ary artistry but historical and theolog- In a scintillating article on ‘the archive ical necessity. of excess’, she asks why John appears ‘to reach a conclusion twice’. Since John 20, especially verses 30-31, The context of the discussion makes a perfectly good ending, why C. K. Barrett commented that chapter was John 21 necessary? Dissenting 20 ‘is permeated with theological from those who think that John 21 was themes of a Johannine kind: seeing and a later addition, she concludes that it is believing, and the ascent of Jesus to the best to understand them as ‘two sepa- Father’.6 But he did not explore the rate endings, relatively independent of suggestion further, except to conclude one another, each of which brings the that this undermined our ability to Gospel to a kind of closure’.9 They par- assess the historical value of the chap- allel each other in a number of ways, ter. His concern was to reconcile even though chapter 20 focuses on the John’s account of the resurrection with resurrected Jesus and chapter 21 on 10 that of the Synoptics. the disciples. It is only with the advent of literary But the real difference between criticism, particularly narrative criti- them lies in their approach. The former cism, in more recent times that the chapter brings the Gospel to an end by issue has been more fully explored. In using the circular technique that is this respect the work of R. Alan commonly employed in novels. It picks Culpepper in his Anatomy of the Fourth up from the opening and ties up the Gospel is seminal.7 Culpepper’s initial loose ends. ‘The first ending takes readers back to the Gospel’s Prologue, publication did not pick up the fit completing the circle begun there by between the beginning and ending of John’s Gospel but a subsequent work did, pointing out the importance of Thomas’ confession of faith and the 8 R. Alan Culpepper, The Gospel and Letters of recognition scenes as the complement John (Nashville: Abingdon, 1998), p. 85 and p. 243. 9 Beverley Roberts Gaventa, ‘The Archive of Excess: John 21 and the Problem of Narrative Closure’, Exploring the Gospel of John: in hon- 6 C. K. Barrett, The Gospel According to John our of D Moody Smith, R. A. Culpepper & C. (London: SPCK, 1955), p. 466. Clifton Black (eds.) (Louisville: Westminster, 7 R. Alan Culpepper, Anatomy of the Fourth John Knox Press, 1996), p. 246. In arguing for Gospel: A Study in Literary Design (Philadel- the independent validity of both endings, phia: Fortress Press, 1983). For a critique of Gaventa differs from many (e.g., Wright, his position see, D. A. Carson, The Gospel NTPG, p. 417) who argue that chapter 20 was According to John (London & Grand Rapids: the original ending of the Gospel. IVP & Eerdmans, 1991), pp. 63-68. 10 Gaventa, ‘The Archive of Excess’, p. 248. Completing the Circle: The Resurrection according to John 171 the appearance of the . Here the Tom Wright also asserts, ‘The orig- ascent of Jesus to the Father (20:17) inal ending of the book (chapter 20) completes the action begun in 1:10 as picks up the Prologue at point after the Logos comes into the world, and point…’14 but then, only cursorily lists especially in 1:14 as the Logos a few examples by way of illustration, becomes flesh.’11 She helpfully points even though they are of more major out a number of other connections import than those referred to by Stibbe. between the Prologue and John 20 but In spite of these evocative sugges- not in an exhaustive ways since her tions, it seems that no thorough, sys- real interest lies elsewhere and her tematic treatment of the way in which centre of attention is chapter 21. the chapters resonate with each other Mark Stibbe, in his application of has been attempted. The issue has all narrative criticism to John, is one of but been ignored by the standard com- those who argues that John 20 is ‘the mentaries whose concerns usually lie original conclusion because it forms elsewhere, probably because most of such an obvious inclusio with John 1’.12 them pre-date current literary He supports his contention by refer- approaches. They are usually more ence to five thematic and linguistic par- concerned to debate the historical allels, which takes him beyond the con- validity of John’s resurrection narra- nection between John 20 and the Pro- tives, or to discuss their literary logue proper, into the rest of John 1. authenticity, or to attempt to reconcile They vary, it seems to me, in the them with the synoptic accounts of the weight that should be given to them. resurrection. But little or no attention Passing over some of the more major is given to examining in depth the echoes of John 1, he points to Jesus internal textual relationship between standing among his disciples (1:26; the Prologue in particular or the com- 20:19, 26); the passing of days (1:29, plete first chapter in general and John 35 and 43; 20:1, 19, 26); ‘turning 20. The absence of this is surprising, in around’ (1:38; 20:14, 16) and the ques- view of the way in which the John 1 can tion, ‘Who are you seeking?’ (1:38; illuminate the meaning of the resurrec- 20:15). While the repetition of single tion, buttress its historical necessity words might be important in John’s and bring John’s theological portrait of Gospel, since it is so carefully crafted, Christ to a fitting climax. it is the highlighting of major themes In seeking to set out the reflections which might be more interesting and in of John 1 in John 20 two cautions must that regard he picks up only one mat- be born in mind. First, as Gaventa com- ter of first rank Johannine significance, ments, ‘some elements of chapter 20 namely the theme of the Holy Spirit do not fit neatly within the circular (1:29-34; 20:22).13 movement…’ and they must not be forced into doing so. John 20 has valid- 11 Gaventa, ‘The Archive of Excess’, p. 246. ity in its own right, not just in relation 12 Mark Stibbe, John, Readings: A New Bibli- cal Commentary (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1993), p. 198-9. 14 Wright, The New Testament and the People 13 Stibbe, John, p. 199. of God, p. 417. 172 Derek Tidball to John 1. Secondly, we should not his resurrection narrative with Mary think that the connection between the going to the tomb of Jesus ‘early on the beginning and the end of John’s Gospel first day of the week’ (20:1, cp. Matt. means that the middle is unimportant. 28:1; Mk. 16:2 and Lk. 24:1). They The themes, as we shall see, that are refrain from using the phrase that highlighted there are themes that are might have been expected to denote found scattered throughout the the time. ‘On the third day’ is the Gospel. Yet, there is a particular and expression that had been frequently tight complementarity in the way in used in the predictions of Jesus’ suffer- which these chapters are composed ing (Matt. 16:21; 17:23; 20:19; 27:64; and it is true to say that the themes, Lk. 9:22; 13:32; 18:33; 24:21 and 46) traceable throughout the Gospel, ‘find and was subsequently to be used again their eventual destination’ in John 20.15 by the apostles (Acts 10:40; 27:19; 1 Twelve echoes may be readily iden- Cor. 15:4). But when it comes to the tified between John 1 and John 20. The resurrection the Gospel writers speak order in which we shall explore them of ‘the first day of the week’. In John, will be determined by the order in its use is emphasized by its repetition which they are raised in the first chap- in verse 19. ter. Why did John (and the other Gospel writers) choose this particular termi- Creation and re-creation 1:3; nology? D. A. Carson tentatively sug- gests that ‘it may have to do with the 20:1 desire to present the resurrection of John 1 is self-consciously written to Jesus as the beginning of something imitate Genesis 1. Both speak of the new’.16 N. T. Wright is less inhibited. beginning, and of the coming of cre- Jesus, he argues, was condemned on ation into being. In Genesis 1, God is the sixth day of the week, rested in the himself the agent of creation. In John 1, tomb on the seventh and rises early on the Word who was with God and who, the eighth — the first day of the new in reality, was God, is the agent of cre- week.17 This day of the week is the ation. ‘Through him all things were marker of a new beginning. Just as the made. Without him nothing was made first creation began on the first day of that has been made’ (1:3). The first act the week, so Jesus initiates the new in the sequence of God’s creative activ- creation through his conquering death ities was to dispel the darkness and let and coming back to life again on the light shine (Gen. 1:3). In like manner, first day of another week. with the coming of the Word into the This interpretation, Wright justifi- world, the light shone again in the ably maintains, is consistent with darkness (1:5). John’s interest in creation for he is ‘at How is that echoed in John 20? As with all the Gospel writers, John begins

16 Carson, The Gospel according to John, p. 635. 15 Wright, Resurrection, p. 666. 17 Wright, Resurrection, p.667. Completing the Circle: The Resurrection according to John 173 his very heart, a theologian of cre- Life and death 1:4; 20:31 18 ation’. The world is a matter of con- The Word is both life and life-giver. ‘In cern because God is its creator who him’, says the Prologue, ‘was life’ works through the Word to bring life (1:4). He is the very essence of life, the into being and who then sustains it by very origin of life and the very genera- his ongoing activity (5:17). In John, the tion of life. He communicates that life physical constantly points to the spiri- to all humanity. Unlike any other tual, though the material world is not human being, the Word is not a crea- rendered insignificant as a result. It ture and does not derive his life from still matters! Jesus demonstrated a any human parent. The Father has concern for physical health, as in the granted him the privilege of being self- case of the man born blind or the rais- sufficient as far as life is concerned ing of Lazarus, as well as spiritual. It is (5:26). He longs to impart his life to in the arena of time and space that he others. He does so in the sense of pro- reveals his glory. God works in the viding physical existence to all human- realm of creation to secure salvation.19 ity but even more in the sense of So, now the same Word brings res- imparting ‘eternal life’ to those who urrection life into being and opens up a believe in him (5:24). This ‘eternal life’ way for others to follow. (This, of is not to be defined from the viewpoint course, is a theme developed in differ- of time as a life of unending and ever- ent ways both by Rom. 6:12-17 and 1 lasting existence. It is rather a refer- Cor. 15:35-57). Here is the dawning of ence to a quality of life that goes far the new age. The final stage of cre- deeper than mere existence and is lived ation’s story that will climax in the to the full (10:10) in close harmony, recreation of all things is begun. The even intimacy, with God the Father old creation, marred by sin and hence (15:1-11). on its way to corruption, is being Yet, this life is to be experienced replaced by a new creation, made pos- everlastingly. Eternal life includes res- sible as the Lord of Life conquers the urrection life, the life that follows the physical destruction involved in death physical death of those who have faith. and burial and rises, himself, with a dif- Resurrection life entails a new dimen- 20 ferent, yet undeniably physical, incor- sion of physical life, which Wright, ruptible body. It is also all of a piece with the themes of life and light to which further 20 Beasley-Murray, says in Christ is Alive, p. reference will be made. 160, ‘We are therefore to avoid two errors in thinking of the resurrection: that of regarding the new body as mere spirit, in which case the term “body” is purely metaphorical; and that of looking on it as composed of resuscitated par- ticles of flesh. The risen body of the Lord was neither, and his resurrection was the pattern 18 Wright, Resurrection, p.667. of ours. Resurrection is not so much a re-form- 19 See further, Stephen Smalley, John: Evan- ing of matter that once made our body but a gelist and Interpreter (Carlisle: Paternoster, new embodiment of the principle of existence that 1998), p. 237. formerly held in unity the body.’ 174 Derek Tidball aptly capturing the incorruptible the phrase reads rather oddly at this aspect of its nature, has recently point if, as many suppose, the signs termed ‘transphysical’.21 The miracle referred to were done and dusted by of the raising of Lazarus (11:1-46) is a the end of chapter 12. If that were so, pointer in the right direction, though the readers would be required to skip not to be identified with the resurrec- back over eight momentous chapters tion of those who follow in the train of (13-20) as if they were unimportant. Jesus after his resurrection. It illus- The ‘signs’ referred to must surely trates the claim of Jesus to be ‘the res- at least include a reference to the spe- urrection and the life’ (11:25). He is cific ‘sign’ of Jesus’ appearance to the one who conquers death, the Thomas, and probably entail a refer- antithesis of life, which seems regu- ence to the greatest sign of all, that of 22 larly to lurk in the background of the resurrection. The purpose of John’s Gospel. recording these signs, he says, is ‘that The theme of death being overcome you may believe that Jesus is the by the resurrection of Jesus is implicit Christ, the Son of God, and that by throughout John 20. The ‘transphysi- believing you may have life in his name.’ cal’ nature of the resurrected body of The resurrection, then, means not only Jesus is demonstrated in the paradoxi- life for Jesus himself but also a life, of cal way locked doors proved no barrier an eternal, incorruptible and everlast- to his appearing among them (20:19 ing quality, for all who trust in him. and 26)—the ‘trans’ element—, yet he invites Thomas to examine his physical Light and darkness 1:4-5; wounds (20:27)—the ‘physical’ ele- ment. The resurrection hope, as seen 20:1 in Christ, is decidedly not about the The claim of the Prologue was that ‘the survival of the soul but about the res- light shines in the darkness…’ (1:5). urrection of the body to life. Throughout his ministry, Jesus, ‘the The obvious, but largely unstated, light of the world’ (8:12, 9:4), con- theme of death and life receives just stantly fought back the darkness, which is presented as the natural habi- one explicit mention in the chapter, in tat for people whose lives are riddled its final verse, verse 31. John com- with evil (3:19), and set people free to ments that ‘Jesus did many other walk in the light (8:12; 12: 46). But the miraculous signs in the presence of his means by which he defeated the dark- disciples…’ The phrase ‘other signs’ ness is the crucial issue. He did not do may primarily refer to the signs so by the forceful imposition of light recorded in chapters 2-12 (These chap- but by his embracing of the darkness in ters are often referred to as the ‘Book his own person on the cross. of Signs’ because they contain the seven miracles recorded by John). But

22 G. R. Beasley-Murray, John, Word Biblical Commentary (Waco, Texas: Word Books, 21 Wright, Resurrection, pp. 477, 606f. 1987), p. 387. Completing the Circle: The Resurrection according to John 175

Jesus spoke of his own crucifixion in Sending and sent 1:6; 20:21 terms of coming darkness (9:4; 12:35). The merest echo may be caught And John plays powerfully on the between the two chapters in the idea of metaphor in his passion scene. When messengers being sent on a mission. In Judas left the upper room to betray 1:6 John the Baptist is referred to as ‘a Jesus, he notes with dramatic simplic- man who was sent from God’ to bear ity, ‘and it was night’ (13:30). In this witness to the light that had come into regard it is surprising that John does the world. When, after his resurrec- not report the blackening of the sun tion, Jesus breathes on his disciples and the darkness that covered the with the Holy Spirit his action was earth as Christ was crucified. Perhaps prefaced by the remark, ‘As the father to do so would have sat somewhat in has sent me, so I am sending you’ tension with his portrayal of Christ as (20:21). The resurrection led to their in control, going on his road to suffer- 23 commissioning as his agents in the ing as if on a royal progress tour. Per- world. They, now, like John before haps, too, the point has been suffi- them, were to bear witness to the light ciently made in other ways through the that had come into the world and was Gospel. still at work illuminating its darkness. Little is made of darkness and light Not for nothing does N. T. Wright enti- in the resurrection narrative, but tle the chapter on John’s Gospel ‘New brevity of reference must not be Day, New Tasks’, in his recent The Res- thought to indicate it is not significant. urrection of the Son of God. In fact, brevity sometimes makes for The interpretation of the resurrec- greater impact. John’s point is clear tion that is common in many churches and unmistakable. ‘Early on the first emphasizes that in rising from the dead day of the week, while it was still dark, Christ opened a door into heaven for Mary Magdalene went to the tomb and believers to enter into personal eternal saw that the stone had been removed salvation. But a more honest reading of from the entrance’ (20:1). Her going the resurrection accounts, not least in led her to discover the secret of the John, suggests that the resurrection darkness being dispelled. The tomb has not only more to do with a restored was empty. The Lord was risen. Evil creation but also with the new task was defeated. The light, which people given to his disciples on earth than had constantly tried to snuff out, was with their securing places in heaven. irrepressible. It had triumphed once They are now the sent ones. and for all.

Rejection and recognition 1:10-11; 20:8,16 and 28 One of the great mysteries highlighted 23 See Morna D. Hooker, Not Ashamed of the in John’s Prologue is that when the Gospel: New Testament Interpretations of the Death of Christ (Carlisle: Paternoster, 1994), Creator came to make his home among p.109 and Derek Tidball, The Message of the his people they did not recognize him. Cross (Leicester: IVP, 2001), pp. 168-75. Their inability to recognize him is 176 Derek Tidball unexplained, although 1:11-13 hints at him for the gardener (20:14-15). But the reason. He was not recognized when he spoke her name, recognition because he was not received and he occurs. His appearance to Thomas is, was not received because people in this respect, the climax of the rejected his teaching, doubted his Gospel, for when that takes place it claims and rubbished his person. The calls forth from Thomas the unquali- refusal to believe in him was what lay fied confession that Jesus is, ‘My Lord behind the failure to recognize him. and my God’. At last they recognize his One must have some sympathy, true persona. He is both sovereign and however, for those who found it hard to divine, none other than God himself work out who Jesus was, since John among them. The enigma has been presents him as a puzzling, enigmatic resolved. The perplexities, at least to figure, who conducts himself in myste- those who have faith, are past. Here is rious ways and speaks conundrums the true and full identity of the one they that cause even his followers, let alone have lived with and puzzled over. his opponents, to repeatedly misunder- Perhaps, as D. Moody Smith, has stand him. The theme of rejection and pointed out, it was not possible for who recognition weaves its way through the Jesus was (and is) to be known purely Gospel. Some thought they could dis- on the basis of his incarnate life, in miss him because they knew where he spite of the numerous signs which came from (7:27). Others were baffled were present. For that, it was neces- by him but concluded he was blasphe- sary that the resurrection should occur mous and so sought to get rid of him and Jesus should be encountered in his (8:48-58). Still others repeatedly inter- transformed body. Only then would his rogated what they were seeing and full glory be revealed and only then tried to piece together a more positive could believers have a true perception appreciation of who Jesus was and of his real nature.25 Resurrection was even gained some measure of illumina- essential for recognition. tion in doing so (5:37-43; 9:1-41). Not even his disciples made too much sense of him during the period of his Fathers and children, 1:12- earthly ministry (14:5-13). 13; 20:17, 28 The failure to recognize who he is Family imagery permeates the Pro- dominates the Gospel until the resur- logue. First, it is said that those who rection occurs. Then things change. exercise faith in Jesus are given ‘the John 20 is a sequence of recognition right to become children of God’ (1:12), scenes.24 The empty tomb provokes the not in the sense that they are procre- ‘other disciple’ to see (perceive) and ated in the natural way but in the spe- believe (20:8). Mary Magdalene does not at first recognize Jesus, mistaking

25 D. Moody Smith, The Theology of the Gospel of John, New Testament Theology, 24 John 21:1-14 contains a further recogni- (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, tion episode. 1995), p. 167. Completing the Circle: The Resurrection according to John 177 cial sense of being granted the privi- Jesus they saw standing before their lege of membership of the special fam- very eyes was, in truth, the Word. ily of grace. Jesus expands on the The one who was with God and, image both in John 3:6 and 8:41-42. indeed, was God had lived an embodied Here again it is made clear that it is not existence among his people for the natural parenthood or human (racial) past thirty or so years. His disciples lineage that is significant, but the had observed him closely in the flesh rebirth brought about by the operation for two or three years. They had of the Spirit, which manifests itself in a observed his miraculous signs, lis- love for Jesus. The second use of fam- tened to his penetrating, if puzzling, ily imagery in the Prologue draws teaching, wondered at his claims and attention to Jesus’ own unique rela- witnessed his real humanity as they tionship with God as his Father and the learned of his tiredness (4:6) and intimate relationship that he and the observed his emotions (2:12-17; 11:33- Father share. 35) being expressed. They had seen his Both these aspects find an echo in tortured flesh crucified. There was no John 20:17 when Jesus explains to doubt that the Word had genuinely Mary that he has yet to return to ‘my been flesh and died in the flesh. Father and your Father, to my God and But what would happen post-resur- your God’. The words neatly balance rection? Would it all unravel and prove identity and difference. On the one to have been a fantasy after all? Would hand, at last, the fulfilment has arrived the Word cease to be flesh? Would the and those who believe may enter into Word become some ethereal spirit, their status as sons and daughters of removed from true humanity? No. He God, thus sharing in the status of Jesus remains human flesh and carries that himself.26 The resurrection has made it humanity with him into his exalted possible. Yet the careful distinction state at the right hand of the throne of Jesus makes between ‘my’ and ‘your’ God where he advocates the cause of Father means that his unmatched rela- his disciples to his Father (1 Jn. 2:1; tion as a unique son (1:18) is pre- Heb. 1:3; 4:14-15; 7:23-25). It is served. The resurrection finally estab- Thomas’ confession that gives voice to lishes the family of God in its true this in the account of the resurrection. colours. Invited by Jesus to touch his wounds, Thomas apparently remains satisfied with what he sees rather than touches. Word and flesh, 1:14; 20:24- He is convinced this is the real embod- 28 ied Jesus that stands before him, albeit in a body which has some significantly John 1:14 makes the magisterial state- different characteristics from his pre- ment that ‘The word became flesh…’ crucifixion body. And he affirms that John 20:24-28 affirms that the flesh of the embodied person he sees before him is ‘My Lord and my God’ — the Word indeed. 26 Wright, The New Testament and the People N. T. Wright explains the signifi- of God, p. 417. cance of this. ‘The disciples, with 178 Derek Tidball

Thomas (of all people!) as their in spite of what one sees, but because spokesman, have confessed that the of it. For him, seeing is a legitimate “flesh” they had known, and now know step on the way to believing. A faith again in a new way, was also in truth that is rooted in experience is an estab- “the Word” who was one with the lished faith. father.’27 And since John was a theolo- Seeing in and of itself however is gian of the incarnation it was impera- not enough since it may remain on the tive that it should happen this way: level of a purely sensory experience.30 that as Thomas looked at Jesus’ bat- It does not necessarily result in faith. tered body ‘he should be looking at the So Jesus expresses some impatience living god in human form, not simply with those who were merely sensation with the eye of faith… but with ordi- seekers (4:48, 6:26) and John admits nary human sight, which could be freely that merely seeing miracles per- backed up by ordinary human formed does not automatically lead to touch…’28 Anything less would not do. belief (12:37). Nonetheless, sensory It would leave a doubt as to whether perception may lead to a deeper, faith the human Jesus really was the eternal perception, one in which the observer Word. looks beyond the act to its significance, John, then, begins by saying, ‘the especially in terms of the significance Word became flesh’ and ends by say- of the one who performs it. Seeing mir- ing, ‘this flesh is the Word’. acles in this way — so that it calls forth a belief in Jesus as the Son of God — is commendable (14:9-11). Seeing and believing, Given John’s approach, it should not 29 1:14,18; 20:29 be thought that Jesus was rebuking Thomas when he said to him, ‘Because John stakes his opening claims about you have seen me you have believed; Jesus on the basis of what he had blessed are those who have not seen observed with his eyes. It was because and yet believe’ (20:29).31 When he and his fellow disciples had ‘seen Thomas confesses faith because he his glory’ (1:14) that they believed the sees the evidence of the wounded, yet invisible God had become visible in the raised, body of Christ standing before life of Jesus (1:18). The eyewitness his very eyes he is treading a path that nature of his testimony to Jesus is has been consistently opened up ear- repeated and expanded further in the opening words of his First Letter (1:1- 3). Seeing, in John’s theology, does not devalue believing. One does not believe 30 John uses a variety of words for ‘seeing’ that, in a general but not altogether consistent way, indicate different levels of perception. See, R. E. Brown, The Gospel According to John 27 Wright, Resurrection, p. 668. I-XIII, Anchor Bible (New York: Doubleday, 28 Wright, Resurrection, p. 668. 1970), pp. 501-3. 29 On this section see Robert Kysar, John, the 31 Contra R. E. Brown, The Gospel According Maverick Gospel (Philadelphia: Westminster, to John XIII-XXI, Anchor Bible (New York: John Knox Press, 1993), pp. 78-96. Doubleday, 1970), pp. 1045-6. Completing the Circle: The Resurrection according to John 179 lier in the Gospel. He is using his phys- further similarities have been noted ical eyes to provide him with a reason between John 20 and the later verses of to believe that Jesus is Lord and God. John 1. He does not use his physical eyes to tit- illate his curiosity, nor wallow in sen- sationalism, but to lead him to a Reuniting and standing, mature faith perception, the outcome 1:26; 20:19, 26 of which is the worship of the risen Mark Stibbe points out the remarkable Christ. similarity of wording that occurs con- Of course, Jesus points out that cerning Jesus ‘standing among them’. those who have not had the opportu- It would have been sufficient for John nity of encountering the evidence first- to have used a word for ‘appeared’ or hand, as Thomas had, but who come to something similar, whereas he seems the same position of mature faith on deliberately to combine ‘standing’ (his- the basis of what they have heard temi) with ‘in the midst’ (mesos).33 In preached to them are blessed. The 1:26, John the Baptist, referring to the beatitude Jesus pronounces confers on eminence of Jesus, says to his listeners them a special status of happiness in that ‘among you one stands you do not relation to God.32 The primary objective know’. In the account of his resurrec- of the Gospel was to persuade people tion appearances to his disciples the who had not been eyewitnesses to phrase ‘Jesus came and stood among ‘believe that Jesus is the Christ, the them’ is used not once but twice Son of God’ (20:31). But that is not to (20:19, 26). Unlike on the occasion of deny the validity of Thomas’ quest, nor his baptism, however, he is not now his faith. unrecognized. As we have seen, the Once more, the Gospel has come full recognition process reaches its climax circle. The ‘seeing’ of which the open- with the resurrection and his disciples, ing chapter spoke has come to a climax both with their natural eyes and the in the seeing which Thomas experi- eyes of faith, perceive the figure among ences in his encounter with the resur- them to be Jesus the Lord. rected person of Jesus. The claim made The phrasing is not incidental. The at the beginning of the Gospel as to disciples were afraid, with good rea- what the novice disciples saw, is cor- son, that they would also find the hos- roborated by what sceptical Thomas tility that Jesus had experienced saw that night behind the locked doors, directed at them. So they huddled a week after the resurrection. It is a together for protection behind locked seeing which, if there is any integrity, doors. It has often been suggested by leads one down the road to believing. redaction critics that John’s Gospel With this we finish our examination was written to encourage members of of what is strictly the Prologue. But the supposed Johannine community who were experiencing antagonism,

32 20:29 is one of only two ‘beatitudes’ in John’s Gospel. The other is in 13:17. 33 Stibbe, John, p. 199. 180 Derek Tidball even to the extent of expulsion, from in the Holy Spirit that the Messiah the local synagogues because they would administer (1:33). The precise were followers of Jesus. meaning of the phrase, ‘baptism with Jesus himself had prophesied (or in) the Holy Spirit’,34 is much dis- (15:18-25) that his disciples would puted, but none would dissent from indeed experience conflict constantly Leon Morris’ exposition of it as, at in this world. By following him they least, a starting point. were unavoidably drawn into the con- Jesus came that men might be troversy he had provoked. If that were brought into contact with the divine so, it was vital that they should equally Spirit. But baptism is a figure, experience his presence among them. which stresses abundant supply. (The closing words of Matthew’s So John will mean that the Spirit Gospel makes the same point in a dif- leads men into the infinite divine ferent way [28:20].) His presence spiritual resources. This has not would strengthen, sustain and pre- been possible previously, for there serve them in their hours of trial. His is quality of life that Christ and physical absence was to make no dif- none other makes available to men. ference to his ability to keep his This life is a positive gift coming promise. For the comforter he would from the Spirit of God. Baptism send (14:15-3) would stand in his with water had essentially a nega- place. But his bodily presence among tive significance. It is a cleansing them in those fearful days immediately from—. But baptism with the Spirit following the crucifixion and resurrec- is positive. It is a bestowal of new tion was an enacted reassurance that life in God.35 he would continue to be among them If the phrase, ‘baptise with the Holy after the ascension. It signalled that he Spirit’, has proved debateable, the was to be the ever-contemporary one. meaning of the action of the risen Christ in breathing on his disciples and Spirit and baptism 1:26-34; imparting the Holy Spirit to them has proved even more controversial, espe- 20:21-23 cially in its relation to the Day of Pen- At his baptism, which marked the pub- tecost. Was there one coming of the lic start of Jesus’ ministry, the Holy Spirit or two? Was this a prelude to Spirit descended on him to empower him for his work (1:33). At the begin- ning of the post-resurrection ministry of his disciples, the Spirit again 34 The Greek word is en usually, but not descended, this time to empower them inflexibly, translated as ‘in’. Although both for service. The first was the gift of his NRSV and NIV use ‘with’, ‘in’ seems the more Father to the Son. The second was the appropriate preposition to use since the Spirit gift of the Son to his followers. is the medium in which Christ’s disciples were immersed, just as water had been the medium John the Baptist claimed that the in which John’s disciples had been immersed. water baptism he practised would one 35 Leon Morris, The Gospel according to John day be eclipsed by the greater baptism (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1971), pp. 152f. Completing the Circle: The Resurrection according to John 181

Pentecost, is this John’s version of Throughout the Gospel people are Pentecost or is it something different portrayed as searching — searching altogether?36 for answers like Nicodemus, searching To explore this issue is not our con- for love and satisfaction in life like the cern here. We may simply note that the Samaritan woman, searching for heal- Holy Spirit is now being imparted to ing like the royal official and the lame the disciples so that he may fulfil the man at Bethesda, searching for the ministry predicted of him by Jesus bread of life, searching for spirit- (14:15-31; 16:5-16). Again, the circle quenching water, searching for light in is completed by the resurrection. The their darkness, searching for sight in Holy Spirit is in on the action at the their blindness, searching for a shep- beginning and end of the Gospel. He is herd in their lostness. Those who first received by Jesus and finally believed in him found the answers to received by the disciples of Jesus. The the deep needs of their lives through resurrection is going to give way to the him. He alone could supply those exaltation of Christ, making it impera- answers, as his disciples confessed tive that the Spirit of Truth be sent in (6:68). the Father’s name to act as their Coun- John’s wonderfully crafted Gospel sellor. plays ironically on the theme. The Jew- ish authorities are among those who Seeking and finding 1:38; search for Jesus (7:11), not so that he might answer their spiritual quest but 20:15 so that they might dispose of him. The identical phrase, ‘who are you Their actions led to his crucifixion and looking for?’ occurs in John 1:38 and consequently afterwards to his resur- 20:15, although the NIV translates rection and exaltation — the means by them differently with the result that which the eternal life for which people many readers will miss the allusion. In sought would be made available to both cases it is Jesus who asks the them. It was then, when he could no question, first of prospective, enquir- longer be found on the earth, because ing disciples and then of a distraught, he had ascended to his Father (7:33- grief-stricken Mary. In both cases they 36), that his ministry of answering the find more than they might have need of the spiritual seekers would expected when they reply to the ques- become worldwide in its effect. Those tion. The disciples are invited to check who seek, find. Mary is the first after out where Jesus was staying and spend the crucifixion to discover it is so. time with him. Mary discovers not the corpse she had expected but the risen Lord. Turning and being turned 1:38; 20:14 and 16 A further linguistic resonance between 36 For a consideration of the various views see, Max Turner, The Holy Spirit and Spiritual John 1 and John 20 is found in the use Gifts, Then and Now (Carlisle: Paternoster, of the Greek verb strephein for ‘to turn’. 1996), pp. 90-102. In 1:38, Jesus turns round to see the 182 Derek Tidball two disciples who were following him Christ’s continuing presence, the key because they wanted to see where he to the imparting of the Spirit, the testi- was staying. In 20:14 and 16 we read mony that seekers find and an invita- of Mary twice turning, to see Jesus tion to turn to Christ, who has first standing in front of her. Only when she turned to us. Here is a rich and varied turned again (presumably having exposition of the resurrection which turned away from him)37 did she recog- leads us to see in him the glory which nize him. his first disciples saw while he lived The primary issue here for John is among them, and, like them, to believe. undoubtedly that of recognition. But, is Some preachers approach yet it too much to read into John’s use of another Easter with dread; not because strephein more than a mere reference to they do not believe the message but the direction in which people were because they do not know how to looking? Could the double turning of express it in new ways, having Christ towards his fledgling disciples preached it so often. However much we and of Mary towards her risen Lord be believe the resurrection to be a revolu- spiritually significant? In Jesus, God tionary event we all too easily speak of turns to face us in our searching for it with the monotonous voice of pre- him. He does not turn away from us but dictability. Quite apart from capturing towards us in grace. Even so, a full and the resurrection on the wider canvas of steady turning on our part, away from the New Testament, John 20 alone the false mindset and spiritual experi- gives us a clue as to how our preaching ences offered by the world, is needed if need not be a repetition of superficial we are to recognize him as the risen claims each year. Each of the themes in Son of God and offer him the devotion the paragraph above calls out for devel- of our lives. opment in its own right. There is so much more to the wonder of the resur- rection than ‘dead man comes back to Conclusion life’. There is so much more to unpack In resonance with John 1, then, the res- than the classic apologetic approach of urrection narrative of John 20, pre- providing persuasive evidence for the empty tomb, and hence the resurrec- sents the resurrection as the beginning tion, important though that is. Firmly of a new creation, the channel of eter- based in historical reality, the nal life, the dawning of irrepressible (trans)physical resurrection of Christ light, the ultimate pointer to recogniz- leads us into a deep and rich under- ing God’s messiah, the confirmation of standing of the way God is at work, the bestowal of sonship, the affirma- restoring his fallen creatures and his tion that the word was indeed made fallen world. flesh, the ultimate basis for a percep- The resurrection is God’s ‘yes’ to tion that leads to belief, the pledge of the claims made about Jesus in John 1. It is God’s ‘yes’ to salvation, to new life, to sins forgiven, to the restoration 37 Barrett, The Gospel According to John, p. of creation itself. It draws from us the 469. same reaction as it did from Thomas. Completing the Circle: The Resurrection according to John 183

When we ‘see’ it with our own eyes, we written from the standpoint of a dis- too want to fall down in worship and in tinctly Christian and postresurrection wonder, we too affirm that Christ is perspective’.38 Certainly all the threads indeed the divine Lord over all powers find their resolution in the report of the and we too are compelled to bow in resurrection appearances. And all the loyal submission to his mastery over initial claims made in the Gospel’s us. majestic opening words find their con- In John’s carefully woven Gospel it firmation there too. may well be true to say, as D. Moody Smith, claims, that ‘the entire Gospel 38 Smith, The Theology of the Gospel of John, is written, and could only have been p. 102.

Christ the Mediator of the Law Calvin's Christological Understanding of the Law as the Rule of Living and Life-Giving Byung-Ho Moon Christ the Mediator of the Law explores the coherence between Christology and soteriology in Calvin’s theology of the law, examining its intellectual origins and his position on the concept and extent of Christ’s mediation of the law. A comparative study between Calvin and contemporary Reformers – Luther, Bucer, Melancthon and Bullinger – and his opponent Michael Servetus points out the unique feature of Calvin’s Christological understanding of the law. Byung-Ho Moon is Lecturer at Chongshin Theological Seminary, South Korea.

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Reviewed by Robert J. Vajko Reviewed by Richard V. Pierard A. Scott Moreau, Gary R. Corwin, and Gary Dorrien Gary B. McGee The Making of American Liberal Theol- Introducing World Missions: Biblical, ogy: Imagining Progressive Religion Historical, and Practical Survey 1805-1900 Reviewed by Dr Brian Edgar Reviewed by Amos Yong Gilbert Meilander David W. Baker Bioethics: a primer for Christians Biblical Faith and Other Religions: An Evangelical Assessment Reviewed by Ziya Meral Betty Jane Bailey and J. Martin Bailey Reviewed by David Parker Who Are the Christians in the Middle Joseph D Small East? Fire and Wind: the Holy Spirit in the Church Today Book Reviews

ERT (2006) 30:2, 184-185 The book is in five major sections: encountering missions in the Bible, in his- Introducing World Missions: tory, as a candidate, as one sent and one Biblical, Historical, and Practical sending, with the final section explaining Survey the interface between missions and the A. Scott Moreau, Gary R. modern world. Corwin, and Gary B. McGee In this reviewer’s opinion Introducing Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, World Missions is the most comprehensive 2004. introduction to world missions in print. It ISBN 0-8010-2648-2. covers the Old and New Testament teach- Hb pp 349 bibliog., index. ing on missions thoroughly for an intro- duction. In their discussion of missions in Reviewed by Robert J. Vajko, The Evangelical Alliance Mission. the Old Testament the authors’ view that Israel should have played a crucial role in The preface to this book reads: missions is presented—a view neverthe- ‘Introducing World Missions is the first in less questioned by some Old Testament a projected series of eight books focusing scholars and missiologists. The treatment on mission from an evangelical perspec- of Paul’s missionary journeys and lessons tive.’ Although written to be used as a drawn from them are succinctly presented textbook it could also be used as a basic in such as way as to give a student a text for teaching missions in the local good historical and missiological church. overview. Book Reviews 185

In part two, their treatment of the history other more important. First of all, of missions covers three major periods of although not intending to be exhaustive, expansion in three chapters and, although it is surprising to see a classic work like necessarily brief, is nevertheless suffi- Planting Churches Cross-Culturally: A Guide cient for an introductory text. The fifth for Home and Foreign Missions. (Second chapter dealing with mission theology Edition; Grand Rapids: Baker, 2000) by will be helpful as an introductory David Hesselgrave as well as Harry R. approach to issues that are debated in Boer’s seminal study Pentecost and missiological circles. The third and fourth Missions (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1961) sections dealing with the call, prepara- omitted from the fairly extensive bibliog- tion, and steps, and issues that need to raphy. Secondly, in the domain of be addressed as a missionary candidate Christology, there is an unfortunate use are presented in an engaging manner. of words in the phrase found on page 81: The fifth section covers cross-cultural ‘The one who relinquished deity to be born communication, mission trends, as a baby in a feeding trough…has estab- Christianity’s relation to other religions, lished forever his priorities for the church and the future of missions. Chapter 14 that he birthed through his life, ministry which is entitled ‘Relating to People of and death’ (emphasis mine). The word Other Cultures’ has an excellent discus- relinquish if understood as meaning ‘to sion of cross-cultural friendships, some- give up’ or ‘leave behind’ would lead to thing often omitted from discussions of the teaching that Christ was not God dur- cross-cultural communication. Chapter 17 ing his earthly existence. dealing with mission trends has a very However, overall this book can be highly balanced approach to the pros and cons recommended to all who want a thorough of short-term missions. Also in this chap- and biblical approach to missions from a ter there is a presentation of the two number of perspectives. This book being views as to whether a Christian can be so good bodes well for the whole series. demon-possessed or not. I taught an introductory course to mis- sions in a Bible College for seven years. If ERT (2006) 30:2, 185-186 I were to teach the subject again, this is the text I would use for my students. The Bioethics: a primer for Christians sidebars with additional helps as well as Gilbert Meilander the case studies dealing with issues faced Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2005 (2nd in missionary ministry are particularly edition) helpful. As a part of the purchase price ISBN 0-8028-2909-0 this volume includes a CD of The Pb pp 126 Index Evangelical Dictionary of World Missions Reviewed by Brian Edgar, Director of edited by A. Scott Moreau (Grand Rapids: , Australian Evangelical Baker, 2000). Additional material (includ- Alliance ing power point presentations) is also available to teachers who adopt this tome The rapid growth in biotechnology and as their text, thus increasing the value of the ever increasing complexity of the this text. issues make it easy to forget just how Finally there are perhaps two concerns new the field of bioethics really is. In that could be noted—one minor and the 1996 Gilbert Meilander wrote Bioethics: a 186 Book Reviews primer for Christians and there is no sur- tal screening, suicide and euthanasia, the prise that a new and revised edition is refusal of treatment, decision-making now needed. Yet despite the changing processes, organ donation, human experi- times the book stands up well. The funda- mentation, embryo research and sickness mental principles remain but Meilander and health. Some of his major concerns has taken the opportunity to make the relate to the commodification of health data more current and in some places— care; the shift in the motive for using med- though not many—he has chosen to ical technology from treating disease to change his views. For example, the notion treating desires; the moral meaning of bio- that an embryo’s individual humanity logical bonds (interesting but not fully might begin only at fourteen days—after convincing for me as a parent of an adopt- the possibility of twinning has been elimi- ed child); the problem of self-deception in nated—has been discarded in favour of a the use of technology; the level at which stronger recognition of the status of the technological activism becomes idolatry earlier embryo. This is on the basis that it and the problems of utilitarianism. He can now be shown that it is not a feature- advocates developing the courage to less mass of cells but an integrated self- decline to use medical technologies if they developing organism with, for example, become substitutes for trust in God or if an axis determining the formation of head they commodify persons or relationships. and feet. His views challenge technocratic and con- Meilander’s book is for Christians and it sumerist points of view. Some might view operates on a distinctly theological foun- it as unrealistic for the world of today but dation. It thus challenges a number of it must be remembered that he is not principles commonly assumed to be valid putting forward a legislative program for and introduces others which may appear society as a whole but is issuing a call to strange to some. Even when they are not Christians to consider how they can best completely persuasive, they are stimulat- live before God. The call to a moral life ing and helpful. The first chapter sets out will involve more sacrifices and chal- his understanding of the Christian vision. lenges than can be established by law. He discusses the nature of being individu- Medically speaking, death, sickness and als in community; freedom and finitude; infertility are usually seen as problems to person and body; suffering and disease be overcome. For Meilander the more and healing. Those absorbed in the tech- important issue is to find God through nological possibilities inherent in contem- them and to live a life that is honouring porary biotechnology may find the devel- to the Lord. His suggestions are, there- opment of the idea of the body difficult. fore, not always orientated towards the His stress on the moral meaning of bio- most pragmatic solutions. It can be asked logical bonds stands in contrast to the whether it is always necessary to choose notion that persons and families can be between medical technology and obedi- constructed at will. He interprets many ence, but one is nonetheless definitely innovations as unhelpful forms of social challenged by his commitment. He sees engineering. Those Christians deeply technology as having its own momentum involved in developing this technology which must be resisted. may find his conservatism challenging. There are chapters on assisted reproduc- tion, abortion, genetic technology, prena- Book Reviews 187

ERT (2006) 30:2, 187-188 situation and future possibilities and well worth being pursued further as an inde- Who Are the Christians in the pendent book itself. The section also Middle East? includes a short history and present min- Betty Jane Bailey and J. Martin istry of the Middle Eastern Council of Bailey Churches. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003 Part II—‘Profiles of the Churches’, focus- ISBN 0-8028-1020-9 es on different church bodies, like the Pb, pp 215 Orthodox, Catholic and Protestant. A brief history of the development of those Reviewed by Ziya Meral denominations sets the stage for short introductions to each group. The greatest If you often find yourself confused about strength of this section is that after each the situation of Christianity in the Middle introduction contact details are provided East today and feel more confident of for the reader who may be interested in your grasp of the inter-testamental period getting in touch with those denomina- and the early church, then this humble tions. Western mission agencies, church but ambitious book is just for you. The groups, schools or individuals who want writers, Betty and Martin Bailey, write as to work in the Middle East would truly two westerners who fell in love with the benefit from the practical dimension the Middle East on a Biblical Lands tour in writers bring to the book. 1969 and moved to Israel upon their retirement. It is written for fellow west- Finally Part III—‘Church and State in the erners ‘who are surprised to learn that Middle East’, after a breath-long survey Christians still live in the Middle East’ or of the Middle East history from the who ‘assume that Islam has completely Roman Empire to the aftermath of World replaced Christianity’ and are unaware War I, paints a wide picture of the situa- ‘that the church was born in the East’. tion in particular countries. Each country Thus from the beginning of the book the profile (or countries the writers group writers affirm that their intent is to intro- together generously under titles like the duce ‘non-seminarians and non-academics Persian Gulf, Holy Land: Israel and (and perhaps some seminarians and acad- Palestine) is presented under five differ- emics as well)’ to the Christians of the ent categories; Christian communities, Middle East and their situation today. Christian population, historical back- Since the book is intended to be used as a ground, contemporary circumstances and reference work as well as an introduction, interfaith activities. its format is a compilation of essays on There are a few issues of which the read- various topics. These essays are grouped er should be aware. First of all the book under three parts. The two introductory uses a very loose definition of the word essays in the Part I—‘The Churches of ‘Middle East’, thus facing a serious prob- the Middle East’, by David A. Kerr of the lem of categories. The writer’s list of the University of Edinburgh, and Riad Jarjour Middle Eastern countries include North of the Middle East Council of Churches African countries like Morocco, Algeria, are helpful and full of mature insights. In Tunisia and Libya, the African country particular, the essay by Rev. Jarjour titled Sudan, and also Turkey for which there ‘The Future of Christians in the Arab seems to be no universal category as it is World’ is a great analysis of the present often classified as Europe, or Asia Minor. 188 Book Reviews

‘The Middle East’ is used both as a cul- ERT (2006) 30:2, 188-189 tural category (i.e. the Arabic culture The Making of American Liberal which North African countries share with Theology: Imagining Progressive the Arabs of the peninsula) and in the Religion 1805-1900 same time as a geo-political category, which includes Iran, Turkey, Israel, Gary Dorrien Cyprus—all non Arabic countries. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, Secondly, as the writers acknowledge, 2001 the numbers given in relation to the popu- ISBN 0-664-22354-0 xxvi + 494 pp., Index, Pb lation of Christians in the Middle East are rough guides rather than statistics that Reviewed by Richard V. Pierard, Gordon can be quoted for serious academic College, Wenham, MA U.S.A research. Given the political and cultural complications, the exact numbers or even This is the first volume of a projected tril- close estimates of the Christians living in ogy tracing the development of American the region can never be known. liberal theology by Dorrien, an Episcopal priest and the Reinhold Niebuhr Professor Thirdly, with the desire to present a sim- of Social Ethics at Union Theological ple survey of a very complicated subject Seminary. When completed, his compre- comes the risk of over generalization and hensive history will replace the standard limited emphasis on issues which the works by Lloyd J. Averill, American writers deem to be important. The same Theology in the Liberal Tradition (1967), challenge and the outcome applies to this and William R. Hutchison, The Modernist book as well, but that is something which Impulse in American Protestantism (1976), can easily be understood and overlooked and establish him as possibly the fore- considering the intent and the target most expositor of modern theology in the audience of the book. The book graciously United States today. The thesis of the achieves what it originally sets out to do book is that liberal theology arose from and it is a helpful, easy to read introduc- indigenous roots and took shape to tion and practical resource for anyone the appearance of Darwinism. Motivating who is seeking some overall clarity and it was a desire to find a progressive, grasp of the situation of the Christians Christian, ‘mediationist’ third way living in the North Africa, Middle East between the authority-based orthodoxies and Asia Minor today. and the spiritless materialism of rational- istic deism or rationalism-regnant ortho- doxy and ascending ‘infidelism’. The lib- erals saw true religion as a civilizing— thus a personally and socially saving— power of spirit over the bestial forces of nature. In Dorrien’s opinion, liberal theology has been and remains the most creative and influential tradition of theological reflec- tion since the Reformation, because unlike ‘premodern’ Christian theologies, it did not make claims to an authority- Book Reviews 189 based orthodoxy. Whether it eventually Parker Bowne—and the doctrines of bibli- became an orthodoxy in its own right is cal criticism and . In the last an issue he will have to deal with in the chapter he touches upon Catholic mod- subsequent volumes. This first one focus- ernism, Protestant ecumenism, ideas of es on the ‘hegemonic period’ of theologi- the German school of Schleiermacher, the cal liberalism. It derived from late-eigh- issue of spirit over nature, liberal pro- teenth/early-nineteenth efforts to recon- gressivism, and Anglo-Saxon racial ideol- ceptualize the meaning of traditional ogy. Dorrien concludes by raising the Christian teaching in the light of modern question whether the liberals’ hope of knowledge and ethical values. It was not modernizing, democratizing, and civilizing revolutionary but reformist in spirit and the world gave too much authority to endeavoured to recover the idea of a gen- modern culture, even as they liberated uine Christianity not based on external American Christianity from its scriptural authority. It reinterpreted the symbols of and ecclesiastical bases of authority. the traditional faith in such a way as to This is an informative book that gives us create a progressive religious alternative a clearer of understanding of what the lib- between authority and rationalism. Only eral project was. We as evangelicals will, by the later nineteenth century had it of course, reject much of what the liber- come to emphasize the convergence als did, but we need to know the reason- between Christianity and evolution, the ing that lay behind their beliefs and constructive value of modern historical actions. Dorrien does much to assist us in criticism, the spiritual union between God this task. and humanity, and the kingdom-building social mission of the church. Its hall- marks, accordingly, were an evolutionist ERT (2006) 30:2, 189-191 orientation, the social gospel ethos, and cultural optimism. Biblical Faith and Other Dorrien utilizes a narrative and biographi- Religions: An Evangelical cal approach in his examination of the Assessment most influential personalities of nine- David W. Baker (Editor) teenth-century theological liberalism. He Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic, begins with the Congregational and 2004 Unitarian preachers—William Ellery ISBN 0-8254-2026-1 Channing, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Pb, pp176 Theodore Parker, and Horace Bushnell Reviewed by Amos Yong, Associate who is the central figure of the story. Research Professor of Theology, Regent Then he deals with the Victorians— University School of Divinity, Virginia Henry Ward Beecher, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and the feminist reformers. He The six essays in this volume were all follows with the Progressives and advo- originally plenary session presentations cates of the ‘New Theology’ and the early at the 2002 Annual Meeting of the ‘Social Gospel’-Theodore Munger, Evangelical Theological Society (ETS), Washington Gladden, and Newman which was devoted to the theme, Smyth. Also treated are the academics ‘Evangelical Christianity and Other who emerged in the latter years of the Religions’. Those familiar with the theo- century—Charles A. Briggs and Borden logical conservatism of the ETS might 190 Book Reviews expect fairly traditional apologetic exclusivist-inclusivist-pluralist typology approaches from these plenary speakers. standard in most evangelical discussions But while the apologetic edge was not of religious pluralism. His concluding entirely absent—each of the published suggestion—that an evangelical theolo- essays remained resolutely evangelical in gian ‘ought to be a qualified apocalyptic affirming the centrality of Christ and the inclusivist, a qualified epistemic inclu- importance of kerygmatic proclamation— sivist, a qualified alethetic inclusivist, a yet the usual defensiveness is significant- soteriological exclusivist, and an empa- ly blunted throughout most of the volume thetic phenomenologist in the study of and replaced with much more nuanced religion’ (p. 137)—may be too ambiguous argumentation and sensitive rhetorical for traditionalists in the ETS, but speaks style. more accurately to the theological situa- So, for example, Harold Netland’s lead tion many of us find ourselves negotiating essay on ‘Religious Pluralism and the today. Question of Truth’ takes off from his fine Missiological theologian Tite Tiénou, in study, Encountering Religious Pluralism: his ‘Biblical Faith and Traditional Folk The Challenge to Christian Faith and Religion’, does conclude by calling atten- Mission (InterVarsity Press, 2001), which tion to the revelation of and is honest in delineating our contemporary his word, but along the way admits that ‘I situation. Those who appreciate the book am still on the journey’, and that ‘I raise will find Netland similarly appealing in more questions than I provide answers’ this essay. To be sure, his advocating the (p. 139). Here is an evangelical whose combination of a ‘soft natural theology’ exposure to other faiths (I will return to and a ‘cumulative case argument’ as the this point momentarily) leads him to see most viable evangelical theological that there can be no simplistic theological response to the challenges of religious answers in our time. The same is true of pluralism today will please neither those J. Dudley Woodberry’s essay, ‘Biblical who might wish for a more robust natural Faith and Islam’. To the question, ‘Do theology nor those who might denounce Christians and Muslims worship the same the natural theological enterprise alto- God?’ Woodberry answers yes and no: gether. But Netland’s is a sophisticated ‘Since there is only one Supreme Being approach rather than a triumphalist one. and Muslims mean that One described in Still, readers who were unconvinced by the Bible, this is the yes. Anything we say the arguments in the book will probably differently about him is the no’ (p. 153). think that Netland’s strategy in the last As expected in the ETS context, two ple- half of this essay is not up to the task of nary papers were devoted to Old answering to the challenges he so acutely Testament (by Daniel I. Block), and New discerns in the first half regarding the Testament (by Gregory K. Beale) perspec- question of truth in our religiously plural tives respectively. To be sure, Block’s situation. paper focused on the predominant motifs Richard J. Plantinga’s essay, ‘God So in the Hebrew Bible concerning Yahweh’s Loved the World: Theological Reflections repudiation of pagan religious ideas and on Religious Plurality in the History of practices, but he also identified both par- Christianity’, is similarly nuanced. allels between the Yahwistic and pagan Plantinga brings his historian’s expertise traditions, and occasions when Israelite to bear on complicating the comfortable religion exploited pagan religious tradi- Book Reviews 191 tions. Beale’s significant contribution may religions which speaks to the many differ- be twofold: in his attempt to tease out an ent religious, social, economic, and politi- evangelical theology of religions from the cal issues that feature in the contempo- book of Revelation, and in his raising the rary evangelical encounter with religious question about the possibility of deriving plurality around the world. an evangelical theology of religions not only from the content of the New Testament but also from the exegetical ERT (2006) 30:2, 191-192 methods of New Testament writers as seen in their interpretations of the Old Fire and Wind: the Holy Spirit in Testament. the Church Today This volume does show that evangelical Joseph D. Small (editor) theology continues to mature in its engag- ISBN 0664-50172-9 ing the questions related to religious plu- Louisville KY: Geneva Press, 2002 ralism, theology of religions, and interreli- Pb pp 158 gious encounter. The volume’s title, how- Reviewed by David Parker, Editor of ever, does perpetuate the more traditional Evangelical Review of Theology evangelical contrast between christocen- tric and salvific ‘faith’ (e.g., ‘Christianity This book consists of a series of twelve is not about being religious, it is about papers delivered at a Presbyterian consul- having a relationship’) and other paganis- tation on the article in the tic ‘religions’. This not only begs the devoted to the Holy Spirit. It includes question about how (not whether) ancient expositions, reflections on contemporary Israel, the earliest Christian communities, issues and sermons preached at the con- and historical Christianity have also been sultation, all focusing on ‘contemporary religious in every sense of the term, but exploration’ rather than historical review. also does not fully confront the fact that The contributors include the well known many in other traditions have more figures, Miroslav Volf, Colin Gunton, and vibrant religious lives than those of Ellen T. Charry. Christian faith. The editor’s introduction provides a good Finally, for our purposes, while interna- background to the Nicene Creed and the tional perspectives are represented in this issues which paved the way for the signif- volume (Netland is familiar with Japan, icant expansion in it of the article on the Tiénou’s home is Africa, and Woodberry Spirit. Joseph Small points out the impor- served as a missionary in Islamic con- tance and relevance of the issues texts), they were neither engaged as involved, affirming, for example, that the intentionally as they could have been nor question of the identity of God is of basic in a sufficiently sustained manner. While importance and one that continually this may be expected, given the North needs definition, which of course involves American provenance of the ETS, is that both positive affirmation and as well of because international members in the denial of certain ideas. The introduction society remain unpublished or because of points to the importance of the Spirit in ETS politics? Whatever the reason, the relation to Trinity, Scripture, personal result is that most of the readers of the experience and creation. Evangelical Review of Theology will contin- Gunton’s exposition of the clause on the ue to look for an evangelical theology of worship of Spirit, Father and Son, shows 192 Book Reviews the richness of the role of the Spirit in preaching of the Word of God is the Word ‘making holy’, by focusing on the ‘perfect- of God’. ing’ work of the Spirit through creation, In addressing the clause on belief in the re-creation and the mission of the church. church, Volf points out that in contempo- Usually, this is an idea which is drawn rary theology, the church is not often especially from references to the Spirit in related to the Spirit, even though the the book of Revelation. Gunton’s treat- Gospels and the early Fathers did make ment is boosted by material from the this connection strongly. So he argues Fathers as they dealt with the problems that it is time to ‘retrieve the central of unity and diversity which they faced, importance of the Holy Spirit for our which are not unlike those of the modern and our practice of church world. Gunton is especially interested in life’. Volf observes that Christ is the one the two-fold emphasis of Basil on the who is both anointed by the Spirit and worship of God, ie, giving glory to God also the one who bestows the Spirit. He ‘through the Son and in the Holy Spirit’, therefore explores the relationships and also ‘with the Son together with the between Christ, church and Spirit. Spirit’. Recognizing that it is complex, he Scripture is a topic of interest for readers asserts, however, that it determines the of this journal, but Cynthia Campbell’s church’s identity and mission, which is chapter dealing with the article on the focused on personal rebirth, reconciliation Spirit speaking through the prophets does and ‘the care of bodies’. While there may not explore inspiration so much as noting be social reasons for the church to act, the amazing truth of a ‘talking God’— there are also ‘important theological rea- ‘God is a talking God because we are sons’ and ‘The social mission of the talking creatures.’ Referring to the church ought to be pursued out of the Reformation insight that Christianity is heart of its own identity’. Thus, ‘All ‘word-based or even word-intoxicated’, Christian work is done in the power of the Campbell affirms that this is no simplistic Spirit’, whatever its category. biblicism, because the Spirit ‘makes the While the chapters in this collection on words dance’, in that God speaks (pre- ‘contemporary issues’ and the examples sent tense) in Scripture. Following Calvin, of ‘proclamation’ vary considerably in it is clear that without the inner illumina- their value, the theological reflection in tion of the Spirit, Scripture is nothing, so the chapters on the doctrine of the Creed that the Helvetic Confession can say, ‘the will certainly repay careful study. The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology Editor: Colin Brown A four volume set offering concise discussions of all the major theological terms in the New Testament against the background of classical and koine Greek, the Old Testament, Rabbinical thought and different usages in the New Testament.

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