The Grammar of the English Verb Phrase Volume 1: The Grammar of the English Tense System ≥ Topics in English Linguistics 60-1 Editors Bernd Kortmann Elizabeth Closs Traugott Mouton de Gruyter Berlin · New York The Grammar of the English Verb Phrase Volume 1: The Grammar of the English Tense System A Comprehensive Analysis by Renaat Declerck in collaboration with Susan Reed and Bert Cappelle Mouton de Gruyter Berlin · New York Mouton de Gruyter (formerly Mouton, The Hague) is a Division of Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin. Țȍ Printed on acid-free paper which falls within the guidelines of the ANSI to ensure permanence and durability. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Declerck, Renaat. The grammar of the English tense system : a comprehensive analysis / by Renaat Declerck in cooperation with Susan Reed and Bert Cappelle. p. cm. − (The grammar of the English verb phrase ; v. 1) (Topics in English linguistics ; 60.1) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-3-11-018589-8 (hardcover : acid-free paper) ISBN-10: 3-11-018589-X (hardcover : acid-free paper) 1. English language − Tense. 2. English language − Grammar. I. Reed, Susan, 1959− II. Cappelle, Bert, 1975− III. Title. PE1301.D36 2006 4251.62−dc22 2006020424 ISBN-13: 978-3-11-018589-8 ISBN-10: 3-11-018589-X ISSN 1434-3452 Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Bibliothek Die Deutsche Bibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data is available in the Internet at <http://dnb.ddb.de>. © Copyright 2006 by Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, 10785 Berlin All rights reserved, including those of translation into foreign languages. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Cover design: Martin Zech, Bremen. Typesetting: META Systems GmbH, Wustermark. Printed in Germany. Acknowledgements Susan Reed and Bert Cappelle have offered me substantial assistance in writing this book. I want to thank them specially. I also wish to thank the various people who have contributed to the writing of the book by commenting on an earlier draft of one or more chapters. In alphabetical order they are: Griet Beheydt, Ilse Depraetere, Raphael Salkie, Elizabeth Traugott, Naoaki Wada, and Christopher Williams. Table of contents Acknowledgements V Table of contents VII Chapter 1. Introduction 1 Chapter 2. Towards a theory of tense and time 91 Chapter 3. The absolute use of the present tense 171 Chapter 4. The absolute past tense 193 Chapter 5. The absolute use of the present perfect 209 Chapter 6. The present perfect vs the preterite in clauses without temporal adverbials 315 Chapter 7. Absolute tense forms referring to the post-present 335 Chapter 8. Temporal domains and relative tenses: theoretical foundations 361 Chapter 9. Temporal subordination in the various time-zones 441 Chapter 10. Two tense systems with post-present reference 529 Chapter 11. Tense choice determined by temporal focus 571 Chapter 12. Preterite vs present perfect in clauses with temporal adverbials 589 Chapter 13. Adverbial when-clauses and the use of tenses 635 Chapter 14. Adverbial before-clauses and after-clauses 685 Glossary 759 References 831 Index 833 1. Introduction I. General introductory remarks 4 1.1 Aims and scope of the work 4 1.2 Symbols and conventions 5 1.3 The illustrative material 6 1.4 The structure of the book 8 II. General linguistic terminology 12 1.5 ‘Situation’, ‘actualization, ‘actualize’ 12 1.6 Phrases 12 1.7 Clause, predicate 13 1.8 Sentences 13 1.9 Alternative definitions of ‘verb phrase’ 15 1.10 Tensed vs nontensed verb forms 15 1.11 ‘Present’ and ‘perfect’ nonfinite forms 17 1.12 Lexical verbs vs auxiliaries 18 1.13 Transitive vs intransitive lexical verbs 20 III. Meaning categories expressed by verb forms 22 A. Tense 22 1.14 Introduction 22 1.15 The formation of the present tense 23 1.16 The formation of the past tense 23 1.17 The formation of the other tenses 24 1.18 The meanings of tenses: expressing temporal relations 25 1.19 Special uses of tenses 27 B. Aspect 28 1.20 Introduction 28 1.21 Perfective aspect 30 1.22 Imperfective aspect 31 1.23 Habitual aspect 33 1.24 Repetitive vs semelfactive aspect 35 1.25 Aspectual form vs aspectual meaning 37 1.26 Perfect aspect? 37 C. Mood and modality 38 1.27 Definition of mood and modality 38 IV. The precise meanings and uses of ‘situation’ and ‘actualization’ 40 1.28 Definition of ‘situation’, ‘actualize’ and ‘actualization’ 40 1.29 Situation: meaning (denotation) versus reference 40 1.30 Terminological conventions for speaking about situations 42 1.31 Terminology used to refer to situation types and verb classes 45 1.32 Situation types 47 2 1. Introduction V. Abstract situation types: ontological aspect 49 1.33 Introduction 49 1.34 Ontological feature 1: ‘static’ versus ‘dynamic’ 51 1.35 Ontological feature 2: ‘agentive’ versus ‘nonagentive’ 53 1.36 Ontological feature 3: ‘homogeneous’ versus ‘heterogeneous’ 55 1.37 Ontological feature 4: ‘durative’ vs ‘punctual’ 57 1.38 Ontological feature 5: [( transitional] 59 1.39 Ontological feature 6: ‘telic’ vs ‘atelic’ 60 1.40 Ontological feature 7: [( evolving] 65 VI. Classifications of situation types 66 1.41 Introduction 66 1.42 Classification 1: states, actions, events and processes 66 1.43 Classification 2: Vendler’s taxonomy 70 VII. Actualization aspect: ‘bounded’ vs ‘nonbounded’ 72 1.44 Definition of (non)bounded situations/clauses 72 1.45 ‘Nonbounded actualization’ ϭ ‘homogeneous actualization’ 74 1.46 (Non)boundedness and duration adverbials 75 1.47 (Non)boundedness vs (a)telicity 77 1.48 (Un)bounding clause constituents 79 VIII. The aspectual interpretation of a clause 81 1.49 Aspectual interpretation 81 IX. Summary of chapter 1 83 1.50 Parts I and II 83 1.51 Part III 83 1.52 Part IV 84 1.53 Part V 85 1.54 Part VI 87 1.55 Part VII 88 1.56 Part VIII 88 Abstract 3 Abstract The aim of this book is to describe the workings which the utterer has in mind a particular ‘actu- of the system of special verb forms used in Eng- alization’ in the extralinguistic world. If situa- lish to locate situations in time. In this introduc- tions are the semantic category expressed by tory chapter we lay the terminological and con- clauses, it is necessary to examine what semantic ceptual groundwork which is necessary before categories are expressed by smaller linguistic units, we embark on our grammatical description of like verbs and verb phrases, which are often also the English tense system. Our concern is to pro- said to refer to ‘situations’ in the linguistic litera- vide precise definitions of the basic linguistic ture. terms that will be used and to explain the con- Part V (ϭ sections 1.33Ϫ1.40) addresses the ceptual apparatus that will be adopted both in properties by which these latter semantic catego- this volume and in subsequent volumes dealing ries (which we call ‘situation-templates’) can be with the English verb phrase. (The definitions classified into different types. This section is of the terms and concepts used in the book are concerned with ‘ontological aspect’ (perhaps brought together in an extensive glossary at the better known as ‘lexical aspect’), which involves end of the book.) such oppositions as ‘static’ versus ‘dynamic’, ϭ Ϫ Part I ( sections 1.1 1.4) first gives some ‘agentive’ versus ‘nonagentive’, ‘telic’ versus preliminary notes on this work’s aims, contents, ‘atelic’, ‘homogeneous’ versus ‘heterogeneous’, notational conventions, and the like. etc. ϭ Ϫ In part II ( sections 1.5 1.13) we briefly de- In part VI (ϭ sections 1.41Ϫ1.43), some of fine our basic linguistic terms, such as ‘situa- these oppositions are used to distinguish four tion’, ‘verb phrase’, ‘verb form’, etc. Since this different types of situation proper: states, ac- study is intended as the first part of a multi- tions, events and processes. volume grammar, it seems necessary to us to Part VII (ϭ sections 1.44Ϫ1.48) introduces make explicit the way in which we use such the notion ‘actualization aspect’. This third kind terms, despite the fact that readers will already be familiar with most of them, in order to avoid of aspect, apart from grammatical aspect and possible misunderstandings. ontological aspect, pivots on the distinction be- Part III (ϭ sections 1.14Ϫ1.27) is a brief over- tween ‘boundedness’ and ‘nonboundedness’, view of tense and two other areas of meaning having to do with whether or not a (telic or that can be expressed by the use of verb forms atelic) situation is represented or interpreted as in English and that interact with tense: the sys- reaching a terminal point. tem of grammatical aspect and the system of In part VIII (ϭ section 1.49) we describe how mood and modality. the aspectual interpretation of a clause may arise In part IV (ϭ sections 1.28Ϫ1.32) we take a through an interaction of the three different closer look at the term ‘situation’. By this term kinds of aspect. we mean whatever can be expressed by a sen- Part IX (ϭ sections 1.50Ϫ1.56) gives a sum- tence (more accurately, by a ‘clause’), and for mary of this first chapter. 4 1. Introduction I. General introductory remarks 1.1 Aims and scope of the work 1.1.1 The goal we had in mind when embarking on this work was to write a Grammar of the English tense system which was at the same time a scientific study and a work which could be used as a reference grammar by linguists and students of English with a basic knowledge of descriptive linguistics and a fairly advanced proficiency in English.