The Historical Development of the Regional Capitals That Were the Center of the Mamluk Sultanate Since the Beginning of Their Muslim Era
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APORTACIONS THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE REGIONAL CAPITALS THAT WERE THE CENTER OF THE MAMLUK SULTANATE SINCE THE BEGINNING OF THEIR MUSLIM ERA Ali Ahmed El-Sayed Damanhur University This chapter aims at presenting a comprehensive over- 2. The establishment of the mamluk state view of the main cities and provinces of the Mediterra- nean Sea during the Middle Ages. Thus, to be consist- Thanks to the Sultan alMalik alSalih Najm alDin ent with the thematic unity of such historical structure, Ayyub (1240-1249 AD/638-647 H), the early Mam- the Mamluk Era (1250-1517 AD/648-923 H1) has luk State was established. The Mamluks supported been chosen as the best period that represents these him until he became their first ruler, and he in return main cities and provinces, in addition to the fact that allowed them to stay in a castle, in Rawdah Island in the administrative system of this era, in particular, has the Nile River, as their residence palace, hence the greatly affected the civilizational development of these name The Bahri dynasty or Bahriyya Mamluks [i.e. areas which this chapter outlines. those who live in the river]. After alMalik alSalih has died, the Mamluks got rid of his son Turan Shah due to his ill-treatment towards them, and the Mamluk 1. Introduction State was established May 1250 AD/Shaaban 648 H by Shajar alDurr widow of alMalik alSalih then wife Once the early Muslims have opened Damascus and of alMalik Izz alDin Aybak. the rest of the inner cities of the Levant, Yazid ibn Abi After the Mongols have captured Bagdad 1258 Sufyan headed to open the coastal cities as well. After AD/656 H, their leader Hulagu Khan headed towards Yazid has died, his brother Muawiyah took over the the Levant, and entered Aleppo 1260 AD/ 658 H; af- ruling of these cities. He went on fortifying the coastal ter destroying it, he went to Hama, and then proceed- cities and increasing the number of the soldiers in ac- ed towards Damascus and expanded his control all cordance with the recommendations of the Muslims over the Levant. Back then, the Ayyubid Dynasty no Caliph Umar ibn Al-Khattab. However, this was not longer got the upper hand any more, as they were ei- enough. Accordingly, since 646 AD/25 H, he started ther defeated or escaped. As for the Mamluks, they had establishing a maritime fleet like the Byzantines,2 and to stand against the Mongols in order to legitimize managed to spread his control over the ports of the enrooting their existence in Egypt and the Levant Eastern Mediterranean Sea.3 Damascus was the capital alike. Undoubtedly, their victory in the battle of Ain of the Umayyad Caliphate, until the Abbasid State was Jalut has showed them as the sole defending power of established 750 AD/132 H, back then the Levant was the whole region. divided into small independent entities upon which the Seljuks and the Fatimids were fighting. Then the Crusaders invaded the coast of the Levant and took it 3. Central mamluk government in Egypt over from the Fatimids by the end of the 11th century AD/ the 5th century H. Thus, the importance of the Cairo was the headquarters of the Mamluk Sultanate, territory beyond the Jordan River (Transjordan), with and it was composed of four main centers: the Fatimid its main city Kerak, increased dramatically, and so does Cairo surrounded with the walls of the old Fatimid city; the importance of the whole coast of the Levant, until the ancient city in the same location of the ancient there were no more Crusaders in the Levant by 1291 alFustat; Boulaq which was once an island in the ri- AD/ 690 H. ver then became a part of Cairo especially after estab- lishing an important trading port for merchants, and The City of the Dead, or Cairo Necropolis, surround- ing The Saladin Citadel of Cairo. Accordingly, the Cairian territories were expanded during this period 1. H = Hijra, Muslim year 4 2. Abo al-Abbas Ahmad ibn Yahya al-Baladhuri, Fūtūh more than the previous eras, and it was full of various alBuldan, ed. Abdullah Anis al-Tabbaa and Omar Anis al-Tabbaa, Cairo, without publisher, 1956, p.150. 3. Ahmed ibn Abi Yaakoub ibn Wadeh al-Yaakoubi, Ketab 4. Gaston Wiet, Cairo: City of Art and Commerce, trans. Mo- alBūldan, ed. Michael Jan de Goeje, Leiden, E. J. Brill, 1891, stafa El-Abbadi, New York, Franklin for Publishing and Distribu- p. 337. tion 1968, p. 99-100. Ciutat mediterrànees.indb 107 15/7/20 8:45 108 ALI AHMED EL-sayed constructions; such as, the Great Mosque which was who was also known as ‘alSahib’ i.e. the minister who built during the rule of the second Mamluk Sultan, supervised all civilian aspects of the state; the Military alMalik alZ. ahir Rukn alDin Baibars (1260-1277 Atabek who is the general commander of the army re- AD/658-676 H), on the space of 700 meters north- sponsible for all military aspects of the state; ‘alDawa west alFutuh Gate of the city, and a New Canal which dar’ i.e. the inkwell holder who was responsible for was built in 1325 AD/725 H, during the rule of the writing the official documents and letters of the Sul- Mamluk Sultan alMalik alNasir Muhammad ibn Qa tanate, and who played a very important role during lawun, hence the name of this canal alNasir Bay, the Mamluk era, in addition to many employees who which was 1200 meters to the West of the old canal. held less important positions in the state. Other than Both canals got their running waters from the Nile those public jobs, there were a number of jobs closely River.5 In fact, many of the Mamluk structures are re- related to the Sultan himself; such as, the concierge, maining until today. and ‘ras alnawba’, i.e. the one responsible for training The Mamluks also succeeded in attracting the trade the Mamluks of the Sultan, not to mention many oth- of Eastern Mediterranean Sea to Egypt that became a er important jobs.9 main center of goods transportation, especially be- According to the vast space of the Mamluk lands, tween India and Europe; this led to increase the wealth it was necessary to divide it administratively into two of the Cairians during this period. Thus, Cairo was major sectors: Egypt and the Levant; and, in turn, able to overcome different sorts of inner conflicts and divide these two major sectors into ‘Niyaba(s)’, i.e. disputes. It was a vivid city full of vibrant lifestyles that state(s), then divide these Niyabas into divisions. As were not easily affected by devastating plagues or nat- for the Egyptian sector, it was ruled from Cairo, and it ural disasters.6 was divided into the ‘Bahri Niyaba’, i.e. near the sea, Despite the great civilizational role of the Mamluks that was ruled from Damanhour, at alBehaira, which in history throughout 267 years, their era was full of controlled the near cities and villages; except for Alex- political instability whether during the period of The andria which had its own ruling staff due to the im- Bahri dynasty or the following Burji dynasty as well. portance of its location and the important economic This instability came as a result of the influencing po- role it played since it was the main port of the Mam- litical concepts that allowed anyone to claim the Egyp- luk Sultanate over the Mediterranean Sea;10 and the tian Throne, which lead to the unavoidable competition ‘Quebli Niyaba’, i.e. near upper Egypt, that was ruled among the Mamluk leaders who believed the throne from Asyut which controlled the near cities and villag- should be for the most powerful one of them. es till Aswan. Whereas Cairo had its own Wally, i.e. From time to time, some Mamluk leaders, aspirant governor, the Saladin Citadel had its own Wally who to the throne, translated their ambitions into military took care of its fortifications and supervised the traffic works within Cairo streets. Rebellious acts by the leaders into and out of its walls.11 of affiliated provinces in the Levant were repeated aim- ing at their independence.7 However, the ruling system of the Mamluk Sultanate guaranteed the continuance of 4. The levant niyabas the State itself irrespective of the ruling Sultan. Indeed, it represented what we call today a state of institutions. As for the second major sector of the Sultanate, i.e. the The ruling system of the Mamluk State is based on Levant, it has been under the rule of the Deputy of the a certain administrative structure: the Sultan, who is Sultan since the Seljuks, and Saladin used this position on the top of the structure, and the one who has a total as well. He divided his Ayyubid State into six inde- control over the whole Sultanate; the Abbasid Caliph pendent kingdoms.12 When Hulagu Khan captured that Baibars moved his headquarters to Cairo; the De puty of the Sultan who was also known as ‘alKafil’ i.e. 8 the responsible of the Islamic Provinces; the Vizier 9. Abu al-Abas Ahmed Ibn Ali Ibn Abdullah Al-Qalqas- handi, .sūbh Al’Aasha fee Sen’aat AlEnshaa, vol. xiii, Cairo, 1914, p. 118-122; Said Ashour, The Mamluk Period in Egypt and the 5.