Peace promotion through sport in Russia and Bosnia and Herzegovina Joel Rookwood
port has been used in many contexts as a way to The popularity and suitability of football: Spromote peace and facilitate social development. The institutions formed and regulations produced in Many organisations operating in political, sporting and the UK during the mid to late nineteenth century helped charitable spheres have devised and implemented sport cement the domestic structure of a number of different ing projects in fractured communities, in order to encour sports. The rules, competitions and clubs, together with age co-existence, establish moral boundaries and provide various technical, tactical and cultural characteristics a platform for meaningful and sustained social change. of many of these sports were formulated and populated Football in particular has been discussed in terms of its under the guidance of regional and national governing capacity to serve as a moral as well as physical under bodies.1 Due in part to the expansion of western modern taking. Indeed programmes of this nature are frequently ity similar models then spread throughout Europe and centred on football, given the global popularity, the inter the rest of the world.2 This diffusion was facilitated by national recognition and application of regulations, and the development of regularly staged national, continen the suitability of the sport in developmental contexts. Such tal and global tournaments, orchestrated by the newly initiatives have often been inspired and informed by key established international sporting federations. Interest Olympic values which are considered universally appli in (association) football in particular has attained global cable. In establishing the conceptual and practical frame proportions. In terms of participation and the number work of sport-based social development programmes, of spectators, many consider it the most popular sport many non-Olympic organisations have adopted such phil in the world. The simplicity of the game helps explain osophies. This article involves a context-bound examin its extensive popularity, as consistent regulations are ation of the suitability of football as a tool to promote internationally applied, and there is a minimal require peace, focusing on two specific football initiatives staged ment to understand practical or linguistic variations.3 in Russia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. The former Consequently, a number of sporting governing bodies project was directed towards the survivors of a terrorist and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) have real attack in North Ossetia, and the latter engaged in post-war ised the relevance of the sport as a tool to promote peace conflict resolution primarily in Bosnia and Herzegovina. and social development, and have sought to apply it in Both initiatives were underpinned by Olympic values. such contexts.
2 2 J o u r n a l o f Olympic History 17(August 2009)Number 2 Although a variety of tribal ball games which pre-date the organised version of the sport existed in a number of countries, the codified form of football was established in England. The regulatory advancement of the game occurred in English public schools under the umbrella of ‘muscular Christianity’. This philosophy involved promoting a person’s “moral and spiritual health at the same time as their physical health.”4 Football was used initially there fore largely as a medium to encourage participants to develop qualities such as fair play, self-control, courage and unselfish ness.5 Given its popularity The Beslan football project and capacity to promote social development football has Beijing Olympics Athletes took part in more than 300 since been utilised to nurture social order, facilitate co events across the 28 sports. The summer Olympiad is existence and establish moral boundaries. This is particu supplemented by winter games organised under the aegis larly significant in socially and politically tense environ of the International Olympic Committee. Here there ments, in contexts where perceived differences amongst Seven sports on Ice and Snow and nearly one hundred the participants would otherwise prevent participation gold medals are decided. There are also summer and and the sharing of sporting experiences. Highly pub winter Paralympic Games organised on the same cycle. licised cases from South Africa and Northern Ireland These are in the care of the International Paralympic serve as notable examples. Within the former nation, foot Commitee (IPC). As well as providing a platform to ball has been utilised to facilitate harmony in a country showcase some of the world’s best talent, a number where races were kept apart, and the latter example is of values have also been implemented in these com one in which the sport has been employed as a notable petitions and in the wider Olympic framework. These tool in the peace process.6 The use of sport as a devel were devised under the umbrella of the Olympic and opmental tool has also been recognised by the U.N. This Paralympic movements and have become defining char can be seen in the United Nations Educational Scientific acteristics of Olympism. The integration of such values and Cultural Organisation’s (UNESCO) International reinforces the belief that sports serve as a moral as well Charter for Physical Education and Sport. This document as a social undertaking. Several commentators consider advocates: the application of value-based approaches to sport to be partly attributable to the Olympic philosophy. TAVARES “Placing the development of physical education for example states that: “The way in which we practice and sport at the service o f human progress, promot the values attributed to sports in the twentieth was largely ing their development, and urging governments, formatted by the Olympic Movement.”8 The founder of competent non-governmental organizations, edu the modem Olympics, Pierre de COUBERTIN saw the cators, families and individuals themselves to be Games as a framework for promoting the deeper sig guided thereby, to disseminate it and to put it into nificance of Olympic ideals and their potential edu practice ”1 cational capacity.9 As a consequence of the popularity of sport, COUBERTIN regarded it as an effective means of Applying Olympic values - stimulating mutual transnational understanding and col promoting peace through sport laboration. Another context in which sporting participation and On an individual basis sporting competition in this performance has been heavily influenced by underpin context can be considered as a means of developing ning values is the Olympic Games. Since revival in the character of the athlete. This is represented through 1896, the Olympic Games have developed into one of actions such as adhering to rules and the officials who the most popular sporting events in the world. In the ensure they are upheld, and by acknowledging and
J o u r n a l o f Olympic History 17(August 2009)Number 2 2 3 respecting the performance of opponents. The philosophy nations each year, PEACOCK claims that many merely of Olympism also involves placing sport at the service of represent an “attempt to help the Third World ‘catch up,’ humanity by encouraging the development of peaceful as it were, to European, or western standards.”13 He also societies. More specifically, Olympism is defined as: warns that unless specific guidelines are put in place, the use of sport as a developmental tool could potentially be “A philosophy o f life, exalting and combining in “doomed to amount to nothing more than a reminder of a balanced whole the qualities o f body, will and Western influence in the world.”14 Clearly therefore, any mind. Olympism seeks to create a way of life based such vehicle for social development should not simply on the joy of effort, the educational value of good involve imposing western ideas and standards on ‘under example, and respect for universal fundamental developed’ communities. In reflecting on Olympic ven ethical principles. The goal of Olympism is to place tures of this nature, PEACOCK (2006) also makes several sport at the service o f the harmonious development other suggestions. For example, he considers it important o f man, with a view to promoting a peaceful society to ensure that developmental projects are not motivated or concerned with preserving human dignity. ”10 funded by misguided priorities, arguing that truly inspir ing the youth and empowering the poor and oppressed The principles of Olympism amplify the Olympic of the world requires a participatory, open-minded and values and allow them to be expressed in a way that collaborative procedure.15 Devising flexible and unpreju promotes lasting social development. These principles diced programmes that are built on effective partnerships include non-discrimination, sustainability, humanism, are more likely to foster social development. universality, solidarity, and an alliance between sport, Furthermore, PEACOCK also argues that sporting education and culture. The Olympic Movement are projects should be inclusive of as many people as poss responsible for and committed to engagement in socially ible in order to have the greatest impact on the widest responsible action, adhering to mutually developed population. He contends that the best results are achieved: ethical codes.11 These objectives have been put into prac “when fewer resources are expanded on structural devel tice through sporting pursuits and competition, in a bid opment and more emphasis is placed on mass partici to develop healthy individuals and a peaceful global pation and engagement as well as consultation with com community. munity initiative and guidance. In short, the more who Olympic events are typically saturated in symbolism, play, the more Olympians.”16 The author claims that by embedded in respectful and dignified ceremonies punc involving large numbers of people, “the religious, ethnic, tuated by Olympic hymns, oaths and torches. However, linguistic, racial, political or economic barriers that often despite the significance of such ceremonial events, it is divide communities, even within national boundaries, will important that Olympic values are integrated beyond begin to fade.”17 However, the author identifies another symbolic demonstrations. Olympic organisations aim key consideration in this context, arguing that in order to to serve the societies in which they operate, with the be influential, helpful and inspirational, Olympism must central aim being to make meaningful contributions remain “committed to its people-centered roots. Only an towards solidarity and lasting development for humanity. emphasis on the micro-level will bring about changes in Since its inception the IOC has incorporated a number both individuals and societies.”18 This point is of funda of values through various sporting programmes which mental significance to developmental initiatives, and out serve this end. These include multi-cultural education, lines the importance of concentrating efforts on limited human dignity and peace promotion.12 As the focus and populations. Whilst this argument could be perceived significance of the IOC has evolved, so has the frame as contradictory, it could also be said that this delimi work for ensuring such values are imbedded within tation does not infer exclusivity, but moreover provides Olympic initiatives. In 1999 the IOC set an agenda for a framework for ensuring that inclusive projects of this the Olympic movement, which involved incorporating nature prove both manageable and meaningful. into the Olympic Charter the terms ‘legacy’ and ‘sustain Finally, although the underpinning values of Olympism able development.’ A number of sporting projects have advocate the employment of sport for social development since been devised and employed focusing on peace pro and peace promotion, as PATRIKSSON suggests, “Sport, motion and development. like most activities, is not a priori good or bad, but has The development of value-based sporting projects the potential of producing both positive and negative have often been inspired and informed by the philosophy outcomes. Questions like ‘what conditions are necess of Olympism. This article will examine two initiatives ary for sport to have beneficial outcomes?’ must be asked devised within such a framework. Firstly however, it is more often.”19 Therefore, it is not the technical or tactical important to reflect on some of the lessons that must be elements of sport (and in this case football) that serve learned from Olympic programmes and the ideals which as the function of development initiatives. Instead the underpin them. For example, in exploring some of the capacity of such programmes is based on the manner in sport development projects that the National Olympic which sport is provided and experienced, and the mean Committee (NOK) for Germany conducts in developing ings gauged from the sporting interactions. It is import
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jlSOH] ant to assess the approach and value of such projects, in dedicated to social development, with others solely order to meaningfully explain failures and successes of focused on this discipline. Each organisation discussed an adopted approach and pass judgement on how they in the following section is an example of an agency that might be put into practice in future.20 Although this poses is committed to peace promotion, a mission operational methodological difficulties in measuring and illustrating ized via the medium of sport, and football in particular. A ‘sport’s effects’, outcomes do need to be assessed with number of NGOs have utilised football in a developmen an appreciation of context and process. Failing to adhere tal capacity, with projects of this nature not confined to to this rule would quite possibly limit the capacity to re any particular locality or any ethnic, religious or politi model programmes perceived to have been unsuccess cal context. In Europe, the ‘Open Fun Football Schools’ ful, or to disseminate examples of ‘best practice’, in a project in the Balkans is one example.lt is a reconcili way that can clearly outline the culturally-specific and ation programme that promotes cross-ethnic integration context-bound factors which may restrict transferability. in communities fractured by conflict. The organisers of These concepts served in part as the rationale for ana this initiative insist that the municipalities who take part lysing the programmes undertaken here. The following in the reconciliation programme join up with another section contains an introduction to NGO-based football from a different ethnic background, so as to promote projects, after which the projects in Russia and Bosnia integration.24 and Herzegovina are explored. In Asia, the Golden Triangle programme employs a specifically designed value-based approach to football NGOs - ‘football for peace’ coaching and coach education. This project is conducted The underpinning values of Olympism examined to address the issue of the exploitation of displaced youths above (particularly those relating to peace promotion and at the intersecting borders of three countries, namely social development), serve as a key source of inspiration Thailand, Myanmar and Laos. The area has an exten and guidance for those wishing to engage in sport devel sive association with opium production and distribution, opment initiatives in socially and politically sensitive cir together with human trafficking for exploitative purposes, cumstances. Many of the guiding principles provided by particularly relating to labour, sex and warfare. Children the Olympic Movement have had a positive effect on the have often been the primary commodities in this industry, employment of sporting initiatives by NGOs, enabling many of whom are from ethnic minorities and have been programmes to operate more successfully and helping denied citizenship leading to greater vulnerability. The bring about meaningful and lasting change to individ initiative was established in 2007 and is run in collabor uals and communities. Olympism identifies: “a range of ation with ‘Childlife Mae Sai’. It is aimed at improving values to which each nation can sincerely commit itself the confidence, esteem and educational opportunities for whilst at the same time finding... a form of expression children who are discriminated against by society, whilst which is unique to itself, generated by its own culture, helping them integrate into the relatively safe environment location, history, tradition and projected future.”21 provided by the NGO’s housing shelters and educational Importantly therefore, although the two NGO projects clinics.25 In addition, in the Middle East, the ‘Football for examined here are informed by foundational values, both Peace’ (F4P) initiative seeks to make grass-roots inter serve as unique, context-bound programmes, providing ventions into the sporting culture of Israel and Palestine. a tailored response to the individual needs of the local It is a British Universities project staged annually in ity in question. Before detailing the context and function Israel since 2001, run by the University of Brighton, the of these programmes, it is necessary to briefly outline British Council and the Israeli Sports Authority. The col the common organisational structure in which they were laborative project employs a value-based football coach conducted, and explore examples of previous ventures. ing model in order to facilitate peaceful integration in the The focus of NGOs generically speaking is either increasingly violent, mistrusting and detached Jewish directed towards the humanitarian or developmental and Arab communities.26 Furthermore, an example from needs of the recipient, or both. WHAITES argues that Africa is the Star programme which was established in complex humanitarian emergencies, famine and civil post-war Liberia in 2006. The programme is organised strife serve to propel humanitarian-based NGOs into by the NGO Samaritan’s Purse (SP), and involves a the media spotlight, given the human desire to respond, value-driven coaching philosophy relating to self-disci and the complexities often associated with attempts to pline, truthfulness, appreciation and respect, which was meet such need.22 Developmental NGOs however, are simplified into the acronym ‘STAR’.27 The term ‘star’ is usually concerned with the improvement of a particular significant in relation to Liberia firstly as it signifies the society or societal sub-section, a focus which often has nation’s declaration of independence from the American strong social connotations. TANDOM claims that those Colonization Society,28 secondly because a star is promi involved in the developmental field often derive moti nent on the national flag, and thirdly as Liberia’s football vation from an ideological and spiritual commitment to team is nicknamed ‘the lone star’. social reform.23 Although NGOs are frequently reported Football is employed within both the F4P and Star pro as humanitarian agencies, some have devised branches jects as a conflict, non-codified and competitive activity
J o u r n a l o f Olympic History 17(August 2009)Number 2 2 5 during the various stages of the initiatives. For example, implementation of both projects was a function of a col coaches often attempt to cause a conflict situation during laborative effort between experienced and skilled British coaching sessions, in order to help the participants learn volunteers (including the author of this paper), together about positive means of conflict resolution whilst in a safe with locally-based NGO staff. Both initiatives had their and controlled environment. As TOWNSEND argues, own challenges, limitations, and possibilities, a contex the essence of coaching philosophies on such ventures tual framework which necessitated a tailored approach lies in the children actively attempting to solve disputes to the employment of football. It is imperative that the and overcome hurdles as they arise.29 Non-codified ver contexts as well as the practical details of each pro sions of the game were also applied at times, such as gramme are examined in order to fully understand the during training relays which incorporate handling the circumstances and nature of each initiative, and render ball and players, and in competitive games, where pos the resultant lessons more meaningful. session is maintained and regained by throw and catch as opposed to passing with feet. Also, other apparatus are Project one - Victims of terrorism in Beslan, Russia sometimes employed, which are not permitted in foot The town of Beslan is located 15 miles north of ball, such as hockey sticks and hoops. Football is deliber Vladikavkaz in North Ossetia, a semi autonomous ately ‘misapplied’ in different formats therefore in order republic which lies adjacent to Chechnya in the North to emphasise the importance of a given value. The game Caucasus region of the Russian Federation. As empha is also employed in a competitive context, with players sised by Russia’s conflict with neighbouring Georgia in competing in mixed teams during tournaments. Players 2008, the region is deeply fractured. It has historically are reminded of the core values of the project, and are been punctuated by prolonged warfare, with its people encouraged to reflect such attributes in their conduct. No representing a variety of conflicting values, customs, referees are supplied, with players empowered to regu identities and ideologies. One of the most dominant late matches themselves. This has the impact of coercing values in Russian culture is education, and at the begin players into managing their own individual performances ning of each September, the opening of the school year is and that of their team members, whilst also focusing on signified by a traditional celebration, known as the ‘day equality in this context. In programmes of this nature, of knowledge’. such an approach serves as a useful means of highlight On 1 st September 2004 however, the festivities were ing the extent to which participants integrate the experi interrupted at Beslan’s school number one by a group ence into their lives, providing an indication of the extent of thirty heavily armed Chechen terrorists. The gunmen to which central values are disseminated.30 stormed the school playground where pupils, teachers Numerous projects have been devised in a variety of and family members were gathered. Within minutes locations therefore which utilise football as a form of more than 1200 hostages, the majority of whom were physical activity and apply it as a means of encouraging women and children were herded into the adjacent gym segregated groups to congregate in shared space for a nasium. It was the start of three days of unimaginable football project. The remainder of this article is struc suffering and terror. The rebels made a list of demands tured on an examination of two unique football-based including a call for an end to the Second Chechen War, initiatives in Russia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. The but representatives from the Russian government refused to meet their stipulations. Ultimately, 334 hostages were killed, including 186 children.31 The children who survived the siege were subsequently allo cated places in the town’s remaining schools, but many were traumatised, as the town was struck by grief and anger, and the region struggled to come to terms with the tragedy. As part of a collabor ative effort, the Moscow- based NGO Russia Inland, working in partnership with the UK division of SP, had previously developed a Beslan school number one working relationship with
2 6 J o u r n a l o f Olympic History 17(August 2009)Number 2 schools in Beslan. In the weeks following the terror attack, representatives from the Russian govern ment and local authorities in Vladikavkaz invited the two NGOs to conduct a combined project in Beslan. As a function of the local interest and organisa tional expertise and experi ence, it was suggested the initiative should be based on football. Six weeks after the tragedy a team of fifteen British volun teers and ten Russian NGO staff travelled to Beslan. A football programme was held in each of the schools The Beslan football project chosen to accommodate surviving children, with similar who lived in and around Beslan, to demonstrate solidarity clinics staged at community and football clubs over a with and empathy for the victims of terrorism. Following two-week period. The proximity to Chechnya and the a harrowing tour of what remained of the school build impending security concerns rendered the programme ing, there was a visit to pay respects at the cemetery con extremely hazardous. As a result of the unique circum structed specifically to house the bodies of those who stances and complexities which shaped and defined the had died in the attacks.Then, the football programmes initiative, it was fundamentally limited on one significant began. They consisted of non-competitive, fun-based level. Although other projects staged in fractured commu activities that emphasised enjoyment and communal- nities (such as F4P) focus on promoting inter-ethnic co ity of experience. There were no tournaments or com existence, for the Beslan programme it was not feasible petitive elements incorporated in the project, with a con to invite engagement those from the perceived ‘enemy’ scious decision made not to employ the sport in its fullest from ‘the other side’. This is partly because of North form. As football is categorised in many educational con Ossetia has strictly controlled borders, and is in a precari texts as an invasion game, it was questionable whether by ous and politically sensitive position adjacent to the semi employing a game of ‘attack and defence’, key warfare autonomous republics of Chechnya and Ungushetiya. It concepts would have been played out and reinforced has an international border with Georgia, which in politi rather than reduced. It was also important not to stress the cal terms is the technical locality of South Ossetia. The significance of winning or the disappointment of losing. areas to the south, west and east are predominantly and Instead participants were taught skills and tricks, as well in some cases fundamentally Muslim, whilst the people as football-related games, which it was hoped would help of North Ossetia are typically Orthodox Christians. The occupy the minds of the pupils both during the the pro area has a long, violent and complex history, and fierce gramme and in the weeks and months which followed. rivalries have developed along ethnic as well as religious Players were encouraged to learn skills which required lines. Pronounced political differences are also problem energy and promoted bonding and learning, which are atic in the region. North Ossetians are generally con important elements of promoting social development sidered happy to be under Russian rule, with those living through sport.34 in surrounding areas typically of the opposite persuasion In addition, the content of the sessions and the approach and instead keen to achieve independence.32 coaches adopted were reactive to the needs, interests and A plethora of reasons exist as to why North Ossetians ability levels of the pupils. As PEACOCK highlights, it are considered to be notably distinct from neighbour is important that developmental sporting projects avoid ing regions, and which help explain why inter-ethnic merely enforcing foreign modes of practice, simply relations have deteriorated to such an extent. Indeed, “in because such approaches are perceived to have been suc the Caucasus compromise and conciliation are rare.”33 cessful in other politically sensitive communities.35 In Therefore the programme could not focus on integration Beslan it was not therefore simply a case of imposing with those divided by the borders of North Ossetia, given ideas and games to which pupils were not receptive . The the unwillingness and insecurity of the local people, and experienced staff members were trained in recognising the notable difficulties of crossing surrounding borders. signs that showed a player was not engaged in a task or Instead it merely sought to provide a distraction for those found it too simple or complex. Coaches worked with
J o u r n a l o f Olympic History 17(August 2009)Number 2 2 7 by the people of Beslan. Developmental projects are not typically staged so soon after a disaster. In such situations short-term responses from the inter national community are more often of a militaristic, diplomatic or humanitar ian nature. However, for the children of Beslan who survived the atrocities, it was important that the initial period of grief was interspersed with activ ities that distracted them and reminded them of the importance of fun and the possibilities of enjoyment The football project in Bosnia and Herzegovina and learning. Football pro small groups to enable them to closely observe the par vided the medium to illustrate this message. Importantly, ticipants, and modelled the development of each session health professionals encouraged those surviving children on the requirements and interests of the players. This who wanted or need to, to reflect on their experiences illustrates the implementation of Olympism, empha of the siege, and to talk openly about them rather than sising a micro-level focus, remaining committed to merely internalise them. It was imperative that this com “people-centered roots.”36 COAKLEY considers sport to bined effort was not perceived as an attempt to get the play a potentially important role in the healing and reha children to simply forget what they had been subjected bilitation process for all children affected by crisis, dis to, but to offer alternative modes of thinking and provide crimination and marginalization.37 Given that this initi hope for the future. As PHILLIPS argues: “If they can ative was staged only a few weeks after the school siege, remember what happened at school no. 1 without being this project provided one of the initial elements of this poisoned by its consequences... there may be hope for rehabilitative procedure. Importantly the coaching was this troubled place.”38 combined with medical and psychological treatment from experienced specialists who continued to work with Project two - Post-war conflict resolution survivors following the completion of the sporting pro in Bosnia and Herzegovina gramme. At the end of the Cold War the communist system For many of the participants these therapies were more in Europe was significantly weakened. In the multieth significant than the football. For those individuals, foot nic Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) for ball served more as a ‘decoy phenomenon’, facilitating example, the communist party began to lose its ideo the provision of other important services that otherwise logical potency. SFYR had been a conglomeration of would not have been made available. This was particu six regional republics (Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and larly the case given that this multi-faceted programme Herzegovina, Macedonia, Montenegro and Serbia) and lacked the capacity to implement another important two autonomous provinces (Kosovo and Vojvodina), underpinning principle of Olympism, namely sustain which stretched from modern-day central Europe to the able development. This problem is inherent to short-term Balkans. In a region fraught with political and ethnic con missions, particularly ones which are staged so soon after flict however, the stability of SFRY increasingly came into a tragedy on such a scale as the Beslan school massacre. question during the late 1980s.39 National and separatist It was not practical or courteous to talk about sustainable ideologies began to provide direct opposition and a threat development at this stage. In addition it was infeasible to centralised Yugoslav control. A defining incident in the Hue to - the lark of fnnHina 0 made available — for siibsennent A~--- division of SFRY occurred in June 1991 when Croatia programmes. For the participants however, involve declared independence. Then in February 1992 the multi ment in the project served to help restore confidence and ethnic republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which was assisted in the process of beginning to rebuild a sense of inhabited primarily by Catholic Croats, Orthodox Serbs security. The children felt honoured to have international and Muslim Slavs, passed its own referendum for inde visitors, some of who had previously played for profes pendence. The following month an armed conflict began, sional football clubs in Britain, and the compassion and commonly referred to as the Bosnian War.This lasted solidarity this visited embodied was certainly appreciated until November 1995. Various factions were involved,
2 8 J o u r n a l o f Olympic History 17(August 2009)Number 2 including Serbs, Bosnians and Croats, with objectives the only team from the region to win the European Cup, and allegiances fluctuating during the various stages of whilst Yugoslavia qualified for the European football the war. Thousands were killed and many more were dis championships in Sweden the following year. (As a result placed in a complex and drawn out conflict punctuated of the political unrest however, the Yugoslav team were by genocide, ethnic cleansing, mass rape and psychologi forced to withdraw from the Euro 92. They were replaced cal oppression.40 International troops were introduced by Denmark who won the tournament.). notably from the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation More specifically, two football matches are considered (NATO) to help re-stabilize disputed territories. After particularly significant in the context of the Bosnian con the conflict most of the regional republics were roughly flict. In May 1990 a Yugoslav league game between fierce divided on ethnic lines. However, many of the now inde rivals Dinamo Zagreb and Red Star Belgrade descended pendent states, particularly Bosnia and Herzegovina, into a riot at the Maksimir Stadium in the Croatian capital remained scarred by the war, with NATO peacekeepers of Zagreb. Opposing supporters and club staff fought engaging in a continued presence in the region. each other and the police in the stands and on the pitch, in A number of lengthy and painful procedures then took what SACK AND SUSTER describe as a “venting of eth place. Bodies were recovered from mass graves,refu noreligious hostility.”43 Dinamo team captain Zvonimir gees returned to their homes. An extenside rebuilding Boban’s attack on a policeman, televised live throughout programme to put communities back together. Then Yugoslavia and beyond, was considered to capture the there were war crimes tribunals to convict those guilty essence of the strained political tensions that existed.44 of genocide. The extensive damage to architecture and For Croatians Boban became a national hero for express infrastructure, together with the considerable physi ing a generally held belief about the overrepresentation cal and psychological scars inflicted on the people, ren of Serbian interests in many of Yugoslavia’s social, politi dered the social transformation procedure a distressing cal and organisational structures. The two main football and protracted experience.41 To assist in the process of hooligan groups involved in the confrontations were the social development, a number of NGOs conducted pro Bad Blue Boys from Croatia and the Delije club from jects with a variety of community groups, particularly Serbia, who were both as much paramilitary groups as in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 2004, SP in partnership they were fan organisations.45 The factions both became with a Belarusian NGO called White Flower, and several heavily active in the subsequent Bosnian War, adopt local authorities and sports organisations, ran the first of ing major roles in nationalistic demonstrations including a number of football projects in Serbia and Montenegro ethnic cleansing campaigns. Football violence therefore (as it was then known), Bosnia and Herzegovina, and was considered to represent a “prelude to war.”46 Croatia. It was significant that these programmes were In October of the same year in Zagreb, Croatia played held in all three independent states, so to illustrate a com a friendly against the the USA football team that had just mitment to abstain from partiality, and focus instead on competed in the FIFA World Cup in Italy. At the same building the networks necessary to enable transformative time, there was a ceremony in a central square, which relationships to be developed. Football was a contro celebrated the restoration of a national monument that versial choice for this project for a number of reasons, had previously been removed by political opponents. and given the significance of the contextual element of Building on the clear link between politics and football,47 developmental proj ects, these require deliberation here. Importantly, the sport was and continues to be an extremely popular game in each former SFRY republic. In addition to the patriotic (and at times nationalist) following of the respective international teams, well supported domestic foot ball clubs such as Hajduk Split and Dinamo Zagreb in Croatia and Partizan Belgrade and Red Star Belgrade in Serbia serve as vehicles to promote social and ethnic identities and political agendas.42 Also, in 1991 Red Star became Serbia and Montenegro
J o u r n a l o f O l y m p ic H is t o r y 1 7 ( A u g u s t 2 0 0 9 ) N u m b e r 2 2 9 the public relations exercise was considered to have abilities against their peers. The coaching programme been conducted largely to denote American support for was carefully designed, context-bound and value-based. Croatia’s efforts to gain autonomy, and enhance the latter’s This was important, for as SUGDEN argues: “Even in stature in the world community.48 The contest against the the face of the most challenging socio-cultural and politi Americans was significant in a sporting context, as the cal circumstances, if projects... are well thought through, USA were set to host the following FIFA World Cup in carefully structured and well managed, they do have the 1994. Each of their ‘friendly fixtures’ staged in prepara capacity to make positive contributions to community tion for the event were therefore considered newsworthy. relations.”51 LAMBERT claims that a key challenge for Flowever, the political ramifications of the contest, which coaches working in such fractured communities is to: Croatia won 2-1, were considered far more noteworthy. “Identify specific concrete behaviours that are attached The match took place when Yugoslavia was still a sover to values and to reinforce them so that they may be taken eign nation, and the American participation effectively beyond the football field.”52 He refers to these ‘concrete served as an informal diplomatic recognition of Croatian behaviours’ as ‘teachable moments’. This formed an independence. Also, the match was held in the same important feature of the project. stadium as the infamous game between Dinamo and For coaches, the management of the sessions provided Red Star five months earlier. Other emblematic elements certain challenges. For instance, the participants were included a speech from the Croatian president and the often those whose parents had died fighting on conflict prominent display of the Croatian flag, whilst the only ing sides. It was important therefore that coaches were national anthems played were those of USA and Croatia. sensitive towards this issue, and were careful in devel The symbolism of the match galvanised and unified the oping coaching environments that facilitated integration Croatian people, and sent an ominous message to the and bonding, but that did not focus too much on aggres Serbs.49 sion or dominance. During the competitive elements Despite previously manipulative and “socially decon- of sessions therefore, it was important that teams were structive”50 applications of football in the region, the con mixed not only in terms of identity but also in relation siderable potential for the game to be utilised as vehicle to ability. It was also imperative that these sessions were for social development and peace promotion was also directed effectively, with well established boundaries evident. The simplicity and local popularity of the game put in place. This encouraged players not to cross those and the importance of having space in which to play, were boundaries, but instead acknowledge their existence and perceived as key reasons for employing football as the respect their importance. Coaching sessions featured central theme for the projects in Bosnia and Herzegovina, progressions of skill and fun-based activity, to allow for Serbia and Croatia. Also, local partners with extensive players to learn new skills and techniques, whilst enjoy experience in the region considered football to have great ing themselves and stretching their capacities to perform. potential as a unifying mechanism, translating physical Again it was important that this process was managed exertion into positive behaviour. These included cooper effectively, to ensure that competitiveness did not detract ation, respect, trust, honesty, responsibility and non-dis from the more important aspects of bonding, enjoyment crimination, bound up in a mutual regard for other players, and learning. In each group, the players were coached irrespective of ethnic, social, religious or political iden by experienced British volunteers assisted by local staff tity. Consequently these served as the central values in who represented a variety of identities. It was vital that this project. As this programme illustrates, football can the programme was actively endorsed by community help find expression to such values, offering players a leaders and other responsible and respected role models, platform to develop opportunities to rise above their cir to further legitimise the programme and encourage the cumstances and escape the violence and alienation that players to exhibit behaviour underpinned by the central the social structures of their communities had previously values. Each project culminated in a tournament, which been locked in. Football was perceived to be a way of provided participants with opportunities to illustrate the establishing relationships, forged to weaken bias and tactical, technical and moral lessons they had learned. reinforce impulses appropriate to social development. This was followed by a competitive game, with teams The application of this sport was therefore considered made up of the adult volunteers and coaches. It was an appropriate method for the locations in question, to imperative that adults exhibited the behaviour and values develop socially constructive behaviour and attitudes. they were keen to disseminate to the younger players, and The majority of the programmes were conducted in to provide an appropriate example they could model. locations close to the three international borders, notably MORRIS et al. note that youth sport programmes of in town such as Srebenica, Vukovar and Loznica. These this nature function to reduce boredom whilst creating a were considered relatively sensitive areas, where inter diversion from less desirable sometimes criminal, behav national and inter-ethnic relations held increased sig iour.53 Indeed, as well as occupying the participants, this nificance. Sessions were based around technical instruc programme encouraged them to engage in social devel tion, fun-based implementation of these lessons, and a opment. This is imperative, especially given that young competitive but safe environment in which to test their people are often marginalized from instead of targeted
3 0 J o u r n a l o f Olympic History 17(August 2009)Number 2 for peace-building and social reconstruction activities.54 however the lack of sustained and long-term vision and Also as BAXTER notes, many developmental workers provision in the areas concerned inhibited opportunities have a tendency to think for the participants, “and so we to build on the trust that had been developed in the initial do not listen effectively, we do not communicate clearly programmes. This operational failure serves to empha and we ‘pass’ on the problem rather than working through sise the importance of promoting sustainability for future to a solution.”55 Reflective ‘team talks’ were held with ventures, whilst also further underlining the significance each group before and after coaching sessions, where the of this Olympic ideal. players could discuss the issues raised and the values of One aspect in which both projects proved successful the project. This was beneficial for the British coaches was in regard to the delimitations imposed on participant also, as it provided useful feedback on how meaningful, numbers. Previous experience together with existing appropriate and well managed the initiative had been. academic reflections substantiate the argument that mere In addition, plans were drawn up to arrange subsequent mass engagement in projects of this nature will not ensure matches involving various communities, to enable the the mitigation of barriers to social development. This is platform this project provided to be built upon by further because the financial and human resources available in provision to engage in socially constructive activities. such programmes are not limitless, and projects must However, there was perceived to be a lack of meaning operate within confined logistical structures. Therefore, ful interest in making this progression become a reality. although the contention put forward by PEACOCK that The subsequent matches that were staged therefore rep ‘the more who play, the more Olympians’57 holds some resented little more than isolated, random and unsustain truth, the manageability of individual programmes is able efforts to further the social integration of partici vital to the subsequent impact. Clearly however, only pants. So Despite the successful implementation of well when an innovation is motivated by appropriate prior designed initial programmes , challenges to the capacity ities, focuses on people and not merely processes, and is for sustainable development were apparent. It is import skilfully planned and implemented will the involvement ant that lessons are learned from such experiences, in of a population, regardless of scale, prove constructive order to bring promise and practice into closer alignment, in mitigating perceived or actual challenges. However, and to more effectively facilitate meaningful and lasting this highlights another key point in relation to work of change in fractured communities. this nature, namely the methodological difficulties appar ent in terms of measuring and illustrating the ‘effect’ of Conclusion sport. Discerning whether perceived ‘improvements’ are Sports such as football together with other forms the direct consequence of a given programme, or some of physical activity are rapidly gaining recognition as other developmental process can prove a complex task, simple, low-cost, and effective means of achieving devel often made more difficulties by conditions at the time. opment goals. The projects in Russia and Bosnia and This requires further deliberation in subsequent work. Herzegovina explored here were collaborative efforts, The central limitation of sustainability is also an issue structured around carefully designed context-bound here, as it is difficult to interpret changes in attitudes football coaching programmes. Both initiatives were a and behaviour. This is particularly the case with short response to complex social challenges, staged in sym term measures as these do not allow for re - assessments bolically significant locations. The projects were under of the frequency and intensity of participation and the pinned by appropriate value-based philosophies, and degree of participants’ adherence over time. Such future structured around teachable moments. This approach was analysis would be important for any attempts to repro centred on key Olympic ideals including non-discrimi duce the programme at a later date. CUNNINGHAM and nation, respect, universality and solidarity. Of course the BENEFORTI illustrate the requirement for indicators of practical implementation of these ideas is not without “program viability and sustainability” as “these indi tension, as there are numerous possibilities of interpre cators can enhance understanding of the processes that tation associated with Olympism.56 Importantly however, can lead to positive outcomes (and therefore how they the programmes implemented values system inspired and can be reproduced).”58 informed by successful ventures and appropriate philos Finally, although football can prove a useful medium ophies, adhering to universally acceptable principles, in this context, and experienced international person whilst remaining constructive and relevant to the unique nel and agencies can function collaboratively to deliver contexts in which the projects were conducted. The ini meaningful social development initiatives by employing tiatives were however limited on a number of levels. this tool, it is important to ensure that ideas and initiatives The lack of opportunities for inter-ethnic integration are not merely imposed. Instead such projects should be in the Beslan project has been documented. However, based at least in part on local contexts, ingenuity and another weakness common to both programmes related efforts. This has been illustrated in relation to the need to the issue of sustainability. Efforts were made with the to implement tailored versions of football, (e.g. competi Bosnian programme to build inter-community relation tive, non-competitive, codified, non-codified), reflecting ships. Trust was a key element of these connections; the needs, abilities and interests of participants. Also,
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