Louisiana State University LSU Digital Commons

LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses Graduate School

1968 A Descriptive Analysis of the Phonology of Selected Poems by Andrei Voznesensky. Mary Frances Hopkins Louisiana State University and Agricultural & Mechanical College

Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/gradschool_disstheses

Recommended Citation Hopkins, Mary Frances, "A Descriptive Analysis of the Phonology of Selected Poems by Andrei Voznesensky." (1968). LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses. 1492. https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/gradschool_disstheses/1492

This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at LSU Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses by an authorized administrator of LSU Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. This dissertation has been 69-4475 microfilmed exactly as received HOPKINS, Mary Frances, 1932- A DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS OF THE PHONOLOGY OF SELECTED POEMS BY ANDREI VOZNESENSKY.

Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College, Ph.D., 1968 Speech

Please note: Name in vita is Mary Frances McKoy HopKins. University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan

(c) Mary Frances HopKins 1969

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED A DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS OF THE PHONOLOGY OF

SELECTED POEMS BY ANDREI VOZNESENSKY

A Dissertation

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

in

The Department of Speech

by Mary Frances HopKins B.S., Louisiana State University, 1952 M .A ., Louisiana State U niversity, 1959 August, 1968 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The writer wishes to thank Tamara Kaszkurewicz for her invaluable help and supervision in translating the Russian poems. For their encouragement and helpful criticism the writer wishes to thank the members of her committee: Dr. Waldo Braden,

Dr. Fabian Gudas, Dr. Claude Shaver, and Dr. John Wildman. For constant help and supervision during the writer’s professional edu­ cation and especially for perceptive guidance and encouragement with the present study, the writer wishes to thank Dr. Francine

M e rritt. TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

ACKNOWLEDGMENT...... ii

ABSTRACT ...... v

CHAPTER

I. INTRODUCTION ...... 1

Review of the L ite ra tu re ...... 3

Establishment of the Phonology ofthe Poems . 7

Sources of Phonological Data ...... 12

Sources of the Printed P o e m s ...... 13

Method for Interpreting the D a ta ...... 19

Organization of the S tu d y ...... 20

II. SIGNIFICANT GRAMMATICAL ANDPHONO­ LOGICAL FEATURES OF RUSSIAN...... 22

Transliteration ...... 22

Grammar and Syntax ...... 25

P h o n o lo g y ...... 30

Versification ...... 46

Sum m ary ...... 51

III. ANALYSES OF THE POEMS ...... 53

"Autumn in Sigulda" ...... 55

iii CHAPTER PAGE

"Parabolic B allad" ...... 112

" G o y a " ...... 151

"You Sit Pregnant and P ale" ...... 170

, "Motor Races on a Vertical W a ll" ...... 203

"Night Airport in New York" ...... 231

'•'Antiworlds" ...... 283

"Foggy S treet" ...... 333

S u m m a r y ...... 348

IV. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ...... 366

Russian Language and Versification...... 368

Phonological Structure of Voznesensky's Poems 37 0

The English Translations ...... 372

Significance of the S tu d y ...... 372

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 374

APPENDICES

A. THE RUSSIAN TEXTS ...... 385

B. LITERAL TRANSLATIONS PROVIDED BY THE RESEARCHER ...... 395

C. TRANSCRIPTIONS...... 406

D. AUDIO TAPES AVAILABLE FOR ANALYSES . . 428

VITA ...... 430

iv ABSTRACT

A thorough understanding of the literary work of art is basic to oral interpretation both as a critical discipline and as a per­ forming art.

For poetry in particular careful analysis of the oral structure is essential to understanding, but literary scholars have long puzzled over what constitutes oral structure. The problem be­ comes both more complicated and more pertinent with the increase of translated poetry.

The poetry of Andrei Voznesensky, one of Russia's leading contemporary poets and a world literary figure, is of particular interest. He is recognized as an outstanding poet and fine craftsman, he reads his poems publicly all over the world, and his poems have been widely translated into English.

The problem of selecting and judging translations confronts the literary scholar. How can the phonological structure of a poem be compared with that of its translation? A comparison of the sounds alone would be futile. Instead, the comparison must be be­ tween the function of the sounds of the original poem and those in the translation. Of particular interest to the present study was an ex­ periment in translation. Patricia Blake and Max Hayward, both scholars of Russian literature and culture, supervised a project shared by six English-speaking poets: W. H. Auden, Jean

Garrigue, Stanley Kunitz, Stanley Moss, William Jay Smith, and

Richard Wilbur. The poets, knowing little or no Russian, were given literal translations and prosodic models of Voznesensky's » w‘ poems and heard the poems read aloud in Russian. The poems resulting from this collaboration have achieved a degree of standardization because they have been read on the stage, on tele­ vision and on a commercial recording.

For the present study eight poems were selected on the basis of variety and availability of oral readings by the poet and availability of English translations. Four poets of the experiment,

Auden, Kunitz, Smith, and Wilbur, were represented by two poems each. Additional English translations provided thirty-five English p o em s.

The procedure was first to establish the lexical and pho­ nological features of each Russian poem and the structure of the poem as a whole. A literal translation was made in order to study the lexical content. A transcription of phonetic and phonemic features of the poet's oral performance provided the basis for the phonological structure. Relationships between lexical and pho­ nological features were noted and the total structure of the poem was described.

Both the phonetic and phonemic features of the English poems were compared with the Russian pqems. More important, subjected to analysis in the English poems was the relationship of the phonology to the lexical structure and to the total structure of the poems.

Though none of the English poems showed the intricate phonological patterns of the Russian or the closeness of lexical and phonological features, on the basis of this analysis the translations of Auden,

Kunitz, Smith, and Wilbur were judged to be closest to the Russian p o em s.

The present study provides descriptions of Voznesensky's phonological technique and the relationship between the phonological structure of the poem and his oral performance.

The study further indicates that it is possible to make a worthwhile comparison of the phonology of a translation and of the original poem. Moreover, it is possible to make judgments about translations of poetry, judgments based on describable charac­ teristics of the original poem and various translations.

The study also provides additional support for the usefulness of phonetic and phonemic analysis as a tool of literary criticism for the interpreter. A transcription of the significant phonological features of the poet's reading is a basis for the analysis of the phonological structure, an integral part of the literary artifact.

viii CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Critics have long speculated and argued about what constitutes literature in general and poetry in particular. Although such discus­ sions have as yet not evolved a consensus of any kind, they have helped to define the problem if not the poem, and critics and readers alike have continued to study what they can neither define nor unerringly identify. Fortunately, it is possible to accept something as a poem on such a precarious basis as the author*s label for it and make judgments about it that other readers can either accept or challenge.

Much of the discussion of poetry has centered on the signifi­ cance of its oral form. The impact of poetry, whatever it may be, is related directly to the features of sound in the poem itself. Not only the aesthetic value but the meaning of a poem is said to be inseparable from the elements of sound, rhyme, rhythm, and other oral features.

The phonological features of a poem are especially significant to scholars in the field of oral interpretation. Both as a performing art and as a method of literary criticism an oral presentation of a poem reveals phonological structure. In order to present the literary arti­ fact, a student of literature needs to understand all of the parts of the 2

literary work and appreciate their significance to the whole.

Increasingly important as the world grows smaller and facil­

ity with languages more widespread is literature in translation. A

poem, because of the richness and intricacy of its linguistic texture,

is a special problem. The difficulties of translating poetry have long been recognized, but an increasing awareness of the components of

literary form almost forces the question: Is there really such a thing

as a poem in translation? Or is the translation an entirely new liter­

ary object inspired by the original but not necessarily resembling it?

How are translations to be judged?

The question of translation becomes especially pertinent with

the marked popularity of foreign poets like Andrei Voznesensky, who is surely one of the most popular living poets. Young, intense, Rus­

sian, he reads his poems in his native language not only to those who

speak it but also to enthusiastic non-Russian audiences in many parts

of the world. His work is widely discussed and widely translated in

the English-speaking world, and the questions arise: What are the

characteristics of the sounds of his poems, and how and to what de­

gree are these sounds reflected in his various English translations?

The purpose of this study is to analyze the phonological fea­

tures of selected poems of Andrei Voznesensky as they relate to the

lexical and aesthetic features and contribute to the total effect of the poems. The oral and written poems in Russian and in English are sub­

jected to analysis.

There are several reasons for selecting the poetry of Andrei

Voznesensky. First, obviously, he is a poet of significance. Second

and equally important to a student of oral interpretation is the fact that

Andrei Voznesensky is a reader, a performer of his own works. In

Russia today the oral tradition of poetry flourishes, and the fact that

Voznesensky lives and writes in a tradition of poet-artist-performer

makes his poems highly appropriate for this investigation.

Third, Voznesensky's poems were used recently in an experi­

ment in translation. Six English-speaking poets who knew little or no

Russian were asked to make translations of some of Voznesensky's

poems. The poets were given literal translations from the Russian

and had the opportunity to listen to the poems in Russian. These poets were also assisted by people who knew Russian and could explain cer­

tain items of usage, references, images, and other related features .

of the original language of the poems. The English poems produced in

these circumstances will be used in this study.

I. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

For almost two decades the tools of linguistic analysis have

been used for literary criticism. Since 19£>1» when Harold Whitehall

enthusiastically heralded Trager and Smith's Outline of English 4

Structure* as "a work that literary criticism cannot afford to ignore, " there have been so many studies concerned with linguistics and litera­ ture that a detailed description of them would be a study in itself. With renewed interest in the literary text as an autonomous aesthetic object, it is hardly surprising to find the knowledge of language gained from the science of linguistics being applied to literature.

One of the earliest studies to make use of linguistic description was A. A. Hill's analysis of "The W indhover. "2 Calling his work an

"Experiment in Structural Analysis, " Hill used phonemic data to es­ tablish the meter and to resolve some lexical ambiguities in the text.

Equally well known is Seymour Chatman's study of Frost's

■3 "Mowing, " in which Chatman used phonemic description to compare several oral presentations of the poem and to explicate some of the lexi­ cal matters. James Mason's reading of "The Bishop Orders His Tomb" is the subject of another study by Chatman published as a chapter in

The Oral Study of Literature.^

* Harold Whitehall, Review of An Outline of English Structure, by George L. Trager and Henry Lee Smith, Jr. , Kenyon Review, XIII (Autumn 1951), 710-714. 2 "An Analysis of 'The Windhover, ' An Experiment in Struc­ tural Analysis, " PMLA, LXX (December 1955), 968-978. 3 "Robert Frost's 'Mowing': An Inquiry into Prosodic Struc­ ture," Kenyon Review, XVIII (Summer 1956), 421-438.

^Thomas O. Sloan (ed.), (New York: Random House, 1966), pp. 94-133. 5

Several dissertations evidence the use of linguistic data for the study of literary texts, some of the studies primarily concerned with linguistic analysis itself. For her study Perry made a phonemic 5 analysis of ten modern poems, and Kaplan studied poetry "both in terms of the relatively new linguistic techniques for the structural analysis of poetry, and in terms of the poet's own pronouncements con- £ cerning the nature of poetry. " Hendricks extended the techniques of 7 linguistic analysis to the study of the structure of the short story.

Other dissertations have concentrated on the oral features of the work of individual poets. Both Barnhill 8 and Lightfoot7 studied 9 specific works of T. S. Eliot, the latter concerned primarily with

^Mary Frances Perry, "Linguistics as a Basis for Literary Criticism" (unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, University of Indiana, 1964).

^Robert Boris Kaplan, "An Analysis of Contemporary Poetic Structure, 1930-1955" (unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, University of Southern California, 1963), p. 1.

^William Oliver Hendricks, "Linguistics and the Structural Analysis of Literary Texts" (unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Uni­ versity of Illinois, 1965).

®Yiron Leonard Barnhill, "Poetic Context in the Collected Poems of T. S. Eliot, a Linguistic Investigation of Poetic Context" (unpublished Ph, D. dissertation, University of Michigan, I960).

^Marjorie Jean Lightfoot, "T. S. Eliot's The Cocktail Party: An Experiment in Prosodic Description" (unpublished Ph.D. disser­ tation, Northwestern University, 1964). 6

establishing the meter of The Cocktail Party. Loesch^® studied the progress of Dylan Thomas's poetic technique as it was revealed in her phonemic analyses of his oral readings, and Lukanitsch used phonetic analysis to study four poems of Gerard Manley Hopkins. Carrington 12 used phonetic analysis to study the prosody of Archibald MacLeish.

Three collections of essays contain material pertinent to this 13 kind of literary study. The earliest of the three, Style in Language, is the record of a conference held at Indiana University in 1958. Not unexpectedly, the contributions vary widely, some concerned with theory and some with application. The same wide range of interests is reflected in Fowler's collection, ^ which is only slightly marred by his defensive attitude. The most recent collection, Essays on the

^Katharine Taylor Loesch, "Prosodic Patterns in the Poetry of Dylan Thomas" (unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Northwestern University, 1961).

**Ruth Marion Lukanitsch, "Relationship of the Figures of Sound to the Rhythm of Certain Poems of Gerard Manley Hopkins" (unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Northwestern University, 1963). 1 7 Richard Hale Carrington, "Archibald MacLeish: A Study of his Prosody for the Oral Interpreter" (unpublished Ph.D. disser­ tation, University of Wisconsin, 1965).

1 ■ J .... Thomas A. Sebeok (ed.), (Cambridge, Mass.: The M .I.T. Press, I960).

^Roger Fowler (ed.), Essays on Style and Language: Linguistic and Critical Approaches to Literary Style (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1966). Language of Literature, containing some reprints from Style in

Language, is similar in scope to the other two.

As all of these writers point out, by both statement and impli­ cation, linguistic analysis--phonetic, phonemic, grammatical, or all three--is not in itself literary criticism. After the linguistic data have been assembled, their significance to the literary work of art must be reasoned.

II. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PHONOLOGY OF THE POEMS

At present there is no accepted method of determining exactly 16 what the sound of a poem is, but a legitimate approach to such an abstraction is the process of listening to one reasonable oral perform­ ance of a poem ("reasonable" meaning a performance that shows under­ standing of the words and awareness of the sounds of the poem) and using the standardized symbols and methods of phonemic transcription to record the variations in pitch, stress, and juncture that are signifi­ cant within the framework of the language itself. One reasonable oral rendering is that of the poet himself; therefore in this study the sounds

15 Seymour Chatman and Samuel R. Levin (eds.), (Boston; Houghton Mifflin Company, 1967).

16 * Rene Wellek and Austin "Warren, Theory of Literature (3rd ed.; New York; Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1956), pp. 142- 157. 8

of the poem in Russian are established by Voznesensky's reading, and the poets'readings of their English translations are used when available.

From the beginning some terms should be defined and some general principles understood. Because consistency of definitions with­ in the study seems more important than universal, or even majority, acceptance of definitions, no effort will be made to reconcile the defi­ nitions given here with those in use elsewhere.

It will be convenient to discuss certain facets of a poem as

"contexts. " The phonetic context of a poem includes the individual sounds, sometimes called segmental phonemes, and the syllabic stress of words. In the line, "Roses are red, " the phonetic context appears in loose transcription as ['roUz8z0r red]. To transcribe these words accurately as they are spoken by an individual at a given time would be far less helpful to this study. First, such transcriptions are incred­ ibly difficult to read, even for experts. Furthermore, the object under study is the poem itself, not the individual traits of the reader , even if the reader happens to be the poet himself. On the other hand, even loose transcription involves a choice of phonemes--for instance,

['roUz9z]or ['roUziz]-- and in this study the recording of the poem as read aloud by the poet provides the basis for such decisions.

The phonemic context includes what are often called supra- segmental phonemes. Both sentence stress, that is, stress on words within a sentence according to meaning, and pitch contours are 9

included. The previous line appears phonemically JZ *].*'+'■'+ 3 '1 \ /

The word stress is represented by / *'*'*• /, the pitch contour by

/ 2 13 1 /, and the phenomenon of juncture a s /++H /. This sys­ tem of marking is somewhat more awkward to read than those that utilize spacing on the page, but the method can be used on a con­ ventionally typed script and at least approaches standardization.

The phonemic context depends even more tha does the pho­ netic on the recorded version of the poem. Sentence stress, though partly dictated by grammar and certain conventional methods of ex­ pression, admits far more variation, legitimate and significant, than does word stress, that is, the stress on a syllable of a word. Em­ bracing this legitimate variation, nevertheless, are conventional re­ strictions based on the grammatical structure and usage of the language itself--restrictions that achieve a degree of standardization in pho­ nemic treatment of utterances. Therefore a phonemic transcription, which purports to show only meaningful variations and does not even attempt to delineate subtleties of voice, represents a balance between an individual speaker's utterance of a passage and the basic patterns of the language as they operate in any given situation. For instance, the sentence, "Jane's going home, " can be read in a variety of mean­ ingful ways. Most native speakers of English, reading it out of con- text and without much thought, will say /2 *+*w+3 » 1 ' /, Even nonsense 10

syllables dressed in proper morphemic endings will be read in the

same pattern. "The zimp's glunting shaze, " will, if identified as a complete sentence, follow the same pattern as "Jane's going home."

If a particular speaker, wishing to emphasize the fact that not Mary

* + ■* w + * V but Jane is leaving said, /Jane's going home /, no native speaker of

the language would be startled by the phonemic pattern. But under no circumstances could the pattern / Jane's going Home / be accepted as anything more than a vocal (or perhaps even just a transcribing) e x e rc ise.

The metrical context includes what is traditionally called meter. In both English and Russian, meter is basically the alterna­ tion of stressed and unstressed syllables; therefore, the four levels of phonemic stress must be distributed into two categories, stressed and unstressed. The metrical context also includes the lines as printed because the printed line establishes a unit of measure. Traditional terms like "trimeter, " "quatrain, " and "rhyme scheme" depend for their meaning on the concept of the printed line in poetry.

The phonetic, phonemic, and metrical contexts combine to form what can conveniently be designated as the phonological context, that is, the structure of all of the sounds of the poem. This context includes all of the traditional phonological poetic devices as well as any other distinctive aural traits that might not have labels. 11

Any oral version of a poem has certain paralinguistic features that are highly individualized and reveal information about the speaker himself instead of the utterance itself. The speaker's attitudes and emotions as well as personality and physical traits are indicated by paralinguistic features. These features are more closely related to culture than to language; that is, a paralinguistic item like voice quality functions independently of the words used by a speaker, and its effect on listeners depends on their local cultural background. Although these traits are revealed in an oral performance, their description is really beyond the province of phonemic description. However, there are re­ lationships between paralinguistic items of rate and volume and pho­ nemic items of stress and clause terminals.

Paralinguistic features are part of what could be called the rhetorical-emotional context, which includes the theme of a poem, the thought and ideas in it. The rhetorical-emotional context is based on both phonological and lexical context. The latter is the cognitive meaning of the poem, the words themselves and their relationships to each other according to their placement in sequence.

The aesthetic context is, not unexpectedly, more difficult to describe. It includes all of the phonological features as they combine to form patterns, pleasing or not, to the ear. It cannot be divorced from the rhetorical-emotional context. Like the latter, it is 12

culture-related, but its ties with the phonological context are obvious.

Because the phonological context of the poem is established by the phonetic and phonemic contexts, part of the data for this study will consist of the transcription of the sounds of the oral poem based on the poet's reading, with phonetic symbols for the segmental pho­ nemes and phonemic symbols for the suprasegmentals.

III. SOURCES OF PHONOLOGICAL DATA

The sources of the data for this study will consist primarily of two recordings and five audio tapes in the possession of the writer. 17 On one record, Antiworlds, are twelve poems read in Russian by

Voznesensky and in English by the poets who made the translations:

W. H. Auden, Stanley Kunitz, William Jay Smith, and Richard Wilbur.

On the other record, The Voices of Yevtushenko and Voznesensky, 18

Voznesensky reads eight of his poems. The two records will be re­ ferred to as Antiworlds Record, to distinguish it from the book of the same name, and Voices respectively. The audio tapes in the writer's possession are described in Appendix D.

Antiworlds: The Poetry of Andrei Voznesensky Columbia OL 6590 (1966).

1 ®The Voices of Yevgeni Yevtushenko and Andrei Voznesensky Monitor MR 113 (1964). IV. SOURCES OF THE PRINTED POEMS

The difficulty of translating Russian poetry has not intimidated

numbers of people, and there are English poetic versions of Voznesen-

sky's poetry by at least fifteen translators. 19 In addition there are 20 prose translations in the Penguin Book of Russian Verse and partial

translations as parts of prose articles. ^

Of special interest to the present study are the translations of

W. H. Auden, Stanley Kunitz, William Jay Smith, and Richard Wilbur because they are widely known as both poets and readers. These four, together with Jean Garrigue and Stanley Moss, participated in an ex­ periment in translation in which a poet who did not know the original

language worked with scholars who did.

The scholars in this undertaking were Patricia Blake and Max

Hayward. Patricia Blake is a former Moscow correspondent for Life

l^w. H. Auden, Natasha Bienstock, Robert Conquest, Jean Garrigue, Max Hayward, Anselm Hollo, Bernard Koten, Stanley Kunitz, Herbert Marshall, Stanley Moss, George Reavey, William Jay Smith, M errill Sparks, Richard Wilbur, Margaret Wettlin.

20 Introduced and edited by Dimitri Obolensky (Middlesex, England: Penguin Books, Ltd., 1962). 21 Such as Pierre Forgues, "The Poetry of Andrei Voznesen­ sky, " Survey, XLIX (October 1963), 63-77; or Nills A. Nillson, "The Parabola of Poetry: Some Remarks on the Poetry of Andrei Voznesenskij, " Scando-Slavica, X (1964), 49-64. 14

magazine and is editor of a book of Mayakovsky's poems. She and Max

Hayward are co-editors of two collections of Soviet writing: Pis sonant

Voices in Soviet Literature and Half-way to the Moon. Max Hayward, who at one time served with the British Embassy in Moscow, is a fellow of St. Antony's College, Oxford. He is a co-translator of D r. Zhivago and One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich. He translated Dudintsev's

New Year's Tale and Tertz's The Trial Begins.

The six English-speaking poets were given literal prose trans­ lations of the Russian poems and prosodic models. They also listened to the poems read aloud in Russian and conferred with Max Hayward about items of usage, allusions, and similar language difficulties. In a sense, these translations have become the standard texts in English.

One evidence of their standardization is the bilingual recording of Voz­ nesensky's poetry on which Voznesensky reads in Russian and Auden,

i. 22 Kunitz, Smith, and Wilbur read their own English translations. Dur­ ing Voznesensky's most recent visit to the United States in the spring of 1967, the English versions read on his programs were the ones produced by these poets, even when the readers were other than the 23 poets themselves. Because these four poets have read their trans­ lations professionally on records, television programs, and public

^ Antiworlds Record.

^The researcher attended two programs in New York at which none of the translator-poets were present, but their transla­ tions were read as the English poems. 15

performances, and because their translations have achieved a degree of recognition by Voznesensky and the public, their poems are central to this study. Each of these poets is represented by two poems se­ lected to give variety in theme and form. Other considerations that dictated the choices were the availability of oral performances of the poems in both Russian and English and the availability of other English translations for comparison. All of these poems are among Voznesen­ sky's best known and most popular works. The poems chosen for analysis are as follows:^

Auden: "Autumn in Sigulda, " "Parabolic Ballad" 25 Kunitz: "Goya," '"You sit, pregnant and pale'"

Smith: "Night Airport in New York, " "Motor Races on a Vertical Wall"

Wilbur: "Antiworlds, " "Foggy Street"

The English translations of these poems appear with facing 26 texts in English and in Russian in Antiworlds and the Fifth Ace.

24 These are Voznesensky's titles. Auden, Kunitz, and Wilbur use Voznesensky's titles, but Smith's titles are "New York Airport at Night" and "Wall of Death. " 25 First-line title is supplied by the researcher.

? f t "Patricia Blake and Max Hayward (eds.), (Garden City, New York: Doubleday and Company, Inc. , 1967), hereafter referred to as Antiworlds. Included in this book is the complete text of an earlier collection, Antiworlds (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1966). Refer­ ence to the latter book is unnecessary because it is completely incor­ porated into Antiworlds and the Fifth Ace. 16

There is an introduction containing biographical m aterial about

Voznesensky and some critical comments about the poems. In addi­ tion, there are explanatory notes for individual poems.

One of the leading bilingual translators of Voznesensky's poems, and one of the most prolific, is Herbert Marshall. His book, 27 Voznesensky: Selected Poems, is labelled "an authorized transla­ tion, " and includes forty-eight entries, some of them prose. His footnotes to the seven poems in this study are printed with the lines from the poems.

Marshall has translated other Russian writing and other Rus­ sian poets, including Mayakovsky and Yevtushenko. He has read his

English translations to Russian audiences, an experience he described in the Introduction: "A few months ago at the Moscow Theatre of Re­ citers and Poets, leading Soviet poets of all generations read one of their poems in the original, and in turn I read my translations, from 28 Gorky to Yevtushenko and Voznesensky. "

Another bilingual translator, also prolific, is Anselm Hollo, a Finnish-born poet living in England. Hollo writes his own poems in

^(New York: Hill and Wang, 1966). The revised edition ap­ peared in the same year. Because the pagination in the two books is identical both are referred to in this study as Marshall.

^M arshall, p. xxvii. 17

English and is referred to in this study as an "English" poet, "English" meaning in all cases "poets who write in English. " In one of the photo­ graphs in Marshall's book, Voznesensky is shown reciting his poetry at the Theatre Royal in London in June of 1965. Behind him sits Hollo, 29 described in the caption as a "poet and friend of Voznesensky's. "

Hollo's collection of Voznesensky's poems includes forty-nine entries, some of them prose. ^

Still another bilingual source is the pamphlet accompanying the record Voices. The English translations by Bernard L. Koten are printed like poetry, but there is no apparent attempt at meter or rhyme.

Koten, director of the Library for Intercultural Studies, teaches Rus­ sian at New York University.

George Reavey translated and discussed the Russian poems in 31 Modern European Poetry, which includes poems by Voznesensky.

More of Voznesensky's poems are included in The New Russian Poets 32 1953-1966: An Anthology. Some of Reavey's translations in the two

29Marshall, insert between pp. 66 and 67.

OQ Anselm Hollo, Selected Poems of Andrei Voznesensky (New York: Grove Press, Inc. , 1964), hereafter referred to as Hollo. 31 Modern European Poetry, ed. Willis Barnstone, et al. (New York: Bantam Books, Inc., 1966). 32 Selected, edited and translated by George Reavey (New York: October House, Inc., 1966). 18 collections are not identical. When two versions are available, both versions are used in this study.

33 Another bilingual anthology, Modern Russian Poetry, con­ tains five poems by Voznesensky, among them "Goya" and "Pregnant and Pale." Vladimir Markov served as the Russian scholar for this undertaking, and M errill Sparks as the poet. Markov, born in Russia, is a professor of Slavic Languages at Los Angeles and teaches Russian literature. Sparks, who worked with Robert Lowell and Paul Engle in the Poetry Workshop, has published poems in several literary maga­ zines. 34 In Odyssey Review Natasha Bienstock translates "New York

Airport at Night" and five other poems by Voznesensky. She is in no way identified by the magazine.

The Russian texts of the eight poems will be in all cases the oral texts rer»d by the author, but two kinds of deviation must be con­ sidered: alternates in the Russian versions used by the translators and alternate readings by the poet.

There are four major sources of the Russian texts.

33 Vladimir Markov and Merrill Sparks (eds.), Modern Russian Poetry: An Anthology with Verse Translations (New York: The Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc. , 1967).

■^Andrei Voznesensky, "Six Digressions from the Poem, 'The Tri-cornered Pear, 1 " Odyssey Review, II (December 1962), 142-157. 19

Antiworlds provides facing Russian texts, as does the pamphlet ac­ companying the record Voices. Also available are Voznesensky's two 35 most recent collections, Antimiry (Antiworlds) and Achillesovo 36 Serdtse (Achilles Heart), which the poet considers the most reliable source of the Russian texts. 37 The Russian texts of the eight poems used in this study appear in Appendix A.

There are two possibilities for discrepancies in the various oral performances of the poet: a momentary slip that does not appear in any printed version, or a choice between Russian texts. The form­ er are mentioned in footnotes to the transcriptions in Appendix C, the latter in the discussion in Chapter III. The phonetic and phonemic transcriptions represent a composite of Voznesensky's readings, should more than one oral version be available. Deviations of individ>* ual readings will be noted in the footnotes.

V. METHOD FOR INTERPRETING THE DATA

First, the lexical context of the poem in Russian is estab­ lished by a literal translation, "literal" signifying as far as possible word-for-word or phrase-for-phrase equivalents in English. Literal

^(Moscow: Molodaia Gvardiia, 1964). 36 ^ (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia Literatura, 1966).

37Interview with Andrei Voznesensky, New York, May 18, 1967. 20

translations made by the researcher constitute Appendix B. The basic source for the English equivalents is Smirnitsky. 38 Sources for words or expressions not found in Smirnitsky will be identified in footnotes.

Second, the phonological context, established by the phonetic and phonemic contexts, is described. The phonological context also includes rhyme, meter, and other phonological poetic devices.

Third, the various English translations are compared lexically and phonologically with the Russian original, in groups of lines and as total structure. To make a meaningful comparison of an

English translation to the Russian original, it is necessary also to evaluate the total English translation as a poem in itself, not merely as a translation.

VI. ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY

Chapter II considers the features of the Russian language and

Russian versification that are necessary to understand the oral poems in Russian.

Chapter III contains the descriptive analyses of eight poems by

Voznesensky and thirty*five English translations of these poems.

Chapter IV contains summary and conclusions.

There are four appendices. Appendix A contains the texts of

^®A. Smirnitsky, Russian-English Dictionary (3rd. ed.; New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc. , 1959). 21

the poems in Russian in the Cyrillic alphabet. Appendix B is made up of literal translations made by the researcher. The transcriptions of the poems in phonetics and phonemics constitute Appendix C. Appendix

D is a description of the six audio tapes in the possession of the re­ se a rc h e r. CH A PTER II

SIGNIFICANT GRAMMATICAL AND PHONOLOGICAL FEATURES OF RUSSIAN

Although a description of the Russian language is beyond the province of this study, it is practical to consider here certain perti­ nent features that offer particular difficulty to the translator or the non-Russian reader. To write Russian words without the Cyrillic alphabet, it is necessary to use a method of transliteration. The methods used in the present study are explained in the first section of this chapter. The second section deals with features of grammar and syntax. In the third section there is a consideration of phonological features of the language and the methods of transcription used in the present study. Sometimes English translation is provided for Russian words. When the English equivalents serve as appositives in the sen­ tences below, they are put in quotation marks inside parentheses.

Otherwise, they are only in quotation marks.

I. TRANSLITERATION

Recently there have been several methods of transliteration of Russian in use besides that of the Library of Congress, the method 23

varying according to the purpose o£ the writing.* In the present study it is necessary to use two systems, one for bibliographical material, for which standardization is necessary, and one for presenting the poems to non-Russian readers, for whom a consistent method of ap­ proximating the sounds of Russian is all that is needed. For biblio­ graphical items the Library of Congress system is used because of its exactness and wide acceptance. The same system is used for all discussion in the present chapter, where it is necessary to identify words and phrases as items of written language.

In the subsequent chapter, containing the analyses of the poems, a much looser system is used, one that is easier to read and that approximates sounds more than orthography. The Russian poems are presented in this kind of transliteration, and for the sake of con­ sistency Russian words appear in the same form in the discussion.

The chart that follows is exact only for the Library of Con­ gress system. The other symbols vary according to the sounds they represent at various times. For instance, final consonants are voice­ less in Russian, and unstressed vowels usually have different oral characteristics from stressed ones. Neither of these changes can be conveniently shown in the chart. The first column is Cyrillic, the

*J. Thomas Shaw, The Transliteration of Modern Russian for English-Language Publications (Madison: University of Wisconsin P r e s s , I 967 . ) 24

C y r illic I , o f C. poems I.P.A.

A a a a [a] E <5 b b l>] B B V V M r r g g [g] H n d d [d] E e e ye U«] 3£ e e yo [jo] 3K 3K zh zh [3l 3 3 z z [z] M M i i [ i ] a a i i [ i ] K K k k M JI JI 1 1 [1] M M m m [m] H H n n [n]

0 o 0 o . [ 0 ] n n P P [p] P p r r [r] C c s s [s] T T t t [ t ]

______7 . y ______u u [u] f f [ f ] X x kh kh [x] a u t s t s [to] ^ ti ch ch [tS] III m sh sh [S] m m shch sh [S]

■b it — — H u y ..... i [±] B i —— — 3 3 e e [e] 10 io iu yu [ju] fl H i a y a foa] 25

second Library of Congress, the third the transliteration of the poems,

and the fourth phonetic .

II. GRAMMAR AND SYNTAX

The most significant non-English feature in the Russian lan- 2 guage is the declension of nouns and adjectives, including participles.

Declensions offer problems to the translator for at least four reasons.

First, because of the meaningfulness of case endings, word order in

Russian lacks the importance it has in English. A literal translation without a change in the sequence of words often produces a strained, awkward, or even meaningless pattern in English, e.g. , the line in

"Autumn in Sigulda," "Still on cheek your warm. " This word order is natural in Russian and almost incomprehensible in English.

Second, because case endings in Russian are dictated by a variety of factors, it is possible to achieve in Russian poetry a kind of repetition that is denied the English poet. Declensional endings de­ pend on verbs, prepositions, and numbers, as well as function in the

sentence, and there are many varieties of phonological changes that accompany shifts in case, including changes of stress, fleeting vowels, added vowels. Therefore, rich variety can be achieved by using nouns

^That the Russian category of "participles" is more limited than that of English is not significant to this explanation. 26

repetitively. In Pushkin's poem, "I remember a wonderful moment,"

he repeats "slozi" ("tears"), "zhizn" ("life"), and "lubov" ("love"),

but what would be exact repetition in English is varied in Russian by

the demands of the preposition "bez" ("without").

Bez sloz, bez zhizni, bez lubvi. ("Without tears, life, love") I zhizn, i slozi, i lubov. ("And life, tears, love")

A third significant use of case endings, one that Voznesensky, uses often, is the instrumental case for comparison. He says

v w "sigaretkoi" for "like a cigarette" or "vilkoi" for "like a fork. " (The

ending "-oi" replaces "-a" in the instrumental case of these feminine

singular nouns.) This use of the instrumental is quite common in Rus­

sian and avoids the wordiness necessary in translation.

A fourth difficulty with declension for the translator is the da­

tive case, particularly when the dative is the standard construction

used with a verb. Sometimes the dative construction can be preserved

in English even though a lexically superior choice would be the form

of nominative plus verb. For instance, "mne nravitsa" can be ade­

quately translated as either "to me is pleasing" or "I like, " the

former grammatically more exact, the latter more common English

usage. There are Russian expressions with no adequate dative equiv­

alent in English. In "Motor Races on a Vertical Wall" there is the

phrase "mne mereshitsa, " best translated as "I fancy I see. " Unfortunately the full Russian sentence, because of a compound verb, does not allow a change from the dative construction: "Sushchnost* zhenshchiny ("essence of woman") mne mereshitsa ("I fancy I see") i letit ("and flies"). " Obviously the English equivalents offered here cannot be united into a meaningful English sentence. To preserve the form of the Russian sentence, the translator must content himself with a lexically inferior choice, like "the essence of woman appears to me and f lie s . "

There are times when the reflexive form of the verb used with the dative has a different meaning from the standard form of nomina­ tive plus verb. The verb "khotet'" means "to want. " The expression

"ia khochu" corresponds both lexically and grammatically to the English phrase "I want. " The same verb used in reflexive form preceded by the dative, "mne khochetsa, " is an idiomatic expression with no grammati­ cal equivalent in English. An English lexical approximation is "I feel like. " In the poem "Pregnant and Pale" Voznesensky uses the reflex­ ive followed by the dative, "plachetsa tebe" instead of "ti plachesh' 11

("you cry"). The closest English equivalent is "you feel like crying. " 3 In Russian there is no present tense form of "to be. " It is quite common to use merely an adverb for expressions that require three English words: "kholodno" to mean "it is cold. " In "Motor

Except for the highly specialized use of "est, " the third person singular of the verb "to be, " which is not significant to the eight poems used for this study. 28

Races on a Vertical Wall" the one word "nadoelo" mast be translated

"it is boring. " Although "nadoelo" and "it is boring" have the same number of syllables and therefore the same metrical structure, the additional words affect the phonemic structure. There are two plus junctures in the English, none in the Russian.

Without a form of "to be" Russian predicate nominatives axe established by dashes: "ia--Goiia" (I--Goya). This construction has a terseness in Russian impossible with the English equivalent, and fur­ thermore, the construction corresponds to either formal or informal

English phrases: "I am Goya" and "I'm Goya. " The translator is

4 forced to choose, knowing that neither choice can be fully satisfactory.

Another required choice, with no fully satisfactory alternative, is necessitated by the two forms for "you" in Russian, "ty" and "vy. "

The intimate form is "ty"; the more formal, and the plural, is "vy. "

To substitute "thou" in English for "ty" is at best a convention and at worst a real inaccuracy, suggesting even more formality than "you. "

The two aspects of Russian verbs offer no significant problems to the translator, but the widespread use of prefixes to establish shades of meaning is troublesome. Though Voznesensky makes less use of prefixes than do some of the writers, there are times when his verbs

4 For a discussion of required choices in translation, see Stephen Ullman, Language and Style (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1964), pp. 141-145. 29 have a phonological repetition difficult to duplicate in English. The most noticeable example is the stanza in "Autumn in Sigulda" con­ taining six appearances of some form of "khodit1, " meaning "to go on foot. " The two prefixes "u-" and "ot-" alter the meaning to "leave" or "go away." The prefixes combine with the necessary changes of person to make possible three different words, all containing "-khodi-":

"ukhodish1, " "otkhodit, " "ukhodim. "

Both declensions and prefixes contribute to the extra length of

Russian words as compared to English. The fact that Russian words average twice the length of English ones^ is highly significant at the phonemic level and accordingly important to the translator of poetry.

In Russian there are fewer plus junctures per number of syllables as well as more unstressed syllables. The succession of uninterrupted stresses common in English, such as "big, black dog, " is almost un­ known in Russian.

Sometimes Russian ambiguities cannot be preserved in trans­ lation. A striking example is the final line of "Autumn in Sigulda,"

"Spasite, " which is the imperative form of "save. " In this context

"spasite" can mean "save me" or "save her," or perhaps even "save us. " In English the verb requires an object and the translator is forced to supply one.

^F. D. Reeve, "Voices of Protest, " New York Times Book Review, LrXXII (March 19, 1967), 30. 30

III. PHONOLOGY

General Method of Transcription. It is difficult to classify a

loose transcription of segmental phonemes as either phonetic or pho­

nemic. The actual practice of transcription exists on a continuum, with "close phonetics" at one end and what Morris Halle calls "morpho­

phonemics" at the other. ^ Scholars in linguistics have found it im­

possible to agree with one another on the use of these terms and

sometimes difficult to be consistent within their own writings. This 7 kind of confusion is discussed in detail by Halle, who insists that a phonological description is adequate if it provides "a method for in­ ferring (deriving) . . . the utterance symbolized, without recourse to Q information not contained in the phonological representation. " To

satisfy this requirement, "gorod" ("city") can be transcribed as

/'gorod/. The reader needs only to know the rules to infer the utter­ ance ['gorSt] because Halle's phonological description includes the rule for unstressed (actually atonic, not pretonic) o and the rule for final

consonants.*^ Halle calls the transcription / 'gorod/ morphophonemic

Morris Halle, The Sound Pattern of Russian: A Linguistic and Acoustical Investigation ('s-Gravenhage: Mouton & Co., 1959).

7Ibid.

8Ibid. , p. 21. o Halle's terminology is different and considerably more con­ cise, as are his examples, but the illustrative purpose of the present discussion is better served by simplified terms. 31

and considers a "phonemic" treatment unnecessary. What he calls

"phonemic" is a "phonological description . . . including . . . instructions for inferring (deriving) the proper phonological representa­ tion of any speech event, without recourse to information not contained in the physical signal. The transcription / 'gorod/ is not phonemic because the two vowels have the same "phonological representation" even though they are different utterances. ^ A loose phonetic trans­ cription satisfies the requirements of Halle's "phonemics. "

A different use of the term is made by George L. Trager in 12 "The Phonemes of Russian. " Actually a discussion of the "phonemic" treatment of unstressed vowels, the article was inspired by a contro­ versy between Kent and Bloomfield as to the proper transcription of 13 "gorod. " Bloomfield chooses what he calls a "structural trans-

14 cription" for unstressed vowels. He transcribes, using brackets, the word "gorod" as ['gorot], and explains that since the final syllable is weak, the vowel sound is obviously [a] . He prefers the [c] in

10I b id ., p. 21.

^The characteristics of two "utterances" that make them dif­ ferent are the subject of still more controversy. 1 2 Language, X (December, 1934), 334-344.

^Leonard Bloomfield, Language (New York: Henry Holt and Co., Inc., 1933).

^Ibid., passim. transcription because [a]". . .fails to tell whether the second syl­ lable has [o]or [a] or [i],

In his review of Bloomfield's book Kent objects to the practice of "structural transcription" for two reasons. First, the use of brack­ ets indicates phonetic rather than phonemic treatment and is therefore misleading. Second, there is inconsistency in Bloomfield's treatment of vowels and consonants. If unstressed o is "structurally" [e], then final d is "structurally" [t], and there is no more reason to use [t] in transcription than to use [a],

Trager proposes "a truly phonemic structural transcription" of unstressed vowels, but the weakness of his system for the present study is apparent in the divisions of his chart: "phonemes" and "actual pronunciation. " 1 fi In the present study the actual pronunciation is more important than the structure of the language. In the same article

Trager says, "The use of non-phonemic symbols can be justified only in a work having the purely practical end of giving a correct Russian pronunciation. " 17 In the present study a "purely practical end" is to transcribe Voznesensky's reading of his poems; therefore the segmen­ tal phonemes are recorded in what is called "loose transcription, "

g . Kent, Review of Leonard Bloomfield's Language, in Language, X (March 1934), 44-45. 33

using brackets and phonetic symbols. Fortunately, it is irrelevant to this study whether such a practice be termed phonetic, phonemic, or structural. It is sufficient that the method is both consistent and useful.

For the suprasegmentals there are no phonetic symbols; there­ fore phonemic markings are required. All of the symbols used for transcription in the present study are explained in the discussion which follows.

The Segmental Sounds. Most of the consonants in Russian can be either hard or soft, meaning generally either nonpalatalized or pala­ talized. Consonants, except for a few discussed below, are palatalized when followed by certain orthographic vowels or the soft mark. Ordi­ narily the soft mark is transliterated with an apostrophe and trans­ cribed either with a [ j] following the consonant or with an alteration of the consonant symbol: viz., a soft_t is transcribed either [^] or [tj ].

The latter has the advantage of being easily understood by the English reader, but the former establishes clearly that soft t is one sound in­ stead of two. That the articulatory position for soft t_is initially different from t_is indicated by diagrams in Russian phonetics books. 18

18 For instance, R. I. Avanesov, Fonetika Sovremennogo Russkogo Literaturnogo Iazyka (Moskovskogo Universiteta, 1956), pp. 14b 11.; E. M. Galkina-Fedorak, K. V. Gorshkova, and N. M. Shan- skii, Sovremennyi Russkii Iazyk (Moskovskogo Univer siteta, 1962), pp. lb? If. For superimjjpsure of tongue positions, see V. A. Trofi­ mov, _SovT£m£nn£i Russkii LiJter^turn^a (Leningradskogo Univer- siteta, 1^57), p. 60; and E. A. Bryzgunova, Prakticheskaia Fonetika i Intonatsiia Russkogo Iazyka (Moskovskogo Universiteta~,~~r9B3)» pa-ssim. 34

Evenk, j*, and kh, which, being velar, could hardly be palatalized, are fronted and . . the acoustic effect is very much like that of 19 palatalized sounds. "

In Russian, t_, d, andjnare dental instead of alveolar, and sh [ S ] and zh fe] are backed. The distribution of [ 3] is different from that of the English sound. In Russian [ 3] appears initially and does not function as part of an affricate.

There are eight Russian consonants, transliterated b, g, v, f_, g, g, jg_, and k, that when hard are much like their English equiva­ lents. The phonetic symbols for these sounds are the same as the

English orthography. Each of these orthographic consonants can also be soft. In transcription the characteristic of softness will be indicated by a [j] following the consonant symbol.

There are two consonant sounds in Russian that do not have counterparts in American English. The r is a tongue point trill, desig- 2o nated phonetically as [?] . The sound designated orthographically in the Cyrillic alphabet as x is transliterated with kh and transcribed with

[x]. Its articulatory description is a "voiceless lingua-velar fricative,

^C . M. Wise, Applied Phonetics (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1957), p. 483.

20 Allophonic deviations according to ..distribution are not sig­ nificant to this study. 35

21 identical with what in German is called the Achlaut. . . . " Its acoustic description is nonvocalic, consonantal, compact, having low

22 tonality, continuant. It has no voiced analog, but it does have a voiced allophone with a limited distribution. J

There are three orthographic consonant symbols in the Cyrillic alphabet that are phonetically a combination of sounds. They are trans­ literated ts, ch, and shch. In Russian they function as affricates and appear initially, medially, and finally, but there are no voiced analogs.

The first one, ts, offers no difficulties because the transcription matches the transliteration: [ts] . The ch corresponds in pronunciation and transcription to the same sound in English: [t S ] . G enerally, the shch is transcribed

The ch and shch have widely used variants. In the Moscow di­ alect, used by Voznesensky, ch before a consonant is habitaully pro­ nounced^] . The pronoun "chto" (corresponding to "what," "which ,11 or "that" in English) is consistently pronounced [5 to] . In the loose transliteration used for the poems in this study, it will be spelled

"shto. " Intervocalically and finally the sound is [t$].

21 Wise, op. cit. , p. 483. 72 Halle, op. cit. , p. 45.

23 For this study, such detailed description as that above is considered pertinent only to those Russian sounds without English counterparts. 3 6

The shch is consistently [ $] for Voznesensky and can be trans­ literated and transcribed accordingly, but some discussions of the phonological aspects of Voznesensky's poetry consider the sound as if it w ere L S tS ] , as it doubtless is for many Russian speakers. It is pos­ sible that hearers who know the word for "woman, " "zhenshchina, " will have some kind of awareness of ch even when the pronunciation is

"zhenshina, " but such considerations are beyond the province of the present study.

The vowels in Russian are divided into two classes, soft and hard, the former being distinctive because of their initial [j] quality or their influence on a preceding consonant. Four of the five soft vowels have a perceptible [j] when the vowels appear initially, and for the purposes of this study it is irrelevant whether in a consonant plus soft vowel combination the [j] is part of the consonant or the vowel or both. The word for "I" is "ia" and will be transcribed [ja]. The word for "five" is "piat"' and will be transcribed [pjatj]. r , 24 The a is phonetically [_aj according to Wise with two allo- phones [®] and [a] having highly restricted and therefore very limited distribution. For the present study [a] will be used in transcribing a in all stressed syllables with the understanding that for Voznesensky

(indeed for Russian speakers generally) this phoneme has a wide range.

^W ise, op. cit., pp. 480, 488. 37

The u in Russian is [u] in stressed syllables.

The Russian o is transcribed [o] by Wise, but it is rounded and of short duration, suggesting [o]. The formant structures of

r t r ^t -> [oj and Loj 1 are very much alike and are within the range of a single 2 6 phoneme in Russian. For this study [o] will be used in transcrip- 27 tion, a practice consistent with that of many scholars.

The symbol [e ] will be used for the hard vowel e even though its primary allophone is [e] because both [e] and [e] are within the

range of a single phoneme and their distinction in Russian is never

significant.

The only hard vowel that has no counterpart in English is

[i], usually transliterated y _ . Physiologically it is high, central, and

unround. Acoustically it resembles [i], but unlike [i], it never

^Ralph K. Potter, George A. Kopp, and Harriet C. Green, Visible Speech (New York: D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc. , 1947), pp. 70-71. 26 Halle, op. cit. , pp. 165-166.

27 For example, Bloomfield, Halle, and Gunnar Fant. 28 Lawrence G. Jones, "Contextual Variants of the Russian Vowels," in Halle, op. cit., p. 162. 38

29 follows a palatalized consonant sound and never appears initially.

The soft vowel ia^ will be transcribed [ja] and e as [je] .

The second part of the vowel iu is often [u] as well as [u], but as these allophones are in complementary distribution, only the [u] will be used in transcription.

In Russian orthography there is the symbol je, pronounced

[jo]. Sometimes the diacritics are omitted, but a knowledgeable speaker is aware that in certain words e has a sound different from

[je]. The second element of [jo] has the same allophones as the hard vow el [o].

The soft vowel i is much like the sound of English [i], but is usually raised and fronted, lowering the first formant and raising the second. For this study it will be transcribed [i]. It is true that there is an inconsistency in the practiceof using [j] with four soft vowels and omitting [j ] for the fifth one, especially since [ j ] is used in this study to indicate a soft consonant. It would be consistent to transcribe

^Because [i] and [ t] are in complementary distribution, Halle and Jones regard them as belonging to the same phoneme, des­ ignated [i] . The past tense forms "bil" (he beat) and "byl" (he was) are distinguished in Halle's system by the preceding consonants. The b in "bil" is palatalized; the one in "byl" is not. Because [i] never appears initially, there is no need to distinguish between [i] and [ i ] except when they are preceded by a consonant. 39

"bil" as [bjil] and "byl" as [bil]. The [j] is considered redundant in the present study because [ j ] and [i] are similar in both articu­ lation and acoustic patterns. There is slight difference between

[bi] and [bji]. On the other hand, the [ j] must be retained for the other soft vowels because there is a greater difference between [ba] and [bja] , [be] and [bje ], [bo] and [bjo] , and [bu] and [bju] . For 3 0 the English speaker [i] is as satisfactory a representation as [ji].

In Russian there are both stressed and unstressed diphthongs,' usually terminating in the letter called "i short" in Russian ortho­ graphy. The terminal sound is [i] . The dipthongs [ai] and [ui] can 31 be both tonic and pretonic, the [ii] and [bi] only atonic, and the

[ii] and [oi] only tonic.

It is primarily with unstressed vowels that a strict phonemic interpretation is too restrictive for the present purpose of providing a visual record of sound instead of sound structure. It is of no inter­ est here whether[e] is an allophone of [a] or [o]; it is important 32 only to note the occurrence. For unstressed vowels the only

30pOr a similar treatment of soft vowels as "hard vowels pre­ ceded by [j]," see Trofimov, op. cit. , p. 31.

^ F o r the present study the [a] of the dipthong includes [se], and the [u ] includes [«.].

"^For instance, Voznesensky often uses [a] for unstressed final o. According to the pattern of transcription used in this study the sound will be transcribed [a ] even though a more proper "struc­ tural" transcription would require a lowered, backed schwa because atonic o is never [a] . 40

symbols needed in addition to those for stressed vowels are [©] and

[i]-33

34 The Suprasegmentals: Boundaries, Stress, Pitch. Bound­

aries are devices that separate a series of speech sounds into groups.

The two kinds of boundaries are plus junctures and clause terminals.

Usually appearing between words, the plus juncture is easier to locate 35 than to describe. That the / + / exists as a separating device in

English can be demonstrated by pairs of phrases having the same se­ quence of segmental sounds and different perceptual features. A

standard example is the pair of phrases "why choose" and "white

shoes." With identical segmental phonemes, [jwaitSuz], the phrases

are nevertheless not homonymous. "Why choose" is [Mai+tSuz] and

"white shoes" is [/sAalt+Suz], It is the location of / + / that distinguish­

es between "nitrate" and "night rate, " "a name" and "an aim. "

S^For a discussion of phonemic treatment of unstressed vow­ els, see Trager, op. cit. , and Dennis Ward, The Russian Language Today (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965), pp. 27-32. 34 The term "boundaries" is borrowed from Halle, but since the transcription in this study is, in Halle's terms, phonemic instead of morpho-phonemic like his, the phenomena included in the category "boundaries" in this study do not correspond perfectly to Halle's five types of boundaries. (Halle, op. cit. , p. 41.) 35 But see Ilse Lehiste, "An Acoustic-phonetic Study of In­ ternal Open Juncture" (unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 1959). 41

Because of the length of Russian words and the functions of certain particles, prepositions, and enclitics, there are generally fewer plus junctures per number of syllables in Russian than there are in English. However, the phenomenon occurs in Russian to sep­ arate groups of sounds into word units, or what Avanesov calls a 3 6 "phonetic word" ("foneticheskie slovo"). Usually a phonetic word corresponds to an orthographic word, and in speech a / + / functions to separate two oral words as spaces on the page separate written ones. Ordinarily a / + / appears within a word only if the word is com­ pound, like "aeroport, " [ taera+'port ]. A hyphen in a Russian word indicates not a compound but an enclitic, that is, a word that has no stress of its own but is attached to another word. Certain particles like "-to" are affixed to Russian words as "some-" is prefixed to cer­ tain English words: "gde-to" ("somewhere"), "kto-to" ("someone").

These English words contain a / + /, e.g., [sAm+M£r]. The Russian words do not, e.g., [gdje-ts]. Because they are not preceded by a

/ + /, these enclitics contribute to the greater length of Russian 37 w o rd s.

^Op. cit., p. 61.

37 For a detailed discussion of juncture with enclitics see Michael Shapiro, "Remarks on Phonological Boundaries in Russian, " Slavic and East European Journal, XI (Winter 1967), 433-441. 42

Many prepositions are consistently unstressed, functioning as a part of the object that follows. The preposition "o" ("about") regularly follows the rule for a pretonic syllable: "o chem" ("about which") is [a'tSom]. In specialized constructions a preposition can assume the stress from the noun. "Na pol" used after a verb like

"fall" and meaning "to the floor" is regularly pronounced ['napal].

There is no /+/ between the words, and the one-syllable noun is un« stre s s e d, . 38

A clause terminal occurs at the end of a group of words, much as it does in English. It is not necessary that a group of words be a clause in the grammatical sense. In fact, a clause terminal can occur after a single word. These terminals are indicated orally by pauses augmented by intonation patterns. The symbols for clause ter­ minals are arrows: /”"*/> /^ /,/ . The direction of the arrow identi­ fies the intonation contour as level, rising, or falling. 39 According to Avanesov, there are three kinds of stress in 40 Russian: word stress, phrase stress, and sentence stress. (By

"word" he means a "phonetic word"). Word stress is free in Russian,

O Q °Dennis Ward, Russian Pronunciation (Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1958), p. 77. "

•^Op. cit. , pp. 60-87.

^8His terms are slightly different, but the terms are here de­ fined like his.. He uses "udarenie slova, rechevogo takta, frazy. " 43

that is, it may occur on any syllable. Primary word stress is pho­ nemic in that some words are distinguished only on the basis of stress. Sometimes words unrelated in meaning are alike except for stress: "zamok" means "castle" and "zamok" means "lock." Some­ times stress identifies the case of a word: the plural of "slovo" S * ("word") is "slova" the genitive singular is "slova. "

Secondary word stress exists in Russian, but it is incidental instead of phonemic. When a word has many syllables, it is awkward to pronounce several unstressed syllables in succession; therefore one of them receives a secondary stress, revealed more by the nature of the vowel than by the intensity of the syllable. In every instance, the secondary stress precedes the primary.

In compound words, which have increased tremendously since the Revolution, there is often secondary stress, always preceding the primary stress. For some prefixes secondary stress is optional.

Generally, the more recently the word has been added to the language, the more likely it is to have secondary stress.

In continuous speech words are grouped into phrases. Al­ though not every phrase corresponds to an immediate constituent, according to Avanesov a phrase boundary cannot occur within an im- 41 mediate constituent. In any phrase containing more than one

“^Avanesov does not use the term "immediate constituent, " but his explanation implies a recognition of such structures. 44

phonetic word one of the word stresses will be stronger than the others.

The stress on the strong syllable Avanesov calls phrase stress.

In every sentence, depending on what the speaker wishes to

emphasize, one of the phrase stresses will dominate, Avanesov gives

the following example:

Kakie vidy krugom kazhdoe okno v dome I bylo ramoi 1 3 1 1 2 1 1 2

v W ^ I svoei osobennoi kartiny 12 1 1

A literal translation of the sentence is "What views around--each win- 42 dow in the house was a frame for its own particular picture. " The

single bar indicates a phrase boundary, the double bar a sentence boundary. The represents word stress, the 2^ phrase stress, and the

3 sentence stress.

For the transcriptions in this study the usual phonemic stress

symbols are used and adapted to the Russian stress pattern. Primary

s tr e s s 1 * 1 corresponds to Avanesov's sentence stress. There can be

only one primary stress between clause terminals. Secondary stress

/<*/ corresponds to Avanesov's phrase stress. Tertiary stress A /

includes both secondary word stress and primary stress on words that

receive no phrase stress.

4^The quotation is from a novel by Goncharov. Avanesov, op. cit. , p. 60. For Voznesensky's reading of poetry two additional markings

are necessary. Sometimes he completely suppresses a word stress.

For those syllables which ordinarily receive word stress but are un­

stressed in Voznesensky's reading, the symbol /-/ is used. Con­

versely, Voznesensky sometimes gives marked stress to syllables

that are ordinarily unstressed. This "contrived" stress is designated

w ith /a / .

Russian intonation contours resemble those of English. A

falling intonation is characteristic of declarative sentences and inter­

rogative sentences containing an interrogative adverb, pronoun, or

particle. ^ Interrogative sentences without the forms just mentioned

typically have a rising intonation. Before the juncture between two

clauses there is also a rise .^ In a series each member of the series

except the final one is likely to exhibit a slight rise in pitch. 45

Although these patterns occur in the same situation in both

languages, the relationship between falling intonation contour and sen­

tence stress in Russian is different from that in English. In an

English declarative sentence the final sentence stress is usually on

^ J . E. Jergens Buning and C. H. Van Schooneveld, The Sentence Intonation of Contemporary Standard Russian as a Linguistic Structure ('s-Gravenhage: Mouton & Co., 1961), p. 10.

^ F o r examples, Ibid. , pp. 14, 17, 18, 23. 46

the highest pitch level, followed by a step or glide to the lowest pitch

level.

Pitch levels will be designated in the present study by the

numbers 1 through 4, the higher the number, the higher the pitch.

Obviously it is impossible to denote every pitch change, and the num­ bers are relative, not absolute. A pattern of /232/ in one line does not correspond to the actual pitch levels /232/ in another line.

Rather, the numbers indicate the patterns of pitch.

For Voznesensky's reading there is no standard relationship between stress and a change of pitch. Sometimes a stress is ac­

companied by a higher pitch, sometimes by a lower one. Less often, but occasionally, there is no change of pitch for even primary stress.

IV. VERSIFICATION

From the first written discussion of Russian poetry there has been remarkable agreement about the nature of meter. There has been much disagreement about categorizing meters and especially

deviations, but critics early recognized the salient features of the

Russian language as it functions in poetry. Because Russian has free

stress and because syllabic length accompanies the stress, poetic

meter is based on alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables,

and various meters are identified according to the patterns of stress. 47

After Russian, poets discovered that syllabic verse modelled after Polish, a language in which stress is always penultimate and therefore of little significance, did not exploit the richness of their

own language, they turned to trochaic and iambic meter in accentual-

syllabic verse, or syllabo-tonic, as their own writers called it.

Pushkin (1799-1837) wrote almost exclusively in binary meter, pri­ marily iambic. A significant feature of the poetry that was considered

"regular" iambic or trochaic was the absence of a metrical stress, usually on a syllable that was in neither the first nor the last foot.

Another "regular" variation was an extra unstressed final syllable.

It was not long before ternary meters were also being ex­ ploited: dactylic, amphibrachic, anapestic. Unlike English poetry, where the amphibrach has questionable status as a basic poetic meter, Russian poetry made wide use of amphibrachic meter. Dac­ tylic lines, rarely used either consistently or successfully in serious

English poetry, are if anything more common in Russian than the an ap est.

The paeonic foot (containing four syllables, one stressed and

three unstressed) has been recognized as at least a substitution for binary or ternary meter, but with this terminology there arise two

difficult questions. Could not a pyrrhic and either trochee or iamb

serve as well? If not, is the verse accentual instead of accentual-

syllabic ? 48

Accentual verse has long been known in Russian as the form of the "byliny," or folk poems. Though there have been deliberate, and not unsuccessful, imitations of folk poetry by several educated poets (notably Lermontov, 1814-1841, and Nekrasov, 1821-1877), accentual verse was not considered established on an equal basis with accentual-syllabic until the time of Blok (1880-1921). After his enormous success accentual verse was no longer considered con­ trived or experimental, but the meter of most modern poetry can still be conveniently described as accentual-syllabic with variations.

It is not necessary in the present study to consider the in­ tricacies of labeling meter by considering anacrusis and clausula.

The metrical stresses are noted here in their relationship to linguis­ tic features. Patterns of metrical stress are considered as they affect the structure of the poem and its lexical context. However, neither meter nor deviations need to be classified.

According to Unbegaun, standard rhyme can be classified into two categories: "( 1) masculine rhyme ending with a vowel, and

(2) all other rhymes, masculine ending with a consonant, feminine, 46 dactylic, and hyper-da cty lie. " For two words to qualify as rhyme in the first category the two stressed vowels must be indentical and

4&B. O. Unbegaun, Russian Versification (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1956), p. 136. 49

must be preceded by similar consonants. In the four varieties of rhyme found in the second category the consonant preceding the stressed vowel is unimportant, but there must be identity ''between the vowelstressed and all that follows it. 1,47 The following examples are from Unbegaun:

Masculine rhymes ending with a vowel

skaly skaku valy veterku

Masculine rhymes ending with a consonant

kopyt oglushen4® letit son

Feminine rhyme

privetom ozhivaet sve tom pylaet

Dactylic rhyme

varvarinskoi razliubivshemu v komarinskii zabyvshemu

Hyper dactylic rhyme

raskovannaia sveshivaiushchiesia ocharovannaia smeshivaiushchiesia

(Hyperdactylic rhyme has been used primarily as an exercise in ver- sification.) 49

47Ibid.

48The e is pronounced like o.

49Unbegaun, op. cit. , p. 135. 50

It is the second category of rhyme, all except masculine rhymes ending in a vowel, that has become more flexible in its ad­ mission of what constitutes rhyme. Twentieth century poets have practiced feminine truncated rhyme (in which one unstressed member ends in a vowel and one in a consonant, like "melkikh/strelki") as well as feminine rhyme with different final consonants, like "muchas/ u c h a st1. 11 In masculine rhyme these two variations occur less fre­ quently but are not unknown.

Another innovation in modern poetry is the heterosyllabic rhyme, with differing numbers of syllables following the stress, such as "gorcde/morde. " Mayakovsky made frequent use of such rhymes.

Modern poets also use a broken rhyme, that is, a rhyme that covers varying numbers of orthographic words, like "interesnei/ sentiabre s nei. " Gumilev {1886-1921) invented a rhyme that spread across eight syllables:

Slysha s vist i voi lokomobilia Dver' lingvisty voilokom obili.

From the beginning Russian poetry has admitted all varieties of rhyme schemes as well as unrhymed verse. It is rare, however, to find a poem in which all of the rhymes are of the same type, m as­ culine, feminine, or dactyllic. The most common practice of earlier

^Ibid., p. 149. 51 poets was a succession of rhymes that were alternately feminine and masculine, creating a rhyme scheme abab or abcb. Most of Pushkin's work falls into this category. Modern poetry is almost always

rhymed, but with rich variety in types and patterns.

V. SUMMARY

Voznesensky exploits the Russian language for his poems, and some distinctive features of the language offer problems to trans­ lators. The case endings offer Russian poets opportunities denied to the English poet. There are no present tense forms of the verb "to be" in Russian; therefore the translator must choose between formal and informal English usage to supply forms that are absent from the

original language. Conversely, there are two pronouns for "you" in

Russian and no satisfactory way to preserve the distinction in

English.

Meter in Russian poetry, like English poetry, depends upon the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables. The greater

length of phonological words in Russian allows fewer plus junctures

per number of syllables and adds to the number of unstressed syl­

lables in poetry. Ternary meters and accentual verse have been used widely and successfully by Russian poets. Regular rhymes of many

types are characteristic of modern Russian poetry. It is in the 52

modern tradition of flexible meter or accentual verse with varieties of rhymes that Voznesensky writes. CHAPTER III

ANALYSIS OF THE POEMS

The method for discussing the poems in this chapter is first to present a Loose transliteration of the poem in order to give the non-Russian reader some idea of the sounds. Because letters of the

Russian aLphabet are much more stable than those of English in rep­ resenting sounds, even an exact transliteration can be of some value, but because exactness is not important to those who do not know Russian anyway, some changes have been made. It is not deemed important to maintain vowel distinctions significant in Rus­ sian but greatly similar aurally to the English ear. The g_ of genitive endings is represented by its sound, v, instead of its spelling. The reader may find it useful to pronounce i Like the vowel sound in

"beat"; o like the vowel in "bought"; and u Like the vowel in "boot,"

The vowel a resembles the vowel in "hot, " the £ the vowel in "bet."

Second, the lexical context of the Russian poem is dis­

cussed, Specific words and idioms are explained and, when nec­

essary, grammatical structure is considered. FoLlowing the de­

tailed description is a summary of the lexicaL context. 54

Third is a discussion of the phonological context, established by the transcription of the poet's reading. Complete transcriptions constitute Appendix C. The phonetic and phonemic features are con­ sidered in the present chapter as they relate to the lexical context, as they establish meter and rhyme, and as they contribute to the total structure of the poem.

In this chapter use is made of a revealing if unorthodox meth­ od for labeling meter. Syllables are grouped according to phonemic patterns and labeled as follows: x, stressed syllable; a, one unstress­ ed syllable; b, two unstressed syllables; and c, three unstressed, syllables. Undeniably, this method yields strange symbols: cxb in­ dicates a group of syllables with a metrical pattern of Line

1 of ’'Motor Races on a Vertical Wall" can be represented by this method as follows:

[ zavaragivaja manje 3a] bxc axa

The advantage of this method is that it shows more clearly both the repetitions and variations in the poet's meter. The "repetition with variation" is even more obvious if the readers notes that a+b ■ c.

For instance, two lines with exactly the same pattern of stress will not be represented identically if their phonemic divisions are different.

All oral features of the poem can appropriately be considered in the discussion of the phonological context. Not merely traditional techniques like assonance and alliteration but all patterns of sound are included.. 55 /

Fourth, the English translations are compared both lexically and phonologically with the Russian poems. Sometimes it is helpful to quote lines from the Russian poem with equivalent lines from each

English translation. When lines are printed parallel with one another,

Voznesensky’s lines are identified by a preceding V, the English lines by the translators’ final initials.

Not all of the English translations reveal imitation of

Voznesensky’s poetic techniques. Koten’s literal translations usually preserve only the line structure of a poem. Hollo's poems rarely preserve either the Russian poetic features or the order of lexical information. The translations that evidence poetic structures similar to the Russian poems are considered as a whole and compared with the Russian poems as a whole.

I. "AUTUMN IN SIGUJLDA"

When the poet read this poem on television in New York in

1966, he introduced it by saying, "I think it is the most favorite my poem." It was first published in 1962. The occasion in the poem is the departure from the dacha, or summer house, at the end of the

summer season.

Osen V Sigulde

Svisayu s vagonnoi ploshadki, proshaite, proshai, moyo tyeto, pora mnye, na dache stuchat toporami, moi dom zabivayut doshati, proshaite,

Lesa moi abrosili kroni, pusti onyi i grustni, kak yashik a akkordeona, a muziku- -unisli mi - -ludi, mi tozhe porozhni, ukhodim mi tak uzh polozheno, iz atyen, m aterei i iz zhenahin, i etot poryadok izvyechen, proshai, moya mama, u okon ti stanesh prozrachno, kak kokon, navyerno, umayalaa za dyen, priayadem, druzya i vragi, bivaite, gild bai, iz menya aeichas ao avyistom vi vibegayete i ya ukhozhu iz vaa, o rodina, poproshayemsa, budu zvezda, vetla, nye plachu, nye poproshaika, spasibo zhizn, shto bila, na strelbishakh v dyesat ballov ya proboval vibit a to, spaaibo, shto oshibalsa, no trizhdi spaaibo, shto v prozrachniye moi lopatki voshla genialnoat, kak v rezinovuyu perchatku krasni muzhkoi kulak,

"Andrei Voznesenski" -- budet, pobit bi nye slovom, nye buldikom, yesho na shekye tvoyei dushnoi -- "Andryushkoi, " spasibo, shto v roshakh osyennikh ti vstretilas, shto-to sprosila, i psa volokla za osheinik, a on upiralsa, spasibo, ya ozhil, spasibo za osen, shto ti mnye menya obyasnila, khozyaika budila nas v vosem a v prazdniki siplo basila plastinka blatnovo poshiba, spasibo, no vot ti ukhodish, ukhodish, kak poyezd otkhodit, ukhodish. iz por moikh polikh ukhodish, mi vroz drug iz druga ukhodim chem nam etot dom nyeugoden? ti ryadom a gdye-to dalyoko, pochti shto u Vladivostoka, ya znayu shto mi povtorimsa v druzyakh i podrugakh, v travinkakh, nas etot zamyenit i tot, -- priroda boitsa pustot, spasibo za sdutiye kroni, na smyenu pridut milioni, za vashi zakoni -- spasibo, no zhenshina mchitsa po sklonam, kak ogneni list za vagonom . . . sp asite! 58

Lexical Context of the Russian Poem

Lines 1-2.

I hang down from traincar platform 1) Svisayu s vagonnoi ploshadki,

goodbye 2) proshaite,

The first two lines establish the theme of the poem. The speaker is leaving, saying goodbye, but he is finding it difficult to go.

The use of the verb "hang" suggests that the speaker is clinging to the place and perhaps the time. The poet does not say "I stand" or MI w ait, 11 but "I hang down from. "

The Russian word "proshai" is the familiar form of "good - bye" and "proshaite" the less intimate expression, Voznesensky uses them interchangeably, apparently for the sake of rhythm and rhyme, but there is no real change in lexical context because both words are in common use.

Lines 3-7.

goodbye my summer 3) proshai, moyo lyeto,

it is time for me 4) pora mnye,

at summer house they knock with axes 5) na dacha stuchat toporami,

my house they nail up made of boards 6) moi dom zabivayut doshati,

goodbye 7) proshaite, 59

"Proshai" has been explained. "Pora mnye" means some­ thing Like "It is time for me," or "my time is up," or "my time has come." The instrumental pLural, "toporami" means "with" or "by means of axes."

Lines 8-11.

woods my throw off foliage, tree tops 8 ) lesa moi sbrosili kroni

empty they and sad 9 ) pusti onyi i grustni

like case from accordian 10) kak yashik s akkordeona

but music they took away 11) a muziku unesli

"Kroni" refers both to "crowns" and "tops of trees," both meanings applicable in these lines. "Akkordeona" is in the genitive case; therfore "s" here means "from." The woods are empty and sad

Uke the case from an accordian when they have taken away the music.

Lines 12-16,

we (are) peopLe 12) mi -- ludi

we too (are) empty 13) mi tozhe porozhni

Leave we 14) ukhodim mi Like already fixed, prescribed tak uzh polozheno

from walLs 15) iz styen mothers materei and from women i iz zhenshin 60

and this order (is) everlasting 16) i etot poryadok izvyechen

The Russian construction is simple, and there is little need

to change even the wordorder for English, but itshould be noted that

the wordorder is not at all strange or even inverted inRussian.

These lines describe the emptiness of leaving a place where

one has lived for a while. The place itself changes--houses get boarded up, trees lose their foliage *-and people feel an emptiness at the leavetaking, even though the process is part of a universal pat - tern.

Lines 17-21.

goodbye my mama 17) proshai moya mama

at windows 18) u okon

you stand transparent like cocoon 19 ) ti stanesh prozrachno kak kokon

probably you got tired from the day 20) navyerno umalayas za dyen

let us sit down 21) presyadem

On one of the tapes Voznesensky says instead of "prozracb.no" in line 19 "krustalniya" ("like a crystal"), a substitution that does

little to alter the visual image.

Line 21 has a double meaning. The speaker is concerned about his mother^s being tired, but he is aware of the Russian super- 61 atition about leaving a place where one has lived. One should sit down for a while before departure.

Lines 22-26.

friends and enemies goodbye 22) druzya i vragi bivaite

goodbye 23) gud bai

from me right now 24) iz menya seichas

with (the) whistle you run away 25) so svistom vi vibegayete

and I leave from you 26) i ya ukhozhu iz vas

The first two of these lines contain two forms for "good­ bye." "Bivaite" is a White Russian expression for the more common

Russian "do svidanya," a form of farewell. The use of the English word "goodbye" is not uncommon in the Soviet Union, especially 1 among young people.

The "you" in these Lines is not the familiar form, but "vi," which is used in Russian for both "you-plural" and "you-formal."

Either usage indicates that the speaker is generalizing, not address­ ing a particular person, certainly not a person who is close to him.

1 Antiworlds, p. 280. 62

Lines 27-30.

oh motherland we say goodbye, take leave of each other 27) o rodina poproshayemsa

I will be star white willow 28) budu zvezda, vetla

I do not cry I am not beggar 29 ) nye plachu nye poproshaika,

thank you life that you were, existed 30) spasibo zhizn.shto bila

"Proproshaika" is an "importunate person who is constant­

ly begging and praying." The speaker says he will not cry because he is not a "poprashaika."

Lines 31-34.

in shooting gallery of ten balls 31 ) na strelbishakh v dyesat (10) ballov

I tried to score hundred 32) ya proboval vibit sto (100)

thank you that I made a mistake 33) spasibo shto oshibalsa

but thrice thank you that 34) no trizhdi spasibo shto

"Ball" is a unit of measure, used particularly to measure force. "V 10 ballov" indicates a possible score or total of ten points. The speaker tried to make 100 points when 10 was the high­ est number possible. The Russian text uses the numerals instead of the words. Then he says "Thank you that I made the mistake, " or "was mistaken." The subordinate conjunction at the end of line 63

34 is unusual for Voznesensky. Ordinarily he does not end even a

line, much less a stanza, with a word as closely bound to the suc­

ceeding line as "that."

Lines 35-38.

into transparent my shoulder blades 35) v prozrachniye moi lopatki

entered genius like 36) voshla genialnost kak

into rubber glove 37) v rezinovuyu perchatku

red male fist 38) krasni muzhkoi kulak

In one of the oral versions of line 36 Voznesensky sub­

stitutes two words. For "voshla" ("entered") he says "vkhodila, " a synonym for "entered." Instead of "genialnost" ("genius") he

says "prozryeniye" ("enlightenment"). The phrases "entered genius" and "entered enlightenment" are lexically much alike.

Lines 39-42.

will be 39) "Andrei Voznesenski" budet

remain would not with word not stone 40) pobit bi nye slovom nye buldikom

still on cheek your warm 41) yesho na shekye tvoyei dushnoi

42) "Andryushkoi. "

"Andryushkoi" is the diminutive, or pet name, for Andrei.

Though the sequence in line 14 -- noun, possessive, adjective --is 64 strained for English, it is common in Russian. "Tvoyei" ("your") is the possessive form of "ti, " the familiar second person. The phrase "your warm cheek," consisting of all singular forms, in­ dicates that the person addressed in these Lines is not the one spoken to with the formal pronoun in lines 25 and 26, "With the whistle you run away/ And I leave from you. "

Lines 43-47.

Thank you that in autumn groves 43) Spacibo, shto v roshakh osyennikh

you met something asked 44) ti vstretilas, shto-to sprosila

and dog (obj.) you tugged by the collar 45) i psa volokla za osheinik,

but he held back 46) a on upiraLsa,

thank you 47) spasibo.

The word for dog, "pyos," is in the accusative case, mak­ ing cLear that "dog" is the object of the verb "to tug." The past tense verb "volokla" is feminine, making it clear that it was a woman whom the speaker met in an autumn grove. Furthermore, the familiar pronoun "ti" indicates that the woman is a close friend.

For such a simple meeting, the speaker gives thanks.

Lines 48-53.

I came alive thank you for autumn 48) ya ozhil, spasibo za osen 65

that you to me me explained 49) shto ti mnye menya obyasnila,

landlady waked us at eight 50) khozyaika budila nas v vosem

and on holidays hoarsely spoke in a low voice 51) a v prazdniki siplo basila

a record of thieves' songs 52) plastinka blatnovo poshiba

thank you 53) spasibo

Once more the notes in Antiworlds prove helpful. "Blat­ novo poshiba" means literally "in a thieves* manner" and indicates ’ songs that came from the underworld of Odessa and gained widespread 2 popularity. There is no equivalent in English.

Lines 54-58.

but here you are leaving, are leaving 54) no vot ti ukhodish, ukhodish

like the train leaves you leave 55) kak poyezd otkhodit, ukhodish

from pores my hollow you leave 56) iz por moikh polikh ukhodish

we separately one from another are leaving 57) mi vroz drug iz druga ukhodim

why to us this house is disagreeable 58) chem nam etot dom nyeugoden?

"U" and "ot" are prefixes which change the verb "khodit"

^Ibid. 66

("to go") to "to leave," "to go away from," The "you" in these

lines is the familiar form.

In two of the recordings of this poem the poet substitutes

"world" for "house," saying, "Why, or because of what, is this world objectionable, disagreeable, to us?" In none of the avail­ able written versions does "world" appear.

Lines 59-60 .

you beside (me) and somewhere far away 59) Ti ryadom i gdye-to dalyoko

almost at Vladivastok 60) Pochti shto u Vladivastoka

These lines appear in only one of the three recordings used for this study, Voices, the version containing "house" instead of "world" in the preceding line. Knowing that his departure is immediate, the speaker feels that the person addressed with the familiar form, "ti, " is already far away.

There are at least two possible explanations for the omis­ sion of these two lines after "Why is this world disagreeable to us?" One explanation involves Voznesensky's reading technique, to be discussed below. The second possibility is that "this house," unlike "this world," has an immediacy in keeping with these lines, addressed to a particular person, perhaps the one whose "warm cheek" has already been mentioned. The explanations are not mutually exclusive. 67

Lines 61-64.

I know that we repeat ourselves 61) ya znayu shto mi povtorimsa

in friends and friends (fern.) in blades of grass 62) v druzyakh i podrugakh v travinkakh,

us this replaces and that 63) nas etot zamenit i tot

nature fears (a) vacuum 64) priroda boitsa pustot

"Druzya" is the plural form of "friend," and "podruga" the plural of the feminine word for "friend." Line 61 is clearer when the word order is changed: "This replaces us and that does."

Lines 65-67.

thank you for blown away leaves 65) spasibo za sdutiye kroni

in (their) place will come millions 66) na smyenu pridut millioni

for your laws thank you 67) za vashi zakoni-- spasibo

Line 67 summarizes this group of lines. "Thank you for your natural laws that provide for the endless replacement of life, for the blown away leaves that will be succeeded by millions more."

Lines 68-70.

but (a) woman runs down the slope 68 ) no zhenshina mchitsa po sklonam,

like (an) autumn leaf behind the train-car 6.9 ) kak ogneni list za vagonom 68

save 70) apasite

The final verb, the imperative of "save," is ambiguous.

According to the notes in Antiworlds the first published version of the poem had one more line, "Hold her back" ("yeyo uderzhite").

This addition suggests that "spasite" is a request to save the woman.

Without the addition, however, which has not appeared in any later versions, the most plausible understood object of "save" is " m e . "3

The ambiguity, which in Russian is natural {as "Save!" would not be in English), enriches the poem.

Summary of the Lexical Context. There are three major sections of thirty, thirty-seven, and three lines respectively. More obviously defined phonologically, they are nevertheless distinct lex­ ically in spite of the fragmentation in each section and some seeming duplication of details from section one in section two.

In the first thirty-one lines the prominent word is "goodbye," repeated in many forms. Disturbed by the disintegrating effects of departure, the speaker is melancholy even while trying to be philo­ sophical about the inevitability of the change.

In addition to the lexical unity imposed on these lines by

"goodbye" and its synonyms, the lines are unified by the abstract

^Ibid. 69 quality of the incidental details, not so closely personal as those of section two. Even "my mama" is standing not at a particular window, but "at windows. " When the speaker says goodbye to "friends and enemies, " he uses the impersonal "you. " In spite of the lack of coherence in the order of the details, the section has a lexical unity.

Line 30 offers a transition to section two, where the single unifying word is "thanks. " From a disturbing feeling of suspension as things are changing the speaker progresses to a sense of thanks­ giving for various happenings, both general and specific, and finally to a feeling of thanksgiving for change itself. The details in this sec­ tion are more intimate, more personal, for the speaker. Primary evidence is the use of the intimate form of "you" except when he speaks to nature itself in the line, "For your laws, thank you."

The enumeration of blessings in the second section builds to a feeling of self-satisfaction in the speaker, a strong sense of well­ being both because he has been fortunate and because he can recognize his good fortune. This increase to a climax of complacency is typical of the progression of the speaker in many of Voznesensky's poems.

Just as typical is the sudden reversal to a feeling of disturbing un­ certainty introduced in the final section. The image of a woman running after the train suggests not only restlessness and dissatis­ faction but also a sort of frantic hopelessness. The speaker responds with the cry, "Help! " 70

Phonological Context of the Russian Poem

The amphibrach («#«), quite common in Russian poetry, is the basic meter. Strongly established in the first two lines, the meter remains regular throughout.

1) svi'saju s va*gonai pla'Satki

w / w .i ■ 2) pra* Saite

Forty lines are perfect amphibrachs. Lines 14 and 40 deviate by one extra final unstressed syllable. Lines 23, 61 and 62 are perfect but for the lack of a final unstressed syllable.

In spite of such regularity, the meter is not monotonous even in the blocks of lines that are regular, such as 1-8, 15-22, 46-

57. In lines 1-8, for instance, all eight lines are amphibrachic, but the phonemic pattern imposes variety, illustrated by the following representation:

1) axa axa axa 2) axa 3) ax bxa 4) axa 5) axa ax bxa 6) ax bxa axa 7) axa 8 ) axb xb xa

Similarly, in lines 15-22, only two of the full lines, 16 and

19 , have a regular axa pattern. 71

15) ax bx bxa 16) axa axa axa 17) ax bxa 18) axa 19 ) axa axa axa 20) axa axb xa 21 ) axa 22) ax bx

Lines 46-57 show the same kind of phonemic variety within the metrical regularity.

46) ax bxa 47) axa 48) axa axa axa 49) ax bx bxa 50) axa axb xa 51) axb xa axa 52) axa axa axa 53) axa 54) ax bxa axa 55) axa axa axa 56) ax bxa axa 57) ax bxa axa

This regularity of meter throughout the poem has a uni­ fying effect and counteracts the fragmentation of some of the lexicai items.

Another strong unifying phonological feature is the rhymes which is extremely rigid within each major lexical section. The primary line pattern is nine syllables of amphibrachic meter:

/w,ww,ww/w>/, Many of the three-syllable lines seems to combine metrically with a neighboring six-syllable line to fit into this es­ tablished pattern. If the poem is reprinted with the short lines combined, only sixty-five lines rem ain, showing a total of only 72 seventeen different rhymes. Most of the rhymes in the first lexical section are rhymes or near rhymes with "proshaite." In the second Lexical section most of the rhymes are near rhymes with "spasibo." Rhymes with "proshaite" are Labeled A, those with "spasibo" labeled B. Near rhymes are indicated by a super­ script n. The numbers after n show close rhymes. For instance, nl all rhymes labeled A are near rhymes. Rhymes labeled A are close rhymes with each other, e.g., "pora mnye/ porami." nl 1) Svisayu s vagonnoi ploshadki A 2) Proshaite A n 2 3) Proshai moyo lyeto, pora mnye A n 4) Na dacha stuchat toporami A 2 5) Moi dom zabivayut doshati Anl 6) Proshaite A

7) lesa moi sbrosili kroni C 8 ) pusti onyi i grustni D 9) kak yashik s akkordeona C 10) a muzikuunisli D nl 11) mi Ludi mi tozhe porozhni C nl 12) ukhodim mi tak uzh polozheno C 13) iz styen, materei, i iz zhenshin E 14) i etot poryadok izvyechen E

15) proshai moya mama u okon F 16) ti stanesh prozrachno kak kokon F 17) navyerno, umayalas za dyen G 18) prisyadem G

19) Druzya i vragi, bivaite, A 2 0) Gudbai, iz menya seichas H 21) so svyistom vi vibegayete A 22) i ya ukhozhy iz vas H n3 23) o rodina, poprashaemsa A 24) budu zvezda, vetla I 73

n3 25 nye plachu, nye poproshaika A 26 spasibo zhizn shto bila I (B)

27 na strelbishakh v dyesat ballov J 28 ya proboval vibit sto K 29 spasibo shto oshibalsa J (B) 30 no trizhdi spasibo shto K (B)

31 v prosrachni moi lopatki An^ 32 voshla genialnost, kak Lnl 33 v resinuvuyu perchadki A 34 krasni muzhkoi kulak, L

35 "Andrei Voznesenski" budet M 36 pobit bi nye slovom, nye buldikom, M 37 yesho na shekye tvoyei dushnoi N 38 "Andryushkoi, " ]Sf

III 39 spasibo shto v roshakh osyennikh E 40 ti vstretilas, shto-to sprosila Bn^ 41 i psa volokla za osheinik E 42 a on upiralsa, spasibo B 43 ya ozhil, spasibo za osen (B) 44 shto ti mnye menya obyasnila B 45 khozyaika budila nas v vosem O 46 a v prazdniki siplo basila B 47 plastinka blatnovo poshiba B 48 spasibo B

49 no vot ti ukhodish, ukhodish P 50 kak poyezd otkhodit, ukhodish P 51 iz por moikh polikh ukhodish, P ^ 52 mi vroz drug iz druga ukhodim P 53 chem nam etot dom nyeugoden? P 54 ti ryadom a gdye-to dalyoko, pn3 55 pochti shto u Yladivostoka 0 p*1^

56 ya znayu shto mi povtorimsa B 57 v druzya i podrugakh, v travinkakh B 58 nas etot zamyenit i tot Q 59 priroda boitsa pus tot Q

60 spasibo za sdutiye kroni C (B) 61 na smyenu pridut milioni C 62 za vashi zakoni spasibo B 74

63) no zhenshina mchitsa po sklonam

64) kak ogneni list za vagonom. .. • • • 65) spasite! B

From this elaborate reconstruction several conclusions can be drawn. First, and most obvious, the entire poem is held to­

gether closely by means of rhyme. Only seventeen different rhymes are employed within sixty-five lines. For A, "proshaite, " there are twelve lines, and for B, "spasibo, " there are ten. "Spasibo" occurs internally in six lines. Of the seventeen rhymes, nine occur in the first part (twenty-six lines, as rewritten) and eight in the second part.

Second, it is evident that the last three lines have a unifying effect on the two preceding parts. "Sklonom" and "vagonom" are near rhymes with lines 7, 9, 11, and 12 of part one and lines 58 and 59 of part two. The last line, "spasite, " is a near rhyme with "spasibo, " but at the same time its sequence of consonants is similar to

"proshaite." The latter has voiceless bilabial stop, rolled alveolar, groove fricative, alveolar stop. Phonologically "spasite" combines both "proshaite" and "spasibo. "

A third conclusion from this study of rhyme is that lines 58 -

60, "Spasibo za sdutiye kroni/ na smyenu pridut milioni/ za vashi

zakoni spasibo, " relate closely both lexically and phonologically with

lines 7-14. Both sections discuss the blown-away leaves and the implications of this phenomenon.

Besides adding unity to the lexical context, the phonological 75 features contribute to the aesthetic effect of the poem. Some of the patterns deserve special mention. Line 13, "mi tozhe porozhni, " has strong internal rhyme with "ozh" in both stressed syllables, the regular amphibrachs strengthening the rhyme.

Lines 51-53 have an intricate pattern of consonant and vowel repetition, as the following phonetic transcription indicates:

51) [a v 'prazdniki 'sipl© ba'sila]

52) [ plas’tinke blat'novo pa'Sib©]

53) [ spa'siba]

The vowels [a] and [i] alternate in stressed and unstressed positions, and there is repetition of [si] . There is also marked repetition of bilabial stop followed by [l]: [siple], [plas'tinka], [blat’novo].

The same kind of repetition of homorganic consonants is found in line 60:

60) [v dru’zjax i pa’drugax v tra’vinkax ]

There are two instances of [v] followed by alveolar stop plus [r], and in the middle of the line--and between the two patterns just men­ tioned-- is [dr] in the initial position of a stressed syllable.

In lines 9» 11, and 12, the vowel repetition serves also to

reinforce the lexical connections. Line 12 begins another stanza, but the repetition of [u] helps to connect it with the preceding lines:

9 )[pus’ti a’nji i grust’ni ]

11) [a ’muziku unl’sli] v 76

12) [mi 'ljudi ]

Phonological Features of the Poet's Reading. Voznesenky's reading evidences some oral revisions o£ the text and gives particular, almost contrived, emphasis to some of the rhymes. The most ex­ tensive oral revision is that of the third to last line, "No zhenshina mchitsa po sklonom. " In one oral version^ the poet repeats "no 5 zhenshina, " and in one version he also repeats the entire line, reading as follows:

no zhenshina no zhenshina mchitsa po sklonam no zhenshina mchitsa po sklonam

He avoids monotony in the reading by varying the pauses and pitch contours:

3'+ 2' 1-2C

P+2 'l w2e-*’ 2<' lw+ 2~+3' 2~

2' + 3 'l~20+2~l''+2~+3'2~

The effect of this repetition is to emphasize both the line and the en­ tire final three-line section. The final three lines constitute a major division much shorter than the other two major sections of the poem.

^Antiworlds Record.

5Tape 3. 77

The repetition lengthens this final stanza and gives it more stature as an autonomous part of the poem.

Another oral revision occurs in two readings of line 58,

"chem nam etot dom nyeugoden" ("why is this house disagreeable to us").^ Voznesensky substitutes "mir" ("world") for "house." In both readings he hurries to the next line, "ya snayu shto me povtorimsa"

("I know that we will repeat ourselves"). This hurrying with hardly a plusjuncture between two lines that mark a strongtransition seems to be ahabit of the poet's reading after lines implying hispersonal dissatisfaction with some social phenomenon. It is almost as if he does not wish to give the listener time to absorb what has been said.

In his reading the poet places particular emphasis on some of the rhymes by using pauses not dictated by conversational usage.

In lines 33, 43, and 63 he sets off "spasibo, " giving it the emphasis of a refrain when it is actually at the beginning of the lines.

In line 41 the poet uses a pause unmotivated by the lexical context:

4. S 4. ~ ^ / 41)[ji'$o na $ e'kje tva'jei 'dujnai]

The pause affects the line structure of the stanza. By setting off

"dushnoi, " the poet makes less obvious the abbreviation of line 42,

"Andrushkoi. "

£ Antiworlds Record and Tape 3. 78

The final rhyme of line 34, "no tri zhdi spasibo shto," is the subordinate conjunction equivalent to "that" in English. This word, ordinarily unstressed to [Ste], is here given primary phonemic stress with a clause terminal following. However, these two phonemic de­ vices contribute to the para linguistic emphasis on the word and the ensuing clause. The rising clause terminal strengthens the impression that more information is forthcoming, and the pause builds suspense.

The rhetorical emphasis on the following stanza, about genius enter­ ing like a red, male fist, is strengthened by the phonemic pattern of line 34. If the contrived stress only established the rhyme, it would seem to be an oral technique used only to compensate for inadequate writing. Instead, the phonemic pattern and the rhyme act recipro­ cally to provide rhetorical emphasis.

The English Translations

In this section the English translations to be considered are by Auden, Hollo, Koten, and Marshall. When their lines are quoted in parallel form, the names will be abbreviated A, H,Ko (to d is­ tinguish from "Kunitz"), and M.

Lines 1-2.

V: 1) I hang from the train platform, 2) Goodbye,

A: 1) Hanging out of the train, I 2) Bid you all goodbye. 79

H: 1) Time that I was gone hanging on to the pLatform of this train 2) --Goodbye my summer

Ko: 1) I hang from the trainplatform. 2) farewell,

M: 1} I hang from the platform of the train, 2) saying goodbye again,

In these two lines Voznesensky establishes the theme of the poem and the metrical context. Hollo fails to establish the "goodbye" in the first two lines. Auden not only uses "goodbye" but uses it to rhyme. His line 2 is shorter than line 1, though by only two syllables,

Auden does not end line 1 with a clause terminal, as Marshall does, but Marshall rhymes "train" and "again." "Train" is a significant

enough word in the Russian text to merit the emphasis given it by the first rhyme, but "again" is contrived and does not improve the

lexical context.

Lines 3-7.

V: 3) Goodbye, my summer 4) It is time for me. 5) At the dacha they knock with axes. 6) They nail up my house of boards, 7) Goodbye, 80

A: 3) Goodbye, Summer: A) My time is up. 5) Axes knock at the dacha 6) As they board it up: 7) Goodbye.

H: 3) good-bye my summer, it is time, 4) hammers are hitting nails all over the land, 5) nails to close up the windows 6) of my shack ....

7) Goodbye my forests,

Ko: 3) farewell, my summer , 4) it is time I left; 5) the axes are clattering away at my summer cottage; 6) They're boarding up my house; 7) farewell,

M: 3) Goodbye, my summer, 4) time to make my tracks, 5) now in the country echoes the axe, 6) they're shuttering my cottage with planks, 7) goodbye and thanks,

Hollo uses "shack" for "house of boards" and adds "all over the land" and "windows. " His lines do not correspond with the Rus­ sian, and he has no rhyme.

Both Auden and Marshall have rhyme, though nothing like the very close rhymes of the Russian. The difference in Auden's phono­ logy is that he has short lines, three of them ending in stressed syl­ lables. There is a brevity, a conciseness, in this structure that is not, in the Russian.

Marshall achieves something of the Russian rhythm, es­ pecially in lines 5 and 6, with almost the same number of stressed 81 and unstressed syllables in each line as there are in the Russian:

Y: 5) 3/9 6) — ------3/9

M: 5) 4/9 3/9

The difficulty with Marshall's lines is that he introduces "thanks" to create a rhyme, thus introducing the theme of part two in part one and also using an ambiguous word because "thanks" has no referent in these lines.

Again Auden ends the stanza with "goodbye, " giving the word the same emphasis as the Russian text gives. Koten establishes his use of "farewell" to correspond to the Russian "proshaite." Marshall uses "goodbye, " but not as a refrain.

Lines 8 - 11.

V: 8 ) My woods have thrown off the foliage, 9) Empty are they and sad. 10) Like the case from an accordion, 11) But the music they took away.

A: 8 ) The woods have shed their leaves, 9) Empty and sad today 10) As an accordion case that grieves 11) When its music is taken away.

H: 8 ) Good-bye my forests, they have shed their treetops 9) empty 8* sad they stand, like accordian cases 10) the song has gone out of them, 11) the song--it has left us too,

Ko: 8 ) my forests have cast off their crowns; 9) they're bare and sad, 10) like an accordion-case 11) with the music carried away; 82

M: 8 ) my woods their crowns have discarded, 9) bare are they and sad today, 10) like accordions in their cases 11) when the music's been taken away,

Only Auden achieves the abab rhyme like the Russian, but with four masculine rhymes. His extra unstressed syllables in every

line but 8 make 9 through 11 more like the amphibrachs of the Rus­

sian. All of the lexical context is included without distortion of word o rd e r.

Marshall has an abcb rhyme, but imitates the feminine end­ ings like the Russian in lines 8 and 10. Had he transposed line 10, he could have had a near rhyme with "discarded/accordians. " His con­ traction in line 11 is at variance with the contrived word order of his line 8 . Line 9 has internal rhyme, as does line 9 in Russian:

V: pusti onyi i grustni M: bare are they and sad today.

Hollo's lines do not correspond with the Russian, and he uses no rhyme. Furthermore, the "goodbye" of the Russian is connected with the preceding lines about the house, not these lines about the for­ ests. The ambiguous syntax removes the lines even further from the

Russian. "Them" in "the song has gone out of them" seems to refer to "forests." 83

L in e s 12-16.

V: 12) We are people, 13) We too are empty, 14) We leave, as is already established, 15) From walls, mothers, and from women, 16) And this order is everlasting.

A: 12) People (meaning us) 13) Are also empty, 14) As we leave behind (We have no choice) 15) Walls, mothers, womankind: 16) So it has always been and will be.

H: 12) the song--it has left us too, 14) it is time, to go it is written on the walls, on the faces of mothers and all women, an old dedication.

Ko: 12) we are people, 13) we a re em pty too; 14) we leave that is the way it's supposed to be, 15) our w alls, our mothers and our women 16) and this is the way things ever are;

M: 7.2) we're people, 13) we're also empty inside, 14) we too d ep art, thus it is determined, 15) fro m w alls, m others and from womankind, 16) and that order is eternal,

Hollo's lines are so divergent from the Russian that it is difficult to select the lines that correspond. Because the line pre­ ceding this group in Hollo's version corresponds to Voznesensky's 84

line 11, and because the line that follows this group corresponds to line 17, this group of lines must be compared with Voznesensky's lines 12 through 16. Voznesensky does not say "the song has left the people, " only that we people are empty. Nor does Voznesensky say

"it is written, " nor does he use any word to correspond with "dedica­ tion. "

All of the translations have something of the jerkiness that is produced by the phrasing of the Russian. There are in the Russian seven clause terminals in these lines, dividing the syllables into groups as follows: 3, 6, 3, 6, 2, 3, 4, 9. Line 16, with its nine syllables and regular meter (axa, axa, axa) effectively concludes this section.

Auden uses parentheses to break up his lines. He has eight clause ter­ minals, dividing the syllables as follows: 2, 3, 5, 5, 4, 1, 2, 3, 9.

His translation, though not literal, is nevertheless highly accurate.

Auden's only obvious rhyme is "behind/womankind," but there is pho­ nological similarity in the other two pairs: "us/choice" and "empty/ will be. " Two successive voiceless stops in "empty" cause as much of a break within this word as there is between the two words "will" and "be," which have almost the same stress pattern as "empty" be­ cause they are set up in contrast with "has always been" and therefore have the logical stress on "will. " The phonemic pattern is as follows:

A IS A. ' /empty; will be/. The two lines are further connected because the only other major stress in each line is [ol] in "also" and "always. " 85

"Us" and "choice" are alike in that both end in vowel followed by [s]. Though the syllable nuclei are different, [a ] and [ o i ] , the duration of both is affected by the voiceless [s], and both vowels pre­ ceding the [s] are lax and of short duration.

However, even counting all of the pairs as near rhymes,

Auden's rhymes do not occur in the same position as Voznesensky's.

Auden has a pattern of abcacb. Counting Voznesensky's line 14 as two lines (to correspond with Auden's translation) his rhyme is abbbcc.

But neither Auden nor Voznesensky uses close rhyme.

Hollo could be said to use a rhyme scheme of abdcd because

"written/women" and "faces/dedication" could well be called near

rhymes. But three of the four words have no corresponding word or

expression in the Russian, so that to recognize the rhyme is not to

establish any closer ties with the original poem.

Koten's unrhymed lines are literal translations. Except for

the long clause "that is the way it's supposed to be, " his phrases are

short like the Russian.

Marshall has seven clause terminals, which divide his syl­

lables as follows: 3, 7, 4, 6, 2, 2, 5, 8 . This division is much like

Voznesensky's, as is Marshall's near rhyme ("side/kind, determined/

eternal"), but the rhymes occur in different places (abcbc to Voznes­

ensky's abbcc). 86

In these lines the similarities of both Auden and Marshall to

Voznesensky seem to be greater than the differences, and neither

Auden nor Marshall alters the lexical context to achieve the phono­ logical resemblances.

Lines 17-21.

V: 17) Goodbye, my mother, 18) At windows 19) You stand transparent, like a cocoon, 20) Probably you got tired from the day, 21) Let us sit down.

A: 17) Goodbye, Mother, 18) Standing at the window 19) T ra n sp a re n t as a cocoon: soon 20) You will know how tired you are. 21) Let us sit here a bit.

H: 17) G ood-bye, mother of mine, 18) a t m any windows 19 ) you stand 20) transparent like a cocoon, weary of the day. 21) Let us sit down a while, let us take leave

Ko: 17) farew ell, M am a, 18) you stand 19) at the window, limpid as a cocoon, 20) probably tired from the day's work, 21) let us sit down;

M: 17) goodbye, mother, 18) at the window of your ro o m 19 ) you stand, transparent as a cocoon, 20) wearied by the day, no doubt, 21) so parting, let's sit down, ^

An ancient Russian custom of sitting briefly in silence after leave-taking. 87

There are some changes from the Russian in Auden's lexi­

cal context. He uses "window" instead of "windows," making his

reference more specific than the Russian. He adds "soon" and says

"you will know how tired you are" instead of "probably you got tired

from this day. " These lexical changes do not effect closer phono­

logical resemblance. Auden uses no end rhyme, and his internal

rhyme, "cocoon/soon" is not like Voznesensky's internal rhyme, which never consists of two successive rhymed syllables. In his

reading, Auden minimizes the closeness of these two stressed syl­

lables by using a pause after "cocoon. "

Hollo uses "windows" but adds "many"; otherwise his lexi­

cal context accurately translates the Russian. But he does not end

even a line where Voznesensky ends a stanza, after "Let us sit down

a while." Like Auden, he has no rhyme.

Koten uses "window, " and "limpid" instead of "transparent. "

He uses no rhyme.

Marshall uses "window" and adds "of your room" to get the

near rhyme with "cocoon, " a successful rhyme in that "of your room"

does not significantly alter the phrase "at the window. " His final

rhyme in this stanza is really more alliteration than rhyme because

the [t] and the [n] have such different effects on the preceding vow­

els that even though they are homorganic, they can hardly produce

rh y m e . 88

Marshall's most prominent deviation from the Russian is in number of syllables per line. Voznesensky has 6, 3, 9» 9, 3, so that having concluded the preceding stanza by using a long line after several short phrases, he reverses the procedure and ends this group of long phrases with a short line. Marshall's lines con­ sist of syllables as follows: 4, 7, 9, 7, 7--a pattern not at all like the Russian. However, the other translations, likewise divergent in syllables, are even further removed by their lack of rhyme.

Lines 22-26.

V; 22) Friends and enemies, goodbye, 23) Goodbye* 24) F ro m m e right now 25) With the whistle you run away, 26) And I go away fro m you. *In English in the Russian text.

Ar 22) Friends and foes, adieu, 23) Goodbye. 24) The whistle has blown: it is time 25) For you to run out of me and I 26) Out of you.

H: (omits this stanza)

Ko: 22) friends and enemies 23) goodbye to you, 24) in a minute, with a whistle 25) you'll be running off from me 26) and I'll be leaving you; 89

M: 22) friends and enemies, be, 23) proschai^ 24) with a whistle you run from me 25) and I fro m you, 26) goodbye, 3 The poet uses the English word "goodbye" in the original.

Auden uses "adieu" for Voznesensky's "vibaite, " an ex­ pression foreign to the Russian, like the following "goodbye. "

Auden says "The whistle has blown: it is tim e," only a slight varia­ tion from Voznesensky's "with the whistle, " but Auden's use of "out of" is a distortion of the lexical context of the Russian text. It is true that the prefix "vi-"in Russian before a verb of motion can mean "out of, " but it also can mean "from, " a much more likely translation in view of the formal "vi" instead of "ti" for "you."

Auden could have been influenced by a subsequent line, 56, "From my hollow pores you leave, " but this line uses the familiar form of

"you." The formal "you" of the lines under consideration, combined with the nouns of address "friends and enemies," suggests that "from"

is a better translation than "out of. " Auden also uses "out of" in

the final line, where Voznesensky uses the prefix "u-", which means

only "from. "

Voznesensky's rhyme scheme is abcac, Auden's abcba.

Koten uses only "goodbye" for the two forms given in the

Russian. He makes his first rhyme, "you" in line 23 and again in

line 26. He also has a more definite meter than in his other lines, 90 but the meter does not much resemble the Russian, nor does the

parallel structure of line 24, "in a moment, with a whistle. " Never­

theless, these lines have phonological features that are more for­ mally poetic than any of his other lines.

Marshall takes the literal meaning of "bivat, " ("to exist, be"), and he uses the Russian where Voznesensky uses the English form of "goodbye. " Then Marshall adds "goodbye" at the end, which gives him a rhyme with "proschai" but makes the stanza less like the

Russian, which ends in a seven syllable line that rhymes with line

24. This stanza in Russian is notable for the absence of a rhyme with some form of "goodbye. " Otherwise M arshall's lexical context is quite like the Russian.

Liines 27-30.

V: 27) O Motherland, we say goodbye to each other, 28) I will be a star, a white willow, 29) I do not cry, am not a beggar, 30) Thank you, life, that you have been.

A: 27) Motherland, goodbye now. 28) I shall not whimper nor make a scene, 29) But be a star, a willow: 30) Thank you, Life, for having been.

H: 27) Let us sit down awhile, let us take leave 28) my country, in a proper fashion. I willbecome a planet, or a laurel tree 29) and I am not weeping, not wearing you out with hard-luck stories: 30) I say thank you, love, for bearing with me for a while. 91

Ko: 27) oh, my native land, let's make our farewells; 28) I'll be a star, a white willow; 29) I won't cry; I'm no beggar; 30) thank you, life, for having been;

M: 27) o, motherland, let's say goodbye, 28) I'll be a star, a willow over a stream, 29) I'm no beggar, I won't cry, 30) thank you, life, for having been,

Auden, by transposing lines 28 and 29, achieves an abcb rhyme. (Voznesensky's is abab.) Though Auden does not have the a rhyme of the Russian, he has lines 27 and 29 end in unstressed syl­ lables, like the Russian, and his final stress in line 27 is [a lj like the Russian. His b rhyme, like the Russian, is on the final stressed syllable. Auden's pattern of clause terminals is quite similar to

Voznesensky's. Both poets have a clause terminal at the end of each line and one approximately in the middle of each line.

Auden's lexical context is quite like the Russian. There being no English equivalent of "poprashaika, " Auden substitutes

"making a scene, " an acceptable equivalent for the act of begging and praying.

Hollo begins this stanza as the second half of a line and con­ siderably alters the lexical context. He adds "in a proper fashion" and substitutes "planet" for "star." "Weeping" and "wearing you out with hard-luck stories" could be considered a reasonable substitution for "poprashaika, " but "love" instead of "life" is a real distortion, as is "bearing with me for a while" instead of "having been. " Hollo 92 uses seven and a half lines for Voznesensky's four. There is neither rhyme nor meter like the Russian.

Koten is consistent with his use of "farewell, " and h?s lexical context is much like the Russian. Though he uses clause terminals like the Russian, his line 27, with the same number of syllables as the Russian in the second half, is quite different phonologically be­ cause of the pattern of stresses and junctures:

y ; w + wt/ —► wts# w w — K: «+*'+/**■'+#

K oten 1 s line seems unduly long.

Marshall has Voznesensky's abab rhyme scheme and a lexi­ cal context like the Russian except for the addition of "over a stream. "

The four successive unstressed syllables, awkward in English, dis­ tort the meter and deviate from the Russian. The phonological con­ text would be more like the Russian had he said simply "... a star, a stream. "

Lines 31-34.

V: 31) In the shooting gallery with a score of ten 32) I trie d to sc o re 100. 33) Thank you that I made the mistake, 34) But three times thank you that

A: 31) In the shooting gallery Where the top score is ten, 32) I tried to reach a century: 33) Thank you for letting me make the mistake, 34) But a triple thank-you that into 93

H: 31) I have trie d in the shooting-galleries 32) for 100 points with 10 bullets 33) but thank you for not letting me make it,

Ko: 31) at the shooting-range I tried 32) to make a score of 100 out of a possible 10; 33) thank you for my blundering, 34) but thank you three times over for

M: 31) at the shooting gallery I've tried to make 32) a 100 out of 10 I shoot, 33) thank you, that I made a mistake, 34) but threefold thanks and gratitude,

The difficulty of these lines is the economy of the Russian expression "v 10 ballov. " For these four syllables (containing only one /+/) the English equivalents used by the translators are "the top

score is ten," "with 10 bullets" (which does not necessarily mean ten points possible), "a possible 10" ("score" was used earlier in the

line), "out of 10 I shoot. " Hollo and Marshall, the second and fourth

of the preceding examples, fail to make it clear that the limit is ten.

Auden is unequivocal on this point but uses three stresses and five plus junctures. Koten is accurate but his line 32 seems labored with

eight syllables more than line 31 (15:7).

The other difficulty is line 33, "Thank you that I made this mistake, " which has some degree of ambiguity. It could mean both

"Thank you for my attempt" and "thank you that the feat was im ­ possible. " Auden selects the former possibility by using the word

"letting," and Koten's "for my blundering" is closer to the former 94 than to the latter. Hollo indicates the latter with his "not letting me make it, 11 and Marshall preserves the ambiguity with "I made a mistake. "

Marshall's translation has the regularity of rhyme and line length found in the Russian. His abab is like Voznesensky's, but he has four stressed endings to Voznesensky's two. Voznesensky uses no clause terminals within lines 31 and 32, and Marshall does not have one even at the end of line 31. Voznesensky has two in line 33, though the second one, after "shto," has no logical motivation from the structure of the sentence and is identified only by the poet's reading. Marshall's line 33 has only one clause terminal, after

"thank you," and his clause terminal at the end of line 34 is die- tated by the structure. Voznesensky's l / f f at the end of line 34 is not a natural result of the syntactic structure, but it is quite noticeable in his reading.

Auden achieves a rhyme with the third and fifth lines of this group (he uses five lines to Voznesensky's four), but the feminine rhyme "century/into" is neither so close nor so stressed as

Voznesensky's "sto/shto, " though in both cases the final rhyme is effected with the same word, because "century" is Auden's word for the Russian "sto" ("hundred").

Hollo omits line 34 and lets the "thank you" of line 33 in­ troduce the stanza that follows. 95

Lines 35-38.

V: 35) Into my transparent shoulders 36) Genius entered, like 37) Into a ru b b er glove 38) A red , m ale fist,

A: 35) My transparent shoulders 36) Genius drove 37) Like a red male fist that enters 38) A rubber glove.

H: 35) for lighting up my small transparent guns 36) illuminating them like a red fist 38) appearing in a rubber glove;

Ko: 35) the genius that entered 36) my transparent shoulder-blades 37) like a man's red fist 38) going into a rubber glove;

M: 35) that in my transparent shoulder 36) blades enlightenment thrust, 37) as into a rubber glove moulded 38) a red masculine fist,

Auden's near rhyme of lines 36 and 38 does have the final

stress like the Russian, but the voiced fricative [v] makes "drove/

glove" quite different from "kak/kulak. " The brevity of Auden's

lines does, however, counteract the attenuation of his final rhymes.

The most significant change is that Voznesensky's final rhyme is

"fist, " whereas Auden uses "fist" in the middle of a line that is un­ broken by clause terminals, giving the word a much less prominent position and changing the emphasis of the comparison.

Hollo once more deviates from both lexical and phonological 96 contexts. It is difficult even to explain his phrase "for lighting up my small transparent guns" and even more difficult to equate it with either Russian version: "Into my transparent shoulders genius en­ tered, " or ". . .enlightenment came. " He uses three lines for

Voznesensky's four and has no rhyme.

Koten has a slight deviation from the lexical context of the

Russian. Instead of "thank you that genius entered," he says "thank you for the genius that entered." By focusing on "genius" instead of the act of its coming, Koten weakens the comparison. Because the analogy suggests action--the glove acquires functional value when filled with a strong hand--it is more appropriate to retain Voznesen­ sky's comparison of actions instead of qualities. Auden makes the same shift as Koten with the second part of the comparison: "Like a red male fist that enters. "

Marshall's rhymes of "thrust" and "fist" are much like the

Russian in that they are stressed, end in voiceless plosives, and use

"fist" in the final stressed position. But his other rhyme, "shoulder/ moulded" is less successful. Any kind of break after "shoxilder" to establish it as a rhyme obscures the necessarily close connection with "blades" in the following line. "Moulded" seems contrived, partly because its syntactic function is not clear. If it is a parti­ ciple modifying "glove," the word order is strained. If "moulded" 97 is a main verb of which "fist" is the subject, even a change in word order would not sufficiently clarify the clause: "as a red masculine fist moulded into a rubber glove. " If the word group is taken as a phrase and "moulded" to modify "fist, " the image is still not clear.

The word stands as no more than a contrived rhyme, obscuring the lexical context and therefore weakening the stanza.

Lines 39-42.

V: 39) "Andrei Voznesensky" 40) May not remain in word, or stone, 41) Still on your warm cheek, 42) "Andrushki. "

A: 39) Voznesensky may one day be graven 40) In cold stone but, meanwhile, may 41) I find haven 42) On your warm cheek as Andrei.

Hi 39) "Andrei Voznesensky"--enough, 40) no word, no little doggie to be left behind, 41) nor any "Andryushka" on your burning cheek--

Ko: 39) "Andrei Voznesensky" — enough of that, 40) oh — to be not a word, not a little splash 41) but still "Andriushka" — 42) on your sultry cheek;

M: 39) "Andrei Voznesensky" -- happen it will, 40) not a word, not a cobblestone may remain 41) on your burning cheek still-- 42) "Andrushka, "

Hollo changes the lexical context, and Marshall makes it ob­ scure. Hollo says not even "andryushka on your burning cheek," and Marshall's syntax implies that neither a word or a cobblestone 98

"may remain on your burning cheek still"--a ludicrous suggestion if taken literally, but without punctuation after "remain" the phrase is ambiguous.

An inherent difficulty is the translation of the pet name, which is familiar to Russians but not to speakers of English. Be­ sides the transliteration, which results in three various spellings, there is the problem of recognition. Auden handles the problem by using family name and given name, a contrast that is meaningful to speakers of English, and he also achieves a rhyme.

Only Auden approaches the kind of rhyme scheme of the

Russian text. His abab has at least the same number of rhymes as

Voznesensky's a abb. Like Voznesensky, Auden uses the intimate noun of address for the final rhyme. Auden's a rhyme is closer than the a rhyme of the Russian--"graven/haven" and "budit/buldikom"-- but his b rhyme is weakened by the difference in phonemic stress on the two syllables "m ay/-drei. " Although the syllable nuclei are identical, [©il ordinary usage puts at most only weak secondary sentence stress on "may" and primary stress on "-drei"--making a difference in duration that is heightened by the fact that "may" is followed by a plus juncture and "-drei" by a clause terminal on the phonemic level and a transition on the par a linguistic level. 99

Marshall has an abac rhyme and does end the stanza with one word, as does Voznesensky, but the lexical context suffers from the a rhyme, and the_bone is more important in the Russian.

Furthermore, in his reading Voznesensky heightens the effect of the second rhyme by pausing before "warm" ("dushnoi") -- a pause that must be considered paralinguistic but is still not unnatural.

None of the translations offer such possibilities for emphasizing the familiar form of the name. Hollo and Koten do not even have it in the final position in the stanza.

Lines 43-47.

V: 43) Thank you that in an autumn grove 44) You met, asked something, 45) And pulled the dog by the collar, 46) But he held back, 47) Thank you.

A: 43) In the woods the leaves were already falling 44) When you ran into me, asked me something 45) Your dog was with you: you tugged at his leash and called him, 46) He tugged the other way: 47) Thank you for that day.

H: 43) thank you for meeting you in the woods, this F a ll 44) for asking me, I don't remember, what 45) while the dog was straining at the leash, 46) thank you,

Ko: 43) thank you, for that meeting 44) in the autumn grove, for your asking something, 45) for dragging that dog about by his collar 46) with him resisting, 47) thank you; 100

M: 43) thank you, that 'mid autumn leaves, 44) meeting you asked me something frankly, 45) with your dog on a dangling leash, 46) but he strained at it, 47) thank you,

The regular amphibrachs of the Russian are not natural to

English verse, but Marshall's successive unstressed syllables ap­ proximate the amphibrachic flow of these lines in Russian. He never has two successive stressed syllables, and twice he has three successive unstressed ones ("thank you, that mid autumn, " and

"asked me something frankly"). It is true that the first syllable of

"something" ordinarily carries secondary phonemic stress, but this can be read quite naturally with the only strong stresses on "asked" and the first syllable of "frankly. " The five examples of two suc­ cessive unstressed syllables are less equivocal.

Marshall uses "thank you" in the same places it occurs in the Russian. He unites the stanza by frequent repetition of [®d ] in a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed one: "thank you, "

"frankly, " "dangling, " "thank you. " The alliteration of the d's in his line 45 functions much like repetition of Voznesensky's stressed vowels in the same line: "i psa volakla. . „ "

Koten ends each line on an unstressed syllable and also uses

"thank you" in the same positions as in the Russian, but his lack of rhyme and lack of repetition of vowel patterns makes his translation less like the Russian than is M arshall's. 101

Auden successfully uses the feminine endings in lines 43,

44, and 45, and he has the same kind of rhyme as the Russian in lines 43 and 45: "falling/called him"; "oseinikh/osheinik. " But the strong masculine rhyme and nearly equal length of lines 46 and 47 are not like the Russian.

All four translations have a lexical context consistent with the Russian.

Lines 48-53.

48) I came alive,thank you for autumn, 49) That you explained me to myself, 50) The landlady woke us at eight 51) And on holidays hoarsely spoke deeply 52) A record of thieves' songs, 53) Thank you.

48) I came alive: thank you for that September, 49) For explaining me to myself. The housekeeper, I remember, 50) Woke us at eight, and on weekends her phono­ graph sang 51) Some old underworld song 52) In a hoarse bass: 53) I give thanks for the time, the place.

48) I had a new shot of life, 49) thank you for explaining yourself to me, 50) & the landlady, chasing us out of bed at eight. . . . 51) On Sundays 52) we played that growly old record, the songs in hiptalk, 53) thank you. .. . 102

Ko: 48) I came to life; thank you for the autumn, 49) for your explaining myself to me, 50) for the m istress of the house waking us at eight, 51) and the deep-voiced records 52) singing huskily on holidays in their own slang, 53) thank you;

M; 48) I came to life again, thank you for autumn's w ealth, 49) that you explained me to mself, 50) the landlady woke us up at eight, 51) and on holidays hoarsely scraped 52) that old record, black-market hip, 53) thank you for it,

The disjointed thoughts of this stanza are bound in the Rus­ sian text by rhyme; repetition of vowels; and intricate alliteration, ■7 combined with assonance. Auden has end rhyme in each line, and though his repetition of vowels is not so marked as Voznesensky's, the vowels are still noticeable: the [el] in the first part of lines 48,

49, 50, and as the final rhyme in 52 and 53; and the [ou] in lines 50,

51, and 52 ("woke," "phonograph," "old," "hoarse"). He alliter­ ates w's in lines 50 and 51, and his alliterative_m's of line 49 are emphasized by the use of m 's in line 48 and the homorganic p's in the same lines. The bilabials are underlined in the following lines:

48) I came alive; thank you for that September, 49) For explaining me to myself. The housekeeper,

7 Cf. supra, p.75. 103

I re m e m b e r, 50) Woke us at eight, and on weekends her phonograph sang 51) Some old underworld song 52) In a h o a rse b ass: 53) I give thanks for the time, the glace.

Marshall has the same couplet rhyme as Auden, but only the first one is close rhyme, "wealth/ self, " and the last one is strained in that "it" is ordinarily unstressed and therefore even less like "hip." Marshall repeats [ei]'s in lines 48, 49, 50, and 51; and alliterates h in "holidays hoarsely" of line 51. But his final line and less prominent repetition of vowels and consonants make his trans­ lation less like the phonological context of the Russian than is Auden's.

The difficulty with the lexical context is that there is no

English equivalent of the songs mentioned in the Russian. Both

Marshall and Hollo use "hip talk, " and Koten uses "slang. " Auden says "underworld song. " These expressions are equally effective, and the inadequate translations must be blamed on the limitations of the English culture rather than the English translators.

Lines 54-58.

V: 54) But here you are leaving, leaving 55) As the train is leaving, you're leaving, 56) From my hollow pores you're leaving, 57) We separately, one from another, leave, 58) Why is this house disagreeable to us?

A: 54) But you are leaving, going 55) As the train is going, leaving, 56) Going in another direction: we are ceasing to belong 57) To each other or this house. What is wrong? 104

H: 54) But now 55) you are moving away, as the train is moving away, you are, 56) leaving my pores, they stand wide open--we go asunder 57) you out of m e, 1 out of you; 58) why can't we make it in this house any m o re ?

Ko; 54) but you are leaving, leaving. 55) like a train leaves, are you leaving; 56) you are leaving the empty pores of my skin; 57) we are going our separate ways one from the other; ii 58) in what way was this house disagreeable to us?

M: 54) but now you are departing, departing, 55) as a train departs, you're departing. „ . 56) from my open pores you're departing, 57) from each other we're parting, departing, 58) why's this house now so disheartening?

The striking feature of this stanza in Russian is the repeti­ tion of verbs, varied by differences of prefix and ending, so that the verbs are alike but not identical. Marshall is most successful with his "parting, departing" and his rhyme of all five lines, like the Rus­ sian. His vowel repetition, too, is much like the Russian: "open pores" ("por. . .polikh") and "house now." If "disheartening" is pronounced with only three syllables, its rhyme with "departing" is even closer.

Auden's manipulation of "leaving, going" does not have the same kind of variation as the "ukhodish, otkhodit, ukhodem" of the

Russian because within the utterance that is being transposed is a 105 clause terminal, which makes it difficult to see "leaving, going" as a single expression that is varied when its elements are transposed.

In line 56 "ceasing" is an effective echo of "leaving, " the constant elements being [ — 'i —i q ]. The lexical context is, however, altered in order to achieve the vowel repetition and the rhyme of lines 56 and

57.

Koten's version, lexically accurate, has no rhyme and no similarity of line length with the Russian. Hollo's translation is quite jerky except for the final line. The brevity of the phrases is indi­ cated by his spacing on the page and his punctuation as well as his syntax. "We go asunder/you out of me, I out of you" calls for three clause terminals regardless of spacing or punctuation.

Lines 61-64.

V: 61) I know that we repeat ourselves, 62) In friends and friends (fern.) and blades of g ra ss , 63) This and that replace us, -- 64) Nature fears a vacuum,

A: 61) I know we shall live again as 62) Friends or girl friends or blades of grass, 63) Instead of us this one or that one will come: 64) Nature abhors a vacuum.

Hi 61) I know, we'll repeat ourselves, 62) in loves & lovers, in leaves of grass 63) replaced by this one, by that one- 64) in nature no space remains empty for long; 106

Ko: 61) I know that we will be repeated 62) in our friends, men and women, in the blades of g ra ss; 63) we will be replaced, this for that, — 64) nature fears a void;

M: 61) I know ourselves we shall repeat 62) in friends and girl friends, grass blades and s p o re s , 63) by this and that we'll be replaced-- 64) "nature a vacuum abhors, "

Hollo is closer to the Russian in these four lines than he has been at any other time. His alliterative 1 's in line 62, the repeti­ tion of [i] as the next to the last stressed vowel in lines 61 and 62, the repetition with only a change of ending in "loves and lovers"-- all of these devices are much like those found in the Russian text.

Only line 64 is divergent and contrasts with the economy and pre­ ciseness of the Russian as well as the familiarity of a common ex­ pression. "Priroda boitsa pustot" has eight syllables to Hollo's 11, and, more important, is a familiar expression; "Nature abhors a vacuum . "

Marshall preserves the expression in part but changes the word order to achieve a rhyme, sacrificing not only familiarity but naturalness and making the rhyme contrived. His abcb rhyme still contrasts with Voznesensky's a abb, though M arshall does end on a stressed syllable. Also in line 59 his word order is unnatural.

Auden's end rhyme is almost entirely visual. The_ajs of

"as" is not spoken at all like the a s s of "grass, " nor do "come" and 107

"cuum" sound alike. The phonetic differences are heightened by the phonemic ones:

61) . . gen ez

62) . . bleldz 9v graes

63) . . d set wAn w ll kAm

64) . . 'vaakjum

The phonemic description indicates that the rhyme actually appears before the end of each line, in all but line 62, as indicated by the underlined portions below:

59) I know we shall live again as

60) Friends or girl friends or blades of grass,

61) Instead of us this one or that one will come

62) Nature abhors a vacuum.

Koten's lexical context, usually accurate, has a discrepancy in line 61, saying "this for that" instead of "this and that for us."

Lines 65-67.

V: 65) Thank you for blown away leaves, 66) In their place will come millions, 67) For your laws, thank you,

A: 65) The leaves are swept away without trace 66) But millions more will grow in their place: 67) Thank you, Nature, for the laws you gave me.

Bt 65) so, thank you for the treetops, now blown away, 66) millions will grow again, thank you for your law s, 108

Ko: 65) thank you for the leafy crowns of the trees that have blown away; 66) millions will come to replace them; 67) and for your laws - thank you;

M: 65) thank you for tree tops that finally blow, 66) millions in their place will grow, 67) for your laws--thank you once again,

Again, as in lines 43-47 (meeting with the woman and the dog in the autumn grove) the stanza begins and ends with "thank you. "

This stanza is shorter than the other and the rhyme is closer: "kroni/ millioni/zakoni" ("leaves/millions/laws") if this final "thank you" is not counted as the final rhyme. Voznesensky stresses "zakoni" in line 67, even creating a stress on the normally unstressed final syl- 2 3 ' 2c-> lable by lengthening it and not lowering the pitch: / zakon i /. The clause terminal further strengthens the effect that "zakoni" is an end rhyme with lines 65 and 66.

Auden uses only one "thank you, " and that not in a final posi­ tion in a line. He has close rhyme in lines 65 and 66, and his added phrase "without trace" does not distort the lexical context. He adds a clause in line 66, "that you gave me, " to set up the rhyme with the final line of the poem, line 70, "Save me! " This addition is not a distortion and has a feminine rhyme like the Russian.

To achieve his rhyme Marshall sacrifices clarity in line 65 because "blow" does not necessarily indicate "blow away," and the

order of line 66 is a little unnatural, though not as awkward as some 109 of his lines. He adds "once again, " thus setting up a rhyme with line 69 instead of 70 as in the Russian. The lexical context is not * significantly altered, but the phonological context is thus quite dif­ ferent. Hollo's accurate lexical context is not accompanied by phonological similarities to the Russian, and the same judgment is true of Koten.

Lines 68-70.

V: 68) But a woman runs down the slope 69) Like an autumn leaf behind the train car, 70) Save!

A: 68) But a woman runs down the track 69) Like a red autumn leaf at the train's back. 70) Save me!

H: 68) but there, she is running--down the slope, 69) like a burning leaf--after the last car of this train .... 70) Hold her!

Ko: 68) but a woman is rushing down the slope 69) like a flaming leaf floating behind a train . 70) Save her!

M: 68) but a woman flies down the platform paving 69) like a fiery leaf after a train . . . 70) Save her!

The most difficult line to translate accurately is the final

one because of the ambiguity in the Russian. "Spacite" simply means

"save" and does not by itself imply an object. Only Auden says

"save me"; the other three say "save her." A note that accompanies

the Auden version in Antiworlds explains that in the first published 110 version only there was an additional line, "Hold her back. " This addition would indicate that "save" refers to the woman. However, all subsequent versions omit "Hold her back, " and according to Q the editors of Antiworlds require the interpretation "Save me. "

Auden's rhyme is like the Russian in that line 7 0 rhymes with 67, the final line of the preceding stanza, but Auden lacks the near rhyme between 68 , 69 and 65, 66. His lexical context is ac­ cu rate .

General Phonological Structure of the Poems in English.

There are two noteworthy phonological features of the Russian poem.

First, there are only three lines without some kind of end rhyme.

The rhyme gives unity to each of the three lexical sections and at * the same time preserves the autonomy of the separate instances discussed in each section. Second, the phonology is achieved with­ out strained or awkward word order.

Though Marshall attains neither the amount nor the uni­ formity of end rhyme found in the Russian poem, he does not have a single stanza without end rhyme. Voznesensky uses twenty-six line endings; Marshall uses thirty-five, ten of which occur only once,

8P age 280. Ill that is, do not rhyme. One of Marshall's stanzas is remarkable for its similarity to Voznesensky's technique of rhyming five successive lines: Marshall's lines using "parting/ departing" and "dishearten­ in g ."

It is also noteworthy that Marshall uses not only the same rhyme but the same words of the first rhyme in two of the last four lines: "again" and "train. " Furthermore, Marshall also imitates

Voznesensky's technique of using several scattered examples of rhymes with "thank you. " "Goodbye" appears as end rhyme twice

{counting "proschai") and a third time if "goodbye again" is con­ sidered. "Thank you" serves as end rhyme three times (counting

"thank you for it"), but one of them appears in the "goodbye" section, apparently used only for rhyme with "planks. " *

The primary weakness of M arshall's translation is not that he occasionally adds words for rhyme but that he wrenches the word order to accommodate rhyme, creating in his translation a stilted quality not to be encountered in the Russian. Compensation for this weakness can be found in his successful rhymes and his preservation of rhymes with the prominent lexical elements "goodbye" and

"th an k s."

Auden preserves the rhyme with "goodbye, " using it in final positions three times, only once, in the second stanza, not rhyming 112

it with other lines in the stanza. "Thank you" is not used once in a

final position. Considerably less rigid than Voznesensky's, Auden's

rhyme pattern admits more unrhymed lines and even an unrhymed

stanza.

The salient strong point of Auden's translation is the natural­

ness of the lexical context that supports the rhymes. There are no in-

artistically ambiguous phrases, no contrived word order. The

conversational smoothness of the Russian poem is duplicated in

Auden's translation.

The most damaging weakness of the English translations is

that none of the English poems effect the degree of unity brought about

by the strict phonological structure of the Russian. The three major

feelings of the speaker--dissatisfaction at leaving and at the changes

taking place, gratitude for what life has brought and still promises,

and dismay at unsolved problems--seem harmonized in the Russian

poem in spite of being sharply delineated. Neither the sharp delinea­

tion nor the complete harmony is obvious in the English translations.

II. "PARABOLIC BALLAD"

In 1961 the second volume of poems by Voznesensky ap­

peared in the Soviet Union. It was called Parabola. According to

one author, 113

Voznessenski [sic] himself has pointed out his most interesting contribution to Soviety poetry. At the end of 1961 a collection entitled My Best Poem appeared in Moscow, . . .subtitled 'poems by Muscovite poets'. The editors had asked each Muscovite poet himself to choose what he thought was his best work. Voznessenski chose 'Parabolic Ballad', his most criticized poem; and although he likes a scandal it would be unjust to suppose that he selected this poem for that reason. 9

The poem has been called a manifesto, the parabola repre­ senting not only the path of the artist toward his destiny, but also the path along which poetry travels to reach a reader, indirectly but with splendor.

Parabolicheskaya Ballada

Sudba, kak rakyeta, letit po parabole Obichno--vo mrake i ryezhe—po raduge.

Zhil ogeno-rizhi khudozhnik Gogyen, Bogyema, a v proshlom torgovi agyent. Chtob v Luvr korolevski popast iz Monmartra, On dal krugala cherez Yavu s Sumatroi! Unyosya, zabiv sumashestviye dyeneg, Kudakhtane zhon, dukhotu akadyemi. On preodolel

tagotyene zemnoye. Zhryetsi gogotali za kruzhkoi pivnoyu "Pramaya--koroche, parabola--kruche, Nye luche 1 skopirovat raiskiye kushi?"

^Pierre Forgues, "The Young Poets," Survey, XLVI (January 1963), 37. 114

A on unosilsa rakyetoi revushei Skvoz vyeter, srivayushi faldi i ushi, I v Luvr on popal nye skvoz glavni porog-- P arab o lo i gnyevno probiv potolokl Idut k svoim pravdam, po-raznomu khrabo. Chervyak--cherez shel, chelovyek--po parabole.

Zhila-bila dyevochka ryadom v kvartale. Mi s nyeyu uchilis, zachoti sdavali. Kyda zh ya uyekhal! I chort menya nyos. Myezh gruznikh gruzinskikh dvusmislenikh zvyozd! Prosti mnye duratskuyu etu parabolu. Prostivshiye plechiki v chornom paradnom. .. O, kak ti zvenyela vo mrake Vselenoi Uprugo i pryamo, --kak prutik antyenil A ya vsyo lechu, prizemlayas po nim-- Zemnim i ozyabshim tvoim pozivnim. Kak trudno dayotsa nam eta parabola! ..

Smetaya kanoni, prognozi, paragrafi, Nesutsa iskustvo, lubov i istoriya-- Po parabolicheskoi trayektori!

V Sibir uyezhayet on nineshnei nochu.

A mozhet bit, vsyo zhe pramaya--koroche ?

Lexical Context of the Russian Poem

Lines 1 -2.

Fate like rocket flies along (a) parabola 1) Sudba, kak rakyeta, letit po parabole

Usually in darkness and more rarely along (a) rainbow 2) Obichno-- vo mrake i ryezhe po raduge

The first two lines serve as a "topic sentence" for the poem.

Fate moves along a devious path not clearly revealed to man, but 115 occasionally man sees glorious flashes of its progress, like a rain­ bow. The rainbow is a particularly apt comparison because it has both the shape of a parabola, at least roughly, and striking color and light. Furthermore, it has long been associated with revelation. The poet's association of the parabola with rockets also suggests speed.

Fate moves indirectly toward its goal, but it flies with great speed.

Lines 3 -6 .

Lived fiery-redhaired artist Gauguin 3) Zhil ogneno-rizhi khudozhnik Gogyen

Bohemian but formerly commercial agent 4) Bogyema a v proshlom torgovi agyent.

In order to Louvre royal reach from Montmartre 5) Chtob v Luvr korolevski popast iz Monmartra

He made a detour through Java and Sumatra 6) On dal krugala cherez Yavu s Sumatroii

Gauguin, who has been a symbol of artistic freedom, is used by Voznesensky as an illustration of the indirect way in which man, particularly the artist, approaches his destiny. Born in France,

Gauguin nevertheless spent time in Java and Sumatra before he was acclaimed in his own country. "Dat krugala" is slang for "make a big detour, to go the long way round. It is particularly apt here because its root, "krug, " means "circle, " and the expression repeats the idea of a circuitous route.

l®Vladimir Ognyev (comp.), Vo Yes Golos (Moscow: Pro­ gress Publishers, [n.d.]), p. 451. 116

Lines 7 -9 .

He sped away, having forgotten madness of money 7) Unyosya, zabiv sumashestviye dyeneg,

Cackle of wives stuffiness of academy 8 ) Kudakhtane zhon dukhotu akadyemi

He overcame gravity earthly 9) On preodolel tagotyene zemnoye,

"Kudakhtane" means specifically the sound of hens. For­ getting about commercial problems, Gauguin escaped his family re­ sponsibilities, the weight of which is probably what Voznesensky refers to as "earth's gravity. " Leaving his wife and children, aban­ doning the attempt to make money, Gauguin devoted himself entirely to art, having overcome family and economic forces that held him down.

Lines 10-12.

Priests roared with laughter behind mugs beer (adj.) 10) Z h retsi gogotali za kruzhkoi pivnoyu

a straight line shorter parabola steeper 11) P ra m a y a k o roche, parab o la kruche

Not better would it be to copy heavenly home 12) Nye luche 1 skopirovat raiskiye kushi?

Representatives of the church, which traditionally supports family ties and encourages economic responsibility, remonstrated with Gauguin, urging him hot to deviate from the straight path pre­ scribed by religious teachings. "Raiskiye kushi," is a "bookish and archaic" term for "our heavenly home."** Voznesensky indicates his sympathy for Gauguin and opposition to the priests by describing their actions as worldly and irresponsible and using terms antitheti­ cal to his own in quoting their advice.

Lines 13-16.

But he rose up like a rocket howling 13) A on unosilsa rakyetoi rev u sh ei

Through wind tearing away coattails and ears 14) Skvoz vyeter, srivayushi faldi i ushi

And into Louvre he fell not through main door 15) I v Luvr on popal nye skvoz glavni porog-- * Like a parabola wrathfully pierced roof 16) P arab o lo i gnyevno probiv potolokl

Gauguin disregarded all efforts to keep him from his art and

"rose up" with his artistic passion, the tempestuous passion that tears away coattails and ears. The former refers to his lack of formal dress, and the latter doubtless refers to his friend Van Gogh. It was at the end of a stormy period, when the two artists had lived and worked, and fought, together, that Van Gogh cut off part of his left ear.

The wind of artistic passion has no regard for items of dress oreven the body of the artist.

Like most artists, Gauguin did not win instant acclaim. During 118 his lifetime his exhibits were never financially successful, and many of his paintings were not understood by his contemporaries. Although he considered himself a great artist from the time he started painting, he was better known for his eccentricities than for his talent. But as

Pierre Forgues points out, "What could be stupider than to enter into an art musum [sic] by the open portal that is meant for that purpose; a true artist can only enter it by breaking through the ceiling! " 12

Lines 17-18.

(They) go toward their truth in different ways bravely 17) Idut k svoim pravdam, po-raznomu khrabro

Worm through crack person along (a) parabola 18) Chervyak--cherez shel, chelovyek--po parabole

Creatures are brave in different ways as they go toward their truth. Worms squeeze through cracks, but man must proceed along a devious route, one that is less obvious.

Lines 19-20.

There once lived (a) girl alongside in (the)neighborhood 19) Zhila-bila dyevochka ryadom, v kvartale.

We together studied exams turned in 20) Mi s nyeyu uchilis, zachoti sdavali.

The speaker remembers a girl he once knew well. At one time in their lives, he and she were at the same place, both

12 Forgues, op. cit. , 38. 119 geographically and metaphorically. They lived in the same neighbor­ hood and were at the same level in their school work.

Lines 21-22.

Where I went away and devil me carried 21) Kyda zh ya uyekhal; I chort menya nyos.

Among massive Georgian ambiguous stars 22) Myezh gruznikh gruzinskikh dvusmislenikh zvyozdl

The speaker feels that he has moved very far from that spot which at one time he and the girl occupied. Some supernatural force has carried him to great heights. "Dvusmisleni" means "ambiguous, equivocal" (from its components "two" and "idea") and it also can mean "suggestive, risque. "

"Gruzinskikh" is "Georgian" and refers to the small Soviet

Socialist Republic in the South, bordering on Turkey. In some ver­ sions Voznesensky substitutes "Tbiliskikh, " which refers to Tbilisi

(Tiflis) the capital of the Georgian Republic. Tbilisi houses many cultural and educational establishments and is a center of film indus­ try and publishing.

Lines 23-26.

Forgive me idiotic this parabola 23) Prosti mnye duratskuyu etu parabolu.

Growing cold shoulders in dark front doors 24) Prostivshiye plechiki v chornom paradnom. . . 120

O how you rang out in darkness (of the) universe 25) O, kak ti zvenyela vo mrake Vselenoi

resiliently and direct like thin antenna 26) Uprugo i pryamo, --kak prutik antyeni

Line 23 seems to refer to the personal memories in lines 19 and 20, the girl that the speaker remembers from his youth. The reader is asked to forgive the speaker for the trivial digression that interrupts the serious thought of the poem.

A different interpretation of line 23 is offered by Nils A.

Nilsson. To Nilsson the line is "an exclamation to his beloved, a shout of forgiveness. " 13 Nilsson assumes that the line is spoken to the girl of the neighborhood, asking her forgiveness for his parabolic trip through the Georgian stars. Because the neighborhood girl is re­ ferred to in third person and in general, it seems unlikely that she

should suddenly be addressed directly. It is possible that the speaker is asking forgiveness generally for his digression through the stars instead of his digression from his general subject in the poem.

Line 24 could refer to waiting for someone to come out or waiting with a girl who is about to go inside. In either case there is some sadness, a moment of human intimacy but bleakness, darkness and cold.

^Nils A. Nilsson, "The Parabola of Poetry, Some Remarks on Andrej Voznesenskij, " Scando-Slavica, X (1964), 64. 1Z1

"V chornom paradnom" can also have another meaning. The ■ word "parad" means "parade," and the adjective "paradni" can refer to "parade" or "ceremony" or the dress for such an occasion, although there is another expression for "full dress, " "v polnom parade" (lit­ erally "in full parade"). Nilsson says that in this line, ". . .we get an image of the girl, dressed in her best clothes (for a ball, an ex­ amination, or something similar); the cold shoulders indicate her loneliness and despair.

Lines 25 and 26 could refer to a woman with whom the speak­ er stood in a dark front door (or who wore evening dress that exposed her shoulders). On the other hand, the former incident may have been a generalization. There is nothing to indicate whether the "ti" in line

25 (who "ran out in the darkness of the Universe") refers to the girl of lines 19 and 20, as Nilsson suggests. There is, however, a remote­ ness suggested in lines 19 and 20, as if the girl were almost forgotten.

The strength of the attraction of the "ti" in these lines at least admits the possibility that the speaker is addressing a girl other than the one he described earlier in third person.

Lines 27-29.

But I kept on flying touching down according to it 27) A ya vsyo lechu, prizemlayas po nim

14 Ib id ., 64. 122

earthly and cold your call sign 28) Zemnim i ozyabshim tvoim pozivnim.

The image of the antenna is further developed in these lines.

The "ti" of line 25 who "range out" is like a transmitter, sending out bearings as well as its own identity, or call numbers. The speaker, ■ apparently referring to his own flight of artistic passion, is kept in contact with the earth by this signal, though he keeps on flying.

This parabola, either the flight or its completion or both, is not easy.

Lines 30-32.

Sweeping aside cannons predictions paragraphs 30) Smetaya kanoni, prognozi paragrafi,

Rush along art love and history 31) Nesutsa iskustvo, lubov i istoriya

along (a) parabolic tra je c to ry 32) Po parabolicheskoi trayektorii

The speaker is once more generalizing, saying that art, love, and history cannot be prescribed or lim ited, They too travel not by direct and well-marked paths but by the indirect route, by fast-moving p arab o la.

Lines 33-34.

For Siberia leaves he this very night 33) V Sibir uyezhayet on nineshnei nochu 123

But maybe nevertheless straight line (is) shorter 34) A mozhet bit, vsyo zhe pramaya koroche?

The uncertainty expressed in this conclusion is typical of

Voznesensky's poems. "He" is presumably an artist or writer who has placed himself in an awkward position with the authorities be­ cause of his unwillingness to compromise with his artistic integrity.

The alternate version of line 33 is, "V Sibirskoi vesnye utopayut kaloshi" (" In the Siberian spring sink galoshes"). "Spring" refers to the season, not to a source of water. The confusion lies only in the

English word. The alternate, too, suggests a sinister lack of per­ sonal freedom.

The last line, expressing great uncertainty, questions the val­ ues of the indirect and therefore more precarious route.

Summary of the Lexical Context. The image of the parabola, greatly significant to this poem, is important in a wider sense. It is the title of a collection of Voznesensky's poems and, according to some writers, a symbol for him of the way poetry should affect a reader or 15 an audience. Certainly Voznesensky has been widely quoted as say­ ing that young people of today's highly complex society want poetry that is also complex.

Nilsson discusses another significance of "parabola. " It is an

15I b id ., 49-52. 1 24 archaic word for "parable. " It is possible that Voznesensky also had in mind the indirectness of the parable when he named this volume of poems or this poem in particular. ^

It is typical for Voznesensky to use the parabola as a unifying image for the entire poem and at the same time within the poem refer to different kinds of parabolas. The parabola for Gauguin means the circuitous route of his life, both geographically and metaphorically, as well as the indirect but ultimately smashing way his art reached the public. The parabola refers to a digression within the poem, and it also refers to the flights of poetic inspiration.

The poem can be divided into several lexical units, all but two concluded by a reference to the parabola. In the first lexical sec­ tion, the first two lines, "parabola" occurs in the first line. In the final section, the last two lines, "parabola" is not mentioned.

The first two lines generalize. Fate like a rocket flies along a parabola. The next fourteen lines discuss Gauguin as an example of parabolic progression. The concluding line of this section begins with the instrumental form of "parabola," meaning "like a parabola."

The next section, consisting of only lines 17 and 18, forms another generalization. Lines 19-23 constitute a reflection on the

l6Ibid., 53. 1 25 speaker's past; how far he has come from the days of his youth. In both of these sections the final word is "parabola." Lines 24-29 discuss the effect of a girl on the parabolic path of(the speaker, how she reaches out to him. The image of the rocket's trajectory is more fully developed in these lines than elsewhere in the poem. The final word in each of the three sections is "parabola."

Lines 30-32 again generalize, and though "parabola" is not the final word of line 32, the adjective "parabolicheski" constitutes almost the entire line (six syllables of eleven).

Lines 33 and 34 act together as a question, though both vari- * ants of line 33 are statements. They are statements that attack the complacent conclusions of the foregoing lines. Line 34 is the question that logically follows. The exclusion of the word "parabola" from these lines seems studied, as if the speaker now lacks the temerity to use the word at all. This sudden reflection of insecurity following an almost pompous self-confidence in his conclusions, is typical of the speaker in Voznesensky's poetry.

Phonological Context

Lines 1 -2 .

1) Sudba kak rakyeta, letit po parabole 2) Obichno--vo mrake i ryezhe--po raduge.

These two lines establish the amphibrach as the main poetic foot, even though the first line ends with an extra unstressed 126

syllable. The lines rhyme as a couplet, a pattern to be repeated

consistently throughout the poem.

Lines 3-16.

/ 3 Zhil ogneno-rizhi khudozhnik Gogyen, 4 Bogyema, a v proshlom torgovi agyent. 5 Chtob v Luvr korolevski popast iz Monmartra, 6 On dal krugala cherez Yavu s Sumatroil 7 Unyosya, zabiv summashestviye dyeneg, 8 Kudakhtane zhon, dukhotu adadyemi 9 On preodolel tagotyene zemnoye. 10 Zhretsi gogotali za kruzhkoi pivnoyu: 11 ''Pramaya--koroche, parabola--kruche, 12 Nye luche 1 skopirovat raiskiye kushi?" 13 A on unosilsa rakyetoi revushei 14 Skvoz vyeter, srivayushi faldi i ushi, 15 I v Luvr on popal nye skvoz glavni porog-- 16 Paraboloi gnyevno probiv potolok!

The couplets that initiate and conclude this section, lines 3-4 and lines 15-16, are divergent because of their masculine rhymes, the only ones in the section. Because the two couplets are distinctive, they effectively delineate this lexical section.

In this section Voznesensky reads fewer / —> / 1 s at the end of lines and more /+ /'s, In fact, / + / 's end nine of the lines, all but

10, 12, and 14-16. The effect of this reading, consistent with the lex­ ical context and syntactic structures, is to make the poem seem very fast. The amphibrachic structure, with each stressed syllable sep­ arated by two unstressed ones, likewise gives an impression of speed, an impression heightened by the length of the lines, usually twelve 127 syllables, and the abundance of plus junctures at the ends of lines.

There are abundant examples of alliteration, internal rhyme, and the "repetition with a difference" so common in

Voznesensky's poetry. In line 4 the [oS] of "proshlam" repeats the

[03] of "khudozhnik" in line 3. The last four syllables of line 4 echo the sounds of "gogyen" at the end of line 3:

[ go 'Ren ] [tor 'govi adgjent ]

The rhyme is in this way extended over several syllables in line 4.

Because the stressed syllable that precedes the pattern above in each line conists of [o] followed by a palato-alveolar fricative, [S] or

[3] , the effect is to equate the two syllables of "Gogyen" with the four 17 that end line 4.

In line 6, "dal drugala," which here represents a parabola, also has the same stressed vowels as "parabola, " [ a] .

In lines 7-9 the words that have the same stressed syllable as "tagotyene" ([je] followed by a nasal) are "acadyemi" and

"dyenig, " a characteristic that identifies the academy and money with the downward pull of gravity.

Line 11 has a parallel structure that is almost incantatory,

^In reading Voznesensky combines into one syllable the [i] of "torgovi" and the [a] of "agyent. " 128 the repetition of [p]'s, [ k]'s, and [a] 's and the definite break in the exact middle of the syllables: [prja'maja ka'rotji/pa'rabola 'krutji].

Lines 11 and 12, which seem to have a loose lexical connection with the lines about Gauguin's biography, are united with rhyme to lines 13 and 14. These four lines are the only ones in which the same end- rhyme is used in four consecutive lines.

Lines 17-18.

17) Idut k svoim pravdam, po-raznomu khrabo. 18) Chervyak--cherez shel, chelovyek--po parabole.

Nils A. Nilsson uses line 18 as an example of Voznesensky's use of sound to suggest lexical connections between words.

We notice here [line 18] that Voznesensky-- as also Pasternak in similar cases—does not use the device only as a euphonic effect, as most Symbolists did. The first part of the line chervyak--cherez shel^ forms^ne sentence, kept together by the ch-ch- shch- and also by the repeated e-sound, which by its closeness seems to stress the meaning of both chervyak and shel, i. e. , something small and tiny. The second part begins with the same syllable as the first one: chelovyek. It seems to indicate a kinship between worm and man, both being mortal creatures. But the next word po parabole offers a series of open a-sounds. They break the monotony of the

18 Nilsson uses Cyrillic characters, simulated here by under­ lining.

19 Because Voznesensky habitually uses the Moscow dialect and pronounces shch like sh, the sh has been used consistently in this study for the symbol that actually represents shch but is always pro­ nounced by the poet as sh. 129

e-repetition, as if breaking bonds fettering man to earth; contrary to the worm, man is able to find freer, aerial ways. 20

Lines 19-22.

19) Zhila-bila dyevochka ryadom v kvartale. 20) Mi s nyeyu uchilis, zachoti sdavali. 21) Kuda zh ya uyekhali I chort menya nyos. 22) Myezh gruznikh gruzinskikh dvusmislenikh zvyozdl

Lines 19 and 20 have a rhyme that is a little like that of line

18: [ 'abole/'ale/'ali]. The effect is to minimize the break in the lex­ ical context that occurs with line 18.

Lines 21 and 22 form another couplet that ends in masculine rhyme, probably indicating the end of a section. The assonance and alliteration of line 22 are obvious.

Lines 23-28.

23) Prosti mnye duratskuyu etu parabolu. 24) Prostivshiye plechiki v chornom paradnom. . . 25) O, kak ti zvenyela vo mrake Vselenoi 26) Uprugo i pryamo, --kak prutik antyeni! 27) A ya vsyo lechu; prizemiayas po nim-- 28) Zemnim i ozyabshim tvoim pozivnim.

Line 23 seems to belong lexically to the preceding lines, and

it does have a /->/ at the end, but it is quite closely tied to line 24

21 both by end rhyme and by pattern of initial sounds:

20I b id ., 63.

2*There is no /+/ between "prosti" and "mnye." 130

23) [pras'ti mnje ] 24) [pras'tifSi]

The effect of uniting the end of one lexical unit with the beginning of the next one is to minimize any break, or pause, or transition, in the poem, making the lines seem to follow one another closely and giving the impression that the poem is fast moving. The para linguistic fea­ tures of Voznesensky's reading indicate that the general tempo of the poem is indeed fast.

The masculine endings of lines 21 and 22 and the summari­ zing traits of line 23 ("Forgive me this idiotic parabola") argue for a separation of these lines from the earlier ones about the girl.

The same pattern is repeated in lines 27 and 28 with the same kind of lexical statement following, ("How hard it is to give us this parabola! "). In his reading Voznesensky puts only a / + / at the end of line 28. The masculine endings of this couplet conclude this section, but the /+/ effectively leads into the following one.

Lines 29-32.

29) Kak trudno dayotsa nam eta parabola1.. .. 30) Smetaya kanorn, prognozi, paragrafi, 31) Nesutsa iskustvo, iubov, i istoriya-- 32) Po paraboiicheskoi trayektoril

The first line seems to belong lexically to the preceding group, but the extensive end rhyme, four syllables, unites it closely with the following line. 1 31

Though lines 31 and 32 do not have masculine endings, line

32 includes the adjective form (and therefore the phonological traits) of "parabola. " This section, like lines 17 and 18 (about the worm and man), is generalization rather than example, like the other three sections which end with masculine rhymes.

Lines 33-34.

33) V Sibir uyezhayet on nineshnei nochu. 34) A mozhet bit, vsyo zhe pramaya--koroche?

These lines are not closely bound phonologically and lack the masculine endings that conclude three other sections. Although the three sections that generalize about the parabola— lines 1- 2, 18-19,

30-32—do not end in masculine rhymes, they do show closer phono­ logical ties with each other within the section. The distinctiveness of the last two lines effects a conclusion.

Summary of the Phonological Context. One reason for the rapid tempo of the poem is the stress pattern. There is a complete lack of successive stressed syllables, and it is rare to find only one unstressed syllable between two stressed ones. Consecutive lines of regular amphibrachic meter contain two unstressed syllables be­ tween stresses.

A second factor that causes the poem's fast movement is the

scarcity of clause terminals. Not only are there few /-*■/'s within 132 lines, but there are many lines that end with only a plus juncture.

A third feature that affects the tempo is the technique for rhyme at the end of some of the lexical sections. The final line of a section is rhymed with the first line of the following section. The close rhyme of the phonological couplets minimizes the lexical break.

The lexical context reveals the speaker's great confidence through the first thirty-two lines. The phonological features of these lines, with their fast pace and regularity, are consistent with the speaker's feelings of ebullient faith in his own statements. The final two lines, lacking the close phonological ties and internal repetitions found in many of the other couplets, are lexically and phonologically in contrast with the first thirty-two.

The English Translations

The translations considered here are by Auden, Koten, Hollo,

Marshall, and Reavey, abbreviated A, Ko, H, _M, and R, respectively.

There is also a partial translation as part of a critical article by 22 Pierre Forgues. When available, his lines, identified by F, will be included in the discussion.

22 Forgues, op. cit. 133

Lines 1- 2 .

V: Fate, like a rocket, flies along a parabola Usuaily--in darkness, and rarely--along a rainbow.

A: Along a parabola life like a rocket flies, Mainly in darkness, now and then on a rainbow.

H: F ate flies like a rocket, on a parabolic curve — Mostly in darkness, but sometimes-- it's a rainbow.

Ko: Fate, like a rocket, flies in a parabola Ordinarily in darkness and less frequently over a rainbow.

M: 1 Fate, like a rocket, flies in a parabola 2 Usually in gloom--more rarely along a rainbow.

R: Fate-the-rocket describes a parabola In darkness mostly, more rarely on a rainbow.

Koten, Marshall, and Reavey retain "parabola" and "rainbow" as the final words in two lines. There is a phonological resemblance if not rhyme between the two: [pa'rffibale/ 'rein (bou]. In both words

[r] is initial in the stressed syllable, [b] in the following syllable.

The secondary stress and the final dipthong in "-bow" help to equate it with "-bola. " By duplicating Voznesensky's use of these words, the translators not only imitate his emphasis but also achieve at least a slight phonological resemblance of the two lines. The change in the placement of "parabola" by Auden and Hollo fails to improve the pho­ nological ties in the lines. 134

"More rarely" is lexically and phonologically a good choice for "i rhezhe, " and Hollo's and Auden's equivalents for "obichno vo mrake" are likewise close to the Russian meaning and meter: "Mostly in darkness" and "mainly in darkness. " The latter, Auden's, is asso­ nant with "rainbow." Reavey, more than the others, alliterates [m ] and [r]. However, Reavey 1 s hyphenated word implies a closer con­ nection between "fate" and the "rocket" than Voznesensky's poem does.

Lines 3 -6 .

V: 3) Lived a fiery-redhaired artist Gauguin, 4) Bohemian, and formerly a commercial agent. 5) In order to reach the royal Louvre from Montmartre, 6) He made a big detour through Java and Sumatra I

A: 3) Red-headed bohemian Gauguin the painter 4) Started out life as a prosperous stockbroker. 5) In order to get to the Louvre from Montmartre 6) He made a detour all through Java, Sumatra,

F: 5) To reach the royal Louvre from Montmartre 6) Struck a detour via Java and Sumatral

H: 3) Consider the fiery-haired painter Gauguin: 4) Bohemian, yes, used to be a stockbroker. „. „ 5) To get from Montmartre to the Louvre he flew 6) A detour: Java, Sumatra!

Ko; 3) Once there lived an artist with flame-red hair, Gauguin. 4) A bohemian but in his past a commercial agent, 5) To get into the royal Louvre from Montmartre 6) He took a curving road by way of Java and Sumatra! 135

M: 3) Once there lived a fiery-ginger artist Gauguin, 4) A bohemian, but in time past a stock-broker. b) To get into the royal Louvre from Montmartre, 6) He m ade a circle through Java and Sumatral 6) (revised) He made a detour through Java and Sumatral

R: 3) Fiery-haired Gauguin the painter lived 4) As a bohemian, though once he'd been a stockbroker. 5) To get into the royal Louvre from Montmartre, 6) He turned a somersault through Java and Sumatra!

Auden's dactyls, strengthened by his pronunciation of "detour"

[di'tur], are quite close to the Russian amphibrach. His near rhyme of "painter" and "rainbow" has no Russian counterpart in these lines, but the technique is similar to Voznesensky's other lexical transitions.

All of the translators but Hollo preserve the convenient rhyme

"Montmartre/Sumatra. "

"Dal krugala" is consistently translated as "made a detour. "

Marshall's earlier version has "made a circle. " Koten says "took a curving road, " and Reavey says "turned a somersault. "

Lines 7-9.

V: 7) He sped away, having forgotten the madness of money, 8 ) The cackle of wives, stuffy air of academies, 9) He overcame the earth's gravity. 136

A: 7) Tahiti, the Isles of Marquesas. With levity He took off in flight from the madness of money, 8 ) The cackle of women, the frowst of academies, 9) Overpowered the force of terrestrial gravity.

F: 7) He took off, forgetting the madness of money. 8 ) The cackle of wives, the stuffiness of academies. 9) He overcame the earth's force of gravitation.

H: 7) The m adness of m oney he left behind, and the cackle of women, 8 ) The hot sticky air of Academies, 9 ) he defied gravity.

Ko; 7) Whirled away; having forgotten the madness of m oney, 8 ) The cackling of wives, the stuffiness of acad em ies, 9) He overcam e earth's gravitation.

M; 7) Upwards he soared, forgetting the madness of money, 8 ) The cackle of wives, academies stuffy 9 ) earth's gravitational pull overcoming.

R: 7) He rushed off, forgetting the craze for money, 8 ) the clucking wives, the stale air of Academies. 9) He conquered the gravity of earth.

In the Russian poem lines 7 and 8 evidence close rhyme. Line

9 , ending with only a / + / in the poet's reading, rhymes with line 10.

Auden separates these lines from line 10 by space on the page, a prac­ tice that fails to suggest the closeness of the Russian lines. Partial

compensation for this visual separation is the nearness of the rhymes

in lines 7-9 with those of lines 10-12. Auden's meter resembles the 137 i

Russian amphibrachs. Never are there fewer than two unstressed syllables between each stressed one. There are more than two suc­ cessive unstressed syllables only at line boundaries: "levity/ He took" and "academies/ Overpowered. "

Hollo's unrhymed lines show no metrical similarity to the

Russian poem. Particularly noticeable are his two examples of con­ secutive stresses: "hot sticky" and "defied gravity. " % Marshall's end rhyme has two weaknesses. First, it is achieved by two examples of awkward phrasing: "academies stuffy" and "earth's gravitational pull overcoming. " Second, his rhyme does not function like Voznesensky's to unite lines 9 and 10.

Reavey's lines show no attempt at rhyme. Line 9 success­ fully emulates the unstressed syllables of the Russian, but elsewhere there are examples of consecutive stresses: "stale air" and "rushed off. "

Lines 10-12.

V: 10) The priests roared with laughter from behind their b e e r m ugs. 11) "A straight line is shorter, a parabola steeper, 12) Wouldn't it be better to copy our heavenly home?"

A: 10) The high priests drank their porter and kept up their jabbering: 11) "Straight lines are shorter, less steep than parabolas. 12) It's more proper to copy the heavenly mansions." 138

F: 10) The sacrificial priests gagled o'er their tankards of b eer: 11) 'The straight line is shorter, the parabola is steeper. 12) 'Wouldn't it be better to copy the foliage of paradise?'

H: 10) The high p rie sts sn e e re d by th eir tankards: 11) "The straight line is shorter, the parabola steep-- 12) is it not better to copy the groves of P a ra d ise ? "

Ko: 10) The high priests roared with laughter over a mug of beer: 11) "A straight line is shorter, a parabola is ste e p e r, 12) Wouldn't it be better to imitate the lines of the heavenly tabernacles? "

M: 10) Over beer mugs high priests wag laughing: 11) "A straight line's shorter, steeper the parabola's a scen t, 12) Wouldn't it be better to copy the heavenly tent?"

R: 10) The augurs guffawed over their steins of beer: 11) "A straight line is shorter, a parabola steeper. 12) Isn't it better to copy the groves of paradise?"

Voznesensky unites these three lines internally with [u] followed by fricative or affricative, and Auden does it finally with

[se] followed by one or two unstressed syllables. Neither Hollo nor

Koten has phonological resemblance to the Russian. Auden's repe­ tition of | 0£ in line 12 combines with his .regular meter to effect a close resemblance to the same line in the Russian poem.

Characteristically, M arshall's rhyme, his only phonological resemblance to the Russian poem, is achieved at the expense of the lexical context. Following the commonplace word order of "A straight line's shorter, " the second part of line 11 seems unnaturally arranged: 139

"Steeper the parabola's ascent. " In line 12 "tent" has no clear lexi­ cal significance.

Reavey has no end rhyme, but the repetition of sounds in

"augurs guffawed" is similar to Voznesensky's technique found in other lines: [ogv — gw- fod]. With his use of either one, two or three un­ stressed syllables between stresses, Reavey's meter does not resemble that of the Russian poem.

Lines 13-16.

V: 13) But he ro se up like a ro arin g rocket 14) Through the wind, tearing away coattails and ears 15) And into the Louvre he fell not through the main door-- 16) But like a parabola wrathfully pierced through the ceiling.

A: 13) He rose like a howling rocket, insulting them 14) With a gale that torp off the tails of their frock coats. 15) So he didn't steal into the Louvre by the front door 16) But on a parabola smashed through the ceiling.

F: 13) While he, he sped away as a roaring rocket 14) Through ear-ripping, coat-stripping winds, 15) And he entered the Louvre, not through stately portals, 16) But as a w rathful parabola piercing the roof. . ..

H: 13) But he, a roaring rocket flew 14) Through the wind that was cutting off coats' tails and ears 15) Not m aking the L ouvre through the big portals — 16) But on a furious parabola, crashing through the ceiling I

Ko: 13) But he sped away like a rocket howling 14) Through the wind, tearing through cutaway coat-tails and ears, 140

15) And landed in the Louvre not through the main entrance - 16) But in a parabola shooting through the ceiling wrathfully!

M: 13) But he speeded on, a ro ck et tra n sp o rtin g 14) Through the winds, ripping coattails and ears. 15) And entered the Louvre not through the main portal-- 16) By an angry p arabola through the ceiling he pierced!

R: 13) And he sped away, a roaring rocket, 14) Though the wind ripped off coat-tails and ears. 15) And he landed in the Louvre, through no main entrance 16) But in a parabola fie rc e ly smashing in the ceiling! 14) (revised) Through the wind that ripped off coat-tails and e a rs . 16) But in a p arabola fiercely smashing through the ceiling!

Aude.n lacks rhyme and alters the lexical context. He adds

"in sulting 11 and ascribes the "tails of their frock coats" to the priests, an unlikely possession even for worldly ones. He omits any reference to "ears. " There is a seeming contradiction in his line 15: "steal. . . by the front door. "

Once more, Marshall selects a word primarily for rhyme.

"Transporting" does not function as a transitive verb in line 13. The change of word order in line 16, not awkward in itself, fails to create close rhyme with line 14 because of the difference in voicelessness of final consonants. The [st ] following [ir] in "pierced" has a different effect from the [z] following [ir] in "ears. " 141

Reavey's revised version is lexically more accurate than the original because "though" in his original translation makes the wind seem like a force to be opposed. His only concession to the Russian meter is the absence of consecutive stressed syllables.

The construction in Forgues1 line 13 admits an interpretation different from the instrumental case of the Russian. "As a roaring rocket" could signify that Gauguin assumed the form of a roaring rocket. There is the same problem in line 16.

Lines 17-18.

V: 17 They go toward their truth, in different ways bravely. 18 A worm--through a crack, man--along a parabola.

A: 17 In finding their truths lives vary in daring: 18 Worms come through holes and bold men on parabolas,

H: 17 Lives move into truth so variously brave: 18 For the worm—it's a crack, for a m an-a parabola.

Ko: 17 One approaches one's own truth bravely in different w ays: 18 The worm through any chink, man via a parabola.

M: 17 The brave to their truths by different ways go travelling, 18 A maggot—through a hole, a man--through a parabola,

R: 17 Bravely each man in his fashion seeks truth: 18 A worm crawling through a crack, man in a parabola.

Repetition of [a] is prominent in the Russian line 17. The end rhyme, "khrabro/ parabola," is one of four end rhymes with

"parabola" in the poem. Alliteration and parallel structure 142

characterize line 18: "Chervyak cherez shel,chelovyek po parabola."

The alliteration in the Russian words for "worm" and "man" implies a

comparison.

Marshall preserves the phonological relationship between the two Russian words by using "maggot" for "worm." The initial sounds are [mae] in both "maggot" and "man." In these lines Marshall’s end

rhyme, resembling the Russian with the use of "parabola, " is suc­

cessful.

Auden's "daring/ parabola" rhyme is both lexically and pho- nologically sound. His final phrase in line 17 is much like Voznesen­

sky's:

V; [paraznamu xrabra]

M; [verx in d e rio ]

Lacking Voznesensky's parallel structure, line 18 is less like the Rus­

sian poem .

Hollo's line 18, retaining the parallel structure of the Russian

and a regularity of meter unusual to Hollo, lacks the alliteration and

assonance of the Russian line. Absent, too, is end rhyme.

Reavey has neither rhyme nor parallel structure. His alliter­

ation in line 18, confined to the first section, separates the two sec­

tions of the line instead of uniting them.

Both Auden and Marshall alter Voznesensky's generalizations.

In line 17 Marshall says "the brave"; whereas Voznesensky's 143 impersonal plural verb includes everything. Auden limits the cate­ gory in line 18 to "bold men. "

Lines 19-22.

V: 19 There once lived a girl alongside, in the neighborhood. 20 Together we studied, turned in exams. 21 Whither have I gone away! And the devil carried me 22 Among the massive, Georgian, ambiguous stars. 22 Among the massive, Tiflis, ambiguous stars.

A: 19 There once was a girl who lived in my neighborhood. 20 We went to one school, took exams simultaneously. 21 But I took off with a bang, I went whizzing 22 Through the prosperous double-faced stars of Tiflis.

H: 19 There was a girl next door, we studied, passed exams to g eth er. 20 But where did it get mel The devil lured me away 22 To stare at the ornate, ambiguous stars of Tiflis I

Ko: 19 Once upon a time a girl lived close by in my neighborhood. 20 We studied together, took our exams to g eth er. 21 Where did I go off to? And the devil carried me off 22 In between those heavy ambiguous Georgian sta rs!

M: 19 Once upon a time a girl lived next door to me. 20 Together we studied, together exams we passed. 21 How far I went! What the hell transported me 22 Between massive ambiguous Tbilisi stars!

R: 19) There was a girl who lived in my quarter. 20) We attended school together, sent in our term papers. 21) Where had I gone? 1 And the devil made off with me 22) In between the ponderous, ambiguous stars of Tbilisi! 144

Auden has near-rhyme in "neighborhood/-taneously" and

"whizzing/Tiflis. " Both Marshall and Auden have effective use of

[s]'s. Marshall's line 22 with its vowel repetition of [se] and [i] and masculine ending is much like the Russian poem. But Marshall in­ verts word order in "exams we passed" almost as if it were habit instead of necessity, because the inversion has no effect on either rhyme or meter.

All four of Reavey's endings are unstressed, like the Russian ones in lines 19 and 20. His version lacks the alliteration and asso­ nance of line 20 as well as the end rhyme.

Lines 23-28.

V: 23) Forgive me this idiotic parabola. 24) Shoulders grown cold in dark front doors. . . 25) O, how you rang in the darkness of the universe 26) Resiliently and direct--like a thin antenna i 27) And I keep on flying, touching down on it— 28) Your earthly and cold call number.

A: 23) Forgive me for this idiotic parabola. 24) Cold shoulders in a pitch-dark vestibule. . . 25) Rigid, erect as a radio antenna rod 26) Sending its call sign out through the freezing 27) Dark of the universe, how you rang out to me, 28) An undoubtable signal, an earthly stand-by From whom I might get my flight bearings to land by.

H: 23) Forgive me this useless parabola. 24) Cold, thin shoulders under your black Sunday dress. . . God, 25) What a sound you made in the darkness up there: 26) Straight and firm like the aerial whip of a radio transmitter 145

27 While I am still flying, flying, then landing on earth 28 There comes a terrestrial, frozen signal from you!

K o: 23 I beg pardon for this jovial parabola. 24 Little shoulders growing cold at the back d o o r. . . 25 Oh, how you rang out in the darkness of the U niverse 26 Resilient and straight - like the fine wire of an antenna 1 27 And I keep flying - making my landing 28 Following your call signs which have already frozen over.

M: 23 Forgive me for that parabola perverse. 24 In dark hallways embrace shoulders shivering. . . 25 Oh, how you rang in the murk of the universe 26 A taut and straight antenna rod quivering! 27 But I still fly on, then land by its aid-- 28 Earthy and frozen, by your call-sign made.

R: 23) Please forgive me this foolish parabola. 24) Those frail shivering shoulders in best evening black. . . 25) O how you rang out to me in the black Universe. 26) Direct and resilient--like the rod of an antenna! 27) But I was still flying, getting my bearings to land 28) From your earthly, chilled, persistent summonses.

There is variety in the lexical contexts of the English transla­ tions. In line 23 the Russian text uses the word "duratskuyu, " equiva­

lent to the English "idiotic." Auden's "idiotic" is most accurate, and

Reavey's "foolish" is much like it. Hollo deviates farther from the

Russian with "useless" as does Koten with "jovial." Marshall's "per­ verse, " in awkward position with the noun, anticipates the rhyme of

line 25, "universe, " but it violates both lexical context and word order. 146

The Russian phrase in line 24, "v chornom paradnom, " has 23 two equally acceptable English equivalents, "in dark front doors" and "in dark formal clothes. " The translators are divided in their choice of meanings. Marshall, Auden, and Koten select phrases that correspond to "dark front doors"; whereas Hollo and Reavey choose equivalents for "dark evening clothes." Though their diversity invites comment, none of the translations is inaccurate.

Marshall's line 24, "In dark hallways embrace shoulders snivering, " is confusing. Shoulders can hardly be said to embrace.

His "made" is likewise ambiguous in line 28, "earthy and frozen, by your call-sign made."

In lines 27 and 28, Auden has an obvious rhyme which makes the couplet serve to end this section like Voznesensky's. Auden's

[r] alliteration is obvious in line 24, but his repetition of vowels at the ends of lines 25 and 26 is subtle. "Out through the freezing" and

"out to me" have a sequence of vowels in common, signalled each time by the stressed "out. "

[airt 0ru dJ 0 friz 13] [aut tu mij

The [aUrt] is repeated in line 27, "undoubtable. "

Voznesensky's line 28 offers lexical problems to the trans­ lators. He says, "Your earthly and cold call number. " Koten's

*3Cf. Supra, p. 121. 147

"already frozen over" is not so accurate as Hollo's "frozen" or

Reavey's "chilled. " Auden uses "freezing, " but uses it as a modifier of "dark of the universe" instead of "call number. "

Lines 29-32.

V: 29 How hard it is to give us this parabola! 30 Sweeping off cannons, predictions, paragraphs, 31 Rush along art, love, and history-- 32 Along a parabolic trajectory!

A: 29 The parabola doesn't come to us easily. 30 Laughing at law with its warnings and paragraphs 31 Art, love, and history race along recklessly 32 Over a parabolic trajectory.

H: 29 How hard it is to remember this journey. 30 Sweeping aside all guns, all prognostications, paragraphs 31 Art, love and history follow the parabolic 32 Trajectory.

Ko: 29 How hard this parabola comes to us!.. .

30 Sweeping aside cannons, prognoses, paragraphs, 31 Art, love and history rush by - 32 Along a parabolic trajectory!

M: 29 How hard to achieve is that parabola! . . .

30 Wiping away cannons, prognoses, paragraphs, 31 Surges on art love and history-- 32 Along a parabolic trajectory!

R: 29 How hard it is for us to execute this parabola! .

30 Sweeping aside cannons, prognoses, paragraphs, 31 Art, love and history speed along 32 A parabolic trajectory. 148

There are English cognates for all four of the Russian rhymes in these lines: "parabola/paragrafi/istoriya/trayektori. " Both

Marshall and Reavey take advantage of the first pair of cognates,

"parabola/ paragraphs, " and Marshall also retains the second pair,

"history/ trajectory." The end of Reavey's line 31, "speed along, ". lacks a rhyme.

Marshall's four cognates are close to the meter of the Rus­ sian lines.

Voznesensky Marshall ■ V / V 1 / \ J * < J V

U p O U * \ J SJ

V * U V *1/1/

\J U 0 0 u v

Koten and Reavey deviate sharply from the metrical pattern of the Rus­ sian poem at the end of line 29 .

Koten: * Reavey: ' w *

Auden achieves meter similar to Voznesensky's with "easily/ paragraphs/ recklessly/ trajectory," Although Auden's first two lines, 29 and 30, have no rhyme, in line 30 he makes use of allitera­ tion and establishes a pattern with his stressed vowels.

30) [laefiosetlo wi0 its woni^z send pserogrsefs]

The alliteration tends to divide the line while the stressed vowel pat­ tern, [ffl] , [o] and [o] , [ae] , tends to unit it. 149

Lines 33-34.

V: 33) a. For Siberia he leaves tonight. b. Galoshes sink in the Siberian spring. 34) But maybe, nevertheless a straight line is shorter?

A: 33) He is leaving tonight for Siberia. P e rh a p s 34) A straight line after all is the shorter one actually.

H: 33) His rubber boots, drowning in Siberian spring... 34) Maybe the straight line Is shorter?

Ko: 33) He's leaving for Siberia tonight. . . 34) Perhaps, after all, a straight line - is shorter?

M: 33) He sets off for Siberia this very night*- 34) And, maybe, after all, the shortest's -- a straight line? The printed version reads: "Galoshes drown in the Siberian spring. . . " but the poet altered the line in his reading.

R: 33) Galoshes sink in the Siberian spring. . . 34) Perhaps the straight line is shorter after all?

Voznesensky's final line must remind the reader of the high priests' quotation in lines 11- 12, "A straight line is shorter, a para­ bola steeper/ Would it not be better to copy our heavenly home? " The final line is in the form of a question and repeats the phrase, " a straight line is shorter. " The almost incantatory repetition of sounds in the priests' lines makes the words sound like a mockery. The speaKer in the poem seems not to take them seriously. In the final line, the speaker seems to be questioning his former attitude toward the priests' statement. The two /—^V's in line 34 are obvious in the 150 syntactic structure of the line as well as in the poet's reading.

Four of the translators retain the interrogative form both in the priests' lines and in the final line. Only Auden uses declar­ ative sentences for both. In spite of its declarative form, Auden's final line, with its three /—> / *s, evidences the same kind of hesitancy as Voznesensky's.

Both Auden and Marshall have identical final stressed vowels in these lines, [ffl] in Auden's and [al] in M arshall's. But Auden follows them with voiceless consonants, whereas M arshall follows them once with [t] and once with [n], two consonants with such di­ verse effect on preceding vowels that the rhyme is obscured.

General Structure of the English Poems. Using techniques similar to Voznesensky's, Auden achieves a general tempo very much like that of the Russian poem. First, the stress pattern contributes to the rapid pace. There are very few uninterrupted stresses and many successions of unstressed syllables. Second, there are few lines that demand a / —> / at the end.

Auden's rhymes and near rhymes function to bind together lexical sections in the same way the Russian rhymes do. Auden's final line is similar to Voznesensky's in its lexical repetition of a phrase from the priests' quotation and its use of short phrases sep­ arated by clause terminals. 151

Marshall's poem reveals some weaknesses that are unre­ lated to its status as a translation. He has some ambiguous phrases:

"heavenly tent" and "by your call sign made. " There is a singular verb that does not agree with its compound subject: "Surges on art, love, and history. "

On the other hand, the characteristic weakness of Marshall's translations as English poems, stilted word order, is less obvious in this poem. Furthermore, he has few successions of stressed syl­ lables so that his poem, has a tempo much like the Russian one, and his final line has Voznesensky's repetition and short phrases.

III. "GOYA"

"Goya" is one of the most talked about poems Voznesensky has written. Its assonances are noted, and its war theme explained.

The "assonances" are actually both assonance and alliteration, con­ sisting of the repetition of "go-. " The poet habitually opens his pro­ grams with this poem. It appeared in his earliest collection, Mozaika.

Goiya

Y a--G oiya! Glaznitsi voronok mnye vikleval vorog, sletaya na pole nagoye. Y a --g o re .

Y a--g o lo s. Voini, gorodov golovni na snyegu sorok pyervovo goda. 152

Y a~-golod.

Ya— gor lo Povyeshenoi babi, chyo tyelo, kak kolokol, bilo nad ploshadu goloi. . .

Y a--G oiyal

0 grozdi Vozmyezdyai Vzvil zalpom na Zapad-- ya pyepel nyezvanovo gostal 1 v memorialnoye nyebo vbil kryepkiye zvyozdi -- Kak gvozdi.

Y a--G oiya.

Lexical Context of The Russian Poem

Line 1.

I (am) Goya 1) ya Goya

The absence of a present tense verb "to be" makes a predi­ cate nominative in Russian seem more like the subject than it does in

English. The exact proximity makes subject and predicate nomina­ tive seem identical.

The speaker can say, "I am Goya, " because he feels war as

Goya felt it, or at least as Goya's feelings are reflected in his sk etc h es.

Lines 2 -3 .

eye sockets of craters to me pecked out enemy flying 2) Glaznitsi voronok mnye vikleval vorog, sletaya

over (the) field bare na pole nagoye 153

I (am) grief 3) Ya gore.

This line is the first of thre6 images about war, and in this image there are no people directly mentioned, only a bare field with craters. However, by comparing the craters to empty eye sockets, the poet suggests human suffering.

Line 3 reinforces the concept of human loss, "I am grief. "

Lines 4 -6 .

I (am) voice 4) Ya golos

of war of cities of charred logs 5) Voini gorodov golovni

on snow of the 41st year na snyegu sorok pyervovo goda

I (am) hunger 6) Ya golod

These lines are about people, the burned out cities of World

War H. There is irony in the juxtaposition of snow with the remains of fire. When a city burns, instead of supplying heat, the fire de­ stroys what protection exists from the cold. In burned-out cities, where supplies are destroyed, there is hunger.

L ines 7-9.

I (am) the throat 7) Ya gorlo 154

(Of the) hanged woman whose body like a bell 8 ) Povyeshenoi babi chyo tyelo kak kolokol

* beat over square bare bilo nad ploshadu goloi

I (am) goya 9) Ya Goiya

With these lines the subject has become most specific, having moved from bare fields and no people, through a city with people gen­ erally, to a single person who has suffered death by hanging. Though the person is unidentified, the reader is reminded of the several times in other poems Voznesensky uses the name Zoya, a girl identified by

Marshall as "Zoya Kosmodemenskaya, a Soviet heroine of the Second 24 World War who defied her captors till she was hanged. " Zoya is mentioned in "The M asters" and figures prominently in the long poem

"Oza, " which is an anagram of the Russian name "Zoya, " from the

Greek word meaning "life. "

"Throat" in line 7 both reminds the reader of "voice" in line

4 and emphasizes the hanging of the woman. Her voice has been si­ lenced, but her whole body can now be compared to a bell that com­ municates dramatically over the square.

Line 9 repeats line 1 and completes the cycle of war images from the suffering of the general landscape to the suffering of the spe­ cific human being.

^M arshall, p. 21, footnote. 1 55

Lines 10-11.

O grapes 10) O grozdi

of wrath raised in a volley to the West 11) V ozm yezda V zvil zalpom na Zapad

I ashes of the uninvited guest ya pyepel nyezvanovo gosta

These lines are a reaction to the horrors of war brought to the Russian soil by invaders throughout history. The cannon salvo refers to an episode with the false Dimitri. It is said that after his murder in 1606, his ashes were fired from a cannon toward Poland, 25 whence he had come.

The historical allusion suggests that the strong passionate re­ action to war that is thrust upon them is part of the heritage of the

Russian people.

Lines 12-13.

and into memorial sky drove strong stars 12) I v memorialnoye nyebo vbil kryepkiye zvyozdi

like nails 13) Kak gvozdi

The image is a tribute to Goya's genius. He showed tangible strength in the field of eternal intangibility: drove "strong stars like

OR ‘‘^Penguin Book of Russian Verse, op. cit. , p. 453. 156

nails" into the sky. Goya's talent is both radiant and strong, and its

effects are lasting.

Line 14.

I (am) Goya 14) Ya Goiya

This line concludes the second section and also the poem itself

by repeating the opening line.

Phonological Context of the Russian Poem

Line 1.

1) Ya--Goiya.

The relationship between the speaker and Goya is established

phonologic ally by the repetition of "ya. " In his reading, Voznesensky takes this line slowly, attenuating the final vowels and therefore calling attention to the relationship. Proving or reinforcing lexical relation­

ships by means of phonology, a technique always exploited by Voznesen­

sky, is nowhere more obvious than in this poem. The opening line

sets the lexical theme and previews the phonological technique of the poem .

Lines 2 -3 .

2) Glaznitsi voronok mnye vikleval vorog, sletaya na pole nagoye. 3) Y a --g o re . 157

"G laznitsi 11 alliterates with "Goya, " and there is assonance with the [o] in the stressed syllables of "voronok," "vorog," "pole," and "nagoye. "

In line 3 "gore" both alliterates with "Goya" and rhymes with

"nagoye. " The lexical appropriateness of the word is reinforced by its phonological appropriateness.

The amphibrach is established as the meter in this line. The metrical stress is regular, and for the first two poetic feet the pho­ nemic divisions coincide with the metrical ones: /*/w+v This pattern is not true of the line as a whole:

A + A + A + * + — ++- + glaznitsa varonok mnje viklival vorog slitaja na pole nagoja

L ines 4 -6 .

4) Y a--golos. 5) voini, gorodov golovni na snyegu sorok pyervovo goda 6) Ya--golod

"Golos" provides alliteration and assonance with both "Goya" and "gore, " giving the impression that "Goya" is also being repeated.

It could be said that a lexical equivalent of these three refrains is,

'T am Goya; therefore I am grief. I am Goya; therefore I am grief and hunger. " The succeeding refrain, "gorlo, " also fits the pattern.

By repeating the sounds of "Goya, " the poet eliminates the need to re­ peat the name. 158

The alliteration in line 5 of "gorodov golovni" occurs in un­ stressed syllables and prevents monotony. In the last word, "goda, " the stress is once more on the "go" and prepares for line 6, "golod, "

"Golod" ("hunger") is appropriate both lexically and phono- logically. In lines 2 and 3 the sequence is "nagoe/gore, " and here it is "goda/golod, " each example being tied together with more than just

"go. "

Lines 7 -9 .

7) Ya—gorlo 8 ) Povyeshenoi babi, chyo tyelo, kak kolokol, bilo nad ploshadu goloi. .. 9) Ya-Goiyal

The 1 of "golod" is repeated medially in "gorlo, " as is, of course, the [go]. In the middle of line 8 there is again a slight varia­ tion on the alliterative pattern, like the unstressed syllables "gorodov golovni" in line 5. The alliteration is with the homorganic [k], both stressed and unstressed, in "kolokol. " Again there is the stressed

[go] in the final word, "goloi. " The repetition in line 9 is obvious.

Lines 10-11.

10) O grozdi 11) Vozmyezdya! Vzil zalpom na Zapad--ya pyepel nyezvanovo gostai

Line 10 alliterates only [g] , but line 11 ends with both the

[go ] and the [ ja] in ['gostja], and [go] is stressed. Inline 11 there 159 is at first alliteration of [v] , then repetition of [z ] followed by an un­ stressed syllable that begins with [p]: [ 'zalpam ], ['zapad].

Line s 12-13.

12) I v memorialnoye nyebo vbil kryepkiye zvyozdi-- 13) Kak gvozdi. t

The verb in line 12, "vbil, " is an echo of the one in line 11,

"vzvil, " both expressing acts of physical force and determination:

"raised" and "hammered. " "Zvyozdi" does not alliterate with [go], but there is assonance, and it has close ties with "gvozdi. " This pair constitutes another example of Voznesensky's ability to strength­ en phonologically the relationship between items set up as lexical equivalents.

Line 14.

14) Y a--G oiya.

The "gvozdi" of line 13 has both the [g] and the [o ] of "Goya, " making line 14 a very logical follower of line 13.

The English Translations

One of Voznesensky's best known poems, "Goya" has been widely translated. The translations here discussed are by Hollo, Koten,

Kunitz, Marshall, Sparks, and Reavey, abbreviated H, Ko, Ku, M,

Sp, and _R. 160

Lines 1-3.

V: 1 I am Goya. 2 Flying over the bare field, the enemy pecked out my eye-sockets of craters. 3 I am grief.

H: 1 I am Goya: my eyes are destroyed by enemy beaks. Shell-holes stare from the naked field. I am misery,

Ko: 1 I am Goyal 2 The foe has torn mine-crates out of the e a rth . flying down onto the bare field. I am Grief.

Ku: 1 I am Goya 2 of the bare field, by the enemy's beak gouged till the craters of my eyes gape I am g rie f

M: 1 I--am Goyal 2 The enemy gouged out my eyes, cratered eye-sockets in a naked field. (revised) The foe gouged my eyes' craters flying over the naked field. I—am grief.

Sp: 1 I am Goya! 2 The foe gouged eye-sockets with bombs and grenades which go to the bare ground gliding. I am grief.

R: 1 I'm --G o y a! 2 Gliding down upon a bare field, A raven pecked my eyes out of their funnel sockets. I'm--Grief. (revised) I am Goya! Swooping down upon a bare field, A foe pecked craters in my eyes. 161

Both Marshall and Reavey retain the dashes which in the Rus­

sian merely function in place of a linking verb. Used with the verb,

the dashes simply interrupt the lines. Reavey's revised version omits

both contraction and dashes in favor of the verb "am. "

Hollo omits the strong image "eye sockets" and has not one word for alliteration. Even "grief" he changes for "misery. " Koten

has done the same but retains "grief. "

\ Kunitz uses "gouged" and "gape" for alliteration and has asso­ nance with the [ei] in "craters" and "gape. "

Marshall has alliteration with "gouged, " but his revised ver­

sion has a dangling modifier. "Flying" is two nouns away from "foe."

Marshall, too, has assonance with [ ei]: "craters" and "naked. "

Sparks has four words with initial , but the lexical context has been altered and obscured. Bombs and grenades do not glide, and they are not mentioned in the Russian text.

Reavey's original version has "raven" for "foe," apparently because of the verb "pecked out" and the similarity of the Russian word for "raven," ("voron") to "vorog" and "voronok."

None of the translations has the regular meter of the Russian, but Kunitz has a regular pattern, three phrases consisting of un­

stressed syllables terminated by two strong stresses: 162

of the bare field u u * s j u * * by the enemy's beak gouged V \ j + V ' ^ 0/0 p til the craters of my eyes gape

By adding unstressed syllables, he achieves the effect of speeding up the tempo, of reaching a climax. This pattern is consistent with the paralinguistic features of Voznesensky's reading. The poet's voice increases in intensity as he reads the line; then he lowers intensity and slows the rate for line 3, "I am grief. "

Lines 4-6.

V: 4 I am the voice 5 Of war, of cities of charred logs in the snow of the y ear *41. 1 am hanger,

H: 4 the Voice of War 5 the voice of charred cities' timber on the snow of the year F o rty -o n e .

Ko: 4 I am the voice 5 Of war, of cities charred in the snows of 1941. I am fa m in e .

Ku: 4 I am the tongue 5 of war, the embers of cities on the snows of the year 1941 I am hunger

M: 4 I—am the grim voice 5 Of war, the conflagration of cities on the snows of '41. 6 I—am hunger. 5 (revised) Of war, the cinders of cities on the snow fields of '41. 163

Sp: 4) I am the glow 5) Of the charred towns engulfed in the '41 snow with the groans of a great famine growing 6) I am gore.

R: 4) I'm--the groan 5) Of war, the charred guts of cities in the snow of "forty-one." 6) I'm--hunger. 4) (revised) I am the groan. 6) (revised) I am hunger.

Hollo abandons the "I am n pattern, not using it to introduce

"Voice of W ar." He omits "I am hunger."

Marshall adds "grim" to achieve alliteration, and achieves elaborate alliteration in "cinders of cities." However, his original text with "conflagration" has a stronger image than "cinders, " and repeats stressed syllable alliterating with the_g's. The revised ver­ sion is weaker both lexically and phonologically.

Kunitz uses "tongue, " which has close phonological ties with

"hunger": [tAJ}] and [hAJ)g^]. The "one" of "1941" is also related to these sounds: [a ] followed by a nasal, [ n] instead of [d]«

Reavey's "charred guts" is the same kind of strong image as

"gorodov golovni" and has the alliteration. Reavey also uses "groan" instead of "voice, " a substitution which is better phonologically and equally acceptable lexically.

Sparks omits the reference to war and says "glow, " then re­ peats the ja^'s in "engulfed, " "groans, " "great, " and "growing. " Hav­ ing incorporated "hunger" into line 5, he uses "gore" in line 6. 164

Lines 7-9.

V: 7 I am the throat 8 Of the hanged woman, whose body, like a bell, beat over the bare square. I am Goya.

H: 7 I am the old woman's throat 8 who was hung, whose body sang like a bell over the naked townsquare. . . . I am Goya

Ko; 7 I am the throat 8 Of the hanged woman whose body swung on the bare square like a bell. I am Goya!

Ku; 7 I am the gullet 8 of a woman hanged whose body like a bell tolled over a blank square I am Goya

M: 7 I--am the gullet 8 Of the girl garroted, whose body tolled like a bell, over the naked square. . I--am Goya!

Sp: 7 I am the gullet 8 Of a wench on the gallows whose body is a bell above the city-square tolling. , . I am Goya!

R: 7 I'm the gasp 8 Of a hanged woman, whose body clanged like a bell above the naked square. . 9 I'm --G o y a! 7 (revised) I am the gasp (revised) I am Goya!

Sparks continues the feminine endings with "tolling, " and uses

"gullet" and "gallows" for the j*'s. However, "wench" does not imply much sympathy for the woman. In "body, " "bell, " and "above, " the 165 b's are alliterative, much like the Russian.

Marshall's "garrotted" seems to be straining for the allitera­ tion. "Gullet of the girl garrotted" hasjg's in close succession, closer than in the Russian, and "to garrote" is not an equivalent for "to h an g ."

Reavey says "gasp" instead of "throat" or "gullet, " and has internal rhyme with "hanged" and "clanged. " Kunitz attains assonance with "hanged" and "blank," [beeDd] and [blaeDk], and like Sparks, has

"body" and "bell" close together without a stress between for stronger alliteration.

Lines 10-11.

V: 10 0 g rapes 11 of wrath! I raised in a volley to the West--the ashes of the uninvited guest.

H: 10 Grapes of Wrath! Dust 11 1 am, raised by the barrage in the West. Dust of the intruder. . .

Ko: 10 Oh, grapes 11 Of wrath! Soaring West in one full swoop 1 am the ashes of the uninvited guest!

Ku: 10 0 grapes of wrath! 11 1 have hurled westward the ashes of the uninvited guest!

M: 10) O g rapes 11) Of wrath! Salvoes soared to the W est-- X am the ashes of the uninvited guest! 11) (revised) Of wrath! In salvoes I soared to the West-- I am the ashes of the uninvited guest! 166

Sp: 10) O, grapes 11) Of revenge! With a salvo I hurled the gray ashes of unwelcome guests to the west!

R: 10) O grapes 11) Of wrath! Westward in a salvo I raised the ash of the intruder!

Hollo, Koten, and Marshall say "I am the ashes. " Without a dash between "ya" and "pepel" in the Russian, "ya" must be taken as the subject of "vzvil" ("hurled"). There is no reason for either Goya or the speaker of the poem to identify with the intruder, or the "un­ invited guest." Kunitz, Sparks, and Reavey make "I" the subject of the action verb.

Marshall has regular internal rhyme with "West" and

"guest, " dividing the line in half. None of the others rhyme except

Sparks' "guests" and "west." Rhymes as close together as "guests to the west, " appearing at the end of a long otherwise rhymeless line, create an awkward ending to the line.

Lines 12-14.

V: 12) And into the memorial sky drove strong stars — 13) Like n ails. 14) I am Goya.

H: 12) And b rig h t s ta rs were hammered in the memorial sky like nails. 14) Yes, I am Goya. 167

Ko: 12) And I have hammered strong stars into the memorial sky 13) Like nails. 14) I am Goya.

Ku: 12 and hammered stars into the unforgetting sky--like nails 14 I am Goya

M: 12 And with strong stars the memorial skies I impaled-- 13 Like Nails. 14 I—am Goya.

Sp: 12 And I drove solid stars into the sky's memorial crest- 13 Like nails. 14 I am G oya1.

R: 12 And into the memorial sky I hammered strong stars-- 13 Like nails. 14 I'm —Goya'. 14 (revised) I am Goya!

The comparison of "stars" and "nails" is greatly strength­

ened in the Russian by the phonological similarities: ['zvjozdi ] and

['gvozdi]. None of the English versions has the phonological resem ­ blance, and only Reavey has "stars" in the final position in line 12.

Marshall has a near rhyme with "impaled/nails, " but he has awkward word order again. Sparks uses "crest" in line 12 to rhyme with "west"

in the line above, but "crest" confuses the lexical context.

Kunitz says "unf or getting" for "m em orial," an effective

choice allowing the repetition of £ and simultaneously avoiding the

flow of "memorial, " which with its voiced continuants is less like the

latter part of the Russian line. 168

Translations as a Whole. It is hardly surprising that none of

the translations achieves the combination of assonance and allitera­

tion to be found in the Russian text, which has a preciseness of both

lexical and phonological elements that progress according to both lexi­

cal and phonological development. However, there are other traits

in the Russian poem that Kunitz has achieved in his translation. The

Russian is full of plosives, preventing a flow of sounds and creating

instead, interruptions. Kunitz uses plosives as well as many one-

syllable words that contribute to an interrupted tempo in his transla­

tion. Furthermore, Kunitz has lexical accuracy and no contrived words or distorted word order.

Marshall's poem is marked by lexical accuracy, except.for

"I am the ashes, " and alliterative j^'s. But some of his alliteration

calls undue attention to itself either because the sounds are quite close

together or because the words that allow the alliteration seem strained.

"Girl garroted" exemplifies both weaknesses. Sometimes the alliter­ ation is achieved at the expense of metrical pattern. Successive

strong metrical stresses are rare in Russian poetry, and a phonemic

pattern of primary followed by tertiary, like "eye-sockets, " is not

typical of the Russian language. Marshall adds the j* in line 4 with

"grim voice" but introduces successive stresses. 169

In the second line Sparks has two series of uninterrupted stre s s e s :

A A f % The foe gouged eye-sockets with bombs and grenades

A A / which go to the bare ground gliding

The terminal pattern /**»«/ is repeated with the addition of an un­ stressed syllable in lines 5 and 8 , "great famine growing" and "city square tolling. " Though these three terminal patterns resemble one another in meter and in the repetition of [g] and [o], they do not effect a closer resemblance to the Russian poem because of their stress patterns and great number of syllables. Sparks' line 5 has twenty-two syllables to Voznesensky's sixteen, fifteen with his dele­ tion of a syllable in "pyervovo. "

Of the three translations, that by Kunitz is superior in the naturalness of word order and the least violation of the stress pattern.

In all three there is both assonance and alliteration, but again Kunitz shows the least strain in lexical context and stress pattern to achieve these qualities. He has remarked that he felt compelled to try

"Goya" because it had been judged untranslatable as a result of the in­ tricacy of its phonological features. Though Kunitz could not be said to have duplicated the Russian pattern in English, his translation is the most successful of the group. 170

IV. ''YOU SIT PREGNANT AND PALE"

Permeating all of Voznesensky's writing is a poignant sen­

sitivity to the suffering of other people. In the following untitled poem, written in 1958, there is on the surface indictment of the fool­ ishness of women who yield themselves with abandon to irresponsible men. Beneath the surface complaint there is strong compassion for the women's plight.

Sidish beremennaya, blednaya. Kak ti peremenilas, byednaya.

Sidish odyorgivaesh platitse, I plachetsa tebye, i plachetsa.

Za shto nas tolko babi baluyut I gubi, padaya, dayut,

I vibegayut za shlagbaumi, I ot vagonov otstayut?

Kak ti bezhala za vagonami, Gladyela v polosi okonniye. . .

Stuchat pochtoviye, kurerskiye, Khabarovskiye, Luberetskiye,

I ot Moskvi do Ashkhabada, Ostolbenyev do nemoti,

Stoyat, kak kamenniye, babi, Lunye podstaviv zhivoti.

I oslepitelniye svolochi Skvoz nikh pronosatsa smeyas,

V rubashkakh pyostrikh, v shlapakh voilochnikh, I v jempere, kak ya seichas. 171

Lexical Context of the Russian Poem

Lines 1 -2 .

you sit pregnant pale 1) Sidish beremennaya blednaya.

how you changed poor one 2) Kak ti peremenilas byednaya

In both lines the subject of the verb is "ti, " the familiar sec­

ond person pronoun. In line 1 the "ti" is understood from the verb

" s id is h ."

Lines 3 -4 .

you sit you tug at (your) dress 3) Sidish odyorgivaesh platitse

and you feel like crying and crying 4) I plachetsa tebye, i plachetsa

The details, more exact than the preceding ones, individual­ ize the girl. The opening lines seem general, but the following two

lines, referring to a specific act or mannerism, delineate the girl as a person. The dative form "tebye" with reflexive verb "plachetsa"

can best be translated as "you feel like crying. " "Platitse" is the

diminutive form of "plate" ("dress").

Lines 5 -8 .

why us only women spoil 5) Za shto nas tolko babi baluyut

and lips falling give 6) I gubi padaya dayut 172

and they run out behind crossings 7) I vibegayut za shlagbaumi

and behind train cars lag 8 ) I ot vagonov otstayut

"Tolko" in line 5 is emphatic, "za shto. . .tolko" being ap­ proximately equivalent to "why on earth. " From the specific address to an individual in lines 1-4 the speaker turns to generalization: "Why on earth do women spoil us and, falling, give us their lips?"

% Lines 7-8 complete the question, perhaps rhetorical, about the conduct of women generally. The speaker asks, "Why do they run out from the crossings and lag behind the train-cars ?11

Line s 9 -1 0 .

how you ran after train cars 9) Kak ti bezhala za vagonami

looked at streaks window (adj.) 10) Ciladyela v polosi okonniye

The verbs revert from the third person plural of the lines immediately preceding to second person. Because there is a change of tense from lines 1-4, and because the actions are now general, the

"ti" of line 9 seems to refer to someone other than the "ti" of lines

1-4.

"Polosi" means "stripes" or "strips." The windows of the trains blur into streaks, like ribbon, as the trains race past the on­ lookers. In one oral version, Tape 2, the poet substitutes a word for 173

"looked, " saying "vstrechala, " which means "met. " There are two indications that the substitution was unintentional. First, it does not appear in the written versions, and second, "vstrechat" shows pho­ nological resemblance to the first word of line 11, "stuchat. " P er­ haps the poet, anticipating the next line, used the wrong word.

Lines 11-12.

rattle (verb) mail cars smoking cars 11) Stuchat pochtoviye kurerskiye

Khabarovsk (adj.) Lubertsy (adj. ) 12) K habarovskiye, L uberetskiye

There are four subjects of the verb "stuchat" ("rattle"), all four adjectives describing various kinds of train-cars and trains. The first two, in line 11, are "mail," or "postal," and "smokers." In line 12 are adjectives formed from the names of two Russian towns;

Lubertsy, near Moscow, and Khabarovsk, in Siberia. "Khabarovskiye" is equivalent to the English phrase "New York trains, " meaning those with the destination New York. Lines 11-12 shift attention from the actions of the women to what the women see.

Lines 13-16.

and from Moscow to Ashkhabad 13) X ot Moskvi do Ashkhabada

struck dumb to muteness 14) Ostolbenyev do nemoti 174

stand like stone women 15) Stoyat kakkamenniye babi

(to the) moon having shown bellies 16) Lunye podstaviv zhivoti

These lines describe the women again, but now only in still

pictures, without action. The viewer is moving while the women re­

main motionless. There is an intricate play on words in line 15,

"Stoyat, kak kamenniye, babi. " "Babi" means "women"; "kamenniye" means "stone." Together as a phrase the words "kamenniye babi" mean "stone images." The separating comma focuses attention on each word, so that "babi" retains its meaning of "women. " Simul­ taneously the combination of words evokes the vision of stone images.

The word "zhivota" is equivalent to both "belly" and "life. "

The dual meaning, enriching the Russian text, cannot be preserved in

English. The meaning indispensable to the visual image is "bellies."

Lines 17-20.

and dazzling scoundrels 17) I oslepitelniye svolochi

past them run laughing 18) Skvoz nix pronosatsa smeyas

in shirts gay colored in hats felt 19) V rubashkakh pyostrikh, v shlapakh voilochnikh

and in pullover like me right now 20) I v jempere kak ya siechas 175

Lines 17-20 shift attention for the first time to people other than the women. These "dazzling scoundrels" apparently are not touched by the condition of the women, and their colorful, rapidly moving figures contrast with the "stone images." The two preposi­ tional phrases of line 19* "in gay-colored shirts, in felt hats, " with plural objects, refer to the "dazzling scoundrels." In line 20 the ob­ ject of the preposition is singular, "in a pullover, " emphasizing the ensuing comparison, "like me. " The speaker shows his awareness of his involvement with the group responsible for the women's plight.

In both recordings of the poem used in this study the poet re­ cites the lines discussed above. There exist printed versions of the last four lines that are quite different. Because these printed ver­ sions are used by some of the translators, it will be necessary to discuss them here.

And turning toward the light 17) I povorachivayas k svyetu

In night life not "at home" 18) V nochnom bitu neobzhitom

As understands them the planet 19) Kak ponim ayet ikh planyeta

By means of its own great belly-life 20) Svoim ogromnim zhivotom. . .

Like the other version of the concluding lines, this one offers a transition from censuring the women. Their plight is recognized as being universal. The word "neobzhiti" means "not warm, not inviting 176 or cozy. " Though an uninhabited apartment could be considered

"neobzhiti" because of its inhospitable atmosphere, it is inaccurate to equate "neobzhiti" with the English word "uninhabited. " 7 ° A The word "planeta, " meaning "planet," doubtless refers to the earth.

Summary of the Lexical Context. The poem divides itself lexically into five parts. In lines 1-4 the speaker is addressing and describing with some specific details a girl. Both the noun of ad­ dress, "byednaya," and the details suggest a particular person at a particular time.

In the next four lines the verbs change from second person familiar to third person plural. The speaker generalizes about women and expresses his disapproval of their habits of "spoiling" men.

In the third group of lines the verbs revert from third person plural to second person, but the past tense is used, and the actions are general. Although the "ti" no longer seems to refer only to the par­ ticular person of the opening lines, perhaps the repetition of the pronoun indicates that the girl addressed earlier is in the group being described here. Lines 11 and 12 shift attention from the actions of the women to what the women see.

26 Interview with Tamara Kaszkurewicz, Instructor of Russian, Louisiana State University. 177

Lines 13-16 describe the women's appearance, not their actions. Lines 17-20 for the first time suggest an attitude of the speaker that is not a condemnation of the women. The final lines complete the realization of the speaker as he moves from pity through scorn, through indignation, to self-indictment (in the oral version) or sympathy (in the written version).

Phonological Context of the Rus sian Poem

Before the metrical pattern is considered, one feature of the phonemic transcription warrants comment. There is a seeming in­ consistency in the treatment of lines 2 and 9 , having the same initial w o rd s .

2) Kak ti pereminilas, byednaya.

9) Kak ti bezhala za vagonami,

In line 2 the first words, "how you, " are both given metrical stress; in line 9 neither is. The poet's reading, which clearly reveals that this stress pattern in his intention, can be reinforced by the lexi­ cal contexts. First, the lexical context of the first few lines calls for a slower reading. Line 2 expresses pity, describes a condition: "How you are changed, poor one." Line 9 describes action: "How you run behind the train-cars. " Furthermore, there is a suggestion that the

"how" in line 2 also suggests degree as well as manner. Great em­ phasis and therefore greater sentence stress, on the "kak ti" in line 1 78

2, is natural in both Russian and English because of the lexical meaning, of the words.

The surrounding metrical patterns also help. The first two syllables of lines 1 and 3 are also stressed, and "ti" in line 2 is fo l­ lowed by three unstressed syllables. Line 9 follows two lines that begin with two unstressed syllables, and "ti" in line 9 is followed by only one unstressed syllable, a position that makes it easy to avoid the stress on "kakti."

The poem is printed as ten couplets. If the metrical structure and the rhyme are depicted simultaneously, further divisions of the poem appear. The superscript_nin the chart below indicates near rh y m e .

1) xx axe xb A 2) xx cxa xb A 3) xx axe xb B 4) axb ax axb B

5) axa xa xb C 6) axa xb ax D 7) cxa - bxb Cn 8 ) cxa - bx D

9) cxa - bxb E 10) cxb - axb E n U) cxb - axb F 12) axe - bxb F n

13) cx bxa G 14) bx cx H 15) ax axe xa Gn 16) ax axa bx H 17) cxc xb I 18) aa axb ax J 19) axa xa xa xb In 20) axb ax ax J

The rhyme scheme, considered with the metrical pattern,

suggests that the lines be divided into five groups of four rather than ten groups of two. The strong similarities of metrical pattern, in­ cluding line division, tend to unite lines 1-4 and 9-12 in spite of the dividing rhymes.

Some paralinguistic features evident in the poet's reading can be evolved from the analysis of the aural context. There is a striking change in the poet's tempo in reading from line 7, "And they run out behind crossings," to the middle of line 11, "Mail trains, smokers rattle. " He reads these lines much faster and builds in volume to the middle of line 13, "And from Moscow. " The increase in tempo is en­ couraged by the use of only two metrical stresses in each line, only one primary sentence stress and one secondary until line 11. There are no clause terminals in lines 7-10, describing the women's actions, after three in line 6. Then lines 11 and 12 build in volume, but not tempo. Although volume is a paralinguistic feature not denoted in phonemic transcriptions, the contrast of lines 11 and 12 is strength­ ened by clause terminals and primary sentence stresses. This kind of division and stress which immediately succeeds lines with different patterns does indicate rhetorical emphasis, often achieved by greater volum e. 180

Line 14 has a slowing effect because it has a unique m etri­ cal structure. No other line begins with bx, and no other line ends with cx. It is also the only seven-syllable line in the poem.

Lines 15 and 16 are read very slowly by the poet, once more with support from the oral structure of the poem itself. In these lines there is a return to three metrical stresses for the first time since line 6. Line 15 is further distinguished with the only xa ending in the poem. That it is different from the bxa of line 13 is emphasized by the fact that lines 13 and 15 constitute the most irregular rhyme in the poem. Lines 15 and 16, then, with extra stresses and distinctive metrical features, do contain in their structure a suggestion that their tempo would be different from the preceding lines, slower than the preceding lines.

In addition to internal support for the paralinguistic features of the poet's reading, other insights are revealed by the phonemic context of the poem. Lines 15 and 16, for instance, echo lines 5 and

6 in both m etrical structure and thought, both containing Mbabi . 11 Line

17 echoes line 7.

7) And they run out from the crossings, 17) And dazzling scoundrels

If only the sequence of stressed and unstressed syllables is considered, then lines 7, 9, 10, 11, and 17 are identical. The pattern of hurrying is present in both phonemic and lexical context of lines 7-11, and the 181 motif reappears in line 17, only now instead of trains running it is the "dazzling scoundrels"-- both hurrying, both dazzling, both im­ mune to and insensitive to the women.

The last line is the only one that ends ax ax. There are only two other lines that end in ax, and in both cases ax is preceded by two unstressed syllables. The effect of the short line, eight syllables, with prominent stresses reinforced by clause terminals is to signal the end of the poem. Simultaneously the subject of the final line, the speaker himself, is strongly emphasized. The conclusion forcefully suggests that whatever indictment is included in the poem is addressed in particular to the speaker himself.

So far, only the phonemic context has been considered, and except for the rhyme, there has been no mention of the phonetic pat­ tern. The repetition of consonant sounds is striking in the middle part of the first two lines.

1) [ b l'r je m ln a ja ] 2) [ p lrlm l'n ila s ]

Both words have a consonant series of bilabials, rolled r's, bilabials, alveolars. The last pair, [j] in line 1 and [l] in line 2, are, of course, homorganic to a lesser degree than the initial bilabiaIs, but there is a strong kinesthetic similarity. The repetition of consonant sequence with shifting stress is typical of Voznesensky's poetry. A shorter example is in line 6: [ '£adaja da'jut] • 182

A more subtle interplay of consonant sounds occurs in lines

6-9- The "movement" begins with [g] and [b] , then adds [v], and concludes with [v] and [g] . The order including stress patterns is as follows:

6) . i 'gubi ] 7) , ^ b i'j^ a ju t ] 8) .va'jgonof] 9 ) [ b r 13ala za va'j*onami ]

The [ b ] in line six is more prominent because of the bilabial [p] which 27 initiates the more compact consonant sequence already mentioned.

Lines 10 and 11 have a bond established by consonant repeti­ tion with stress variation:

10) [gla'djela f'polosi a[konije] 11) [ stu't Sat £at$ 'tovije, ku'rjerskije ]

Sometimes the near rhyme is heightened by this repetition of homorganic though not identical consonants. The final syllables in lines 11 and 12 differ only in [r ] and [t}, both alveolar: [-'r jerskije,

- 'rjetskije]. Even the rhymes of lines 14 and 16 have homorganic consonants: [njemati] [ 3iv a 'ti].

Line 19 is jerky and halting because of the concentration of consonant sounds, with [ S ] and [x] predominant, both of which have a slowing effect.

This consideration of homorganic consonants is not en­ tirely unrelated to the ideas of Kenneth Burke and others about the significance of the physiological aspects of sound. 183

19) [ v ru'baSkax 'pjostrix, f 'Slapax 'voilotSnix ] 20) [ i v 'dgempere, kak ja si't$as ]

Line 19 has twenty-one consonant sounds and not a single word that

ends in a vowel. That this condition was not imposed by the demands

of the language can be seen from the shift to the singular ending (a

vowel) in line 20. The series of three prepositional phrases describ­

ing clothes begins in line 19. The first two are plural, the third

singular, a choice that delegates four final [x] 's to line 19, as co m ­

pared with one in line 18 and none in any other line.

There is also an interplay of vowels in stressed and un­

stressed positions. Lines 5 and 6 demonstrate such a pattern.

Stressed vowels are underlined in the example which follows.

5) [ za Sto nas 'tolko 'babi 'balujut ] 6) [ i 'gubi 'padaja, da'jut]

Lines 7 and 8 show a more subtle but still recognizable pattern.

7) [ i vibi 'gajut za Slag'baumi ] 8) [ i at va'gonof atsta'jut ]

It may be significant that the [a] is the most prominent

stressed vowel in lines 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 15, and 20.The impact of the

lexical context of the line 15 is even greater whenthe line iscom­ pared with lines 3-6, and the self-accusation of line 20 is likewise

made stronger because of its links with earlier lines.

The English Translations

The translations to be considered are by Hollo, Koten, 184

Kunitz, Reavey, and Sparks, abbreviated_H, Ko, Ku, R and Sp.

There are two translations by Koten, one in the pamphlet accom- 28 panying the record Voices and one in Koten's review of Hollo, In 29 his review Koten offers an "almost literal" translation to demon­ strate what he considers distortions in Hollo's lexical context. Al­ most total similarity between the "literal" version and the one in the pamphlet perhaps indicates that Koten's translations reflect no attempt at English poetry. His work is nevertheless pertinent to this study because of its circulation with the record Voices.

Lines 1-2.

V: 1) You sit pregnant, pale. 2) How you changed, poor one.

H: 1) You sit there, big with child and pale. 2) There have been changes made.

Ko: 1) You sit, pregnant, pale. 2) How you've changed, my poor girl.

Ku: 1) You sit, pregnant and pale. 2) How you are changed, poor girll

R: 1) Pregnant you sit, and pale. 2) How you have changed, poor girl.

28 Bernard Koten, "On Translating Voznesensky, " Nation, CXCIX (November 9, 1964), 337.

29Ibid., 337-338. 185

Sp: 1) You're pale and pregnant sitting here. 2) And, O, how much you've changed, my dear.

The most striking features of the first line in Russian are the

opening strong stresses and the alliterative bilabials. Lack of regu­

lar meter in the Russian lines contributes to the sincerity and genuine

sympathy expressed in the utterance. The use of the familiar pro­ noun form "ti" expresses intimacy, reinforced by the noun of address in line 2, "byednaya." ,

Hollo softens the alliteration by avoiding the word "pregnant. "

His first line has almost the same metrical pattern as the Russian up to the final stress, but the phonemic features are strikingly different:

V: Sidish beremennaya, blednaya. *+'+ ->-+ +* + H: You sit there, big with child and pale.

Of all the translators only Hollo eliminates in line 2 the exclamatory

structure, the second person pronoun, and the noun of address that

allows for a clause terminal within the line: "There have been

changes made."

Koten encourages the conversational tone with the contraction

"you've." Of the phonological features, he successfully imitates the

opening pattern of "stress, stress, clause terminal" but fails to pre­

serve Voznesensky's metrical similarity between lines 1 and 2.

Reavey's two lines have identical m etrical patterns but not the initial

/ of the Russian. 186

The conversational quality of the Russian text is preserved in Kunitz' lines, as are the opening pattern / / / —>/ and the allitera­ tive bilabials. His two lines also show a metrical resemblance to each other with the pattern of line 1, / ' * / */ u// , reversed in line 2 ,

//u v/_>/ //.

The perfect iambic tetrameter found in Sparks' translation is unsuitable both for its contrast with the metrical pattern of the Rus­ sian and for its effect on the English lexical context. The regularity of the stress pattern accompanied by close couplet rhyme makes the utterance appear perfunctory and insincere.

Lines 3-4.

V: 3) You sit, you tug at your dress, 4) And you feel like crying and crying.

H: 3) You sit there, tugging at your skirt and 4) Wanting to cry.

Ko: 3) You sit pulling at your dress, 4) And you feel like crying, crying. . .

Ku: 3) You sit pulling at your skirt 4) As you start to cry and cry. . .

R: 3) Plucking at your dress, you sit 4) And want to go on weeping, weeping. . „

S p : 3) You tug at your skimpy dress and try 4) To keep from crying, crying, cry. . . 187

In these two lines Reavey's stress pattern comes nearest the

Russian, but the Kunitz version comes nearer the subtle but insistent

repetition of sound:

V 0 %/ V V: w , a U platitse plachetsa

V * Ku: w , skirt s ta rt

The phenomenon of "r-coloring" in English makes the [3-] in "skirt" closer to [or] in "start" than the two vowels alone indicate.

Kunitz' line 4 is definitely closest to the Russian in sounds.

K oten 1 s line is too liquid, with only two voiceless sounds, both plo­

sives, and one of them is initial and therefore does not affect a vowel.

Reavey retains the jd's in lines 3 and 4, but his ing's make the fourth

line flow much more than does the Russian. He alliterates w, but

this glide does nothing to halt the flow of the line. Only Kunitz, with his one-syllable words and avoidance of continuants and glides, ap­

proaches the "stop" effect of Voznesensky's plosives and affricates.

All four English versions in some way preserve the unity of

these four lines. Hollo prints them together on the page and repeats

"you sit, " but his first two lines, because of the [el] 's, are much

closer than are the next two. Koten also repeats "you sit" and adds

"you feel." His alliterative jd's further unite the lines.

Reavey's first and third lines have much in common: initial

stress, initialj), repetition of "you sit." But his line 4 has the only 188 unstressed ending in his group. The contrast is obvious because the two trochees contrast strongly with the two iambs of his other three lin e s .

Kunitz' first four lines hold together most obviously because of the repetition of words and initial consonants, but there is also a pattern in the vowel structure. It should be noted that had he used

"weep" in line 4, he would have established too close a tie with lines

5 and 6.

In lines 3 and 4 of the Russian version there is a lack of smoothness consistent with personal discomfort on the part of the speaker that is at slight variance with the self-righteous criticism of the next few lines and anticipates somewhat the sympathy of the last four lines of the written version or the self-indictment in the last four lines of the oral version. The repetition of "plachetsa" suggests more struggle than control on the girl's part but does not permit the kind of lament that could be read into the participle endings of Koten and

Reavey. Kunitz, therefore, comes closest to the Russian version.

L ines 5 -6 .

V: 5) Why do w om en spoil us 6) And, falling, give us their lips.

Ho: 5) Y es. What on e a rth Do they get out of it? Women 6) Falling, letting us enter as they fall Upon u s - - 189

Ko: 5) How women spoil us 6) And, falling, give us their lips.

Ku: 5) No wonder we are spoiled! 6) Women, abandoned, fall to our lips,

R: 5) What makes you women spoil us 6) And, falling, give us your lips,

Sp: 5) But why do you girls spoil us all 6) And give us your lips as you fall

The most obvious similarity of Reavey's version to the ori­ ginal is the preservation of the extended question. His line 5 is also closest in number of syllables and the final unstressed ending. His lines are held together phonologically with the repetition of [ 1 ] and repetition of [i] in "women, " "give, " and "lips. " Koten achieves the same ties with [l] and [i], but his line 5 is noticeably shorter.

K unitz 1 alliteration is closest to the original. It is even bi­ labial, but not plosive. More important, Kunitz comes closest to the echo effect of Voznesensky.

V: i 'gubi 'padaja da Jut

Ku: 'wimin Sbaend 6nd fol tu alTr lips

Moreover-, Kunitz' "wonder" in line 5 has an echo in "abandoned" in line 6:

[! And 8 ] [ - 'sendsnd]

Both Reavey and Sparks add "you" in these lines, a lexical effect at variance with the impersonal third person plural of the 190

Russian. Sparks' use of "girls" lacks the generality of "women."

Lines 7 - 8 .

V: 7) And they run out behind cro ssin g s 8 ) And lag behind the train cars.

H: 7) then, later, running to see us Go by at the crossing, then, later, staying 8 ) Staying, when the last carriage has passed.

Ko: 7) And how they run out from behind the turnpike 8 ) And lag behind the train-cars?

Ku: 7) Dash out at the crossing 8 ) When the train chugs off,

R: 7) Then ru n beyond the p la tfo rm s, 8 ) Outstripped by speeding trains?.

Sp: 7) And run past railroad-crossing bars 8) And get left by the fast train's cars?

Voznesensky could be said to "shift gears" in these lines, be­ ginning his series of lines with only two stresses and several un­ stressed syllables together. His line 8 is a repetition of the metrical pattern of line 7 but with finality, for the last two unstressed syl­ lables are omitted. Also his lines are strongly held together by the interplay of vowels and consonants already discussed.

Koten's line 7 is close to the Russian in both metrics and smoothness, and he unites the lines with the identical phonemic stresses at the end, / /, but the exclamatory sentence structure belies the question mark of line 8 , and line 8 has many more syl­ lables than line 7 (11:7). 191

Reavey's iambics do not accelerate the line, but his repe­ tition in line 8 of the stress pattern of line 7, except for the final un­ stressed syllable, is similar to Voznesensky's pattern, fteavey also has some consonant repetition, but no vowels. However, the "out­ stripped" of line 8 shows a tie with line 6, [i], thus helping to unite the quatrain.

Kunitz achieves acceleration by a /+/ at the end of line 7, a feature noticeable apart from his reading of the line. The three finai stresses in his line 8 have the same stopping effect as Voznesensky's final stress after the unstressed syllables of line 7.

Only Kunitz' translation contains phonemic features that en­ courage a faster rate. The double stress of Koten's "run out" and his final tertiary stresses, the double stress of Reavey's "outstripped" added to his consonant clusters of line 8 and his final tertiary stress of line 7-- all make these versions difficult for accelerating the rate.

Kunitz' succession of anapests and his plus juncture encourage a rapid tempo. The faster rate is consistent both with the actions being described, running women, moving trains, and with the feelings of impatience on the speaker's part. His thoughts have turned from sympathy for an individual to criticism of a group, motivated, per­ haps, by the discomfort implied in both lexical and metrical contexts of the first four lines. Lines 9-10.

V: 9) How you ran after train cars 10) Looked at the streaks made by the windows

H: 9) How you ran, after that train. 10) Staring at windows blurred into streaks of black glass.

Ko: 9) How you ran after the train, 10) Peering through the bars of the windows. . .

Ku: 9) And stumble along the tracks, 10) Like you, staring at window streaks.

R: 9) How hard you tried to keep up 10) With the blurring carriage windows. . . .

Sp: 9) You ran with them along the rails; 10) The windows streaked by rapidly.

Voznesensky suggests the rhythm of trains in these lines with his repetition of stress patterns. Only Kunitz comes close to this effect in these two lines and only with the two dactyls that conclude line 10. The final two stresses of Hollo's line 10, "black glass," are unlike anything in the Russian, and Reavey's final two stresses in line 9, "keep up, " are worse in that his lines 9 and 10 seem d is ­ connected.

The lexical problem in these lines is the Russian word

"polosi, " meaning "strips, stripes, streaks," Voznesensky uses

"polosi" for the visual image created for the onlooker by the windows of a rapidly moving train. The uniform windows blur into one long streak, or stripe. The exactness of this image in the Russian text is 193 missing from all of the translations. The English versions are either wordy (Hollo, Sparks), or subject to misunderstanding

(Kunitz), or both (Koten, Reavey).

Lines 11- 12.

V: 11) Mail cars, smoking cars rattle along, 12) Trains for Khabarovsk, Lubertsy,

H: 11) Khabarovsk, Lyuberetzk 12) Express trains, mail trains, all go Rumbling by.

Ko: 11) The local trains rumble on, the expresses, 12) The Khabarovsk trains, the one to Liubertsy

Ku: 11) Mail trains, express trains rattle past 12) To nearby towns or vast Siberia. . .

R: 11) Trains rattle by, express and mail, 12) Trains to Khabarovsk and elsewhere. . .

S: 11) They chug - the passengers, the mails - 12) Bound for Khabarovsk. . . Lubertsy.. .

The prominent features of the Russian are the internal breaks in lines 11 and 12, dividing the lines almost in halves, and a rhythm that might be called "accelerated chugging" of a train. Once more there are only two stresses to each line, and only line 11 has a /+/.

There is nothing to slow the tempo.

None of the English versions achieves the effect described.

Like Hollo's, Sparks' clause terminals divide the lines into dissimi­ lar metrical groups. With four metrical stresses in each line and no internal clause terminals, Kunitz' lines show little phonological 194 resemblance to the Russian.

Phonological similarity can be achieved in English, as dem­ onstrated by the following suggested translation:

The rattle of baggage cars, expresses, To Kabarovsk or Liubersky--

Another prominent feature of the Russian is the near rhyme of "kurerskiye" and "Luberetskiye. " Koten's is the only English version to approximate this rhyme with "expresses, " "Lubertsy."

However, Kunitz has the interplay of stressed and unstressed vowels in these two lines:

11) e i e 83 se el I el 1 i

ir au 88 IT 12) a i o ai IS

Lines 13-16.

V: 13) And from Moscow to Ashkhabad 14) Struck dumb to m u ten ess, 15) Women stand like stone 16) Having shown their bellies to the moon.

H: 13) And from Moscow to Ash'khabad 14) --stricken: to the point of muteness 15) Stone-like, these women stand 16) Offering their big bellies to the moon.

Ko: 13) And from Moscow to Ashkhabad, 14) Struck dum b, 15) The w om en stand as if m ade of stone, 16) Pushing their bellies out to the moon.. . 195

Ku: 13) And from Moscow to Ashkabad, 14) Num bed and dum bstruck, 15) W omen like m onoliths stand, 16) Showing th eir b ellies to the moon;

R: 13) F ro m M oscow all the way 14) To A shkabad, like numb idols, 15) Women stand as if turned to stone, 16) T h eir b ellie s p ro ffered to the m oon.

Sp: 13) And fro m M oscow to A shkabad 14) The girls still stand like stone, rough-hewn, 15) In speechlessness along the road 16) W ith b ellies bending to the m oon.

In these lines the speaker shows a great deal of insight into the feelings of the women. Helpless, even graceless, they are yet not objects of ridicule, and their muteness is not dismay. "Stricken" in Hollo's version seems to contradict the solemn dignity suggested in the Russian poem. The latent strength of the women is suggested by the emphasis on "stand" in the Russian text, where the word is fol­ lowed by /—^/ o Kunitz gives "stand" the same kind of emphasis by placing it at the end of the line and separating it from its subject:

"Women like monoliths stand."

Kunitz' vowel echoes and alliteration bind together the lines and at the same time show strong resemblance to Voznesensky's tech­ niques. Furthermore, the strong relationships between lines 15 and

5 and 6 in the Russian poem are repeated in lines 15 and 6 in Kunitz'

translation. 196

g\ wi basnd f o l lip_s ' mm a I and tu aur — —

wi man staend mm laik o h@s

The strong bilabials of line 15 are repeated in line 16:

[ Souwir) ftser b e l i z tu fiamun]

In Sparks' poem line 14, with the same number of syllables

as 13, seems much longer because of its phonemic pattern that yields

six metrical stresses.

A A A V / —^ / S * ^

There is alliteration with _st in line 14 and with bilabials in line 16,

"bellies," "bending," and "moon."

There are additions in Sparks' lexical context as well as

some changes from the Russian. "With bellies bending to the moon"

destroys Voznesensky's visual image. Characteristic of the late

stages of pregnancy is a leaning backward to balance the weight of

the baby. Voznesensky's phrase "showing their bellies to the moon" implies the elevated position of the belly resulting from the unbalanced

posture. "Bending" implies leaning forward, an uncharacteristic po­

sition that is furthermore not well suited to "showing their bellies to the moon. "

Lines 17-20.

V: 17) And turning tow ard the light 18) In night times not "at home," 197

19 How it understands them, the planet, 20 By means of its own great belly.

H: 17 And as it is turning toward the light 18 In its nightly existence, unlived, 19 How well it can understand them, 20 That planet Heavy with an enormous pale belly. . .

Ko: 17 And revolving around toward the light 18 Amidst the uninhabited night 19 How well our planet understands them, 20 With its own enormous belly. ^0

Ku: 17 While the great-bellied earth, 18 Trapped in the bleak enormity of space, 19 As it spins to the light, 20 Interprets them.

R: 17 And swinging into the light, 18 In the unpeopled life of the night-- 19 How well the moon, with her 20 Big belly, understands them.

Sp: 17 This planet this unlived-in night 18 Is slowly turning toward that light, 19 And through its own big belly swell 20 Can understand these women well. 31 The difficulty of translating "neobzhiti" has been discussed.'

An antonym for "cozy" or "inviting, " the word does contain the root

"zhit," meaning "to live. " This root together with the negative prefix

led some translators to choose English expressions like "uninhabited"

or "unpeopled." Sparks' "unlived-in" is accurate but ambiguous.

■^These lines are from Koten's version in his article, "On Translating Voznesensky, " op. cit. 31 Supra, pp. 175-176. 198

Hollo's "unlived" is confusing. The freer translation "bleak enor­ mity of space, " used by Kunitz, conveys more accurately the general sense of the Russian word.

Kunitz' use of bi labia Is in the last four lines is noteworthy for several reasons, not the least being their prominence:

While the great bellied earth,

Trapped in the _b leak enormity of space,

As it spins to the light,

Interprets them.

The beginning of line 18 carries special emphasis on these consonants because of the short duration of the vowels before the voiceless con­ sonants [p] and [k] .

Bilabials are also prominent in Voznesensky's version that describes the planet.

I jaovorachivayas k svyetu

V nochnom bitu neobzhitom

Kak ponimayet ikh jslanyeta

Svoim ogromnim zhivotom. . .

It is possible that both poets feel it appropriate to describe the heavy, swollen women and the heavy, swollen planet using "closed" conso­ nants . 199

General Structure of the English Poems. Because the meter

and sound patterns of Kunitz's translation is, like much modern

American poetry, very subtle, the patterns of stress and sounds must be observed together to discover ties between various lines of the

poem. The following representation shows which lines begin with a

stressed syllable, how many metrical stresses there are in each line, what the final two stressed vowels are, and which lines have feminine endings. The indication ff represents two unstressed syllables at the end of the line.

1) s 4 £ e i 2) 3 e l 3- 3) s 3 U 3- 4) 3 a i ai

5) s 3 A 0 1 6) 4 0 I 7) s 3 au 0 f 8 ) 3 A 0

9) 3 0 ae 10) s 3 38 I ff 11) s 4 ae as 12) 4 ae i ff

13) 2 a as 14) 2 AA f 15) 3 a ae 16) 3 £ u

17) 3 £ a 18) 4 0 e i 19) 2 I ai 20) 2 3 £ 200

If a literary work has subtle claims to poetic form, and surely the subtlety can be proven by lack of rhyme and lack of regular meter, then the analysis must match the subtlety of the work. Though the recognizable poetic traits are far less obvious in Kunitz' translation than in Voznesensky's original poem, these traits are present. Be­ cause their presence is not obvious, it follows that the general struc­ ture indicated by these traits is likewise not obvious, but it can never­ theless be seen. The quatrain division of the Russian is preserved.

Lines 1-4 make use of [el] and [^]. Lines 1 and 3 begin with the same words, "you sit. "

Lines 5-8 make use of the sound [o]. Line 7 has the only feminine ending, but the diphthong [oi] in line 5, a wide glide at any time, with a tendency to become dissyllabic, is further lengthened by the voiced [l]. The unstressed syllable of line 7 is [l]. Line 8 , however, is slowed by three consecutive stressed syllables at the end, no other line having more than two.

In spite of the unique stress of line 8 , it is closely linked w ith line 9 in vowel repetition and repetition of initial consonants.

On the other hand, the dominant vowel in lines 9-12 is [ae] - This quatrain is further united by the metrics of lines 10 and 12, the only lines ending with two unstressed syllables.

The transition from line 12 to 13 is marked by a change in the number of stressed syllables. Lines 13 and 15 have the same 201 final two stressed vowels, and lines 15 and 16 are the only two lines that have three stresses at the beginning, middle, and end of the line.

Most important, line 16 has the first falling clause terminal and the only stressed [u] in the poem, and it is in the final position. Line 16 is unique.

Line 17 reverts to the stressed [3-] for the first time since lines 1-4, and this vowel is the strongest one in line 20. Line 20, with its brief iambics and a falling terminal, signals the end of the poem.

Much of the alliteration in Kunitz 1 version is obvious just from the spelling, but there is good reason to consider "train" and

"chugs" alliterative in line 8 . The initial phonetic symbols are [tjc] and [t$] . Although [tJt] is not an affricate and does not function in the language like [tS] , it is physiologically and accoustically quite similar to [tS] •

The poetic structure used by Kunitz reveals much the same divisions in the poem as those indicated by Voznesensky, and there is the same relationship between metrical and lexical context, that is, changes in thought are accompanied by changes in phonological structure, and similar phonological structures indicate similar lexi­ cal structures in both poems.

There are many contrasts between Sparks' translation and

Voznesensky's poem. The iambic tetrameter asserted by the English version fails to imitate the conversational quality of the Russian. 202

The subtlety of the Russian phonology is completely lost in this trans­ lation. Most damaging to Spark's translation is his failure to indicate phonologically the changes in the speaker's feelings and attitude to­ ward the women.

Reavey's translation shows little phonological resemblance to the Russian poem. In contrast with his two perfect rhymes, "and swinging into the light/ In the unpeopled life of the night, " is the com­ plete lack of rhyme elsewhere in the poem. There is no pattern of masculine and feminine endings, no pattern in the initial syllables of the lines. Lacking are the phonological devices to reinforce the lexi­ cal divisions.

Without formal poetic structure Reavey's poem does main­ tain a conversational tone. There is only one awkward line, describing the trains: "Trains rattle by, express and mail. " There is one inartistic addition, "all the way, " apparently used only to fill out a line: "From Moscow all the way/ To Ashkhabad. ..."

Generally, it is not the inartistic display of poetic technique but the lack of poetic structure that makes this poem markedly different from

V oznesensky's. 203

V. " MOTOR RACES ON A VERTICAL W ALL "

This poem is dedicated to N. Androsova, whom Voznesensky recognizes in his oral reading as a "Master of Sport in the Soviet

Union. " The Moscow Circus has an act like the one described in the poem, an act in which a motorcycle is ridden around walls and even across the ceiling.

Motogonki po Vertikalnoi Stenye

Zavorazhivaya, manyezha, Svishet zhenshina po manyezhu! K ra g i-- krasniye, kak kleshni. Gubi krasheniye--greshni. Mchit torpyedoi gorizontalnoyu, Khrizantemu zatknuv za taliyu.

Angel atomi, amazonka! Sheki vdavleni, kak voronka. Mototsilcl nad golovoi Elektricheskoyu piloi.

Nadoyelo zhit vertikalno. Akh, dikarochka, doch Ikara. . . Obivateli i vestalki Vertikalni, kak "vanki-vstanki. "

V etoi, vzvivsheisa nad zontami, Myezh ovatsi, afislj, obid, Sushnost zhenshini gorizontalnaya Mnye meryeshitsa i letit!

Akh, kak kruzhit yeyo orbital Akh, kak slozi k belkam pribiti! I tiranit yeyo Ghengis Khan-- Zamdirektora Singichants. . . 204

Singichants, poyavlayas, no s njei govorit, "Nye muka Tozhe nye tryukh--po stenye, kak mukha. . . A vchera karaeru prokolola. . . Intrigi. . . Poidu napishu direktora I tsarapayetsa, kak konokradka. "

Ya k nyei vlamivavus v antrakte. "Nauchi, " govoru, "gorizontu. "

A ona molchit, amazonka. A ona golovoi kachayet. A yeyo yesho tryek kachayet. A glaza polni takoi -- gorizontalnoyu toskoi!

Lexical Context of the Russian Poem

Lines 1 -2 .

casting a spell of the arena 1) Zavorazhivaya, manyezha

whistles woman around arena 2) Svishet zhenshina po manyezhu

The first two lines set the theme and tone of the poem. The subject is a woman who performs on a motorcycle. She builds up speed until she actually "climbs the wall, " going around ever faster and higher until she can even go directly overhead, upside down.

Defying the laws of gravity, she is casting a spell.

Line 3-6.

leggings red like claws 3) Kragi krasniye, kak kleshni 205

lips dyed sinful 4) gubi'krasheniye greshni

runs like a horizontal torpedo 5) Mchit torpyedoi gorizontalnoyu

Chrysanthemum stuck in waist 6 ) Khrizantemu zatknuv za taliyu

In this description of the woman's appearance the wholly feminine traits--lipstick, a flower at her belt--are in sharp contrast with the manly strength and daring required for the act. Even the femininity is tough. The red leggings are hard, likeclaws, invul­ nerable, and the lips are sinfully red.

Line 5 introduces the concept of the horizontal, in an image that also suggests speed, a torpedo.

Lines 7-10.

angel atomic amazon 7) Angel atomi amazonka

cheeks indrawn like craters 8 ) Sheki vdavleni kak voronka

motorcycle over head 9) Mototsikl nad golovoi

Like an electric saw 10) Elektricheskoyu piloi

The poet omits these lines in the oral version. They provide further description of the girl and her motorcycle. 206

Lines 11-14.

it is boring to live vertically 11) Nadoyelo zh.it vertikalno

ach little savage daughter of Icarus 12) Akh, dikarochka, doch Ikara

Plebeians and vestal virgins 13) Obivateli i vestalki

are vertical like "Roly-Polys" 14) Vertikalni kak "vanki-vstanki"

The girl is contrasted with an "obivatel, " a "man in the

street, " a Philistine. In the category with "obivateli" are vestal virgins. The child's toy "vanki-vstanki" is weighted so that it always

returns to an upright position. Because the vestal virgins are linked

with the "obivateli" and both are compared with the insensible toy

that always returns to the vertical position, the virgins become sym­

bols of a kind of person not to be emulated, the unthinking, self-

satisfied, self-righteous, always relentlessly vertical. The girl on

the motorcycle is different.

"Dikarochka" is a diminutive pet name derived from "dika, "

meaning "savage, " or "wild. " Icarus was the mortal who fell into the

sea after flying too near the sun.

Lines 15-18.

in this having soared over awnings 15) V etoi vzvivsheisa nad zontami 207

among ovations posters insults 16) Myezh ovatsi ofish obid

essence of woman horizontal 17) Sushnost zhenshini gorizontalnaya

to me appears and flies 18) Mnye meryeshitsa i letit

In line 18 "mnye meryeshitsa" is most closely translated as

"I fancy I see, " but this English phrase, lexically exact, is gram ­ matically inappropriate, because the Russian construction is dative plusreflexive. The other part of the compound verb, "letit, " means

"flies, " and the subject of both verbs is "essence ofwoman. " The dative construction must be preserved in translation as "The essence of woman appears in my fancy and flies. " "Ovatsi, ofish, obid" con­ stitute a heterogeneous group of items, both tangible and intangible.

Lines 19-20.

ach how whirls her orbit 19) Akh, kak kruzhit yeyo orbita

ach how tears to the whites of the eyes are nailed 20) Akh, kak slozi k belkam pribiti

The details in line 20 counterbalance the effect of line 19.

To the onlooker her orbit whirls, and the reader is reminded of line 1,

"casting a spell, " but there are tears, probably not of emotion but from the wind of her speed. Even her tears are not a sign of softness.

They are nailed to her eyeballs. The entire picture is one of great strength. 208

Lines 21-27.

and tyrannizes her Ghengis Khan 21) I tiranit yeyo Chingiskhan

trainer Singichants 22) Zamdirektora Singichants

Singichants appearing but with her speaks not a torment 23) Singichants, poyavlayas, no s nyei govorit nye muka

Also not a trick on the wall like a fly 24) Tozhe nye tryukh po stenye kak mukha

and yesterday innertube she punctured intrigues 25) A vchera kameru prokolola intrigi

I am going to write to section 26) Poidu napishu v sektsiyu

and scratches like a horse thief 27) I tsarap ay etsa kak konokradka

There is a discrepancy between the oral and written texts of lines 23, 24, and 26. The written texts are as follows:

but with her isn't it a torment 23) Singinchants: "Ny a s nyei nye muka?

also trick on the wall like a fly 24) Tozhe tryukh po stenye kak mukha

I am going to write the authorities 26) Poidu napishu po instantsii.

In line 26 the substitution of "section" for "authorities" alters the lexical context very little in that both expressions can mean some­ one in a position of higher responsibility. In line 24 the addition of

"nye" before "tryukh" likewise makes no significant change. Because the colon after Singichants might not be obvious in an oral version, 209 the addition of "govorit" ("speaks") is a logical compensation for the punctuation.

The significant lexical change is the transposition of "s nyei"

("with her"), suggesting that the trainer is talking with the performer instead of the speaker in the poem. If just the orthographic repre­ sentation of the oral version be considered, without the phonemic features, "govorit" could be considered an interruption of the quotation as follows: Singichants poyavlayas, "No s nyei," govorit, "nye muka. . . " ("Singichants appearing, 'but with her, ' he says, 'isn't it a torment'"). However, the phonemic and paralinguistic features of Voznesensky's reading preclude the above interpretation. "No s nyei" belongs with the first part of the line. 32

Both oral and written versions of these lines make it obvious that the trainer is talking and that he considers the girl a problem.

He thinks her flat tire was a scheme, and he apparently told her so, provoking both her threat to appeal to those higher up and her attack on him .

Hines 28-29.

I to her rush at intermission 28) Ya k nyei vlamivayus v antrakte

32Infra, p. 215. 210

teach I say the horizontal 29) "Nauchi, " govoru "gorizontu. "

The' verb "vlamivatsa" means "to push, " "to thrust. " The

speaker struggles to reach her during intermission and says, "Teach

the horizontal, " meaning, "teach me. "

Lines 30-33.

and she is silent amazon 30) A ona molchit amazonka

and she head shakes 31) A ona golovoi kachayet

and her still the track shakes 32) A yeyo yesho tryek kachayet

and eyes full of such horizontal longing 33) A glaza polni takoi gorizontalnoyu toskoi

Again there is the incongruous in her appearance. In the first stanza her feminine qualities appear strong; now her size and strength are seen to be weak. Standing beside her, the speaker sees her as an Amazon. But she is shaking her head and still reacting to her flight around the wall, still dizzy.

The word "toskoi" means "longing, " but it also means

"melancholy, " "sadness. " The girl longs for her horizontal life but is not completely happy with it. It attracts her without giving full satisfaction. There is an implication that the speaker in the poem, who envies such defiance of the rules of conformity, can see that even 211 if he could achieve the horizontal life, he would not be fully happy with it.

Phonological Context of the Rus sian Poem

Line s 1— 2.

1) [ zava'ra3 ivaja ma'nje3a]

2) ['sviSit '3 enSina po m a'nje3 u ]

The first word, made up entirely of continuants, is ono- matopoetic in both segmental sounds and rhythm. The fricatives

[z], [v], [ 3 ] suggest the sounds of the whizzing motorcycle, and the phonemic features suggest uninterrupted speed. There are no junc­ tures in the six syllables, and only one stress. The metrical pattern

consistent with an image of sound that approaches, then re c e d e s .

There is neither regular meter nor elaborate rhyme, and there is no alliteration. The absence of phonological poetic features contributes to the serious, conversational quality of the lines, a quality reflected in the tone of voice of the poet. The medial clause terminals and the few plus junctures, none in line 1 and only one in each section of line 2, affect the tempo. The two lines are read as four segments, each of which has a fast, unbroken tempo. 212

Lines 3-6.

3) ['k rag i 'krasni* kak 1-cllS'ni]

4) ['gubi- 'kraSani- gri $'ni-]

5) [mtSit tor'pjedoi gorizon'talnuju ]

6 ) [xrizan'temu zat'knuf za 'taliju ]

The assonance and alliteration are prominent in lines 3 and

4, and so are the sibilants. The alliteration is both with k and with

the homorganic plosive j». The break in the printed arrangement of

line 3 is not reflected in the poet's reading, which indicates only a

/ + / after "kragi. "

Lines 5 and 6 are more continuous, with five of the seven words ending in vowels. The rhyme is more elaborate, combined with consonance and covering four syllables: [zon'talnuju/za 'taliju].

Although the first six lines are printed as a stanza, the rhyme scheme breaks them up into couplets. Each of the three rhymes is a different

type: feminine, masculine, and dactylic.

Lines 7-10.

These lines are omitted in the oral version.

Lines 11-14.

1 1 ) [nada 1 jelO 3 it vjerti'kalns ]

1 2 ) [ax di'karotSka dotS i'k a ra ] 213

13) [abkvatjeli i vis'talki ]

14) [ vjerti'kalni kak 'vanki 'fstanki ]

In these lines there is strong alliteration with v,'s and near rhym e of all four lines: [-'k aln o / - 'k ara/ —'tall

At the end of line 10, the end of a stanza and a lexical d i­ gression, a clause terminal is to be expected, but Voznesensky uses only a / + / and therefore seems to rush on to line 15. The tendency to avoid a pause after a criticism of society can be seen in his reading of other poems.

Lines 15-18.

15) [v 'etoi 'vzvifSisja nad zon'tami ]

1 6 ) [ m je 3 o'vatsi a'fi S a'b id ]

17) [ 1 suSnSst 'jenSinir gsrizon'talnija ]

18) [ mnje ml'rjeSitsa i le'tit ]

These lines have a change in rhyme pattern, the first example in the poem of abab. Even though the v's in line 15 tend to tie the line to the previous stanza, the rhyme schemes of the two separate them. 2 14

Like the other lines these are free from regular meter. The

a rhyme is strengthened by the similarity of the pretonic syllable,

[zon], which compensates for the difference in number of final un­

stressed syllables. Again, as in line 3, the poet's reading does not acknowledge the printed break in line 17.

Lines 19-30.

1 9 ) [ax kak 'kru 3 it jl'jo ar'bita]

2 0 ) [ax kak 'slozi- k bjil'kam pri'biti]

Although these lines are printed with lines 21 and 22, they are neither lexically nor phonologically bound.to them. Instead, they function as a separate unit and provide a transition from the general­ ized description of the preceding stanza to the specific meeting with the trainer Singichants. The two lines are set apart from surrounding lines by their end rhyme and also by the initial rhyme, appearing for the first time in the poem and repeated only in the final quatrain.

Lines 21-22.

2 1 ) [i ti'ranit jl’jo t$ipgis 'xan]

2 2 ) ['zamdi ,rjektora ^ipgi'Sants ]

The rhyme is achieved with proper names, the phonological similarities strengthening the lexical 4comparison. 215

Lines 23-27.

23) [ siqgi'Sants pojav'lais no snjei ggva'rit nje 'muka]

24) [ 'to3 e nje trjuk po stenje kak 'muxa ]

25) [ftSe'ra 'kameru proka'lola in'trigi ]

2 6 ) [poi'du napi' Su f sjektsiju ]

27) [i tsa'rapetsa kak kono'kradka ]

There is nothing in the phonemic or paralinguistic features of line 23 to indicate that "s nyei" is part of the quotation. There is only a / + / after the phrase, and before the quotation there is a

/ —>/ . That Voznesensky's oral version of this line is an accidental rather than a deliberate revision is indicated by its effect on the lexi­ cal context. As read, the line can mean only that Singichants talks

"with her, " an incredible feat while she is still orbiting the enclosure.

Further support for regarding the alteration of lines as acci­ dental is found in the other two changes. Unlike the variations in his other performances, these changes alter the metrical structure. Both oral and written versions have something in common. The conversa­ tional qualities exist in both, evidenced by the lack of regular meter and rhyme and the presence of short phrases obvious both in the syn­ tactic structure and in the poet's reading. Furthermore, lines 25 and

26 are the only unrhymed lines in the poem, a further indication of realistic conversation. 216

Lines 28-29.

28) [ ja k njei 'vlamivajus v an'tralcte]

29) [nau'tSi gSvS'rju gori'zontu]

Phonologically, line 28 belongs with the preceding group and line 29 with the following one, but they are printed together. The near rhymes, 27-28 and 29-30, function to link the two conversations of the speaker, one with the trainer and one with the performer.

Lines 30-33.

30) [a a'na mSl'tSit ama'zonka]

' 31) [a a'na gsls'voi ka'tSajet]

32) [a jl'jo ji'$ o trjek ka'tSajet]

33) [a gla'za pol'ni- ta'k o i] [ gorizon'talniju] [tas'koi ]

Because line 33 is phonologically two lines with end rhyme

("takoi/ toskoi"), the final five lines can be regarded as three couplets, like the opening six lines. The clause terminal after "takoi, " con­ tributing to the separation of line 33 into two lines, is not syntactically motivated, but there is adequate paralinguistic motivation, a pause at that point for emphasis being quite natural.

Lexically, the final six lines are not so closely bound to one another as the first six, but they are lexically related to the first group because like the opening lines, they describe the girl. Now her strengths and weaknesses are reversed. 217

Line 34 ("gorizontalnoyu toskoi") has the same phonemic

features as line 1 except that line 34 lacks the final unstressed syl­

lable. Just as line 1 describes the initial impression made on the

speaker, while the girl is performing, lines 33-34 describe the final impression as the speaker watches the girl after the per­ form ance.

General Structure of the Russian Poem. Except for two lines, 27 and 28, the lexical divisions correspond to the phonological divisions of the poem. The first six lines, or the first ten in the written version, are all couplets and describe the girl performing.

There are comparisons but no philosophizing in this section. Though none of the couplets rhyme with one another, they seem to belong to­ gether, separate from the succeeding lines because of the rhyme pattern of lines 11-14.

There is near rhyme for all four lines of 11-14 and allitera­ tion of [v ]'s. The lexical context, speculation about the vertical life in general, marks a change from the preceding lines, a change re­ inforced by the distinctive phonological traits. If the speaker's envy of the horizontal life is symbolically important, these lines provide the explanation of the symbol. The girl on the motorcycle has broken free from the restraints of unthinking conformity exemplified by the Roly Poly. That the poet intended this stanza as social 218

criticism is evidenced by his oral technique of rushing on to the

following stanza, filling a lexical transition with only a / + / even

though his habit is to use a /—5 / at the end of every line regardless

of the lexical context of the following one.

The next four lines, 15-18, the first abab rhyme scheme,

constitute a subjective description of the performer. Lines 19 and

2 0 , a couplet, are printed with lines 21 and 2 2 , but lexically they belong with the preceding lines, serving as a loose summary, a

comment on the total picture of the act.

At the end of the next lexical section, lines 21-27, is a line

that belongs lexically with preceding lines but phonologically with

the following one. In spite of the two closely rhymed couplets that

initiate this section, there is less phonological regularity than in the

other sections. Lines 25 and 26 have no rhyme; the lines are frag­

mented, apparently to simulate realistic conversation.

Line 27 of the previous section rhymes with line 28, an in­

troduction to the final section detailing the speaker's visit with the

performer. These final lines are rhymed as couplets, much like the

first six, and balance the opening six lines both phonologically and ■

lexically. 219

The English Translations

The general structure of Smith's translation is much like the

Russian. His first six lines are a phonolgoical unit, and the next four, omitted in Voznesensky's reading,are closely tied to the first

six.

Casting her spell and daring death, A woman zooms round the wall of death! With leather leggings as red as crabs' claws, And wicked red lips that give one pause, She hurtles --horizontal torpedo-- A chrysanthemum stuck in her belt.

Atomic angel, Amazon, With cratered cheeks in-drawn, Your motorcycle passes overhead, Its noise, a power saw's.

Smith's pronunciation of o preceding n is [p] , a not un­ common speech habit that in this poem contributes much to rhyme and assonance. Whether [p] is properly an allophone of [a] or [o] is not significant. It is enough that its occurrence is more likely to be mistaken for [o] and therefore shows a close perceptual resem ­ blance. Consistently in "Amazon" and "horizontal" Smith uses [till] for the on, creating rhyme with "indrawn" and assonance with "wall" and "longing. "

The first couplet has identical rhyme with [e] the stressed vowel, like the Russian [manje 3 a /m a n je 3 u]. Although the third pair of lines lacks the couplet rhyme, line 6 repeats the stressed 220 final vowel of lines 1 and 2, [belt]. The assonance of [sqz] in line

10 echoes the rhyme of lines 7 and 8 , and line 9 repeats the stressed vowel [e]. There is only one line in the first ten, line 5, that does not end in a final stressed syllable with either [o], [d], or [e].

The next section, a quatrain in the Russian, is made up of five lines in Smith's version with the final three lines rhyming.

Living vertically is such a bore, Darling barbarian, daughter of Icarus. . . It's the plight Only of vestal virgin and suburbanite To live vertical and upright.

Smith's reading heightens the exactness of the final two rhymes by placing a / —*/ before "and suburbanite" and selecting the stress pat­ tern for "upright, " [ 'Ap rait], giving [rait] the same degree of phonemic stress as the last syllable of "suburbanite."

[se 'b^-be (nait] .

The assonance and alliteration of line 12, with the interplay of stress changes, is reminiscent of Voznesensky's line.

V: [ax di'karotjka dot$ i'kara ]

S: ['darliQ bar 'b £I*I3n 'dotb sv 'ikarss ]

The resemblance of these two lines, and the final three successive rhymes, giving this set of lines distinctive phonological features, make this section closely resemble the Russian.

There is in the next section repetition of vowels in "soars, "

"posters, " "float, " and "before, " but the pattern of their repetition 221 is irregular. The rhyme "see/me" is heightened in Smith's reading by a /-> / after "see" and full secondary stress on "me, " a pronoun sometimes unstressed to [mi ] even in a final position.

In this creature who soars Over awnings, ovations, posters, and jeers I now can see the horizontal essence of woman Float before me!

The next couplet has the close rhyme of the Russian. Even though the second rhyme has only tertiary phonemic stress, the voiced final consonant lengthens the vowel enough to equate "ball" and

"wall. "

Ah, how her orbit whirls her round the wall, Her tears nailed to each eyeball;

Printed in the same section as the lines above are the ones > which in the Russian text rhyme the two proper names. Smith pre­ serves this rhyme with "Genghis Khan" and "Singichants, " and in the following line puts "says" before "Singichants" to identify his di­ alogue. Smith uses "I" at the end of a line as if to rhyme with "fly" at the end of the following line, but his reading does not emphasize the rhym e.

. . . "Eet me tell you I Have my hands full. . . like a fly. "

There is only a / + / after "I" and no lengthening of the diphthong. In the last line of this section he does emphasize the rhymes "says she" and "gypsy" by using a definite [i] for the final vowel both times and 222

almost simulating a / + / between the [p ] and the [s ] of "gypsy" by

lengthening the closure for the [p] . "Gypsy" is Smith's equivalent

for the Russian "konokradka" ("horse thief").

Says Singichants: "Let me tell you I Have my hands full with that one, plastered up there like a flyl And yesterday she had a flat. . . the little schemer. . . ! 'I'll write to the boss, ' says she; And claws at my face like a mad gypsy. "

Two lexical features in the above lines deserve attention be­

cause of the variations in other translations. "Kamera" means both

"camera" and "innertube, " and two translators select "camera" in­

stead of Smith's "flat. " Because the Russian poem lacks an equiva­

lent of "she said, " it is not perfectly established who is to write "to

the boss. " Smith assumes that it is the girl.

The next two lines in the Russian poem belong together lexi­

cally and not phonologically. Smith's lines have phonologically ties with each other, but Smith's reading does nothing to stress the end

rhyme, putting only a / + / after "way. " The word still has primary phonemic stress and therefore some emphasis. The /“>*/ after "hori­

zontal, " almost a rhetorical pause in his reading, may anticipate the final rhyme, also "horizontal. "

During intermission I make my way To her. . . "Instruct me in the horizontal! " I.say.

The last four lines, like Voznesensky's show phonological

resemblance to the opening lines with stressed [e] in the final 223

syllables of two lines and stressed [o] and [b ] in the other two.

But she stands there like lead, [led] The Amazon, and shakes her head; Still shaking, dizzy from the wall, Her eyes blurred with such longing for the horizontal! [zDnt]

The divisions of Smith's poem, indicated both lexically and phonologically, create a general structure much like the Russian.

The similarities are even more significant because they are not accompanied by distortions in lexical context or sentence structure.

Anselm Hollo creates lexical features that do not correspond with the Russian. His opening line, "Smiling she zooms in--," adds two details about the performer, her entrance and her smile. In the second stanza he writes, "Their cheeks sag," referring to the spec­ tators. The Russian has only "cheeks pressed in, " but the phrase, appearing in a section that describes the girl, must be taken as a description of her, not her audience. »

In Hollo's third stanza there is a pronoun, "their," with an indefinite antecedent.

I see revealed Their horizontal secrets: Women, orbits, Orbits, tears glued back To the whites Of her eyes 1 224

Not only do these details violate the stanza structure of the Russian, but "their secrets" seems to refer to the final lines of the preceding

stanza:

you know that only squares and vestals fight To stay upright. . . .

Presumably "their horizontal secrets" is intended as the English lexi­ cal equivalent of "I fancy I see the horizontal essence of woman. "

Hollo translates the Russian word "kamera" as "camera," an acceptable English equivalent, and adds a phrase about "back­ stage stuff":

And only yesterday She smashed the camera — God, all that Backstage stuff. . .

In the same stanza, describing the conversation between the trainer and the speaker in the poem, the trainer says, "I'll report her to the Boss. " In Smith's translation the trainer says, "'I '11 w rite to the boss, 1 says she. " Neither version contradicts the Rus- 33 sian text. More contradictory is Hollo's "She's bristly" for

"tsarapaetsa" ("she scratches").

In the next stanza "bells are rung" is an addition rather than a poor English equivalent.

^^See Supra, p. 222. 225

But I, When intermission Bells are rung, rush to her dressing room

The final word in the Russian version, "toskoi, " means both

"longing" and "melancholy." Hollo chooses "sadness," emphasizing the latter meaning.

But I get no reply But she just shakes her head, The amazon. She's still in orbit, Eyes brimming with such horizontal sadness.

A study of Hollo's phonological feature reveals little that can be compared with the Russian poem. Even his lexical features, because their order of presentation has been changed, do not provide suitable divisions for comparison with the Russian text. In the stanza from Hollo presented below, the numbers above each phrase indicate the line containing the information in Voznesensky's poem. A zero indicates that the information is original with Hollo.

0 O Smiling she zooms in ■ 1 & 2 To the arena 3 Her boots lobster red 4 Her lips a sexy hue O She flies through the air 6 A chrysanthemum at her waist 7 7 5 Amazon, atomic angel, horizontal torpedo 226

Because the foregoing lines are printed as the first stanza they can be compared with Voznesensky's first stanza in spite of the difference in lexical material. To compensate for the deviations in line length, the two stanzas are compared not by lines but by word groups indicated by clause terminals. For instance, Voznesensky's lines 1 and 2 are listed as four phrases instead of two lines because of their internal /-*-/'s. Hollo's line 7 with its two /-^-/'s appears as three phrases.

V oz. no. syllables Hollo no. syllables

bxc 6 xa ax x 5 axa 3 bxa 5 xa xb 5 ax xa x 5 bxa 4 ax axa x 6 xa xa x ax 7 ax bx 5 xa xb ax 7 bxb bx 8 x axa cxb 10 xb 3 bxa ax axb 10 axa xa 5 bxa axa 7

It is obvious that Hollo's poem is divergent in both phrase structure and lines and patterns of lines. It differs further because of its lack of rhyme and, except for line 4, lack of regular meter.

In Hollo's next stanza, lexically corresponding to the stanza

Voznesensky omits in his reading (the comparison with the power saw) as well as Voznesensky's stanza referring to vestal virgins and the up­ right toy, there are two examples of rhyme, both with [al]. The first example is internal rhyme in line 9 . 227

8 ) Their cheeks sag, 9) Funnel-like: The motor bike 10) Roars up above their heads, a power-saw--

The final two lines in this section are marked by regular meter and

close rhyme.

14) And vestals fight 15) To stay upright. . . .

This distinctive phonological structure is similar to the Russian poem.

In Hollo's fifth stanza the phonemic features make prominent a rhyme that is not obvious as the poem is printed.

But I, When intermission bells are rung, rush to her dressing room And cry, "O teach me, Please, the horizontal lifel "

Set off by clause terminals, the phrases "but I" and "and cry" are prominent rhymes. Again, in the first line of the next stanza, the same [al] rhyme appears: "But I get no reply. "

In the final two lines there is repetition of the sounds [z] and

[s ], voiced and voiceless analogs, and repetition of the stressed [i].

The amazon. She's still in orbit, Eyes brimming with such horizontal sadness.

There is repetition of on in "amazon" and "horizontal. " If these

_o* s are pronounced like Smith's o_'s in the same words, they closely resemble the sound of the o in "orbit. " The or in "horizontal" could also be the same as the or in "orbit. " 228

This poem is one of Hollo's better translations, measured by the lesser amount of distortion of the lexical context than in

some of his others. Furthermore, although there is little regular meter or rhyme and -there is much variety in line length and stanza structure, there are at least a few parts of the poem in which the re­ lationship between phonological context and lexical context resembles the same relationship in the Russian poem.

Marshall's opening stanza has regular rhyme and alliteration withJJs in lines 3 and 4 and with_s's in line 4.

Beneath the Big Top, casting a spell, • Around the arena a woman whirls and spins 1 High boots-- lacquered as a lobster shell. Lips painted--seductive as sin. A whizzing horizontal torpedo she pelts, A chrysanthemum tucked into her belt!

The final two lines of the stanza have repetition of vowels and of sim­ ilar but not identical consonants:

[q 'mizid hori'zantl tor'pido Si pelts ] [a k r i' seenBamam tAkt intu hd- belt ]

Marshall's second stanza has regular rhyme, though not couplets like the Russian lines.

Atomic angel, Amazon! Cheeks concave crater beds. A motorcycle buzzes on, A power saw revving overhead. 229

Not until stanza three, where Voznesensky's rhyme is tighter in all

four lines (vertikalno/ ikara/ vestalki/ vstanki), does Marshall have

unrhymed lines. In the same stanza he achieves his final rhyme only

by straining the word order in line 13: "vestals virginal. " He mars

the lexical context with a phrase that seems dated, "crazy cat," for

Voznesensky's diminutive form "dikarochka" ("little savage").

She's fed up with living upright Ah, crazy cat, daughter of Icarus. . . Only squares and vestals virginal Like Roly-Poly^ stay vertical

'''A child's toy (wobbly-man) weighted at the bottom, so that however much it is knocked about, it always comes back to a vertical po­ sition. See the poem "Roly-Poly" by Yevgeny Yevtushenko in Selected Poems (Dutton, New York), 1966.

Altogether this stanza is ineffective both as an English poem and as duplication of the Russian text.

Stanza four has near rhyme, in abab pattern. The rhymes

"tenting" and "horizontal" are created by the stress pattern and the presence of nt in a final position in each stressed syllable. Though in both of the other rhymes, "slights" and "flies, " [al] is the * stressed vowel, the succeeding consonants have different effects on it. The voiced plosive in "flights" has an influence different from the the voiced fricative in "flies."

in that orbiting under the tenting, Between ovations, posters, slights, The essence of wom en horizontal 230

Enters my dreams and flies i

The next pair of lines has the close rhyme found in the cor­

responding lines in the Russian text.

How her orbit circles and flies. Tears are nailed to the whites of her eyes I

In the next lines Marshall preserves the Russian rhyme of the names

"Ghengis Khan" and "Sin-Hi-Chan. "

For the conversation with the trainer Marshall chooses

"camera" for the Russian "kamera, " but he adds a verb that is no longer current slang, "coshed. " Like Hollo, Marshall has the trainer complaining "to the chief. "

SIN-HI-CHAN: Isn't she a pain in the neck? Sticking to walls like a fly--some trick. . . And she coshed the camera yesterday. . . . Such intrigues. . . I'll complain to the chief. . . . And she scratches and kicks like a horsethief. "

Because of the difference in phonemic stress on "chief" and "thief, " the final rhyme in this group is not so close as the spelling indicates.

L f+ 1/ + f > to the chief

U + 1 /+ t + *• like a horsethief

In the second of the two lines about the speaker's going to see the performer during intermission, Marshall uses internal rhyme, but the first line of the pair has no phonological ties with any other lines.

I burst into her room during the break. "Teach me, " I say; "the horizontal way. " 231

The final stanza is weakened by the strained word order of the last phrase, "of such sadness horizontal." The [e] in the Id rhyme is reminiscent of four of the end rhymes in the first stanza.

But she doesn't reply that Amazon. She simply sits and shakes her head. Inside she still goes whizzing ahead. And her eyes are full of such sadness horizontal.

All three translations are marked by a high degree of lexical resemblance to the Russian poem, and all three achieve at least some phonological resemblance, more than is usual for Hollo. Of the three translations Smith's has the greatest phonological simi­ larity to the Russian and the least lexical strain; that is, few additions or inaccuracies and no unnatural word order mar the text as an

English poem.

VI. "NIGHT AIRPORT IN NEW YORK"

When Voznesensky introduced this poem on television in 1966, he said, "I love Kennedy's airport. I think it is the architectural symbol of our age, and I dedicated to it my poem. " First published in 1962, the poem has appeared with several variations. The follow­ ing text from Antiworlds is exactly like Antiworlds Record except that the oral version makes no mention of the subtitles. The subtitles appear below but not in the discussion of the poem. 232

Nochnoi Aeroport v Nyu-Iorke

F asad

Avtoportret moi, retorta neona, apostol nebyesnikh vorot--

A eroportl

Brezhat duraleviye vitrazhi, Tochno rentgyenovski snimok dushi.

Kak eto strashno, kogda v tebye nyebo stoit v tleyushikh trasakh nyeobiknovyenilch stolits!

Kazhdiye sutki tebya napolnayut, kak shluz, zvyozdniye sudbi gruschikov, shlukh.

V bare, kak angeli, gasnut tvoi alkogoliki. Ti im glagolish!

Ti ikh, pribitikh, vozvishaye sh. Ti im "Pribitye" vozveshayesh.

Lyetnoe pole

Zhdyt kavalerov, sudyeb, chemodanov, chudyes, Pyat "Karavell" oslepitelno syadut s nebyes! Pyat polunochnits shassi vipuskayut ustalo. Gdye zhe shestaya?

Vidno, doprigalas-- dryan, aistyonok, zvezdal . . Elektroplitkami plashut pod nyei goroda. Gdye ona reyet, stonet, durit? I sigaryetkoi v tumane gorit? 233

Ona prognoz nye ponimayet. Yeyo zemlya nye prinimayet.

Interyer

Khydi prognozi. I ti v ozhidani buri, Kak v partizani, ukhodish. v svai vestibyuli. Drikhnut pravitelstva v parakh bespyechnikh.

Tikh, kak provizor, im trassi prorochit dispecher. Moshnoye oko vzirayet v iniye mira.

M oishiki ok on slezyat tebya, kak moshkara, Zvyozdni desantnik, khrustalnoye chudishe, Sladko, dosadno bit sinom budushevo, Gdye nyet durakov i vokzaloV -tortov-- Odnyi poeti i aeroporti!

Stonet v akvariumnom stekle Nyebo, privarennoye k zemlye.

Konstruktsii

Aeroport—ozona i solntsa Akkreditovannoye posolstvol

Sto pokolyeni nye smyeli takovo kosnutsa-- Preodolyenya nesushikh konstruktsi. Vmyesto kamennikh istukanov Stinet stakan sinevi-- byez stakana. Ryadom s kasami-teremami Oh, tochno gaz, antimaterialeni

Bruklin - durak, tvyerdokameni chort. Pamyatnik eri - A eroport. 234

/ Lexical Context o£ the Russian Poem

Lines 1 -2.

self-portrait my retort of neon apostle of heavenly gates 1) Avtoportret moi, retorta neona apostol nebyes.nikh vorot

airp o rt 2) Aeroport!.

The first lines are almost a summary of the entire poem: what the airport is to the modern age. It is "my self-potrait, " that is an image of the age itself. It is a "neon retort. " It is flashy, commer­ cial, artificial in that it is the opposite of unadorned nature. Still it symbolizes man's link with what is beyond his reach, perhaps beyond his imagination: "apostle of the heavenly gates."

Lines 3 -4 .

glimmer duralumen glass panes 3) Brezhat duraleviye vitrazhi.

as if they were X-ray pictures of the soul. 4) tochno rentgyenovski snimok dushi

The Supplement to the Oxford English Dictionary states that

"duralumin" or "duraluminium" is "a light alloy comparable in strength and hardness to soft steel, used especially in the manu­ facture of aircraft. " The poet selects a detail typical of the airport and aircraft, and also of the modern age, duralumin being new in

1917, and makes a comparison with an image that has been well known longer (X-rays) and with the spiritual (soul). Utilizing images from modern technology to express man's personal feelings is typical 2 35

of Voznesensky's poetry.

Lines 5-7.

How this (is) terrifying when in you (the) sky stands 5) Kak eto strashno kogda v tebye nyebo stoit

in smouldering lines 6) v tleyushikh trasakh

of unusual capital cities 7) nyeobiknovyenikh stolits

These lines initiate the idea, elaborated insubsequent lines, that the sky is trapped in the airport, "welded to the earth, " as he says in line 36. To the airport the sky represents highways, or routes, connecting the cities of the world. The planes flying these routes mark them by the trails of vapor the planes leave behind. It is terrifying to consider that the airport has subdued the sky, which i is filled with routes marked by vapor trails of planes, routes that lead to extraordinary cities.

Lines 8-10.

every 24 hours you they fill like (a) sluice 8) kazhdiye sutki tebya napolnayut kak shluz

starry fates 9) zvyozdniye sudbi

(of) stevedores trollops 10) gruschikov sklukh 236

"Sutlci" m eans "twenty-four hours, " and in one v e r s io n ^

the poet reads "utro" ("morning") instead. "Shluz" means

"sluice" or "lock, " like a canal lock. "Shlukha" is a vulgar word for

prostitute, expressing a judgment instead of designating a profession

(one that is recognized and regulated).

Lines 11-14.

in(the) bar like angels growdim your alcoholics 11) v bare kak angeli gasnut tvoi alkogoliki

you them speak 12) ti im glagolish

■ you them beaten down raise up 13) ti ikh pribitikh vozvishayesh

you them "Arrival" announce 14) ti im "Pribite" vozveshayeshl

"Glagol" means "verb" in Russian, and Voznesensky has coined a verb from this noun, undoubtedly for its phonological quali­ ties, to be discussed later. Not only do all kinds of people gather in the airport, but those who need comfort find it. The activities of the airport are special, almost mystical, and coming and going there are not merely people and material needs, but events of great consequence,

sometimes announced in the routine voice of the loud speaker.

^ T a p e 1. 237

Lines 15-18.

they wait for cavaliers fates suitcases miracles 15) zhdut cavalerov sudyebchemodanov chudyes

five Caravelles dazzlingly sit down from (the) sky 1'6) pyat karavell oslepitelno syadut s nebyes

five nightbirds landing gear let out wearily 17) pyat polunochnits shassi vipuskayut ustalo

where (is) (the) sixth 18) gdye zhe shestaya

Line 15 forms a transition from those who wait in the airport to what they are waiting for: people, belongings, destinies, miracles.

Lines 16-18 consider some of the things that arrive from the sky, five

Caravelles, French passenger jets used by some American airlines.

The poet compares these graceful airplanes with night-birds in the feminine gender, which anticipates the use of "she" in subsequent lines to refer to the missing sixth plane.

Lines 19-2.0.

evidently (she) jumped that far trash little stork star 19) vidno doprigalas dryan aistyonok zvezda

(like) electric cooking ranges dance under her cities (Subj. of dance) 20) elektroplitkami plashut pod nyei goroda

"Vidno" means "obviously, " "apparently, " and has the same root as the verb "videt, " "to see." "Doprigivat" means "jump so far, " and "dryan" means "trash, " both in the sense of "rubbish" and a "worthless person." The three nouns, "trash," the diminutive of 238

"stork, 11 and "star, " are appositives.

The instrumental plural of "electric cooking ranges" sets up

the comparison between cities' lights as seen from the airplane and

an electric grill. If viewed from a moving airplane, the cities seem

to move and "dance. "

Lines 21-22.

where she soars moans frolics 21) gdye ona reyet, stonet durit

and (like a) cigarette in fog burns 22) i sigaryetkoi v tumane gorit

The verb "reyat"means "soar, hover, sail," and implies response to air pressure and flow rather than self control, like "fly. "

The instrumental case of "cigarette" means "like a cigarette." A change in word order clarifies the English: "Where does she soar, moan, frolic, and like a cigarette burn in the fog?"

Lines 23-24.

she (the) forecast does not understand 23) ona prognoz nye ponimayet

her(the) earth does not accept 24) yeyo zemlya nye prinimayet

The word order in these lines in Russian creates neither strain nor ambiguity. It must be changed in English to "She does not under­ stand the forecast. The earth does not accept her." "Prinimat" has

several English equivalents: "take, receive, accept" and "admit" in 239

the sense of "admit into a group. "

Lines 25-26.

bad forecasts and you in anticipated storms 25) khudi prognozi i ti v ozhidani buri

like with partisans (you) go into your vestibules 26) kak v partizani ukhodish v svai vestibyuli

These lines belong to the section called "Interior." The

transition is accomplished by repeating "forecasts" in line 25, this time as it affects those already in the airport instead of those in the air trying to arrive, as in line 23.

The "ti" in these lines evidently refers to the group of people at the airport, but the familiar form, used also in the preceding lines, indicates that the people are seen not as individuals but as part of the airport. When the forecasts are bad, those who are waiting disappear, as guerrilla troops disappear, into the more comfortable waiting rooms.

Lines 27-28.

sleep governments in pairs carefree 27) drikhnut pravitelstva v parakh bespyechnikh

quiet like druggist them routes predicts controller 28) tikh, kak provizor im tras.si prorochit despecher

Even governments are passive and unconcerned, and are 240 subject to the decisions of the airport authorities. The dispatcher, unimpressed, plans and communicates the routes for rulers of countries as well as for lesser people. The airport is apart from governments, and both government and airport are mutually unim­ pressed.

Lines 29-30-

powerful eye looks at other worlds 2 9 ) moshnoye oko vzirayet v iniye mira

window cleaners water you like (a) swarm of midges 30) moishiki okon slezyat tebya kak moshkara

The "mighty eye" that "looks into other worlds" is the tower with its radar that scans the skies as well as its glass structure that

"looks out" at all that is visible to the eye. The window cleaners seem small and insignificant compared with the huge structure they clean.

Lines 31-34.

starry one who lands crystal monster 31) zvyozdni desantnik khrustalnoye chudishe

it is sweet it is vexing to be (a) son of the future 32) sladko dosadno bit sinom budushevo

where there are no idiots or train station cakes 33) gdye nyet durakov i vokzalov-tortov

only poets and airports 34) odnyi poeti i aeroporti 241

The tower, or perhaps the entire airport facility, seems, like its planes, to have landed from the sky, so different is it from earthly structures, a "crystal monster. " This structure makes the observer aware that he belongs to the future instead of the past, a future where the gingerbread architecture of former generations, found in railway stations that are themselves part of the past, is abandoned for the clean functional lines of the airport.

Voznesensky's use of "poet" deserves attention. He does not refer only to writers of poems. Boris Slutsky wrote a poem called

"Physicists and Lyricists," in which he says more than once "fiziki v pochyte. . . liriki v zabone. " ("Physicists are held in honor, lyricists kept in the background. "). Voznesensky replies in his poem

"Who are We?":

Who are we--ciphers or great men? Genius is in the blood of the planet. Not of physicists, nor of lyricists-- (We're) either Lilliputians or poets!

In another poem, "Lyrical Religion, " he writes, "Mankind advances in a lyrical progression. " One is either a poet or a lesser creature, and in the future there will be only poets. This awareness of the greatness of the age is both "sweet" and "vexing. " 212

Lines 35-36.

moans in aquarium glass 35) stonet v akvariumnom stekle

(the) sky welded to (the) earth 36) nyebo privarennoye k zemlye

A change in the English word order makes clear the image: the sky, welded to the earth, groans in the aquarium glass. The sky, viewed through the glass of the airport, seems trapped on the outside of it, as water is trapped inside an aquarium.

Lines 37-38.

airport (of) ozone and sun 37) aeroport ozona i solntsa

accredited embassy 48) akreditovannoye posolstvo

Voznesensky expands the idea of the airport as a link with other worlds and with the sky, calling it an accredited embassy of ozone and sun.

Lines 39-42.

a hundred generations did not dare so to concern them selves 39) sto pokolyeni nye smyeli takovo kosnutsa

conquest (of) supporting structures 40) predolyenya nesushikh konstruktsi

in place of stone idols 41) vm yesto kam enikh istukanov 2 43

cools (a) glass (of) blue without (the) glass 42) stinet stakan sinevi byez stakana

Line 39 has only one problem, "kosnutsa, " which means

"touch, concern, regard. " To translate closely is to create an un­ natural expression in English, something like "did not dare to concern themselves. " It would be easier and hardly less accurate to say "did not dare such a thing. "

Line 40 really says "conquest of supporting structures. " The

"triumph over supports" can refer to the high ceilings uncluttered by massive supports or to the airplanes, which in flight have no visible supports.

The great stone idols that at one time awed men have been replaced by this glass of cool blue, which seems to have no vessel to support it. The airport has seemingly confined the sky without visible confining structures.

Lines 43-44.

by the side of cash-box castles 43) ryadom s k asa m i-tere m a m i

it (is) precisely gas antimaterial 44) on tochno gaz antim aterialen

"Ryadom, " which literally means "by the side of, " can indicate, as its equivalent can in English, "compared with. " "Terem" is an old castle of a boyar or prince, distinguished by its height and its many Z 44

towers. "Kassa" means "booking office, cash, cashbox, " and suggests

something commercial. Compared with the massive, turreted struc­

tures of castles and old commercial buildings, whose supports are

obvious and part of their impressiveness, the airport, whose struc­

tures seem nonexistent, is only gas, air, antimaterial.

Lines 45-47.

Brooklyn (Bridge) (is an) idiot sturdy devil 45) Bruklin durak tvyerdokameni chort

m onum ent (of the) era 46) pam yatnik eri

(is the) airp o rt 47) aeroport

"Bruklin" refers to Brooklyn Bridge, which Mayakovsky celebrates in his poem of that name. These lines dispute Mayakov­ sky's claim of the greatness of Brooklyn Bridge and insist that the airport is the monument of this age.

Summary of the Lexical Context. The lexical context must be understood in relation to Mayakovsky's poem, "Brooklyn Bridge. "

Mayakovsky describes the bridge and also New York as seen from the bridge. Mayakovsky's concept of the bridge as a link between

Europe and the American West is like Voznesensky's idea of the air­ port as a link with other worlds, both the tangible "unusual capital cities" and the "ozone and sunshine. " Mayakovsky's lines about the 245

35 West are as follows:

here this steel paw vot eta stalnaya lapa

united seas andprairies soyedinyala mora i preri

from here Europe rushed to (the) West otsyuda Evropa rvalas na Zapad

having scattered on (the) wind Indian feathers pustiv po vetru indeiskiye pyera.

Another section of Mayakovsky's poem that is much like

Voznesensky's is the following:

struggle for construction in place of style borba za konstruktsi vmyesto stilei

Voznesensky's "conquest of supporting structures" suggests that in the airport one sees not a struggle between style and construction but a total victory over supporting structures that leaves style unfettered.

Phonological Context of the Rus sian Poem

Lines 1"2.

Avtoportret moi, retorta neona, apostol nebyesnikh v o ro t-- A eroport

The first line is the longest one in the poem and therefore in

length not typical of the other lines, but it establishes the meter of

35 The lines are not spaced as they are here in Mayakovsky's version, but the lexical context is the only significant factor for this discussion. 246 most of the lines in the poem: dactyl with one final stressed syllable.

The first line has six dactyls plus the final stress. Although the am ­ phibrach is strongly suggested in some places, the first word,

"avtoportret, " and the second line, which is often repeated,

"aeroport, " establish the pattern of beginning and ending with a strong stress. In fact, the pattern seems to be I*'*'" / except that there are no successive stressed syllables, so that this pattern overlaps, or the medial stress serves both preceding and following patterns:

Though such a division creates overlapping groups, it is strongly sug­ gested by the second line and the final one, /aeroport/ (/2 1 13 /).

Lines 5 -7 .

Kak eto strashno, kogda v tebye nyebo stoit v tleyushikh trasakh nyeobiknovyenikh stolits!

The shortness of lines 6 and 7, combined with the end rhymes of line 5 and 7, indicates that 6 and 7 function as one phonological unit. Line 5 has the usual pattern of four dactyls plus a stressed syl­ lable. (The pattern of four dactyls is not yet established as "usual, " line 5 being the first line to use it, but subsequent lines support this judgment.) Lines 6 and 7, taken together, have the / pattern at the beginning and end and also the proper .number of syllables for the 247

pattern of line 5, but the seventh syllable is unstressed instead of

stres sed.

There is a near rhyme with "strashno" of line 5 and "trasakh"

of line 6. The rhyme is emphasized by Voznesensky's reading. He

pronounces "strashno" [ 'straSna] and has a clause terminal after each

of the words. The end rhyme is strengthened by the similarity of the preceding stressed vowels:

5) ['je a 'it] 6) [je a 'lits]

The end rhyme actually includes the final four syllables, which not only makes the rhyme more intricate but also strengthens the metrical pat­ tern / / .

Lines 8-10.

Kazhdiye sutki tebya napolnayut, kak shluz zvyosdniye sudbi gruschikov, shlukh.

These three lines have the same pattern as the three pre­ ceding ones. The last two function together, giving the effect that the three lines are actually a couplet. The rhyme of the middle of line

8 with the end of line 9, "sutki/sudbi, " suggests a quatrain, but the

metrical pattern suggests a couplet of two lines that rhyme both at

mid-points and finally "shluz" [ S lus ] and "shlukh [S lux]. 248

Lines 9 and 10, if taken as one line, substitute a clause terminal for an unstressed syllable: j , j _ (jj. hardly proper to consider a /"W as a syllable in some lines and not others.

The / - > - / does not actually replace a syllable, but it does occur where the syllable is omitted, and it occurs because of the syntax, not merely because of the poet's reading.) The I'*''""!, occurring both initially and finally, combined with the fact that the line lacks only one syllable to fit the pattern, reinforces the concept of lines 9 and 10 as one line that fits the common pattern1.

Line s 11-14.

V bare, kak angeli, gasnut tvoi alkogoliki. Ti im glagolish! Ti ikh, pribitikh, vozvishayesh. Ti im "Pribitye" vozveshayesh.

In these lines only the first part of line 11 fits the metrical pattern, and the rest of the section is a deviation. In his reading the poet emphasizes both the regularity and the deviation by putting a distinct clause terminal after "tvoi, " a practice that is not reinforced by either the lexical context or the syntactic structure. The effect of the reading is to separate "alkogoliki" from the rest of line 11 and emphasize its rhyme with line 12, "ti im glagolish." This rhyme has the intricacy and the transposition that Voznesensky uses often.

The Ik/gl is a transposition of homorganic sounds, and both precede 2 49 a pretonic j3. The stressed gol is followed in line 11 by two un­ stressed [i]'s, in line 12 by one. This intricate rhyme, made possible by a coined word, the verb "glagolit", is used humorously like the "antimushini/antimashini" rhyme of "Antiworlds. "

Lines 13 and 14 function as one long rhyme. Even the pho­ nemic features of / + / and /->-/ are the same, though the poet varies the pitch in his reading so that the pitch patterns are not identical.

The effect of this attenuated rhyme is to counteract the possible seriousness of the subject. Alcoholics are not considered as a serious social problem, and certainly the airport is not seriously recommended as treatment for them.

A further effect of the close rhyme of lines 13 and 14 is to conclude the section.

Lines 15-18.

Zhdyt kavalerov, sudyeb, chemodanov, chudyes, Pyat "Karavell" oslepitelno syadut s nebyesl Pyat polunochnits shassi vipuskayut ustalo. Gdye zhe shestaya?

The phonological features of line 15 reinforce the lexical con­ text. The four items that are awaited are divided into two pairs, the second functioning as a kind of repetition of the first. Each pair consists of one mundane item and one intangible one. The metrical and phonemic elements are so much the same that Voznesensky 2 50 reverses "cavalerov" and "chemodanov" in one of his readings.

Lines 15-17 are closely tied by repetition of sounds at or near the beginning of each line:

[3dut kavaljerov] [pjatj karavel] [ pjatj polunotS nits ]

The inversion of v, _r, and in "kavalerov, karavel" is a typical tech­ nique of Voznesensky, especially combined as it is with identical sequence of vowels: [a a 1 e] .

Line 18 is roughly equivalent in length and rhyme to the last word of line 17. As in line 11 (where the last word is "alkogoliki") the poet in his reading isolates the final word by a preceding l ~ * ~ l .

In line 18 the /->-/ is not so contrived as the one in line 11, and the first part of line 18 has phonological ties with the last word because of the vowel pattern:

vipuskayut u a u ust a la u a a

All four of these lines are close together both lexically and phono­ logic ally.

Line s 19-20.

Vidno, doprigalas--dryan, aistyonolc, zvezda! . . Elektroplitkami plashut pod nyei goroda.

^ V o i c e s . These two lines rhyme with each other not only at the ends but at two other points:

['vidna da 'prigalas drjan, ais'tjonak, zvlz'da]

[ elektra'plitkami 'plaSut pad njei gara'da

Though the two lines are metrically identical (if the tertiary stress on the first syllable of "elektroplitkami" is given metrical stress), they are saved from monotony by variations in phonemic stress.

Lines 21-22.

Gdye ona reyet, stonet, durit? I sigaryetkoi v tumane gorit?

In these lines, too, there is internal rhyme which makes them much alike in spite of a missing unstressed syllable in line 21. Again, as in lines 9 and 10 (see line 9), a clause terminal occurring where an unstressed syllable is omitted seems to balance exactly the m etri­ cal pattern of a neighboring line:

A + — + f i / — ^ r V — y U /

W+W + —>

Though the couplet rhyme of these two lines and the two pre­ ceding ones argues against considering these four lines as a quatrain, the structure of the remaining lines in this section strongly suggests a quatrain of these four. Lines 15-18 form a quatrain, lines 23 and

24 a definite couplet. Both of these groups are different in structure from lines 19-22. This contrast combined with the close lexical ties 252 of all four lines suggests a quatrain division.

Lines 23-24.

Ona prognoz nye ponimayet. Yeyo zemlya nye prinimayet.

This pair of lines is similar to the pair that conclude the first section,lines 13 and 14. Not quite so similar phonetically as the pre­ vious pair, these two have identical phonemic structuresof stresses and juncture and a final rhyme extending over five syllables.

Lines 25-26.

Khudi prognozi. I ti v ozhidani buri, Kak v partizani, ukhodish v svai vestibyuli.

These lines have internal rhyme with each other as well as three-syllable end rhymes.

25) . , . -'nozi\ . . -ni 'buri 26) . . . -'xodi . . . -ti 'bjuli

In each end rhyme there is a series of similar consonants: alveolar with complete closure, b, alveolar without closure. Inter­ twined with the two major rhyme patterns described is a subtle repetition of sounds that precede the rhymes.

25) 'xu- -'nozi -'ani 'buri ' — /\ •!<»» _ 26) -'ani -'xodi -a'i -'bjuli • «••• A — 253

Lines 27-28.

Drikhnut pravitelstva v parakh bespyechnilch. Tikh, kak provizor, im trassi prorochit dispecher.

Each of these lines is divided by a clause terminal, and each half-line corresponds phonologically to the one above it:

drikhnut pravitelstva v parakh bespyechnikh

tikh, kak provizor im trassi prorochit dispecher

The close phonological similarity makes it quite clear that the "them" of line 28 indeed refers to the rulers and not those who scattered like partisans into the vestibules.

Lines 29-30.

Moshnoye oko vzirayet v iniye mira. Moishiki okon slezyat tebya, kak moshkara

The phonological similarity of these two lines is revealed even by the spelling. The phonemic pattern indicates further like­ ness:

^ J A W W + / W —A ^ ^ ✓A + W ✓ " ^ 3 0 ) - w w + , w —>- + + ~ + ' +

The word "iniye" is read as a two-syllable word without the final syl-

\ lable of the suffix. The omission of part of a declensional ending is typical of conversational Russian speech. 254

Lines 31-34.

Zvyozdni desantnilc, khrustalnoye chudishe, Sladko, dosadno bit sinom budushevo, Gdye nyet durakov i vokzalov-tortov-- Odnyi poeti i aeroportil

The cla.use terminals that divide each of the four lines are more obvious in the poet's reading than in the syntax, but none of the four are contrived; all are natural to the lexical context. The parallel structure is lexical as well as phonological in all but line

32, "It is sweet, it is vexing to be a son of the future. " The auton­ omy of the half-lines is established in lines 31 and 32 by the medial rhymes:

31) . . .desantnik, . . .chudishe 32) . . .dosadno, . . . budushevo

The medial rhymes in lines 33 and 34 depend only on the stressed syllable [et]:

33) . . . nyet. . . . 34) . . .poeti. . .

Because of the carefully constructed pattern of the preceding lines, the two parts of line 34, "poeti" and "aeroporti, " each attain the status of a half-line. Equating each single word with half a line gives emphasis to the words themselves and underscores their rela-

s tionship to each other. The relationship between "poeti" and

"aeroporti" is further strengthened by their phonological ties: 2 55

po et i por ti poeti aeroporti

Lines 35-36.

Stonet v akvariumnom stekle Nyebo, privarenoye k zemlye.

Because line 35 does not have an internal clause terminal, the divisions of line 34 ("poets'1 and "airports") are more significant.

The end rhyme of these two lines covers seven syllables:

akvariumnom stekle privarenoye k zemlye

Extension of end rhyme to cover all or nearly all of the two final lines signals the end of a section, as it did for sections one and two. '

Lines 37-38.

Aeroport—ozona i solntsa Akreditovanoye posolstvol

The end rhyme of these two lines is more visual than oral be­ cause the 1_ in "solntsa" is almost lost to the n, which affects the pre­ ceding vowel more than does the _s_ of "nasolstvo, " but the phonological similarity of the firs.t four syllables of each line is obvious on both phonetic and phonemic levels. Both vowels and phonemic stress are sim ilar: Z 56

r \ U l - ' A -f IS A U + / *>> -1 L aera port azona i solntsa J

r\ l/VSAVUtS+U A U-j L ^kreditovanaje pasolstvo J

t

Lines 39-44.

Sto pokolyeni nye smyeli takovo kosnutsa-- Preodolyenya nesushikh konstruktsi Vmyesto kamenikh istukanov Stinet stakan sinevi--byez stakana. Ryadom s kasami-teremami On, tochno gaz, antimaterialen.

These lines can be considered together because the same tech­ niques appear in each pair. One line of each pair has more syllables than the other, but in each pair there are phonetic similarities that \ make the lines seem parallel. Sometimes the similarities are exact repetition of consonant or vowel sequence, as in lines 39 and 40:

[sto pakaljeni nje smjeli takovo kasnutsa ] [preadaljenija njesu Six kanstruktsi ]

Lines 41 and 42 have an intricate pattern of sjt and kan:

vmyesto kamenikh istukanov stinet stakan sinevi byez stakana

Lines 43 and 44 have sim ilarities of a different type, slightly less obvious. In the first half of each line the final stressed syllable begins with a velar plosive and ends with [as]: [kas ] and [gas]. The final line segments show a pattern of repetition and also one of re­ versal. The repetitive pattern is / t - r - 'a - unstressed syllable/. 257

terem am i antimat^riale n

The inverted pattern is illustrated as follows:

teremami [terema] materialen [ materi ]

Lines 45-47.

Bruklin - durak, tvyerdokameni chort Pamyatnik eri - A eroport

There is a pattern of vowel and consonant repetition with the syllables [ a] , [ er] , [ am] , and [ort] .

[ 'bruklin du'rak ,tverdS 'kamjlni t$ort]a er am ort ['pamjatnik 'eri-] am er [(aera'port] a er a ort

The / + / in "aeroport" makes the "chort/ - port" rhyme closer. The final masculine rhyme, preceded by a juncture that is emphasized by a brief pause in the poet's reading, gives finality to the poem and echoes its opening in line 2.

Summary of the Phonological Context. Characteristic of

Voznesensky's poetry is the manner in which the phonological con­ text contributes to and interacts with the lexical context. First, the phonologicial features establish the end of each lexical section. A

"matched pair" of lines, different in meter and in intricacy of rhyme from the remaining lines, appears at the end of each of the four major divisions. 258

Second, phonological devices help to establish the one word

"airport" as a phonological parallel for whole groups of words. In

the opening lines the pattern of stressed vowels and the end rhyme

suggest that the four syllables of "aeroport" are equivalent to the

nineteen syllables of line 1, "Avtoportret moi, retorta neona, apostol

nebyesnix vorot. " In line 34 "aeroport" seem s to balance "i vokzalov

tortov. " The pattern of stressed vowels in the final three lines es­

tablishes "aeroport" as equal to "Bruklin durak, tverdokameni chort. "

The poetic status of "aeroport" has a dual effect on the lexi­

cal context. Standing alone as a line or a half-line, the word has

strong rhetorical emphasis. Moreover, as a preview in line 2 and a summary in the final line,"aeroport" functions to open and close the poem and to give it lexical and phonological unity.

Third, phonological devices act to create a humorous effect,

thus reinforcing the lexical context. The speaker is not genuinely

concerned about the alcoholics or about the missing Caravelle. His

lack of seriousness is evidenced by the word choice as well as the

obvious cleverness of the rhymes, a cleverness that calls attention

to the rhyming technique at least as much as to the words as lexical

units. 259

The English Translations

The translations discussed below are by Bienstock, Hollo,

Koten, Marshall, and Smith, abbreviated B , H, Ko, M, and Sm.

Bienstock omits lines 25-36.

Lines 1-2.

V: 1) My self-portrait, neon retort, apostle of the heavenly gates, 2) A irport!

B: 1) My self-portrait, a neon retort, the apostle at heaven's gate-- 2) The airport!

H: 1) Self-portrait, alembic of neon: guardian 2) of the heavenly gates, O airport--

Ko: 1) My self-portrait is a neon light, an apostle at the heavenly gates - 2) A irport!

M: 1) My self-portrait, apostle of the heavenly portals, my neon retort-- 2) A irport! 2) (revised) New York Airport!

Sm: 1) Guardian of heavenly gates, self-portrait, neon retort, 2) A irport!

Hollo's substitution of "alembic, " which is defined in Random

House Dictionary as "anything that purifies, " is at least not incon­ sistent with Voznesensky's use of scientific images, although its use here is original with Hollo. The chief weakness of Hollo's version is 260 that by altering the arrangement of lines he de-emphasizes "airport. "

The "O" preceding it requires at least secondary stress, further reducing the emphasis.

Both Smith and Marshall preserve the lexical context of each line but change the order of items in line 1. Both achieve a close rhyme with "-tort/port, " Smith duplicates Voznesensky's metrical pattern in the first seven syllables:

avtoportret moi, retorta

/ sj u * u kj * guardian of heavenly gates

Lines 3-4.

V: 3) Duraluminum glass panes glimmer, 4) As if they were X-ray pictures of the soul.

B: 3) Aluminum windows glimmer, 4) Like an ex-ray of the soul.

H: 3) Your windows in their aluminum frames 4) Are dusky x-rays of the soul!

Ko: 3) The duralumin windows glimmer 4) like an X-ray of the soul.

M: 3) The duraluminum windows vibrate 4) Exactly like a soul's X-ray.

Sm: 3) Your Duralumined plate glass darkly shines 4) Like an X-ray of the soul.

The rhyme in Russian contributes to the naturalness of the image, a naturalness not so obvious in the English versions. All the versions have an accurate lexical context, but none achieves a rhyme. 261

Marshall's final sounds can hardly be considered even near rhyme,

despite identical stressed diphthongs. Though secondary phonetic

(and tertiary phonemic) stress falls on both final syllables, the voice­

less stop [t] has such an effect on the preceding diphthong that the

possible rhyme is lost. At least the masculine endings of the Rus­

sian are preserved by Hollo and Smith.

Lines 5-7.

V: 5) How terrifying this is, when inside you the sky stands 6) In smouldering lines 7) Of unusual capital-cities

B: 5) How frightening when the sky stands in you 6) In the smouldering highways 7) of fantastic capitals!

H: 5) The terror, 6) of fiery runways & unknown capitals 7) in the dark sky--

Ko: 5) How terrible it is when the sky stands within you 6) in the glimmering airways 7) of extraordinary capitals!

M: 5) How terrible when heaven is trapped 6) In your glaze, 7) Incredible capitals' eroding airways!

Sm: 5) How terrifying when the sky in you 6) is shot right through with the smoldering tracer lines 7) Of far-off capitals! 2 62

Hollo fails to tie the image to the airport building itself, as

Voznesensky does. Marshall's "eroding" is ambiguous and seems to contribute only to the meter. His rhyme is effective, even though there are differences in stress on "glaze" and "ways."

Smith has no end rhyme, but there is some repetition of stressed vowels. The [ al ] is repeated four times, once in connection with [u]:

[M£n 5s skal in ju ] [i z Sat ra it 0ruj

There is metrical similarity if not phonetic resemblance between

"tracer lines" and "capitals."

Lines 8-10.

V: 8) Every t'wenty-four hours they fill you, like a sluice, 9) Starry fates 10) of stevedores, trollops.

B: 8) Each twenty-four hours you are filled like a sluice 9) with the starred fates 10) of longshoremen, sluts.

H: 8) your days and nights, forever sluicing back; 9) freightloads of stars, 10) what destinies.

Ko; 8) E v ery day they flood you like a sluice, 9) starry fates 10) of stevedores, of trollops. M: 8) E very tw enty-four hours you're flooded, like a sluice, 9) With starry fates of man-power, 10) Of dames let loose.

Sm: 8) Round the clock your sluice gates 9) admit the starred fates 10) of porters and prostitutes.

In the Russian poem there are four rhymes, all four much alike: "sutki" ("twenty-four hours"), "shluz" ("sluice"), "sudbi"

("fates"), and "shlukh" ("prostitutes"). The accuratelexical context of Bienstock displays instead of end rhyme alliteration with "sluice/ sluts. " With some of the directness of "shlukh, " the final word is a better equivalent than "trollops" or "dames let loose. "

Lacking either phonological or lexical resemblance to

Voznesensky's poem, Hollo's translation almost defies comparison.

Koten achieves only lexical resemblance.

Though his rhymes are less homogeneous than the Russian ones, Marshall does achieve four rhymes: "hours/ power" and

"sluice/loose. " "Man-power" for "stevedores" is more a generali­

zation than a distortion, but "dames let loose" is a weak translation both lexically and phonologically.

With neither the rhyme nor the stressed endings of the Rus­

sian, Smith's translation nevertheless reveals phonological patterns that create distinctive line endings. "Gates/fates " is an obvious 264 rhyme. "Prostitutes, " though a less scathing appellation than

"shlukh, " has positive phonological value. The word creates asso­ nance with "clock" in line 8 and alliteration with "porters" in line 10.

The final [ts] of "prostitutes" shows phonetic resemblance to the stressed rhymes "gates" and "fates."

Line s 11-14.

V: 11) In the bar, like angels, your alcoholics grow dim. 12) You speak to them. 13) Them, beaten down, you pick up. 14) You announce to them, "Arrival. "

B: 11) In the bar, like angels, your alcoholics fade. 12) You speak to them. 13) You raise them, the beaten, . 14) You announce to them "The Coming I "

H: 11) The sea of wings has left pale sediment of drunkards in your Bar, they're going dim, 12) Like angels, snuffing out. . . . Your voice will boom 13) .'ARRIVAL!. 14) in their ears .

Ko: 11) In the bar your alcoholics glimmer like angels. 12) you make speeches to them! 13) You raise aloft things pressed to the earth. 14) You announce "Arrivals'". 265

M: 11) In the bar, your alcoholics are snuffed out, angel­ like . 12) By you verbalized! 13) As castaways you reclaim them! 14) As "Arrivals" you proclaim them!

Sm: 11) Like angels in the bar your alcoholics dim; 12) Thou speakest with tongues to them. 13) Thou raisest them up who are downcast, 14) Thou who announcest to them at last: "Arrival! "

The Russian phonology creates humor with the coined word

"glogolish" and the intricate rhyme. The attenuated close rhyme em­ phasizes the difference in length between line 11 and 12. Lines 13 and

14 rhyme as a whole, signalling the end of the section. The first two words of lines 13 and 14, "ti ikh, " are parallel with "ti im" of line 12.

Bienstock preserves only the resemblance of initial line

structure. Without even end rhyme, the parallel structure of the last two lines indicates similarity only in intonation patterns.

Ignoring the initial pattern of line 12, Marshall successfully imitates the phonology of lines 13 and 14. The parallel syntactic

structure is augmented by close rhyme covering three words.

In Smith's translation lines 11 and 12 have a uniformity of

length absent from the Russian poem. There is end rhyme, but

t Smith's "dim/them" is neither so close nor so intricate as Voznesen­

sky's "alkogoliki/im glogolish. " In spite of the uniform beginnings 266 of lines 12-14 and the rhyme "cast/last, " these lines show a phono­ logical context that lacks both the humor and the extensive repetition of the Russian lines.

Lines 15-18.

V: 15 They wait for cavaliers, fates, suitcases, miracles. . . 16 Five Caravelles dazzingly set down from the sky! 17 Five night birds wearily let out their undercarriages. 18 Where is the sixth?

B: 15 Awating boyfriends, fates, suitcases, m iracles... 16 Five "caravelles" blindingly alight from the skies'. 17 Five night-birds languidly lower their chassis. 18 Where is the sixth?

H: 15 Waiting for lovers , heroes , suitcases , m iracles . . . 16 And here they come, five Caravelles in splendid descent from the stars 17 five tired streetwalkers of the night, unfolding their under carriages so wearily; 18 but where is the sixth--?

Ko: 15 Luggage, fortunes, admirers, miracles are awaited. . . 16 Five "Caravelles" blindingly land from the heavens! 17 Five nightbirds wearily lower their undercarriages. 18 Where is the sixth?

M: 15 They await cavaliers , fortunes , suitcases, surprises. . . 16 Five "Caravelles" blindingly descend from the skies! 17 Five night revellers tiredly release their landing g e a r . 18 Where has the sixth disappeared? 267

Sm: 15) Cavaliers , destinies, suitcases , miracles are awaited. . . 16) Five C a rave lies a re slated dazzlingly to land from the sky. 17) Five fly-by-night girls wearily lower their landing gear; 18) Where is the sixth?

Though Koten's lexical accuracy preserves the form of the

Russian lines, his version shows no phonological similarity. Hollo does not even preserve the form of the lines and in line 15 alters the structure of pairs that are both lexically and phonologically promi­ nent in the Russian, "cavaliers, fates, suitcases, miracles. "

"Splendid descent" has a metrical pattern like the Russian poem and the repetition of vowels and alliteration that is often to be found in

Voznesensky's poems. But the three successive stressed syllables in line 17 are not at all similar to Voznesensky's metrical patterns.

Marshall's aabb end rhyme is achieved only with an addition to line 18, "disappeared. " Affecting the lexical context only slightly, the extra word destroys the abbreviation of the Russian line. The rhyme in line 15, "surprises, " though not an exact equivalent for

"miracles, " preserves the kinds of pairs found in the Russian. Like

Hollo's, Marshall's successive stresses in line 17 contrast with the

Russian metrical pattern.

The secondary phonemic stresses in the beginning of Smith's line 17 create a metrical pattern different from Marshall's and more 268

like Voznesensky's.

Phonemic metrical

V: Pyat polunochnits ' ' ^ w * v * *s

M: Five night rev e llers ~ ~ ^ ^ ^ w

Sm: Five fly-by-night girls

Smith's phonemic features are established by his reading. 37 An in­ tonation pattern equally natural to English is / / f which yields a metrical pattern identical to the Russian.

Smith's pattern of primary and secondary stresses creates a subtle pattern of vowel repetition. In the representation below, vowels with primary stress are written above the orthographic letters.

Vowels with secondary stress appear in parentheses.

(a) ir £ u (ei) ir ei 15) Cavaliers, destinies, suitcases, miracles are awaited

ai (a) e ei a a ai 16) Five Caravelles are slated dazzlingly to land from the sky.

ai (ai)(si)(ar) ir ou a (ir) 17) Five fly by night girls wearily lower their landing gear;

£ I 18) Where is the sixth?

Woven into this pattern of vowel repetition is alliteration of [l]'s, underlined above when initial to a syllable. The phonological patterns

37 Antiworlds Record, Tape 1. 269 holding the lines together provide the kind of unity found in the Russian

poem .

Lines 19-22.

V: 19) Evidently she jumped that far--tramp, little stork, s t a r ! 20) Like electric cooking ranges cities dance under her. 21) Where does she soar, moan, frolic? 2.2) And like a cigarette burn in the fog?

H: 19) Perhaps she's nothing now-~a bird lost in the sky, a star. . . 20) cities w hirling below, 21) w here is she now, floating, groaning, gone out of her mind-- 22) a burning cigarette in the fog?

Ko: 19) Apparently jumping about to no good - trash, storkling, star!... 20) Cities dance about under it like electric flashes. 21) W here is it soaring, groaning, fooling about? 22) Is it burning like a cigarette in the fog?

M: 19) Clearly it's gone astray-- a tramp, a stork, a star! . . . 20) C ities like burning filaments beneath it dance. 21) W here is it ro arin g , groaning, frolicking? 22) Is that it-- a fag in the fog that's flickering? . . .

^^Mar shall's revised version contains an apparent error. His line 20 is "Cities beneath it like burning dance. " 270

Sm: 19) She must have gone too far-- the bitch, the little stork, the star. 20) Cities dance under her like electric grills. 21) Where does she hover now, circling around, moaning as though ill, 22) her cigarette glowing in the fog?

Hollo alters the lexical context and his text shows no phono­ logical resemblance to the Russian. Koten's alteration of the lexical context is notable only because of his usual accuracy. He uses "it" for "she" and says "Is it burning" instead of "Where is it burning. "

Bienstock's accurate lexical section is free of phonological resem ­ blance to the Russian text.

Smith has a pattern of rhyme different from regular aabb of the Russian. His internal rhyme in line 19 is obvious, "far/star, " as is the near rhyme "grills/ill. " Smith's reading points up the [au] 2a 3,2_* „ 3.2 repetition of "now, around" in line 21: /hAva nau, s^kliD ©raund/.

His reading also relates "fog" to "far" of line 19, both words having 3 2 the same initial consonant, vowel, and pitch contour; /£to:/ and 3 2 /frcg /•

Marshall does not unite lines 19 and 20 with near rhyme, but he does have a near rhyme in lines 21 and 22 "frolicking/flickering. "

He uses vowel repetition in these two lines, but the postvocalic r in

"roaring" makes the [ou] less like "groaning" than the spelling in- dicates. The consonance of line 22, "fag/fog, " is further 271

emphasized by the alliteration with "frolicking" and "flickering. "

These phonological traits are much like those of Voznesensky, but

"fag, " being World War I slang, takes away from the poem's con­ temporary quality so noticeable in Voznesensky's works.

Lanes 23-24.

V: 23 The forecast she doesn't understand. 24 The earth does not accept her.

B: 23 She doesn't understand the forecast. 24 Earth is not receiving her.

H: 23 She does not hear the forecasts any more. 24 The receivers on earth can no longer hear her mes sages.

Ko: 23 The ground isn't accepting it down. 24 It doesn't understand the weather forecast.

M: 23 Forecasts it doesn't understand. 24 The earth below won't let it land.

Sm: 23 It's the weather she doesn't understand; 24 The ground won't let her land.

The phonological parallelism of the Russian lines does not appear in any of the translations. Both Marshall and Smith rhyme

"stand/land, " but neither chooses to lengthen the rhyming syllables by repeating the auxilliary verb. A rhyme more like Voznesensky's would be

The forecasts she doesn't understand. The earth below doesn't let her land. 272

Phonemic transcription makes obvious the closeness of the five-

syllable rhyme, much like Voznesensky's intricate end rhymes:

[ dAznt Andctstsend ] [ dAz^Lt l£t h.3- IcBnd]

Lines 25-26. '

V: 25) Bad forecasts. And you in the anticipated storms, 26) Like partisans, you go into your vestibules.

H: 25) The forecasts are bad: awaiting the storm 26) You join the guerrillas in the great lobby.

Ko: 25) The fo recasts a re bad. And you, expecting a sto rm , 26) Go off into your waiting-room as people once w ent off to join the partisans.

M: 25) The forecasts are foul. And, the storm awaiting, 26) Int-o the lobby, like partisans, you're retreating.

Sm: 25) The forecast is bad. When a storm looms, 26) You retreat, as with partisans, into your waiting ro o m s .

Both Koten and Hollo deviate from the Russian. Koten adds to the lexical context, saying not that "you disappeared like partisans, " but "as people once went off to join the partisans. " Hollo deviates in fewer words, saying "you join the guerrillas. "

None of the translations has an effect like the repetition of

sounds in the middle of the Russian lines, but Smith and Marshall

produce end rhyme. Smith's rhyme is very close," looms" and

"rooms" being different only in initial consonants and phonemic 273 stress. Marshall's rhyme, which lacks the vowel repetition of the

Russian, has the weak syllables at the end.

Line s 27-30.

V: 27 Governments sleep in carefree pairs. 28 Quiet, like a druggist, the controller predict routes to them . 29 The powerful eye looks at other worlds. 30 Window cleaners water you, like a swarm of midges,

H: 27 Fast asleep the Governments lie, coupled like careless lovers. 28 Quietly, like a drugstore assistant the control tower assigns them their runways. 29 The powerful eye, staring away into other worlds. 30 You are only a fly here, the window cleaners slosh water on your head;

Ko: 27 Governments in devil-may-care poses doze away. 28 Quiet as a pharmacist the dispatcher points out their lanes to them. . . 29 om itted 30 om itted

M: 27 Governments up there nap in unconcerned pairs. 28 Chemist-quiet Traffic Control maps their routes in the a ir. 29 Onto another world looks out that mighty eye. 30 While window-cleaners climb you, midget-like.

Sm: 27 Our rulers snooze in carefree embrace 28 While the traffic controller, clam as a pharmacist, rero u tes them through the air. 29 One great eye peers into other worlds, 30 While with window cleaners like midges your other eyes water. 2 74

Each pair of the Russian lines is phonologically parallel.

Lines 27 and 28 rhyme at four different places, as do 29 and 30. The striking phonological structure diverts attention from the somewhat innocuous lexical context. That the poet considers the information inessential is evidenced by the frequent omission of one or more of these pairs. 3 9 A lack of similar structure in English versions gives undue prominence to the lexical context. Marshall's revision of lines

29 and 30, which create an English tongue-twister in order to achieve rhyme, evidently indicates his awareness of the need for a repetitive phonological structure.

Lines 31-34.

V: 31) Starry one who lands, crystal monster, 32) It is sweet, it is vexing, to be a son of the future, 33) Where there are neither idiots nor cake-like railway stations, 34) Only poets and airports.

H: 31) you dynamiter of stars, monster compounded of cry stals 32) O it is sweet and enraging to be a son of a future 33) without fools, or railway stations like wedding c a k e s -- 34) a future of poets and airports'.

K: 31) Landing s ta r, c ry stal m o n ster 32) It is sweet; it is vexing to be a son of the future,

39 Voices omits lines 29-30; Tape 1 omits all four. Antimin and Akhillesovo Serdtse delete lines 27-28. 275

33) Where there are no fools no wedding-cake stations - 34) Only poets and airports I

31) A stellar invader, a crystal monster-creature 32) Sweet, yet pitiful, to be a son of the future, 33) With no wedding-cake stations, no fools of any sort-- 34) But only poets and airports!

31) Crystal giant, parachuted from the stars, 32) It is sweet but sad to be the scion of a future that sports 33) Neither idiots nor wedding-cake railway stations-- 34) Only poets and airports!

Hollo's "dynamiter of stars" has no equivalent in the Russian, but his lines are otherwise quite similar lexically to the Russian text.

Neither his version nor Koten's shows phonological resemblance to

the Russian.

Voznesensky's lines display aabb rhyme and additional in­

ternal rhyme within each couplet. Because his line 30 repeats the

established pattern of double rhyme (in the middle and at the end of

each line), its brevity does not seem abrupt.

Smith's abcb rhyme makes use of the key word, "airports. "

Because his extra length in line 33 lacks the compensation of medial

rhyme, his literal translation of line 3.4 therefore seems too brief to

balance the preceding line.

Though Marshall, too, lacks the medial rhyme, he compen­

sates for the extra length of line 33 by using parallel lexical structures 276 in each part of the line. The balanced structure and the rhyme with

"airport" compare favorably with the Russian.

Lines 35-36.

V: 35 It groans in the glass aquarium 36 The sky, welded to the earth.

H: 35 Inside the aquarium glass universe the sky lies groaning, 36 welded tight to the earth.

Ko; 35 The sky welded to the 36 E arth , cools in the aquarium glass.

M: 35 In the glass aquarium groaned 36 The heavens, welded to the ground. 35 (revised) In the aquarium's glass groaned

Sm: 35 Groaning within its glass aquarium 36 The sky fits the earth like a drum.

Marshall's revision leaves two successive stressed syllables at the end of line 35, a device unlike the Russian. In fact, the former version is more like the extended rhyme of the Russian:

[ 0'kweriam ground] [ 'w eldid tu 58 graund ]

Smith's rhyme is more visual than oral because the last syllable of line 35 not only is unstressed but contains a schwa, a vowel occurring

so often in unstressed syllables that it has no usefulness as a rhyme in English with the stressed [a ] . The difference in metrical pattern further separates the two lines. 277

Lines 37-3 8 .

V: 37) Airport--of ozone and sun Accredited embassy!

B: 37) The airport--accredited embassy 38) Of ozone and sun!

H: 37) The airport: accredited Embassy of Ozone Sunshine!

Ko: 37) om itted 38) om itted

M: 37) The a irp o rt - - an E m b assy accred ited 38) For Ozone and Sunshine!

Sm: 37) Airport--accredited embassy 38) Of ozone and sun!

The analogy between the airport and the embassy is strength­ ened in the Russian by alliteration and rhyme. The literal English translations chosen by all of the English poets fail to demonstrate phonological likeness to the Russian poem.

Lines 39-40.

V: 39) A hundred generations did not dare to concern them­ selves with such— 40) The conquest of supporting structures.

B: 39) One hundred generations of tradition dared not break down solid walls, 40) Here, at the airport, insubstantial construction.

Ho: 39) A hundred generations did not dare to tackle this: 40) The conquest of gravity, supports. 278

Ko: 39) A hundred generations did not dare touch this - 40) To get the better of these non-existent constructions.

M: 39) A hundred generations dared not tackle it-- 40) The subjugation of essential construction. 40) (revised) The subjugation by single-span constructions.

Sm: 39) A hundred generations have not dared what you have won-- 40) The discarding of supports.

The lexical context of these lines is a problem apart from the phonological context. Hollo adds "gravity, " which helps to explain the kind of victory the airport represents. Koten over compensates by saying "get the better of" not "massive supports, " but "non­ existent constructions. " In the Russian poem it is the apparently non­ existent constructions which "get the better" of whatever force had formerly compelled builders to use obvious supports.

Smith's "discarding of supports" is less inaccurate than it is unclear. Marshall's first version seems clearer than the revised one because in the latter it is not clear what is being subjugated. Fur­ thermore, "single-span supports" seem more stolid than non­ existent.

In these two lines none of the English versions imitates

Voznesensky's rhyme or parallel construction, though Marshall's 2 79

"generation/subjugation" is a near rhyme with each line. Smith, however, has a rhyme with line 38. His lines 37 and 38 are to­ gether equal in length to line 39. For all four lines the effect is that of two long lines followed by an abbreviated one, a technique which does emphasize the final line, "discarding of supports. "

Lines 41-44.

V: 41 In place of stone idols, 42 A glass of dark blue gets cool -- without the glass, 43 By the side of cash-box castles 44 It is exactly gas, antimaterial!

B: 41 Instead of stone idols 42 A glass of blue is cooling-- without a glass. 43 Next to attic ticket-booths 44 Like ga s , it is anti-matter!

H: 41 Instead of idols, hewn in stone 42 a frozen glass of blue-- only, no glass. 43 Up there, by the ceiling, matter has ceased: 44 O edifice of gas!

Ko: 41 In place of stone images 42 A glass of blue cools - without a glass. 43 omitted 44 omitted

M: 41) Instead of stone statues and friezes, 42) G la ssle ss-- a glass of blue freezes.. 43) Alongside of attic booking-offices-- 44) a gas like antimaterial edifice! 43) (revised) Alongside of swanky booking-offices 280

Sm: 41) In place of great stone idols 4-2) A glass of cool blue without the glass, 43) Beside the baroque fortresses of savings banks 44) As anti-material as g a s.

In lines 41 and 42 Hollo, Koten and Smith preserve

Voznesensky's "surprise ending," but Marshall sacrifices it to rhyme.

However, Marshall even preserves the st repetition of the Russian and has almost identical metrical patterns in each line. In the second pair of lines Marshall subordinates the image "gas. "

Smith's rhyme scheme covers lines 41 through 44. He strongly emphasizes the same lexical concepts that Voznesensky does, though with a different poetic structure. Smith makes the two com­ parisons clear and emphasizes the antimaterial quality of the airport by setting apart and rhyming with each other the two phrases "without the glas s" and "as gas . "

Lines 45-47.

V: 45) Brooklyn is an idiot, sturdy devil. 46) The monument of the era is 47) The airport.

B: 45) Brooklyn--a fool, a hard-stone devil. 46) The era's monument 47) The airport.

H: 45) Brooklyn— stony, idiot world! 46) The true monument of these times--this airport. 281

Ko: 45) Brooklyn - fool, unyielding devil. 46) The memorial to the era is - 47) The Airport.

M: 45) That stubborn devil Brooklyn's a crackpot. 46) The monument of the era's 47) A n'airport.

Sm: 45) Brooklyn Bridge, rearing its idiot stone, cannot consort 46) With this monument of the era, 47) The airport.

Only Smith says Brooklyn Bridge instead of Brooklyn, a nec­ essary addition for clarity. Without that addition or some kind of footnote, the reference is meaningless, and even with the added clue a reader needs to know about Mayakovsky's poem to get the signifi­ cance of the allusion. Otherwise Voznesensky seems to be uncom­ plimentary toward Brooklyn. The only English version that has an explanatory note is Smith's »

Smith's last section is particularly successful in its em­ phasis of the ideas stressed by Voznesensky. The phonological pat­ tern of Smith's lines is shown in the arrangement below. The rhyme with "airport, " being the most significant, is labelled X.

Long line "sun" A Long line "w on" A Segment "supports " X Long line "glas s" B Long line "gas " B Long line "consort" X Segment "airport" X 2 82

The final segment, "airport, " functions in two ways: as a comple­ tion of the long line to rhyme with "consort" and at the same time as a segment to rhyme with "supports. "

General Structure of the Poems in English. Marshall achieves a degree of correspondence to the phonology of the Russian poem. There are scattered examples of intricate rhyme and a par­ allel structure of lines, but none of the examples are as complex as the corresponding Russian ones. Voznesensky's rhyme within pairs of lines is noticeably missing from Marshall's English version.

There are times when Marshall's phonological effects seem labored. The alliteration of "a fag in the fog that's flickering" is achieved at the sacrifice of current conversational language. The rhyme "peeps/weeps" is a result of unnatural word order: "that mighty eye into other worlds peeps. "

Occasionally there is a vagueness in contrast with Russian text. "Dames let loose" is less specific than the Russian "shlukh. "

The architectural triumph over gravity lauded by Voznesensky is not clearly set forth in "the subjugation by single-span constructions. "

The strength of this translation is in its preservation of many of the rhymes, especially those with "airport." Moreover the general structure of the Russian poem is delineated by Marshall's pairs of phonologically parallel lines. 283

By means of rhyme and alliteration Smith groups lines together to correspond to Voznesensky's groups. Though Smith's rhymes are less intricate and less regular than Voznesensky's they function to organize the lexical context like the Russian.

The following section provides an example;

Round the clock your sluice gates admit the starred fates of porters and prostitutes.

Though the pattern of rhyme is different from the Russian, the sounds function no less effectively to unite these lines and sep­ arate them from those that precede and folLow.

Smith's phonology often preserves rhetorical emphasis on the same words that are emphasized in the Russian. For instance, the comparison of the airport to "antimaterial gas" is strengthened by using "gas" as a rhyme in both English and Russian texts.

Most important is Smith's maintenance of "airports" as the cen­ tral word both lexically and phonologically.

VII. "ANTIWORLDS"

Voznesensky became intrigued with the concept of anti­ matter, a speculative concept of physicists. Under certain con­ ditions scientists have observed what appears to be a mirror image of some subatomic particles. The prefix "anti-" indicates not

"forcefully opposing" but "situated opposite," like a reflection.

Zhivyot u nas sosyed bukashkin, V kalsonakh tsvyeta promokashki.

No, kak vozdushniye shari, Nad nyim goryat A n tim iri!

I v nikh magicheski, kak dyemon, Vselenoi pravit, vozlezhit Antibukashkin, akadyemik, I shupayet LioLLobrigid.

Da zdravstvuyut Antimiri! Fantasti--posredi muri. Byez glupikh nye bilo bi umnikh, Oazisov--byez Karakumov.

Nyet zhenshin-- yest antimushini. V Lesakh revut antimashini. Yest sol zemli, Yest'sor zemli. No sokh.net s okol byez zm ei.

Lublu ya kritikov moikh, Na sheye odnovo iz nyikh, Blagoukhaha i go la, Siyayet anti golova!

Ya splu s okoshkami otkritimi, A gdye-to svishet zvezdopad, I nyeboskrobi stalaktitami Na brukhe gLobusa visyat.

I podo mnoi vniz goLovoi. Vonzivshis vilkoi.v shar zemnoi, Bespyechni, mili motilok, Zhivyosh ti, moi antimi rok! 285

Zachem sredi nochnoi pori Vstrechayutsa antimiri?

Zachem onyi vdvoyom sidyat I v televizori gladyat?

Im nye ponyat i pari fraz, Ikh pyervi raz--posledni raz!

. . . Znakomi Lektor mnye vchera Skazal: Antimiri? Mura!

Ya splu, vorochayus sprosonok, Navyerno prav nauchni khm ir...

Moi kot, kak radiopriyomnik Zelonim glazom lovit mir.

* Lexical Context of the Russian Poem

Lines 1-2.

Lives by us neighbor Bukashkin, 1) Zhivyot u nas sosyed Bukashkin,

In under pants (the) color of a blotter 2) V kalsonakh tsvyeta promokashki

The first line introduces a personage who appears in two other poems by Voznesensky. The clerk Bukashkin is men­ tioned in "Hunting a Hare" and "The Nose." According to the notes 40 included in Antiworlds,

Bukashkin is the poet's image of the archetypal down­ trodden clerk--a kind of Soviet Walter Mitty whose humdrum and somewhat haunted existence is relieved

^ N o te s, p. 278. 286

only by fantasies and excursions of the kind de­ scribed in these poems. The name . . . is comi­ cally in tune with his personality. It is derived from bukashka, meaning a small insect. . . .

There is an alternate line 2, which begins "Bukhgalter. "

"Bukhgalter" means clerk, bookkeeper. Both versions indicate

that Bukashkin is as dull and uninteristing as a blotter. Russian blotters are usually greyish-white, neither bright nor interesting.

Lines 3-4.

But like ballons 3) No kak vozdushniye shari

Over him burn antiworlds. 4) Nad nyim goryat antimiri.

The word by word translation of "vozdushniye shari" is

"airy spheres," but together they constitute the Russian word for balloons. The verb choice is significant. These balloons are not lazy

or lifeless. Instead they are like flames, straining to rise. The.

kinesthetic image is clear, and there is an urgency about these anti-

worlds that are as lively as flames over the head of Bukashkin.

Lines 5-8.

And in them magic (adj.) like demon 5) I v nyikh magicheski kak dyemon

universe (d. obj.) rules reclines 6) Vselyenoi pravit, vozlezhit Antibukashkin academician 7) Antibukashkin, akadyemik

And feels, touches Lollobrigidas 8) I shupayet Lollobrigid

Line 8 also has an alternate version: "V obyatiyakh

Lollobrigid," meaning "in the arms" or "in the embrace" of

Lollobrigidas. Because the name is plural, the poet here means a type of woman rather than just the famous Italian actress, a wom­ an as exciting as Bukashkin is dull.

Lines 9-10.

Long live Antiworlds. 9) Da zdravstvuyut Antimiri!

Visionaries in the middle of boring things. 10) Fantasti -- posredi muri.

The verb "zdravstvovat" has many uses in Russian. It means "be well, prosper, thrive." In the imperative, "zdravstvuite, it is a greeting, like "hello" in English, and is widely used. There is a poetic meaning listed in the dictionary: "Hail! ". The combin­ ation "da zdravstvuyut" means "long live."

The word "muri" is the plural of the slang word "mura, " which means "something boring and meaningless. This line not only hails antiworlds as visionaries amidst "muri, " but also begins the series of contrasts that make up these eight lines. 288

Lines 11-12.

without stupid (ones) there would be no smart (ones) 11) Byez glupikh nye bilo bi umnikh,

(no) oases without Karakums 12) Oazisov -- byez Karakumov.

The adjective "umni" means not merely "clever," but

also "intelligent, sensible." The plural forms of the adjectives

are used to mean "stupid ones" and "clever ones." Karakum is a

desert, the "Black Sands of Central Asia.

These two lines discuss the significance of contrast in

making identification. It is not that smart people could not exist

if there were no stupid ones, but the smart ones would not be rec­

ognized as outstanding without the contrast provided by dull ones.

Lines 13-14.

(there are) no women thereare antimen 13) Nyet zhenshin -- yest antimushini.

In forests roar antim achines 14) V lesakh revut antimashini

These lines joke about labels. There is a hint that numbers of nouns could be eliminated from the vocabulary by using the prefix "anti" with the words that have the opposite mean­ ing.

42Ibid. 289

Lines 15-16.

There is salt of the^earth There is litter of the earth 15) Yest soL zemli. Yest sor zemli

But is parched falcon without snakes 16) No sokhnet sokol byez zmei

In these lines there is the idea that objects depend on

their opposites not only for recognition but for their very existence.

The high-fLying hawk preys on the lowly snake; therefore the hawk

cannot exist without the snake. The alternative line 16 has the same

theme:

But is parched sun without (the) earth 16) No sokhnet solntse byez zemli

The preceding eight lines have explored, half-jokingly half-seriously, the importance of opposites. For recognition, for

labels, for existence itself, opposites are essential.

Lines 17-20.

love I critics my 17) Lublu ya kritikov moikh.

On (the) neck of one of them 18) Na sheye odnovo xz nyikh,

fragrant and naked 19) Blagoukhana i goLa

gleams antihead 20) Siyayet antigolova. 290

For the first time the pronoun "I" is used, and an attitude is expressed. The previous sentences, though contain­ ing judgments, have been cast as objective observations, except for Line 9, "Long Live antiworLds." But onLy the first line of this group uses "I. " The other three are made to sound Like pure

observation. The humor is obvious.

Again the choice of verb is noteworthy. "Siyayet" means "shines, beams." The visual image is heightened by the

exactness of the verb. The antihead does not just exist; it shines.

Lines 21-22.

I sleep with windows open 21) Ya splu s okoshkami otkritim i

And somewhere whistles, sings falling star 22) A gdye-to svishet zvyezdopad

The simple statement of line 21 introduces the highly complex subject of these eight Lines., The poet uses the verb

"1 sleep" when he couLd as easily have said "I Live," "zhivu, " without changing stress patterns or stressed vowel. The verb

"sleep" suggests the state of the speaker when the thoughts which follow this line occur to him. Repose is the time for dreams, in

sleep or in imagination. This condition is central to the remainder of the poem. From this point the speaker reacts subjectively to the idea of antiw orlds. 291

"Open windows" provides the link between the finite person and the infinite universe. The windows invite the speculation of the heavens that is prominent in succeeding Lines.

Lines 23-24,

and skyscrapers Like stalactites 23) I nyeboskrobi stalaktitami

on (the) paunch of the gLobe hang, are suspended 24) Na brukhe globusa visyat

Again things are considered from opposing points of view.

To see skyscrapers as stalactites, hanging down instead of pro­ jecting up, presupposes a point of view other than the base of the skyscraper. The comparison is obvious onLy if the earth is viewed as a whoLe.

Lines 25-26.

and below me upside down 25) I podo mnoi vnyiz goiovoi

having pierced Like a fork in ball of the earth 26) Vonzivshis viLkoi v shar zemnoi

carefree dear moth, butterfly 27) Byespyechni, mili motilok Live you my little antiworld 28) Zhivyosh ti moi a n tim iro k

The image of the fork stuck in the earth is difficult to reconcile with a moth unless the quivering of the fork, newly thrust into the earth, is Like the hovering of a moth. Still, there is a dif­ ference between the quivering of the object that has struck the earth and the quivering of a carefree moth.

Lines 29-34.

why in the middLe of night times 29) Zachem sredi nochnoi pori

meet one another antiworlds 30) V strech ay u tsa an tim iri

why they two together sit 31) Z achem onyi vdayom sidyat

and at (the) television Look 32) I v televizori gladyat?

to them (is) not understood even (a) pair of phrases 33) Im nye ponyat i p ari fraz

their first time (is) (the) last time. 34) Ikh pyervi raz poslyedni raz.

The mutual inscrutability of antiworlds and their environ­ ment is suggested by the observation that they do not understand anything they see or hear. Their transience, perhaps implied by the comparison to a moth, is stated in line 34. 293

These six Lines, describing the habits of antiworlds, are

different from the joking about Bukashkin and the critics and also different from the highLy serious personaL reaction found in lines

21-28 and again in the Last four Lines of the poem . The p e rs o n i­ fication of antiw orlds is not reaLLy in harm ony with their r e p r e ­

sentation in other parts of the poem. Perhaps it can be explained by calling it part of the mind-wandering of the speaker as he "sleeps with windows opened."

Lines 35-36.

weLL known Lecturer to me yesterday 35) Znakomi Lyektor mnye vchera

said antiworlds boring, meaningless things 36) SkazaL Antimiri? Mura!

Again is found the slang word "m ura," as in line 10,

"Fantasti posredi muri." This time instead of contrasting anti- worlds-visionaries with "m uri," the speaker equates the two in a quotation from a Lecturer, a " weLl-known" lecturer.

Lines 37-40.

I sleep (I) toss & turn half-awake 37)Ya splu, vorochayus sprosonok

probably (is) right scientific bore 38) N av y ern o ,. p rav nauchni k h m ir 294

my cat Like radio receiving set, wireless 39) Moi kot, kak radiopriyomnik

(with) green eye nets, catches (the), world 40) Zelyonim glazom lovit mir.

Line 37 echoes Line 21, "I sleep with windows opened."

Once more the speaker sets the scene for his speculative thought.

The first line with "I sleep" introduced the broad scope of where and how antiworlds exist. Line 37 suggests the personal unrest of the speaker, the disquietude produced in him by his thoughts.

The scientific bore is the "weLl known Lecturer" of line

35. PartLy because the speaker quotes the Lecturer's use of slang

("mura") and partly because the speaker calls the Lecturer a "bore," the speaker seems most unwiLling to accept the lecturer's judgment.

There is an alternate line 38:

in cells of city (adj.) apartments 38) B yacheikakh gorodskikh kvartir.

This description of the confinement of a city apartment suggests again the speaker's restLes sness, his dissatisfaction, as if he finds the limits of his knowledge as binding and as uncomfortable as the lim its of his physical quarter s.

In the final line there is again the suggestion that the speaker senses that things are happening which he cannot perceive.

v His cat, who cannot communicate, perceives the world which the speaker only divines. 295

Summary of the Lexical Context. This poem, to a degree fragmented lexically, could be said to be a stream of consciousness.

The thoughts can be summarized as follows:

1) Bukashlcin, a dull clerk, has an exciting anti­ world, his antiself.

2) Antiworlds are good; contrasts serve import­ ant functions.

3) My critics are the opposite of smart.

4) When I am in bed, I think about the opposite side of my world, where my own antiself must be.

5) Antiworlds are elusive and inscrutable.

6) A lecturer said antiworlds are meaningless.

7) I am not complacent in my present condition; my cat knows things that to me are only hauntingly imaginative.

It is also possible to consider this poem in two parts, equal parts if only the forty lines read on Antiworlds Record are taken as the text. ^ In the first twenty lines the speaker seems to be far away personally from his discussion of antiworlds. He is describing their effects from a distance. In the last twenty lines he describes his personal reaction to antiworlds, their disturbing effect on him.

^T h e foregoing discussion is based on the text of Antiworlds R ecord. 296

Phonological Context of the Rus sian Poem

Lines 1 -2.

1) Zhivyot u nas sosyed Bukashkin, 2) V kalsonakh tsvyeta promokashki

The most salient feature of the phonological structure of the first two lines is the regularity of the meter, obvious in both versions of line 2 because the stress pattern of line 2 is the same both with Bulchgalter and V kalsonakh, Emphasizing the regularity of the stress patterns is the repetition of the sound [je] in a stressed position in the middle of both lines. Voznesensky's oral reading gives the vowel a special emphasis because of his pauses before the last word in each of these lines, but there is nothing in the syntactic structure to indicate these pauses. Still, the pauses do not seem artificial in the reading.

The plodding effect of these two lines with highly regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables is consistent with the image of the clerk, himself plodding and unimaginative. Even the imperfect rhyme, "ashkin/ashki, " is consistent with the im­ perfect man. Lines 3-4.

3) No, kak vozdushniye shari, 4) Nad nyim goryat Antimiri!

Lines 3 and 4, with closer rhyme, show variety in the stress patterns. The extra unstressed syllables in line 3, with the deletion of one metrical stress, "No kak vozdushniye shari, " and the inversion of the third foot in line 4, "antimiri, " make the "anti-image" much more interesting than the actual image. Furthermore, the strain on the rhythm that is caused by the inversion is consistent with the kinesthetic implication of the verb "goryat, " ,rburn. " The inversion which causes the strain is appropriately created by the prefix "anti, " which introduces the unifying thought of the poem.

Lines 5 -8 .

5) I v nikh magicheski, kak dyemon, 6) vselenoi pravit, vozlezhit 7) Antibukashkin, akadyemik, 8) I shupayet Lollobrigid.

These four lines, which describe Antibukashkin, constitute one of the three instances in the poem of a rhyme scheme worked out in four lines rather than in pairs of lines. The rhymes are all near rhymes: ['djeman, 'dj emik]; [le ' 3 it, b r i'd 3 it]. The meter is ir­ regular, and no two lines are alike even in the succession of stressed 298

and u n stressed syLLabLes.

5) v * u r wv \ J * \ J bj w * w t u w u >

7^ * \ j \ j * \j * v * kj

g ^ v/ W / V u s

It should be noted that, like line 2, both versions of line 8, [i Sup aet] and [v ab*jatiax], produce the same metrical pattern, /*"*V.

The complexity of the meter is consistent with the lexical context. There is nothing simple or plodding about Antibukashkin.

Lines 9-10.

9) Da zdravstvuyut Antimiri! 10) Fantasti--posredi muri.

These two lines are very close phonologically. Not only do they have end rhyme, but there is repetition in line 10 of the vowels in line 9, and the Last two syllables of each tine are separated from the preceding syllables by /+/, a condition which strengthens the near rhyme. The poet^s reading heightens the similarities of the endings in these two Lines by using the same pattern of pitch and stress for both final structures:

3 2, mi ri

3 2 m u ri

Furthermore, the second syllables in both Lines are much alike. 299

The [v] in "zdravstvuyut, " because it precedes two consonants, is hardly perceptible. Both syllables sound like [st] , and both are

stre s s e d .

Lines 11-12.

11) Byez glupikh nye bilo bi umnikh, 12) Oazis ov--byez Karakumov.

These lines are phonetically bound together obviously by the near rhyme at the end of each line and less obviously by the stressedfje] in the middle of each line. The pattern of stressed vowels in the two lines is

[u je u] [a je u]

Lines 13-14.

13) Nyet zhenshin--yest antimushini. 14) V lesakh revut antimashini.

The intricate rhyme of these lines, five-syllable words with only one sound not corresponding, and that one an unstressed vowel, offsets the separation of the lines created by the difference in the meter. The pattern of metrical stresses does not show significant differences between the lines.

13) 14) u * w , , V, , 300

It would seem that the only difference is in the fourth syllable, but the patterns of juncture and cLause terminals make the two lines quite different from each other:

13) <* + * u — y

The very close end rhymes form the only strong phonological ties.

Lines 15-16,

15) Yest sol zemli, Yest sor zemli. 16) No sokhnet sokol byez zmei.

Once more the metrical stresses seem similar, but junctures and clause terminals create disparity between the two lin es.

15) u + * + v — y w + * + v/ a —y

16) u + + —y -

It should be noted that both versions of line 16 have identical struc­ ture of stress and juncture. The phonemic similarity of many of the variant lines in Voznesensky’s poetry must indicate the im por­ tance to him of the phonological features of his poems.

Lines 17-Z0.

17) Lublu ya kritikov moikh. 18) Na sheye odnovo iz nyikh, 19) Blagoukhana i gola, ZO) Siyayet anti golova! 301

The end rhymes [njix] and [mavix]are not unusual, but the rhyme [gaHa] and [gela'va] is most interesting. In spite of the extra unstressed syllable in Mgolova, " the rhyme seems very close, undoubtedly because of the alliteration and because of the final stressed vowels.

The rhymes in lines 19 and 20 are strengthened by the repetition of [an] in a stressed position in the middle of each line.

The result is the kind of vowel and consonant repetition that is typical of Voznesensky. The repetition is not exact, but it is strik­ ing:

19) [ *xana i g a 'la ]

20) ['anti^gglaVa ]

The shifting positions of [g]and[l], accompanied by the shift of unstressed vowels, create the inexact but intricate repetition of sounds that is found in much of Voznesensky's poetry.

Lines 21-24.

21) Ya spLu s okoshkam i otkritim i, 22) A gdye-to svishet zvezdopad, 23) I nyeboskrobi stalaktitami 24) Na brukhe globusa visyat.

‘'Okoshkami" is the diminutive form for "window, " and though the diminutive does not detract from the lexical context, it does add to the phonological, making possible the partial repetition 302

of "otkritami. " The alliteration, however, is with "splu" and "s" because there is no / + / after "s."

The rhyme of lines 22 and 24 is closer than the spelling indicates because of the voiceless final [d] in "zvezdopad.n There are many similarities between lines 21 and 23. The [s]'s and'[kj's are prominent in both lines, and the medial stressed [o]is present in both lines. The final vowels in line 21, though close both acoustic­ ally and physiologically with those in line 23, are not identical, but the consonant repetition makes the rnyme seem perfect:

21) _ "i- tim i] 23) . *i t a m i ]

Lines 25-26.

25) I podo mnoi vniz golovoi, 26) Vonzivshix vilkoi v shar zemnoi,

There are two striking features in these lines: the inter­ nal rhyme in line 25, and the repetition of [v]. Both of these features seem incidental, that is, not used to establish or strengthen lexical relationship or to establish metrical structure.

Lines 27-28,

27) Bespyechni, mili motilok, 28) Zhivyosh ti, moi antimorok! 303

The alliteration with [m] strengthens the rhyme by creat­ ing similarities between the last five syllables in each line instead of just the final syllable. The transposition of consonants occurs also:

27) [m - t - lok] 28) [t - m - rok]

Lines 29-30.

29) Zachem sredi nochnoi pori 30) V strechayutsa a n tim iri?

The /+/ before the final two syllables in each line makes the end rhyme closer than is indicated by the different vowels in the second to last syllables.

Lines 31-32.

31) Z achem onyi vdvoyom sidyat 32) I v televizori gladyat?

The metrical pattern is like that of the preceding two lines in that the first is highly regular, and the second one has a different metrical pattern, but ends in a close rhyme with the preceding line.

Because the pretonic jra in Russian is pronounced [i], the rhyme is closer than the spelling indicates. Lines 33-34-.

33) Im nye ponyat i pari fraz. 34) Ikh pyervi raz--posLedni raz!

The striking feature of these lines is the repetition of [p]

and the typical technique of Voznesensky in line 34 of "repetition with

a difference." In the first part of the line the stressed syllable has

the consonant [p] and the vowel [je]. In the second part, the[p]is

repeated in the unstressed syllable and the [je] in the stressed. The

exact repetition of [ras ] completes the pattern.

Lines 35-36.

35) . , . Znakomi lektor mnye vchera 36) Skazal: A ntim iri? M ura!

Voznesensky's reading of these two lines emphasizes the

consonance in "miri-mura" and obscures the end ryme "vchera/mura.

There is no pause at all after "vchera" and nothing in the pitch or

rate pattern to indicate the end of a line. Instead, there is a pause after "skazaL." The effect of this technique is to make the statement

most emphatic: "antimiri-mura. "

Lines 37-40.

37) Ya splu, vorochayus sprosonok 38) Navyerno prav nauchni khmir. . . 39) Moi kot, kak radiopriyom nik 40) Zelonim glazom lovit mir. 305

The metrical pattern of these lines, 37-40, is reminiscent

of the group of lines 29-34, which describe the habits of antiworLds.

In lines 29-34, the first line of each coupLet is metrically regular, iambic quatrameter, and the second line irregular. In the last four

lines of the poem, the pattern is reversed. There is a finality about the pattern of these last four lines: irregular, regular, irregular,

regular, ending with a stressed monosylLabic word.

Summary of the Phonological Context. In many of

Voznesensky's poems the phonoLogical features combine to create a unified structure of sound patterns, a structure that seems to comple­ ment and support the lexical context and at the same time have an existence of its own. The unified sound pattern, prominent in poems

tike "Autumn in Sigulda, " is not evident in "Antiworlds." Neverthe­ less, there are general and specific .contributions of the phonology that merit discussion.

Paramount is the play on words, especially "antimiri," itself a word coined by the poet. The prefix "anti-" is used to

coin other words, like "antigolova"("antihead"). Intricate rhyme is flourished with the Russian equivalents of "antimen" and "anti­

machines": [ 4antimu'Sint- / ^ntima'Sini-]. 306

There is consonance with the second part of "antimiri," twice achieved with the slang word "mura, " designating something boring and meaningless. Once "muri," the plural of "mura," is used as end rhyme with "antimiri." On one occasion "mura," rhyming with "vchera" in the preceding line, is used immediately following the title word; "antimiri--mura. "

There are isolated examples of phonological similarity contributing to the aptness of a comparison. The blotter more perfectly exemplifies Bukashkin's dullness because of the sounds in the Russian word, "promokashki." "Moth" and "little antiworld" are more easily compared because of the Russian phonology:

"motiLok, antimirok. "

In one sense the phonological context as a whole could be said to complement the lexical structure as a whole. Both are fragmented, loosely structured. The stream-of-consciousness pattern of the lexical context has its counterpart in the lack of unity of the general phonological pattern.

The English Translations

The translations to be discussed are by Hollo, Koten,

Marshall, Reavey, and Wilbur, abbreviated H , Ko, M , R, and W.

Translated lines corresponding to those omitted in the Russian 307

text here considered are Likewise omitted in the section below.

Lines 1 -Z.

V• 1) Lives by us neighbor Bukashkin a. in underpants the color of a blotter Z) b. bookkeeper

H: 1) The bookkeeper Bukashkin is our neighbor, Z) his face the coLor of bLotting-pads.

Ko: 1) Next to us Lives a neighbor by the name of Bukashkin Z) In under drawers the color of bLotting paper,

M: 1) A neighbor we have, Bukashkin by name, Z) A bookkeeper Like blotting paper curled,

R: 1) In our house Lives Bukashkin, a neighbor Z) a book-keeper, the mat hue of bLotting paper.

W: 1) The cLerk Bukashkin is our neighbor. Z) His face is gray as blotting paper.

Voznesensky's Lines are quite regular in meter and are closely tied by the repetition of meter and end rhyme. Hollo pro­ duces neither rhyme, similarity of line Length, nor meter. The phonological traits neither hold the Lines together nor harmonize with the Lexical context, a description of a monotonous person.

Koten has many extra unstressed syllables, some caused by his unnecessary addition, "by the name of." Neither Koten nor

Hollo preserves the pattern of the printed Line in Russian. 308

Though Marshall's lines are not iambic, there is regularity in the stress patterns. Line 1 is divided in half by / —>1 after "have," and each half has the pattern In line 2 there is repetition of stress pattern, though not so exact as that in line 1: f / m

There is no end rhyme in these lines, but the rhyme scheme is worked out in the first four lines,

Wilbur's meter is exactly like the Russian, and he uses the same kind of near rhyme: "neighbor, paper." His only lexical additions are "gray" and ."face," neither of which changes the lexical content of Voznesensky's lines with alternate b. Both words create marked assonance with the[ei]*s.

Reavey's rhymed couplets are unique in his translation.

No other lines have end rhyme. The anapestic meter of line 1 is not sustained elsewhere.

L ines 3 -4 .

V: 3) But like balloons 4) Over him burn Antiworlds!

H: 3) But I can see, 4) Burning above him like baLloons - his anti-worlds!

Ko: 3) But over his head 4) Like balloons Antiworlds burn! 309

M: 3) But right above him, all aflame, 4) Like air-filled balloons, float Anti-worlds !

R: 3) but above him antiworlds. 4) glow like balloons !

W: 3) But like balloons of blue or red, 4) Bright AntiworLds float over his head!

Hollo changes the pattern of the lines and has no regular meter and no rhyme. He does have alliteration with the b's in "but, n

"burning, " "balloons." There is the same kind of alliteration in the

Russian at the beginnig of each Line, tbut the alliteration is almost un­ noticed because the Russian words, "no" and "nad" are both unstressed, and there are no other initial n’s. In Hollo's line 2 "burning" is stressed, making the aLliteration prominent,

Koten has neither rhyme nor reguLar meter, but he does space Line 4 Like the Russian, placing "antiworlds" on another line.

His alliteration is more prominent because of the marked assonance in "worlds" and "burn."

Marshall alliterates f and fl in "aflame," "filled,"

"fLoat, " and manages an abab rhyme scheme in lines 1-4. But he adds "curled" in line 2 to rhyme with "worlds," and so violates the lexical context. "Curled blotting paper" is unheard of, and the pic­ ture conjured up by these words is less Like Voznesensky's Bukashkin 310

than is ordinary blotting paper. There is less distortion of lexical meaning in "aflame, " but there is still a difference between "Anti- worlds burn" and "Antiworlds all aflame. "

Wilbur achieves a regular meter in line 3, much like

Voznesensky's, and regular end rhyme. The stress deviations in

Wilbur's line 4, "Bright Antiworlds float over his head," are not unlike those of the Russian, and the first deviation is made with

"Antiworlds." Wilbur's avoidance of "burn" relieves excessive alliteration, but "Bright red and blue balloons float" is different lexically from "balloons burn." However, Wilbur achieves his pho­ nological similarities to the Russian poem without a strain on the lexical context of the English like that produced by M arshall's

"curled. "

All of the translators use the word "balloons. " Hollo and

Koten add nothing to the description of the balloons. Marshall says

"air-filled, " and Wilbur adds the adjectives "bright, " "blue, " and

"red. " Koten gives the exact translation of the verb "burn, " and

Hollo says "burning" and "trembling." His use of "trembling" ne­ gates the concept of restrained power that can be suggested by

"burn. " The balloons "trembling" seem delicate and ephemeral.

Marshall, like Wilbur, says the balloons "float, " but Marshall adds

"all aflame" to his description of the balloons. "Float, " though not specifically inaccurate, lacks the exactness and energy of "burn. 1

Hollo also adds "I can see, " using the personal pronoun much sooner than Voznesensky does and thus changing slightly the point of-view.

Lines 5-8.

V: And in them magical like (a) demon Universe rules, reclines, Antibukashkin, academician, a. In (the) arms of Lollobrigidas. b. And embraces

Hi T rem bling under the magical reign of Anti-Bukashkin, demon, immortal, sleeping his nights between Lollobrigida breasts,

Ko: And in them, ruling the Universe, Magical like a demon, reclines Antibukashkin, Academician, Running his hands over Lollobrigidas.

M: And in them, a demonic-like magician, Lies Anti-Bukashkin, world leader And academician, there he .pinches Lollobrigida.

R: But governing the universe in them, like a demon-magician, reclines Antibukashkin, academician, his hands pawing Lollabrigidas.

W: On them reposes , prestidigitous , Ruling the cosmos, a demon-magician, Anti-Bukashkin the Academician, Lapped in the arms of Lollobrigidas. 3 12

Koten's translation has almost literal exactness. He merely transposes phrases and reorders the verb phrase "ruling the universe, " a necessity in English to clarify the position of the object. Hollo adds the idea "immortal, " which is not really in conflict with Voznesensky's "magical demon, " but he also says

"sleeping his nights, " an addition which changes the entire visual picture. "Lollobrigida breasts" adds a specific detail but does not change the meaning of "Lollobrigidas."

Marshall makes "Lollobrigida" singular, but his verb

"pinches" does not change the meaning significantly from Voznesen­ sky's alternate_a. Wilbur uses Voznesensky's alternate b^without any significant changes. His addition "prestidigituous " is mere repetition.

Marshall's lines lack the uniformity of the Russian. The clause terminals occur within the lines and / + /'s at the ends. His pattern of metrical stress, with clause terminals and end / + /'s, is as follows:^

Ml ^ w ■—y \ j \J r 1/1/ f u —^ • u O • * 1/ —>■ * *1/ + % U f \J \J * \J —^ f \J t \J +

Marshall's pronunciation of "Lollobrigida" is assumed to be

^T he transcription is a generalization not based on an audio record. 313

[ 1 lo ul ab r i ' d 3 id q] because of its rhyme with "leader." His rhyme scheme, judging as near rhyme "magician" and "pinches," is ab ab .

Wilbur's rhyme is abba, but it resembles the Russian in its four-line development and its use of near rhyme. There is similarity in metrical structures of Voznesensky's lines 5 and 7 and lines 6 and 8 (the lines that rhyme) and Wilbur's meter is identi­ cal in his lines that rhyme 5 with 8 and 6 with 7. Furthermore, the first five syllables of all four lines have the same pattern of metrical stre ss: 45

/ O U

, \J \J /1/U/UUsU

Lines 9-10-

V: 9) Long live Antiworlds 1 10) Visionaries in the midst of muri. (Slang for dull, meaningless things)

H: 9) I g reet you, Antiworlds, true countries of the mindl Surrounded as you are by crap and con. . . .

Ko: 9) Hail, Antiworlds 1 10) Visionaries in the midst of nonsense.

Antiworlds Record. 314

M: 9) Long live these Anti-worlds 10) Fantasists - into nonsense whirled.

R: 9) Hail to you, Antiworlds! 10) Fantasts in a world of slime.

W: 9) Long live Antiworlds’. They rebut 10) With dreams the rat race and the'rut.

Hollo selected the meaning of "zdravstvuyut" as a greeting, and Koten seems to combine "hello” and "long live" with "Hail, " quite a remarkable preservation of artistic ambiguity in the lexical meaning of a word. Hollo again, as in his line 3, "But I can see, " uses the personal pronoun. "True countries of the mind" is in­ accurate for "visionaries," and "crap and con" differs from "muri" both in lexical meaning and offensiveness. Hollo uses seventeen words to translate Voznesensky's six. The difference in numbers alone suggests the looseness that is proved by a closer scrutiny.

"Fantasists" is defined in the Supplement to the Oxford

English Dictionary as "one who weaves fantasies. " H. D. Wells is given as an example. The Russian "fantasti" is defined as "vi­ sionary" in Smirnitsky, but the multi-volume Russian dictionary

46 also gives Wells as an example. "Fantasists" is a true cognate.

The lexical discrepancy in Marshall's translation occurs in the phrase "into nonsense whirled." Voznesensky's line

^°Slovar14-6 Russkogo Iazyka, IV, (Moskva: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo inostrannikh i natsional'nykh slovarei, 1961). 315

suggests that antiworlds stand in strong contrast to dull and meaningless things. Marshall's line could mean that the fantasists are lost and out of control among nonsense, that the nonsense is stronger than the fantasists. Marshall presents a picture of movement, Voznesensky of motionless things.

Wilbur uses only part of a line for Voznesensky's line 9 and devotes the remainder of the line and all of line 1 0 to a loose translation of Voznesensky's line 10. "Rat race" and "rut" are very close to "muri, " all slang words, all designating things that are routine and pointless. Wilbur's transitive verb violates Voznesen­ sky's pattern of merely setting up contrasts.

The prominent phonological features of the Russian--the end rhyme that is both rhyme and consonance, the repetition of stressed vowels in both lines--are not found in any of the English versions. Marshall preserves the end rhyme,but at the expense of meaning, by adding "whirled. " Wilbur also has end rhyme, and his alliteration of [r] to some degree corresponds with the repe­ titions of the Russian. But he, too, has changed the meaning.

It is possible to preserve in English the kind of repe­ tition prominent in the Russian: final rhyme and repetition of part of the word "antiworlds. " The play on words and the rhyme are preserved in the following: 316

"Hail Antiworlds 1 Long may they reign! Strong antidotes for the stale and mundane."

Line s 11-12.

V: 11) Without stupid (ones) there could be no clever (ones) 12) No oases without Karalcums.

H: 11) Sages need idiots to right the scales, 12) oases, deserts;

Ko: 11) Without fools there would be no clever people. 12) Oases--without Karakum deserts.

M: 11) But without fools there'd be no wise, 12) No oases without the deserts wide.

R: 11) There'd be no clever men without fools. 12) No oases without the deserts of Karakoum.

W: 11) For some to be clever, some must be boring. 12) No deserts? No oases, then.

Hollo's line 11 is ambiguous, suggesting a need for balance not necessarily implied in Voznesensky's line. Koten adds only

"deserts" to identify Karakum. i Marshall adds "wide, " which does not affect the meaning of

"desert," but puts a strain on the word order of the sentence and in­

vites the label "poetic, " meaning in this case "found only in poems,

never in conversation. "

Wilbur's lexical context differs from the Russian. He

implies that wise men depend on fools for their existence, not

merely their recognition. Moreover, Wilbur combines 317 phonologically statements that Voznesensky keeps separate, both with his rhyme scheme and the pattern of the pairs of lines in this section. Otherwise, Wilbur's parallel structure of each line is much like the Russian.

Reavey's lexical accuracy is accompanied by similarity of final vowels. Lengthened by the succeeding voiced consonants, the

[u]'s produce an assonance that could be called near rhyme.

A closer translation phonologically than any of these five would be, "Without the stupid, there'd be no clever; No oases with­ out the deserts." In these two lines there is only near rhyme, per­ haps not as "near" as the Russian "umnikh, kumov, " but the un­ stressed endings and terse phrases do correspond to features in the

Rus sian lines.

Lines 13-14.

V: 13) There are no women— there are antimen. 14) In forests roar antimachines.

H: 13) w o m en -- are but anti-men. 14) Antimachines stalk roaring through the jungle.

Ko: 13) There are no women- there are antimen. 14) There are antimachines roaring in the forests.

M:- 13) No women- only Anti-men given birth. 14) Antimachines in the forests roar. 318

R: 13) There are no women - only antimen. 14) Antimachines howl in the forests.

W: 13) There are no women- just anti-men. 14) In the forests, antimachines are roaring.

Hollo, saying "women are'antimen, " obscures the fact that

Voznesensky is talking about labels, not identities. Hollo also changes "forests" to "jungle, " but with little effect on the total lexi­ cal meaning of the line.

Marshall's rhyme is obviously contrived, with the addition of "given birth" to rhyme with "earth, " and he works out his rhyme in four lines, with the same disadvantages that Wilbur has.

Marshall's rhyme is in lines 13-16, Wilbur's in lines 11-14. Both poets have combined lexical contents that Voznesensky keeps sepa­ rate through his phonological structure.

Unfortunately, the fun of Voznesensky's elaborate rhyme

"anti-mushini"/"anti-mashini" is unavailable to the English w riter.

Lines 15-16.

V; 15) There is salt of the earth. There is litter of the earth. a. But dries up the falcon without snakes. 16) b. But dries up the sun without the earth.

H: 15) The earth has salt, has shit; but without it 16) The sun shrivels and is gone! 319

Ko: 15) T here is salt of the earth. T here is litter of the earth. 16) But the falcon dries up without snakes.

M: 15) There's the salt of the earth. The filth of the earth. 16) But without the snake the hawk cannot soar.

R: 15) The salt of the earth. Earth's garbage too. 16) But a. falcon droops for lack of snakes.

W: 15) There's the dirt of the earth, as well as the salt. 16) If the earth broke down, the sun would halt.

Hollo has a pronoun with an indefinite antecedent, obscuring

the meaning of his lines. Koten is literal, as usual.

Marshall changes the specific meaning of line 16, but pre­

serves the idea of mutual dependence of hawks and snakes. Wilbur, by omitting the "but, " hides the fact that line 16 is in a sense a

comment on line 15. Reavey's phrases in line 15 are abbreviated to

the point of obscurity, an obscurity that carries over to the following, line.

Only Wilbur achieves the couplet rhyme. Thef - ^ ~ / req u ired at the end of the introductory clause in line 16 is different from the uninterrupted line 16 of the Russian (both versions), but Wilbur has already abandoned the line pattern of the Russian with his four-line

rhyme discussed above. 3 20 '

Lines 17-20.

V: 17) Love I critics my. 18) On the neck of one of them 19) Fragrant and naked, 20) Shines an antihead!

H: 17) I love you, critic s 18) on the neck of one among you I see a fragrant, naked anti-head!

Ko: 17) I love my critics. 18) On the neck of one them, 19) Fragrant and naked 20) Shines an antihead!

M: 17) How I love those critics of mine. 18) On the neck of one of them shines, 19) Fragrant, bald and red, 20) A radiant anti-head.

R: 17) I love my critics 18) On the bare and fragrant 19) Neck of one of them 20) Shines an antihead! . . .

W: 17) Ah, my critics; how I love them. 18) Upon the neck of the keenest of them 19) Fragrant and bald as fresh-baked bread, 20) There shines a perfect anti-head. . .

Hollo changes Voznesensky's use of third person for the critics. By substituting "you" for r'them, " Hollo creates a di­ rectness in the criticism in contrast with the mock objectivity in the

Rus sian. 321

Marshall's only addition to the lexical context is "red. "

Wilbur adds "as fresh-baked bread" and "perfect" to his de­

scription of the head. None of the changes create the sharp con­

trast with the Russian lines embodied in Hollo's use of "you. "

With their lexical additions both Marshall and Wilbur achieve the aabb rhyme scheme of the Russian.

Lines 21-24.

V: 21) I sleep with windows opened 22) And somewhwere whistles a falling star. 23) And skyscrapers stalactites 24) On the paunch of the globe hang down.

H: 21) I sleep by open windows. 22) Comets go through space 23) & skyscrapers hang down like stalactites 24) grown on the belly of our globe

Ko: 21) I sleep with open windows. 22) And somewhere out there a falling star whizzes by. 23) And skyscrapers hang on the belly 24) Of the earth like stalactites.

M: 21) I sleep with windows open wide, 22) And somewhere whistling comets probe! 23) And skyscrapers white like stalactites 24) Hang from the belly of the globe.

R: 21) . . .1 sleep with windows open wide. 22) And somewhere a starfall whizzes. 23) And the skyscrapers, like stalactites, 24) hang on the belly of the globe.

W: 21) I sleep with windows open wide; 22) Somewhere a falling star invites, 322

23) And skyscrapers like stalactites 24) Hang from the planet's underside.

Marshall and Wilbur create identical lines for line 21.

The "wide" in their lines emphasizes the desire for freedom im ­ plied by the speaker. The "by" in Hollo's line emphasizes the

specific physical location of open windows, making them more spe­

cific and less symbolic.

The only notable addition in these versions is Marshall's

"white, " not because it affects the visual image, though it does, but because it is another disarrangement of word order. Placing the adjective in an awkward position makes the rhyme seem strained.

Lines 25-28.

V: 25) And below me head down, 26) Piercing like a fork in the ball of the earth, 27) Carefree, dear moth 28) Live you, my little antiworld'.

H: 25) --and there, head downward 26) jabbed in like a fork 27) a happy kid mosquito sits-- 28) my anti-world 1

Ko: 25) And under me, your head upside down, 26) Thrust into the terrestrial globe like a fork, 27) Happy-go-lucky, sweet little butterfly, 28) You live, my little Anti-World!

M: 25) And stuck with a prong into this earth's sphe 26) Right beneath me head downwards curled, 27) Like a lovely little light-hearted moth, 28) You live, my little Anti-world! 323

R: 25) And beneath me, head down, 26) Thrust like a fork into the globe, 27) You live heedless, darling moth, 28) my little antiworld'.

W: 25) T h ere, upside down, below me far, 26) Stuck like a fork into the earth, 27) Or perching like a carefree moth, 28) My little Antiw orld, there you are!

Reavey, Wilbur, and Marshall are in agreement on the translation of "motilok, " which means both "butterfly" and "moth. "

Koten says "butterfly, " and Hollo exercises unwarranted freedom with "kid mosquito. "

The only real change in the phrase "head down" is

Marshall's "curled," which he uses with "blotting paper" in line 2.

Though a moth with head curled downward is not so incongruous as curled blotting paper, the detail is still an addition to the Russian.

None of the English versions have the interplay of conso­ nants to be found in the Russian. Wilbur's lines 26 and 27 do have some vowel and consonant repetition: A or 3-0 26) Stuck like a fork into the earth

o r 3- 0 0 27) Or perching like a carefree moth

But the pattern is not so intricate as the Russian. 324

Voznesensky's alliteration seems more disciplined than

Marshall's. The v's of the Russian, are combined with the vowel repetition: [von'zivSis 'vilkai v Sar zim'noi ]. Marshall's alliter­ ative l's are too many and too haphazard to be comparable. His internal rhyme in line 23, "And skyscrapers white like stalactites" is not unlike Voznesensky's line 25, "I podo mnoi vniz golovoi. "

Wilbur uses abca rhyme scheme (unless "earth" and "moth" be counted as near rhyme, a procedure which would yield an abba pattern) instead of the a abb of the Russian, but the addition of "far" to make the rhyme is not so contrived as "invites" in line 22. The real difference is that the Russian lines 27 and 28 end with ab­ ruptness, [-lok], [ -rok] , but Wilbur's line 28 ends in a continuant,

[fa r].

Lines 29-30.

V: 29 Why in the middle of night times 30 Meet one another Antiworlds?

H: 29 Why do you meet at night

Ko: 29 om itted 30 om itted

M: 29 Why is it, then, when night times fleet 30 With Anti-worlds we seem to meet?

R: 29 Why do we come across 30 The antiworlds at nighttime? 325

W: 29) In the middle of the night, why is it 30) That A ntiw orlds a re m oved to visit?

Marshall's "fleet" hardly makes sense, and his rhyme with

"meet" is therefore contrived. Wilbur's rhyme "is it/visit" is quite natural and a very close rhyme because there is no / + / between "is" and "it, " and there is a clause terminal after "is it. "

Wilbur is the only one who preserves the third person form.

Hollo uses "you, " which brings the speaker much closer to the anti­ worlds, and Marshall has "us" meeting with the antiworlds. The subjective yet detached speculation in these lines, obvious in the Rus­ sian, is one of the features that makes these six lines different from the preceding eight, in which the speaker considers antiworlds in re­ lation to him self. \

Lines 31-32.

V: 31 Why they in pairs sit 32 And at television look?

H: 31 and sit together, staring at TV?

M: 31 Why do they sit around in pairs 32 And into the TV steadily stare?

R: 31 Why do they sit in couples there, 32 Glued to the television sets?

W: 31 Why do they sit together, gawking 32 At the television, and never talking?

Marshall's phonological features seem to be the most suc­ cessful of the translations. He adds nothing to the lexical context, 326 rhymes on final stressed, syllables, and alliterates the second rhyme ("steadily stare"). Wilbur changes the verb to "gawking" and adds a whole phrase, "and never talking, " to achieve his rhyme.

Lines 33-34.

V: 33 To them is not understood even a pair of phrases. 34 Their first time is the last time.

H: 33 Not listening, but knowing: 34 it's the first time and the last. . . .•

M: 33 They can't even grasp a phrase at a time. 34 Their first time is their last time.

R: 33 They can't even catch a pair of phrases. 34 Their first occasion is their lasti

W: 33 Between them, not one word has passed. 34 Their first strange meeting is their last.

Hollo's line 33 seems like a contradiction to the Russian one.

Wilbur adds "strange, " a judgment hard to dispute but nevertheless not implicit in the Russian text. Marshall's and Reavey's lines are lexically quite similar to the Russian.

None of the English versions has either the internal rhyme or the clause terminals in the middle of the line like the Russian line 34, "Ikh pyervi raz--poslyedni raz. " Marshall's line 43,

"Their first time is their last time, " comes close to having parallel structure, but the sequences of primary then secondary phonemic stress, "first time, last time," give the line quite a 3 27 different rhythm from the Russian. Wilbur's three strong stresses in line 34, "first strange meeting, " yield a pattern not found any­ where in the Russian poem.

Lines 35-36.

V: 35) A well known lecturer to me yesterday 36) Said: "Antiworlds -- mura"* *slang for dull, meaningless things

H: 35) And only y esterd ay he told me, a great lecturer: 36) "What, antiw orlds? Such nonsense, my dear boy..."

Ko: 35) ... .A lecturer I know said to me 36) Yesterday: "anti-Wor Ids ? - Nonsense'..."

M: 35) . . .A w ell-know n le c tu re r y esterd ay sniped 36) At me: "Anti-worlds ? A lot of tripe1."

R: 35) . . .A lecturer I know said 36) Yesterday: "Antiworlds! What rot!"

W: 35) . . .A distinguished lecturer lately told me, 36) "Antiworlds are a total loss. "

Only Marshall and Reavey use a slang word for "mura, "

Marshall achieving rhyme. Hollo gives the lecturer quite a different tone from the Russian one, and the description suggests a different attitude of the speaker toward the lecturer. The longer quote, the lack of slang, do not suggest the same degree of disagreement that the speaker in the Russian poem seems to feel toward the lecturer. 328

The striking consonance in the Russian seems to be un­ translatable, and only Marshall has these two lines rhyming with each other. Furthermore, none of the English versions of line 36 direct the reader's attention with either phonological or lexical de­ vices to line 10. "Fantasti posredi muri, " as does the Russian lin e.

Lines 37-38.

V: 37 I sleep tossing and turning half-awake a. In the cells of a city apartment. 38 b. Probably is right the learned bore.

H: 37 In sleep I turn and toss 38 at night, in the great beehives of the city

Ko: 37 I sleep, tossing and turning half-awake. 38 That learned bore is probably right.

M: 37 I sleep, twisting, fitfully at night. 38 That scientific egghead is probably right.

R: 37 Half-awake, I turn and toss in sleep: 38 He must be right, that learned dolt. . .

W: 37 Still, my apartment-cell won't hold me. 38 I thrash in my sleep, I turn and toss.

All of the English versions are lexically quite similar to one of the

Russian versions. Even Hollo is almost literal, adding only "at night, " which hardly changes the meaning of "I sleep. " "Scientific egghead" is very close to "nauchni khmir, " "khmir” being a slang word in Russian, but Koten's "learned bore, " is lexically accurate. 329

Wilbur links lines 37 and 38 with the two preceding lines:

A distinguished lecturer lately told me, "Antiworlds are a total loss. "

Still, my apartment-cell won't hold me. I thrash in my sleep, I turn and toss.

Even though the lines are printed as separate couplets, they are held together by rhyme, a practice at variance with the Russian, where both versions of the final four lines rhyme as a quatrain, and the two preceding lines about the lecturer rhyme with each other.

Lines 39-40.

V: 39) My cat, like a radio-receiving set, 40) With green eye snares the world.

H: 39) --my cat lies there, his eye is green: 40) it is receiving messages from everywhere.

Ko: 39) My tom-cat catches at the world 40) With his green eyes, like a radio set.

M: 39) My cat, like a tuned-in radio set, 40) Catches the world in his green-eyed net.

R: 39) Like a radio, my cat 40) Snatches at the world with his green eye.

W: 39) And, radio-like, my cat lies curled 40) With his green eye tuned in to the world.

The translators show strong agreement with each other and with the Russian in these lines. Only Hollo avoids the word

"world." Only Wilbur duplicates Voznesensky's rhetorical em­ phasis on "world, " the last word in the Russian poem and in 330

Wilbur's. None of the translators achieve phonological unity in the

final four lines as Voznesensky does. The impact of the speaker's % restless dissatisfaction is more strongly felt in the Russian poem, which unites the speaker's disgust for the lecturer, or for his own

confinement in the previous version, with his envy of the cat, who

seems better able than the speaker to grasp the significance of both world and antiworld. The conclusions of the translators are all weaker than the Russian one.

Summary of the English Translations. Perhaps because

Reavey's text appears facing the Russian text in The New Russian

Poets, his translation is almost literal, showing no apparent attempt at rhyme or meter. Koten is so literal, Hollo so divergent from the

Russian text, that their translations do not merit discussion as a whole.

Both Wilbur and Marshall make extensive use of end rhyme.

Marshall has only two unrhymed lines, and those two are part of a quatrain with an abcb pattern. If "earth/moth" consitutes near

rhyme, Wilbur has not a single unrhymed line. Voznesensky rhymes

every line, but there is a relationship between his rhyme pattern and

lexical context that is different from both English poems. In the

chart below, quatrain rhyme of abab is indicated by Q , other quatrain

rhyme patterns (abba, abcb) by Q '. C designates couplet rhyme. To 331 facilitate discussion the discrepancies in the English texts are numbered. Lines indicate Voznesensky's lexical groups.

Voz M ar Wil

C c C__ Q C 1

Q QQ C C C

C C C Q 2 c Q C c CC C • C C

Q Q Q c c O' Q ' 3 c c C c c C c c C c_ c c Q 4 Q c C

The least significant change from Russian patterns is number 3, perpetrated by both English poets. The eight lines in this group, beginning "I sleep with windows open, " constitute the speculation about the other side of the globe. In terms of the in­ formation contained in the lines, the quatrains and Voznesensky's couplets are equally acceptable.

Marshall's first substitution, failing to separate

Bukashkin from his antiworlds, is less destructive than is the 332 intrusion of the quatrain into the eight couplets describing the im ­ portance of contrast. Both Marshall and Wilbur obscure

Voznesensky's four distinct comments: 1) contrasts offer relief from the boredom of routine; 2) contrasts foster value judgments;

3) contrasts provide labels and labels indicate contrasts; 4) even the strong in nature depend for existence on their weaker counterparts.

That these statements offer four different kinds of comments is clearer in Voznesensky's couplets than in the English translations.

The effect of the final quatrain in the English poems has been discussed. The dual cause of the speaker's discontent is clearer in the Russian text.

Marshall's rhymes often seem strained either because of his arrangement of words or because of lexical confusion. "Blotting paper curled" typifies both weaknesses. None of his rhymes emulate the play on words typical of Voznesensky's rhymes.

Though he fails to duplicate Voznesensky's word play,

Wilbur creates obvious but unobtrusive rhymes, unobtrusive in that they violate neither the lexical context nor the conversational quality of the Russian. Absent, however, are extensive and intricate rhymes like "otkritimi/stalaktitami, " "kak dyemon/ akadyemik, " and the longest and most exact of the Russian rhymes, "antimushini/ antimashini. " 333

Both Wilbur and Marshall exhibit studied attention to the organization of the Russian poem, and both attain partial success in preserving it. Only Wilbur preserves in addition the naturalness and ease that accompany the display of sound effects in Voznesen­ sky's poem.

VIII. "FOGGY STREET"

In many of his poems Voznesensky seems intrigued by the appearance of things and what the surface appearance reveals, about the essence of existence. Primarily for humor he describes the disintegrating effect of fog on the visual image of a bustling city street.

Tumannaya Ulitsa

Tumanni prigorod, kak turman, Kak poplavki, militsioneri. Tum an. Kotori vyek? Koteri eri?

Vsyo--po chastyam, podobno bryedu. Ludei kak budto razvintili. . . B redu. Vernei--barakhtayus v vatine.

Nosi. Podfarniki. Okolishi. . Onyi, kak v fodise, dvoyatsa. K aloshi? Kak bi bashkoi nye obmenyatsai 334

Talc zhenshina--ot gub yedva, dvoyas i shto-to voskreshaya, Uzh nye lubimaya-vdova, yesho tvoya, uzhe--chuzhaya...

O tumbi, o prokhozhilch trus ya. . . Venyera? Prodavyets morozhenovo! .. Druzya ? Okh, eti Yago domoroshenniye.'

Ya spotikayus, byus, zhivu, tuman, tuman--nye razberoshsa o chu shekn v tumane tryoshsa? . , Aui Tuman, tuman--nye dozovyoshsa. . .

Kak zdorovo, kogda tuman raseivaetsai

Lexical Context of the Russian Poem

Lines 1 -3 .

foggy suburb like (a) tumbler pigeon 1) tumanni prigorod kak turman

like fishing corks policemen Kak poplavki militsioneri

fog 2) tum an

which century which era 3) Kotori vyek kotori eri

The unsteadiness of the foggy scene is depicted in the two analogies, both visual images of irregularly moving objects. A tumbler pigeon turns somersaults in flight, and the floats of a fishing net bob jerkily on the water. There are no verbs inthe first two lines either stated or implied, just a series of five nouns 335

culminating in "fog. " The questions reinforce the idea of confusion and disorientation.

Lines 4 - 6 .

All (is) in parts like delerium 4) Vsyo po chastyam podobno bryedu

people as if unstrung ludei kak budto razvintili

I drag along. 5) B redu

rather I flounder in sheet wadding 6) Vernei barakhtayus v vatine

The sense of unreality continues to be expressed as the fog permits only partial or distorted views of the surroundings. In con­ trast with the specific nature of the nouns in the first three lines are the subjective comments in these three. The two words spelled

’bredu" are lexically unrelated. The noun "bred" ("delirium") is in the dative case as required by "podobno. " The verb in line 5 is the first person singular of the infinitive "bfesti. " "Vatin" is fleecy stockinette, sheet wadding, a gauzy fabric lacking in firmness.

Making one's way through the fog is like floundering through white cotton wadding.

Lines 7 -9 .

noses parkinglights hat bands 7) Nosi podfarniki okolishi 336

they like in magic lantern show see double onyi kak v fodise dvoyatsa

galoshes 8) kaloshi

as if noggins were not exchanged 9) Kak bi bashkoi nye obmenyatsa

"Dvoyatsa" means to see double. The isolated details repre­ sent only parts of objects, and even the parts seemindistinct, double, like thepicture in a stereoscope that is out of focus. Because people are seen only in parts, their parts seem interchangeable. The slang word "bashka," meaning "head, noggin, pate," indicates that the description is not serious.

Lines 10-11.

thus woman from lips hardly 10) Tak zhenshina ot gub yedva

blurring and something recalling dvoyas i shto-to voskreshaya

already not beloved widowed 11) Uzh nye lubimaya vdova

still yours already another's yesho tvoya uzhe chuzhaya

The brief phrases offer difficulty in tranlsation. "Ot gub yedva" is literally equivalent to "hardly from the lips." The two words "dvayas" and "voskreshaya" are equivalent to present parti­ ciples in English. The first word is from the verb of line 7,

"dvoyatsa" {"to see double"). The verb, form "voskreshaya" is from 337

the verb meaning "to recur to one's memory." An accurate if not

literal translation of both lines is, "Thus a woman, who has hardly

left your lips, blurring and recalling something to your mind, is

already no longer beloved, but widowed, still yours, already

another's." The relationship of the speaker to the objects seen in

the fog is an ambivalent relationship, like that of a man to a woman

once loved by him but now loved by another. There is both intimacy

and distance in the relationship.

Lines 12-14.

against posts against passersby brush I 12) O tumbi o prokhozhikh trus ya

Venus vender of ice cream Venyera prodavyets morozhenovo

friends 13) D ruzya

oh these Iagos half-baked 14) Okh, eti Yago domor oshenniye

The reflexive verb form "trus" followed by "o" means "rub

against. " Inanimate and animate alike are brushed past in the fog.

One cannot tell Venus from an ice cream vender. The duplicity of

Iago is seen in these fog-shrouded people who are not what they at

first appear to be.

i 338

Lines 15-18.

I stumble struggle live 15) Ya spotikayus byus zhivu

fog fog you do not understand tuman tuman nye rasbiroshsa

against whose cheek in (the) fog do you brush 16) O chu sheku v tumane tryoshsa

halloo 17) Au

fog fog you cannot call out 18) Tuman tuman nye dozovyoshsa

"Razberoshsa" is the second person familiar form of a verb meaning "to gain an understanding, come to know the particulars. "

Implied is an understanding based on analysis, impossible to achieve because of the fog. "Au" is a call like "halloo, hi'. " Having tried to call out, the speaker notes the impossibility of being heard through the heavy fog.

Line 19.

How wholesome when (the) fog dissipates 19) Kak zdorovo kogda tuman raseivaetsa

A literal translation of the final line is acceptable in English.

"How wholesome it is when the fog disappears. "

Summary of the Lexical Context. The poem is almost a

listing of impressions made in the fog. Nothing is seen clearly or 339 as a whole, and everything is at once familiar and strange. After living through the dreamlike experience, the delirium, of the fog, the speaker remarks how wholesome it is when the fog disappears.

Phonological Context of the Russian Poem

Pattern of End Rhyme. The first three lines demonstrate a pattern of end rhyme used four times in the first fourteen lines.

Two phrases of equal length have close end rhyme. Woven into this regular rhyme scheme, however, is a pattern of rhymes with shifting stress in phrases of unequal length.

[ tu'manir 'prigsrsd kak 'turman]

[kak psplaf'ki militsio'neri* ]

[tu'm an ]

[k a 'to rt vjek ka'tori- 'eri* ]

The pattern can be represented in a diagram in which the rhymes are designated a_ and b_, ^representing the rhymes accompanied by shifting stress. The relative number of syllables preceding the rhyme is indicated by "long" or "short. "

long a long b short a long b

In lines 4-6 the reversed rhyme is ['bredu/bre'du] . In lines 7-9 there is a shift of consonants as well: [a'koli Si/ ka'loSi]. 340

In lines 12-14 the rhymes make use of voiced and voiceless analogs, the first word containing the voiceless consonants and the second word the voiced analogs: [ 'trus ja/ dru'zja].

Lines 10 and 11 have regular end rhyme, that is, with no shift in stress, and in addition a pattern of lines similar in length,

[tak 'genSina at gub jed'va]

dva'jas i $to te v s s k r i ' Saja]

[u S nje lju'bimsja vda'va]

[ji'So tva'ja u'3e t$u'3aj8]

Lines 15-18 display a pattern similar to the one for lines

1-3 but without the inversion of stress in the a_ rhyme and with an additional line ending in b rhyme.

[ ja speti-'kajus bjus 3i'vu]

[tu'man tu'man nje razbl'rjoSsa ]

[ a t Su S I'ku f tu'manje 'trjoSsa]

[a'u]

[tu'man tu'man nje dS'za'vjo Ssa ]

Line 18 is parallel with the second part of line 15. Line 16, sim ilar in length to line 18, has no counterpart in the pattern of the first three lines.

The rhyme structure of the entire poem can be represented with the symbols used for lines 1-3. The a'represents a rhymes 341

without reversal of stress. None of the b rhymes evidence a re­ v e rsal.

long a long b short a long b

long a long b short a long b

long a long b short a long b

long a 1 long b long a 1 long b

long a long b short a long b

long a 1 long b long b short a' long b

final line

The depiction indicates a complexity of end rhyme. There is

enough uniformity to establish a pattern, the one of the first three

lines, and there is also variety in type and location. Further 342

variety is achieved by the use of all forms of rhyme: masculine, feminine, dactylic, broken. The final line is unrhymed.

In addition to end rhyme there is repetition of sounds within lines. In lines 10-11 there is extensive repetition of the stressed vowels accompanied by repetition and reversal of [dv] and [tv]:

[jed'va, dva'jas, vda'va, tva'ja]. In lines 1-3 pretonic [ka] occurs four times. Other repetition occurs, but more incidentally, in less obvious patterns.

The phonemic features of the poet's reading indicate a meter not obvious in the stress pattern alone. The first line yields a pattern repeated sometimes exactly and sometimes with variation in other parts of the poem. In the representation below, the meter is indicated above the phonemic features.

WWW / W W W / W W v / WWW* w

1 w %w4> 2 / w w .4* w + 3 A 2 w ■ w + w w 3 a 2 w w w 3* 2 v [tu'mani* 'prigared kak 'turman leak 'paplaf'ki militsion'neri-]

The first series of unstressed syllables is created by suppressing the stress in "tumanni" and not varying the pitch. The other three series are a result of the natural pattern of word stress. This metrical pattern, ww/v./ > combined as it is with the binary meter of other lines, creates a halting effect, harmonizing with the brief phrases of the lexical context. 3 43

Summary of the Phonological Context. There is a definite fabric of sound for this poem . Unlike those in "Antiworlds, " the sound features seem to have an autonomous existence, largely be­ cause of the detailed rhyme scheme worked out in the poem as a whole. Although there is no evidence of artificial use of lexical elements solely to achieve the desired aural effect, neither is there any reinforcement of lexical items by the phonology. The irregular repetition within lines, combined with irregular length of rhymed lines, creates an intricate, disciplined, yet subtle phonological structure, both obvious and unexpected.

The English Translations

Hollo's translation is marked by some lexical inaccuracy and some lexical confusion. He loses the concept of irregular motion by substituting "fat, cock-pigeon" for "tumbler pigeon. "

Instead of "half-baked Iagos" Hollo^says "hothouse flowers. " For

Voznesensky's line 15, "1 stumble, I struggle, I live, " Hollo uses imperative verbs: "Stumble on, fight and live through the fog, and you'll never know/ Whose cheek you are touching. "

Although there is no trace of a rhyme scheme like

Voznesensky's, Hollo does preserve something of the form of

Voznesensky's opening lines: the isolated phrases, the questions.

There is even some near rhyme in "pigeon/ militiamen" and 3 44

"weather / era, " though not in a rhyme pattern like the Russian.

A fogbound suburb, like a fat Cock-pigeon. Like anchor-buoys The militiamen. Foggy weather. What century is it? What era?

Two of the final lines have near rhyme at irregular intervals with

"ouch" and "shout."

Stumble on, fight and live through the fog, and you'll never know Whose cheek you are touching--Ouch! Murk, murk-- No one can hear you shout. . . .

In general Hollo preserves much of the lexical context and duplicates the short phrases of the Russian. He fails to show any of the patterns of phonological repetition prominent in the Russian, and he fails to create a unified structure of sound for the poem.

There is in Marshall's poem studied duplication of the Rus­ sian rhyme scheme, seen without a strain of pronunciation in the second group of his lines:

Everything's in bits, like in a fit of delirium. People as if dismantled. . . . I wander, querying. More precisely--I flounder, in cotton-wool mantled.

The third group of lines repeats the pattern, likewise with­ out a strain in the pronunciation. 345

Parking lights. Noses. Cap-bands posh. As if in a focussing glass double-imaged. Galoshes ? Mustn't swap noddles in the scrimmage!

The rhyme scheme can be asserted in the opening lines only by distorting the pronunciation of "epoch" to rhyme with "rock. "

The other rhyme is not preserved at all with "pigeon" and "surging. "

Though Marshall duplicates the Russian rhyme in many places, his lexical context is not without strain. Whereas

Voznesensky's rhyme seems effortless, a natural by product of lexical features selected for reasons other than merely rhyme,

Marshall's rhymes necessitate added words. In line 1 the addition

of "rock" clarifies the lexical context ("militiamen like anchor- buoys rock"), but "posh" after "cap-bands" makes no positive lexi­ cal contribution.

The four rhymes in the lines about the woman are not

themselves lexically weak, but one of the lines is not clear. After

saying a woman has hardly left the lips, he says she "is doubled and something resurrecting."

The next three lines are more successful, the addition of

the verb "goes" being unobtrusive.

With curbstones and passers-by I contend. . . . Venus? An ice-cream vendor goes! . . . Friends? Oh, those hom e-bred Iagosl 346

To rhyme with "tell" at the end of line 15, Marshall uses

"Oh Hell! " for Voznesensky's "Au. " Though Marshall's phrase hardly constitutes a proposed greeting like "halloo," it does not really detract from the lexical context.

Like Voznesensky, Marshall uses many clause terminals within lines. However, Marshall has no regular metrical pattern.

On the whole Marshall's translation has lexical accuracy with little confusion. Though some lexical items seem to be se­ lected primarily for rhyme, there is no serious disarrangement of word order. There is a rhyme pattern that seems to be a careful imitation of that in the Russian poem.

Wilbur, too, creates a rhyme scheme carefully constructed to match the Russian. The addition of a phrase in line 3, "I forget, " avoids near rhyme with line 2 and rhymes instead with line 1, re­ flecting a deliberate preservation of the Russian pattern.

The air is gray-white as a pigeon feather. Police bob up like corks on a fishing net. Foggy weather. What century is it? What era? I forget.

The pattern of end rhyme corresponding to the Russian ex­ ists in all of Wilbur's lines except the final one. Unrhymed in the

Russian text, the final line is rhymed in Wilbur's version with lines 16-18. 347

I trip. I stagger. I persist. Murk, murk . . . there's nothing visible anywhere. Whose is the cheek you brush now in the mist? Ahoy there! One's voice won't carry in this heavy air. . .

When the fog lifts, how brilliant it is, how rare!

There are no obvious lexical changes or additions to achieve the rhyme. Even the lines about the woman, an apparent difficulty for both Hollo and Marshall, make sense in Wilbur's poem.

It's as if a woman who's scarcely left your lips should blur in the mind, yet trouble it with recall-- Bereft now, widowed by your love's eclipse-- still yours, yet suddenly not yours at all . . .

Even more important to the phonology than end rhyme is

Wilbur's use of intermittent repetition of sounds at places other than the end of a line. In line 1, though "net" creates end rhyme with line Z, there is repetition of a stressed [i] and [ £j in "pigeon feather" [ 'plc^Sn f£0 St] and "fishing net" ['fnSlD n£t] . In Wilbur's

reading "era" echoes the vowels of "feather" and "weather. "

A similar pattern occurs in line 7. Though the final word

in the first part of the line, "blur, " rhymes with line 8, "sir, " the

sounds preceding "blur" are echoed in the final syllables of the

line.

Noses. Parking lights. Badges flash and blur. ['basd 3 iz flseS and bl^] All's vague, as at a magic-lantern show. ['msedgik 'lasntdn Sou] 348

A more subtle repetition occurs in lines 16-18. The

sound sequence of [ I ] plus a fricative is repeated six times, twice as end rhyme. There is also repetition of [er] in "anywhere, "

"there, " "carry, " "air, " and "rare. "

I trip. 1 stagger. I persist. Murk, murk . . . there's nothing visible anywhere. Whose is the cheek you brush now in the mist? Ahoy there'. One's voice won't carry in this heavy air.

When the fog lifts, how brilliant it is, how rare.

Except for his use of clause terminals within lines,

Wilbur's phonemic features show little resemblance to the Russian.

There is no regular meter, and most of Wilbur's phrases are longer than the corresponding Russian ones.

Because of the naturalness of his rhyme pattern that dupli­ cates Voznesensky's and because of his lexical accuracy, Wilbur's translation is superior to the others. Most important, his use of subtle repetition of sounds to enhance the obvious end rhymes is quite similar to Voznesensky's technique.

IX. SUMMARY

Analysis of the phonology of the poetry of Andrei

Voznesensky reveals significant features concerning the phonological context itself as well as its relationship to the lexical context and I 349

the poem as a whole. Not all of the translations evidence an attempt

to imitate Voznesensky's aural structure. However, some of the

translations show isolated features similar to those of the Russian

poems, and some of the English texts demonstrate a significant pho­

nological resemblance to the origirihl poems.

In this summary the titles of some of the poems are abbrevi­

ated to avoid unnecessary repetition. In the present discussion both

the Russian and the English poems are referred to with the following

titles: "Sigulda," "Parabolic Ballad, " "Goya," "You Sit," "Motor

Races, " "Airport, " "Antiworlds, " and "Foggy Street. "

Phonological Features of the Russian Poems

Rhyme. Characteristic of all eight of the poems analyzed

in this study is a high degree of end rhyme. In "Sigulda" a small

number of end rhymes are utilized, creating whole stanzas with only

one rhyme used throughout. In "You Sit," "Motor Races, " and

"Airport, " there are in each poem both couplets and quatrains es­

tablished by end rhyme. In "Foggy Street" there is a more elaborate

pattern of quatrain rhyme. "Goya" shows even greater uniformity of

rhyme than does "Sigulda."

All varieties of end rhyme are in evidence in the poems,

and there is no uniformity of rhyme in any one poem. There are

numerous examples of masculine rhyme ending in a vowel: 3 50

"nemoti/ zhivoti" from "You Sit, " "zvezda/ goroda" from "Airport, "

"shari/ antimiri" from "Antiworlds. " Equally common is mascu­

line rhyme ending in a consonant:"smeyas/ seichas" from "You Sit, "

"parok/ potilok" from "Parabolic Ballad. "

Often masculine rhymes, established by similarity of final

stressed vowels followed by similar consonants, are preceded by

similar phonetic patterns, extending the rhyme over more than one

syllable. Sometimes these preceding patterns have differing

numbers of syllables, "neobzhitom/ zhivotom. " Sometimes there is a reversal of consonants, like "motilok/ anti mi r ok. " The mascu­

line rhyme is established by the "-ok, " but the preceding pattern

lengthens the rhyme. Merely the final "-koi" is sufficient to es­

tablish the rhyme, but Voznesensky uses "takoi/ toskoi. " The pre­

tonic "o" in "toskoi" is pronounced [a]. Such extension of rhyme is prevalent in all of the poems.

Feminine and dactylic rhyme are also present. Often the

extension of the feminine rhyme to preceding syllables creates

"amphibrachic" rhyme, like "iz zhenshin/ izvyechen. " Even more

extensive rhyme is found in "poprashaemsa/ poprashaika. " Dactylic

rhyme, too, is extended to syllables preceding the dactyl:

"gorizontalnuyu/ za taliyu, " "parabole/ po raduge. " Again the pre­

tonic "o" constitutes closer rhyme than the spelling indicates. 351

Much use is made of near rhyme, especially near rhyme with differing numbers of syllables. "Sigulda" provides two ex­ amples: "porozhni/ polozheno, " "budit/ buldikom. "

Occasionally Voznesensky establishes end rhyme in lines of differing lengths. In "Foggy Street" abbreviated lines are used in a regular pattern. In other poems they occur unpredictably.

"Andryushkoi, " an entire line, is rhymed with "dushnoi" at the end of a nine-syllable line. There are several examples of this kind of rhyme in "Aeroport. " One example is as follows:

Pyat polunochnits shassi vipuskayut ustalo. Gdye zhe shestaya?

Often two lines with end rhyme have internal rhyme with each other. The examples below exemplify the practice.

Vidno, doprigalas--dryan, aistyonok, zvezda Elektroplitkami plashut pod nyei goroda. ("Airport")

Da zdravstvuyut Antimiri! Fantasti--posredi muri. ("Antiworlds")

I povorachivayas k svyetu

Kak ponimayet ikh planyeta ("You Sit, " part of a quat­ rain)

Sometimes whole lines rhyme with each other. Especially in "Airport" such a practice is common.

Ti ikh, pribitikh, vozvishayesh. Ti im "Pribite" vozveshayesh.

Moshnoye oko vzirayet v iniye mira. Moishilci okon slezyat tebya, kak moshkara. 3 52

Stonet v akvariumnom steklye Nyebo privarenoye k zemlye.

For humorous, or at least non-serious effects, Voznesen­ sky uses end rhyme with elaborate coined words. The verb

"glagolish" is coined to rhyme with "alkogoliki. " The most elabo­ rate rhyme in these poems is that in "Antiworlds" with the Russian words for "antimen11 and "antimachines": "antimushini/ antimashini. "

Some of the end rhymes are used to unite lexical ideas.

In "Sigulda" the major lexical sections are distinguished by similar rhymes in each section. The philosophical digression in "Motor

Races" is marked by the only four-line rhyme scheme. In an eight- line section of "Antiworlds" the couplet rhyme emphasizes the dis­ tinctive nature of each of the four lexical comments.

The end of each lexical section is identified in "Airport" by distinctively rhymed lines. Couplets of masculine rhyme set off the section about Gauguin in "Parabolic Ballad, " in which feminine and dactylic rhymes predominate. Rhyme combined with meter indi­ cates quatrains instead of couplets in "You Sit" in spite of the printed pattern of the poem. ,

In some of the poems rhyme places rhetorical emphasis on central words. Most obvious in "Goya," this technique can also be seen in "Airport, " where the central word is "aeroport, " and in

"Sigulda, " where the two central words "proshaite" ("goodbye") 353

and "spasibo" ("thanks") are repeatedly emphasized by end rhyme.

Alliteration and Assonance. Voznesensky's poems are

characterized by intricate alliteration, usually combined with asso­

nance or some kind of vowel repetition, and often accompanied by

patterns of shifting stress. Alliteration combined with shifting

stress is provided by the following examples:

Vonzhivshis vilkoi v shar zemnoi, ("Antiworlds")

. . . voronok mnye vikleval vorog ("Goya")

Ya--golos Voini, gorodov golovni . . . goda ("Goya")

Alliteration combined with assonance figures prominently in "Goya": "gore," "golod, " "golos," "Goiya. " In "You Sit" there is both assonance and alliteration in "babi baluyut, " followed in the next line by homorganic alliteration in "padaya. " "Parabolic

Ballad" contains a line with repetition of "che-": "Chervyak cherez

shel, chelovyek po parabole. " In the same poem there is a compa­

rable example with "gru-": "Myezh gruznikh, gruzinskikh,

dvusmislennikh zvyozd. "

Typical of Voznesensky's repetition of sounds is the inter­ weaving of two or more patterns. In "You Sit" there is an intricate pattern with "p, " "d, " and "g" repeated in combination with "a" and

"u" in stressed and unstressed positions: 354

I gubi, padaya, dayut. I vibegayut za shlagbaumi, I ot vagonov otstayut?

The same kind of intricate pattern can be seen in "Motor Races":

"Akh, dikarochka, doch Ikara. . . "

Repetition ol syllables in close proximity within lines is also a feature of Vozensensky's poetry. In "Sigulda" he says, "Mi tozhe porozhni. " A consonant reversal accompanies the example from "Parabolic Ballad": "Nesutsa iskustvo."

Most important to Voznesensky's phonological effects is their relationship to the lexical features of his poems. Often the relationships between lexical items are reinforced by repetition of phonological patterns. The series of nouns in "Goya" is the most obvious example. The grouping of nouns in "Motor Races" of

"obivateli, " "vestalki, " and the toy "vanki-vstanki" is less un­ expected because of their alliteration with each other and with the characterizing adjective "vertikalni. "

The aptness of an analogy is often strengthened by phono­ logical features. The image of the tumbler pigeon is appropriate to the fog not only because of the way both pigeon and fog travel but because of the sounds of the words "tuman" and "turman. "

Bukashkin seems even more like a blotter when the word for blotter is "promokashki. " The comparison of plate glass windows to 355

X-rays of the soul seems more reasonable because of the phono­ logical similarity of "vitrazhi" and "dushi. " It is less startling to consider an "antiworld" a moth because "little antiworld" and "moth" are alike in Russian: "antimirok" and "motilok. " Over and over

Voznesensky reinforces lexical assertions with phonological support.

In many of the poems scattered lines that are lexically similar to each other are also similar to each other phonologically.

The opening lines in "Motor Races" are similar to the closing lines in both phonology and lexical content. In "You Sit" lines at the end of the poem that echo lexical context from lines near the beginning also echo phonetic features of those earlier lines. The final line in

"Parabolic Ballad" resembles an earlier line both lexically and phonologically.

Consonance is less prevalent in the poems than alliter­ ation and assonance. It could be argued that vowel similarity is the most important single feature of the phonology because alliter­ ation is only rarely unaccompanied by assonance, and there is repetition of syllables with similar vowels and similar following consonants when initial or syllable initial consonants are unim­ portant. The only example of consonance occurs in "Antiworlds,"

"Antimiri--mura, " and even here it forms end rhyme with "vchera" in the preceding line. 356

Meter. Although Voznesensky uses a variety of metrical forms, he shows little preference for binary meter. Of the so- * called classical meters amphibrach is the only one used with any consistency throughout a poem. "Sigulda, " "Goya, " and "Parabolic

Ballad" alike demonstrate regular though not unrelieved amphi- brachic meter.

Some of Voznesensky's meter can best be described as accentual instead of accentual-syllabic, but even his accentual verse evidences patterns instead of random occurrence of stress. "Air­ port" shows a pattern / / repeated without successive stressed syllables, _e._g_. , / not A ^ . "Foggy Street" repeats the pattern ' “V .

Summary. In his use of meter, rhyme, and other repetition of phonetic patterns Voznesensky shows much variety. Intricate . interrelationships characterize his phonological devices. Rhyme is usually extended over additional preceding syllables. Alliteration is almost always combined with assonance. All of the features of sound are accompanied by shifting stress p? ..cerns and sometimes interwoven patterns of repetition.

Effect of the Poet's Oral Perforniance on the Phonological Structure

It is paradoxical but true that Voznesensky's oral reading both emphasizes and subordinates the printed patterns of the lines. 357

Furthermore, some of the linguistic features implicit in the written

texts are heightened by the oral presentation; some are repressed.

There is enough consistency in the poet's techniques of oral per­ formance to allow judgments about the contributions made by his

reading to the phonological context of the poems.

Line Structure. Voznesensky's reading indicates a clause

terminal, usually a level one /->-/, at the ends of most of the printed lines. This practice is in harmony with the linguistic structure of his lines because the end of a line seldom interrupts an immediate

constituent. Because it does constitute an exception, the stanza in

"Sigulda" ending in "shto, " here the subordinate conjunction equiva­ lent to "that" in English, is all the more noticeable. The English

translation illustrates the artificiality of the stress and succeeding

clause terminal:

But thrice thank you that Into my transparent shoulder blades. . . . 47 Although two of the printed versions show a stress on "shto," both

the primary phonemic stress and the following /•>“/ are features of

the oral performance instead of the syntactic structure.

Although he often uses clause terminals within lines, there

is no relationship between the printed separations within lines and

^Antiworlds, Antimiri. 3 58

Voznesensky's reading. Because many of the printed breaks are marked by only / + / in the reading, and because /“W 's occur at places not indicated by printed divisions, the /**W 1 s that do occur seem to be related to the lexical structure instead of the printed form. Three examples clarify the generalization.

Division in printed from without /->-/

K ragi-- Krasni, kak kleshni ("Motor Races")

/->-/ without division in printed form

Zhivyot u nas sosyed /•*>-/ Bukashkin, ("Antiworlds")

Division in printed form with /->*/ /-W Iz styen, /“*-/ mater ei /~W i iz zhenshin, ("Sigulda")

In general, Voznesensky's reading observes ends of lines, but does not acknowledge printed divisions within lines. The clause terminals that occur medially in lines are motivated by lexical con- text, not visual form. The simultaneous occurrence of clause terminals and printed separations within lines must be considered incidental.

Occasionally a plus juncture occurs at the end of a stanza where a clause terminal is expected. After lines containing direct or indirect social criticism the poet seems to hurry on to the following line, as if he does not wish to have the hearer notice his 3 59 uncomplimentary remarks. After the "well known lecturer's" comment about antiworlds, an opinion with which the speaker in the poem disagrees, there is only a / + / before the succeeding line,

"I sleep tossing and turning. ..." After the stanza in "Motor

Races" in which the speaker groups together plebeians, vestal virgins, and the toy, there is no /->-/ to mark, the end of a stanza and the end of a lexical unit.

Support for the contention that this practice follows pri­ marily social criticism is found in the two versions of a line in

"Sigulda. " Four printed versions state "Why is this house dis- agreeable to us?" 48 In the oral version that complies with these printed texts, there is the expected /-*”/ at the end of the line.^

The two oral versions that contain the substitution of "world" for

"house" indicate only a / + / at the end of the line.^®

Most of the lines are read with a level clause terminal at the end except for the final line, which is invariably followed by a falling clause terminal / /. Only rarely does either 1 * 1 or / X / occur within a poem.

^ Antiworlds, Antimiry, Akhillesovo Serdtse, Voices Pam phlet.

49,, . V o ic e s .

50Antiworlds Record, Tape 3. 3 60

Patterns of Segmental Sounds. Although most of Voznesen­ sky's phonetic effects are prominent in any accurate oral reading of his poems, the poet's own reading does exhibit techniques that em­ phasize phonetic patterns such as rhyme and assonance. In "Airport" he uses [a] for the first unstressed form of the orthographic vowel 51 in "neobyknovennykh, " an unusual pronunciation echoing the vowel prominent in surrounding lines. Final unstressed o, ordi­ narily pronounced [s], is sometimes [ a] in the poet's reading. To heighten phonological repetition in "Sigulda, " where "spasibo" is shortly followed by "zhenshina, " "spasibo" is pronounced with a final vowel [a] . In contrast, at the end of a previous stanza

"spasibo" is pronounced with a final schwa, duplicating the final sound of the preceding end rhyme, "poshiba. "

In addition to the phonetic features of the poet's reading there are phonemic features of his performance that make the rhymes more prominent. The clause terminal before "alkogoliki" and the one before "dushnoi, " neither one indicated by the lexical context, emphasize the end rhymes of the abbreviated lines that follow.

Meter. The meter is variously affected by the poet's reading. Occasionally the supression of word stress in his oral

51 To illustrate the orthography being discussed, the Library of Congress system of transliteration is used for this word. 361

performance indicates a metrical pattern otherwise less obvious.

The amphibrach is preserved in "Proshai moya mama" by sup­ pressing the stress of the second syllable of "moya." The failure to stress the first syllable of "sorok" in "na snegu sorok pyervovo goda" establishes the amphibrachic meter.

Sometimes the intonation contours establish a metrical pattern. Notable for this technique is the first line of "Foggy

Street. " The metrical pattern intrinsic in the phonemic structure at other places in the poem, /ww,*, w w , w /, is maintained here by the even pitch level for the first three syllables in spite of the word * stress in "tumani. "

There are times, however, when a line requires only pre­ cise pronunciation of a word to conform to the regular meter, a pronunciation not demonstrated by the poet. The word for "forty- one" in "Goya, " "sorok pyervovo, " requires pronunciation of both syllables of the declensional ending "-ovo" to provide the two un­ stressed syllables necessary for the amphibrachic meter.

Voznesensky says, [ 'pjerva] . Regular meter could be asserted in the third line of "Airport" by pronouncing every syllable of

"duraleviye, " but the poet condenses the "-iye" to [i].

The monotony of regular meter is avoided by variation of intonation patterns. In the stanza about the lost Caravelle in 3 62

"Airport" lines 19 and 21 and lines 22 and 24 have similar syn­ tactic structure and similar metrical patterns. Both similarities are de-emphasized by pitch variations in Voznesensky's reading of the lines.

It can be said that the phonological effects of meter as well as assonance, rhyme, and other phonetic patterns are primarily inherent in the written poem. Artificial oral reading is not necessary to preserve the prominent oral structure. Nevertheless, there are times when the poet's performance, by exhibiting intonational patterns and clause terminals not necessarily demanded by the syntactic features, enhances the phonological qualities of the poem.

The English Translations

\ Translations Dissimilar to the Russian. Some of the trans­ lations offer only lexical resemblance to the Russian poems and must therefore be considered more literal than poetic. In this category are the writings of Koten and Bienstock. Reavey's "Anti­ worlds" probably belongs in this category, but some of Reavey's translations appear without accompanying Russian texts and are apparently proposed as poems in their own right. Nevertheless, his translations show too little phonological resemblance to the

Russian poems and too little poetic structure of their own to avoid the present category of dissimilar translations. 363

Widely different lexically from the Russian, Hollo's poems cannot be considered literal translations. On the other hand, his lexical inaccuracies are accompanied by so little phonological re­ semblance to the original poems that his translations must be con­ sidered those least similar to the Russian poems.

Sparks. The poems by Sparks display a rigidity of structure different from the Russian. Use of regular iambs for the irregular metrical patterns of "You Sit" destroys the sincerity of the speaker's utterance. Prominent metrical patterns in terminal positions of the lines in "Goya" seem contrived and detract from the alliterative effects. Most important, the rigidity of phonological structure seems unrelated to the Lexical context of the poems.

Marshall. Characterized by a high degree of lexical accu­ racy, Marshall's poems show deliberate attempts at end rhyme, alliteration, and other features of phonetic repetition. Present in his poems are isolated occurrences of phonological effects strikingly like the Russian, e.g. , his stanza in "Sigulda" utilizing the words "parting, departing, disheartening. " Another example appears in "Airport": the couplet with parallel structure at the end of the first section.

On the w'hole, however, M arshall's phonological features show only superficial resemblance to the Russian. Patterns of 364 rhyme similar to Voznesensky's are accompanied by phonemic features greatly dissimilar to the Russian lines. By changing the word order to accommodate rhyme, Marshall not only destroys the naturalness of the discourse but changes the emphasis of the

Russian poem.

Most damaging to Marshall's translations is his apparently undisciplined use of phonetic effects. His haphazard, simplified alliteration, for instance, contrasts with Voznesensky's intricate interweaving of alliteration with assonance and patterns of in­ version of stress and of segmental sounds. Lacking almost entirely in Marshall's translations is the strict discipline of the Russian. '

The Poets of the Experiment. The four poets who par­ ticipated in the experiment in translation, Auden, Kunitz, Smith, and Wilbur, achieve more phonological resemblance to the Russian than do any of the other translators. Although each poet uses an identifiable style of his own, there are certain features common to all eight of the poems used in this study.

First, each of the poems preserves to some extent the general structure of the corresponding Russian poem. There may be English couplets where there are Russian quatrains, or unrhymed

English lines where there is close rhyme in the Russian poem, but as a rule, lexical elements phonologically bound together in the 365

Russian texts are in some way bound together in the English texts.

Second, these English translations show a tendency to use phonological patterns so that the words with rhetorical emphasis in the Russian have the same kind of rhetorical emphasis in the

English. When a word is given prominence in the Russian by means of rhyme, the same kind of prominence is duplicated in the English p oem s.

Third, the naturalness of the dramatic discourse in the

Russian poems is preserved by these four English poets. The pho­ nological effects, like the Russian ones, are accomplished without a strain in word order and without the use of stilted or inartistically ambiguous language.

Fourth, although these poems often fail to achieve the com­ plexity of the Russian sound patterns, there are instances of highly intricate phonetic patterns much like the Russian. Perhaps most important of all in imitating Voznesensky's phonology, the sound patterns seem highly disciplined, closely related to the lexical context and to the general structure of the poems. CHAPTER IV

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Basic to oral interpretation both as a critical discipline and as a performing art is a thorough understanding of the literary work of art. For poetry in particular careful analysis of the oral structure is essential to understanding. Though there is unanimous agreement about the importance of the phonology of a poetic work, literary scholars have puzzled over what constitutes the oral structure of a poem. The problem becomes both more complicated and more pertinent with the increase in the quantity and the popularity of poetry in translation.

The work of Andrei Vozesensky, one of Russia's leading con­ temporary poets and a world literary figure, is of particular interest for several reasons. First, he is recognized as an outstanding poet and a fine craftsman. Second, and equally important to the oral in­ terpreter, he reads his poems publicly all over the world. Indeed, many people know his poems primarily through his public readings.

Third, his poems have been widely translated into English by both poets and non-poets, both scholars of Russian and those with little or no knowledge of the language. 367

An experiment in translation provided partial motivation for the present study. Six English-speaking poets, W. H. Auden, Jean

Garrigue, Stanley Kunitz, Stanley Moss, William Jay Smith, and

Richard Wilbur, worked closely with Patricia Blake and Max Hayward.

The poets, knowing little or no Russian, were given literal transla­ tions and prosodic models of Voznesensky's poems. Patricia Blake and Max Hayward provided them with pertinent knowledge of the

Russian language and culture. In addition, the poets heard the poems read aloud in Russian. The poems resulting from this collaboration achieved a degree of standardization as Voznesensky's poems in English.

They have been read on the stage, on television, and on a commercial recording.

The probLem of selecting and judging translations confronts the literary scholar. How can the phonological structure of a poem be compared with the phonological structure of its translation? A com­ parison of the sounds alone would be futile, because if only the sounds were important, there would be no need for translation. Instead, the comparison must be between the function of the sounds of the original poem and the function of the sounds of the translation.

For the present study eight poems by Voznesensky were selected on the basis of variety and availability of oral readings by the poets. Another factor in the selection of the Russian poems was the 368

existence of English translations. The choice of the Russian poems allowed four of the poets of the experiment, Auden, Kunitz, Smith, and Wilbur, to be represented by two poems each. Additional English translations of the eight Russian poems made a total of thirty-five

English poems.

The procedure was first to establish the lexical and phono­ logical features of each Russian poem and the structure of the poem as a whole. A literal translation was made in order to study the lexical context. A transcription of phonetic and phonemic features of the poet^s oral performance provided the basis for the phonological structure. Relationships between lexical and phonological features were noted and the total structure of the poem was described.

Both the phonetic and phonemic features of the English poems were compared with the Russian poems. More important, subjected to analysis in the English poems was the relationship of the phonology to the lexical structure and to the total structure of the poem.

I. RUSSIAN LANGUAGE AND VERSIFICATION

In order to analyze the structure of the Russian poem, cer­ tain features of the Russian language must be considered: declensions, length of words, word stress, number of vowels, patterns of phone­ mic stress and pitch. 369

First, declensions permit an economy of words

and variety in the repetition of words not pos­

sible in English.

Second, the greater length of Russian orthographic

words and the addition of particles and en­

clitics to form ’’phonological words" allow

few plus junctures per number of syllables.

Third, only primary stress is phonemic, second­

ary stress occurring incidentally in long words

and compound words and always preceding the

primary stress.

Fourth, there are only five vowels for the pur­

pose of rhyme and assonance, the distinc­

tion between hard arid soft vowels being ig­

nored.

Fifth, patterns of phonemic stress, clause

terminals, and intonation contours are much

like those of English.

Features of Russian versification must be considered: meter and rhyme. First, both accentual and accentual-syllabic verse

are standard.

Second, there is more dactylic and amphibrachic

meter in Russian poetry than in English poetry,

although all of the classsical meters are widely

used.

Third, regular meter is not judged monotonous,

possibly because of the great variety possible

in the placement of juncture.

Fourth, there is wide variety in kinds of rhyme.

II. PHONOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF VOZNESENSKY^ POEMS

The analyses of the phonological structure of the Russian poems make possible two kinds of generalizations. First, it is possible to describe the relationship between the printed poem and the phono­ logical structure revealed by the transcription. Second, certain judg­ ments can be made about the contributions of the phonological context to the total poem.

First, a comparison of the printed poem and the phonological structure revealed by the reading indicates that most of the features of the phonological structure are inherent in the text. If aural fea­ tures were artificially imposed by the poet*s oral performance, either the poet's craftmanship or his reading would have to be judged faulty. Voznesensky's craftmanship is more obviously strong be­ cause the structure of sound does not depend solely or even prim ar­ ily on the poet's reading.

Second, the phonological context contributes to the total poem a quality the Russians call "tochnost'." A term applied to the poetry of Pushkin and of Akhmatova, the word is related to the Eng­ lish expressions "exactness," "preciseness." There is in

Voznesensky's use of words a "rightness" hard to dispute. Each word seems to be selected exclusively for its phonological features and at the same time exclusively for its lexical content.

Several desirable characteristics create this "tochnost'."

First, there is never any obvious strain on the lexi­

cal context. Neither selection nor order of

words seems forced to fit a phonological

pattern. This absence of lexical strain per­

mits a naturalness, a conversational quali­

ty, in both oral and written poems.

Second, the phonology and the lexical features

seem to react reciprocally, each one empha­

sizing and complementing the other. 372

Third, the phonoLogical patterns are complex

in their repetition and in their relation­

ships with each other.

Fourth, the phonetic features are at aLl times

disciplined, related to each other with

complex ties both lexical and phonological.

This highly disciplined use of lexical and phonological features creates in Voznesensky's poetry a quality best described as

"tochnost'."

IH. THE ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS

Though none of the English poems show the intricacy of the phonological patterns or the closeness of lexical and phono­ logical features equal to the Russian, on the basis of these analyses the translations of Auden, Kunitz, Smith, and Wilbur are judged to be closest to the Russian poems. These translations more than any others display something of the highly competent, care­ fully controlled phonological structure of Voznesensky's poetry.

IV„ SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The present study, containing a detailed critical analysis

of the phonoLogical structure of eight poems by Voznesensky and 3 73

thirty-five English translations of those poems, provides descrip­ tions of Voznesensky*s phonological technique and the relationship between the phonological structure of the poem and his oral per­ form ance.

The study further indicates that it is possible to make a worthwhile comparison of the phonology of a translation and of the original poem. Not merely the sounds but their function in relation to the total poem can be established on the basis of lexical and phonological analyses.

The study also provides additional support for the use­ fulness of phonetic and phonemic analysis as a tool of literary criticism for the interpreter, A transcription of the significant phonological features of the poet*s reading is a basis for the analysis of the phonological structure, an integral part of the literary artifact.

The study makes possible judgments about translations of poetry. These judgments, based on describable characteristics of the original poem and various translations, permit the critical evaluation necessary for the selection of material for the oral in­ terpretation of literature. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. CHAPTER ONE

1. Books

Alexandrova, Vera. A History of Soviet Literature, 1917-1964, from Gorky to Solzhenitsyn. Trans. Mirra Ginsburg. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1964.

Brower, Reuben A. (ed.). On Translation. Cambridge Massa­ chusetts: Harvard University Press, 1959.

Carlisle, Olga Andreyev. Voices in the Snow: Encounters with Rus sian W riters. New York: Random House, 1963

Chatman, Seymour, and Samuel R. Levin (ed.). Essays on the Language of Literature. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Com pany, 1967.

Fowler, Roger (ed.). Essays on Style and Language: Linguistic and Critical Approaches to Literary Style. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1966.

Frye, Northrup (ed.). Sound and Poetry. New York: Columbia University Pres s , 1957.

Fussell, Paul, Jr. Poetic Meter and Poetic Form. New York: Random House, 1965.

Gross, Harvey. Sound and Form in Modern Poetry: A Study of Prosody from Thomas Hardy to Robert Lowell. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1965. 3 76

Hemphill, George (ed.). Discussions of Poetry. Rhythm and Sound. Boston: D. C. Heath and Company, 1961.

Mihajlov, Mihajlo. Moscow Summer. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1965.

Mirsky, D. S. A History of Russian Literature from its Begin- nings to 1900. Edited by Francis J. Whitfield. New York: Vintage Books, 1958.

Sebeok, Thomas A. (ed.). Style in Language. Cambridge, Massa­ chusetts: The M. I. T. Press, I960.

Selver, Paul. The Art of Translating Poetry. Boston: The Writer, Inc., 1967.

Sloan, Thomas O. (ed.). The Oral Study of Literature. New York; Random House, 1966.

Slonim, Marc. Soviet Russian Literature Writers and Problems 1917-1967. New York: Oxford University Press, 1967.

Ullman, Stephen. Language and Style. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1964.

Wellek, Rene, and Austin Warren. Theory of Literature. Third edition. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1956.

2. Periodicals

Chatman, Seymour. ''Robert Frost's 'Mowing*: An Inquiry into Prosodic Structure, " Kenyon Review, XVIII (Summer 1956), 421-438.

Dunham, Vera S. "Poems about Poems; Notes on Recent Poetry," Slavic Review, XXIV (M arch 1965), 57-76,

Hill, Archibald A. "An Analysis of'The Windover,' An Experiment in Structural Analysis, " PMLA, LXX (December 1955) 968-978. 377

Whitehall, HaroLd. Review of An Outline of English Structure, by George L. Trager and Henry Lee Smith, Jr. , Kenyon Review, XIII (Autumn 1951), 710-714.

Young, Peter. ’'Eloquent New Voice in Russia," Life, LX (April 1, 1966), 69-72.

3. Dissertations

Barnhill, Viron Leonard. "Poetic Context in the Collected Poems of T. S. Eliot: A Linguistic Investigation of Poetic Con­ text." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, I960.

Carrington, Richard Hale. "Archibald MacLeish: A Study of his Prosody for the Oral Interpreter." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1965.

Hendricks, William Oliver. "Linguistics and the Structural An­ alysis of Literary Texts." Unpublished Ph.D. disser­ tation, University of IlLinois, 1965.

Lehiste, Ilse. "An Acoustic-Phonetic Study of Internal Open- Juncture." Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 1959.

Lightfoot, Marjorie Jean. "T. S. Eliot's 'The Cocktail Party*: An Experiment in Prosodic Description. " Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Northwestern University, 1964.

Loesch, Katharine Taylor. "Prosodic Patterns in the Poetry of Dylan Thomas." Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, North­ western University, 1961.

Lukanitsch, Ruth Marion. "Relatidnship of the Figures of Sound to the Rhythm of Certain Poems of Gerard Manley Hopkins." Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Northwest­ ern University, 1963. 378

Murdy, Thelma Louise Baughan. "Sound and Meaning in Dylan Thomas's Poetry." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Florida, 1962.

Perloff, Marjorie Gabrielle. "Rhyme and Meaning in the Poetry of Yeats." Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Catholic University of America, 1965.

Perry, Mary Frances. "Linguistics as a Basis for Literary Criticism." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Univer­ sity of Indiana, 1964.

Plank, Dale Lewin. "Composition of Pasternak's Lyric, 1912- 1932: A Study of Sound and Im agery." Unpublished Ph.D . dissertation, University of Washington, 1962.

B. CHAPTER II

1. Books

Avanesov, R. I. Fonetika Sovremennogo Literaturnoga Iazyka. Moskva: Moskovskogo Universiteta, 1956.

Bryzgunova, E. A. Prakticheskaia Fonetika i Intonatsiia Rus - skogo Iazyka. Moskva: Moskovskogo Universiteta, 1963.

Buning, J. E. Jergens, and C. H. Van Schooneveld. The Sentence Intonation of Contemporary Standard Russian as a Lin­ guistic Structure. Vol.Ill of Description and Analysis of Contemporary Standard Russian. Edited by Roman Jakob- s on and C. H. Van Schooneveld. 3 vols. 's Gravenhage: Mouton & Co., 1961.

Erlich, Victor. Russian Formalism, 's-Gravenhage: Mouton & C o., 1955.

Fant, Gunnar. Acoustic Theory of Speech Production With Calcu­ lations Based on X-Ray Studies ot Russian Articulations. Vol. II of Description and Analysis of Contemporary Stan - dard Russian. Edited by Roman Jakobs on and C. H. Van Schooneveld. 3 vols. 'a-Gravenhage, Mouton & co., I960. 3 79

GaLkina-Fedoruk, E. M. , K. V. Gorshova, and N. M. Shanskii. Sovremennyi Russkii Iazyk. Chast’ I. Moskva: Mosko­ vskogo Universiteta, 1962.

Halle, Morris. The Sound Pattern of Russian: A Linguistic and Acoustic Investigation. With an Excursis on "The Con­ textual Variants ot the Russian Vowels." Vol. I of Des - cription and Analysis of Contemporary Standard Russian. Edited by Roman Jakobson and C. H. Van Schooneveld. 3 vols. vs-Gravenhage: Mouton & Co., 1959.

Kemball, Robin. Alexander Blok; A Study in Rhythm and Metres The Hague: Mouton & Co. , 1965.

Potter, Ralph K. , George A. Kopp, and Harriet C. Green. Visible Speech. New York: D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., 1947.

Shaw, J. Thomas. The Transliteration of Modern Russian for English-Language Publications. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1967.

Trofimov, V. A. Sovremennyi Rus skii Literaturnyi Iazyk. Lenin­ grad: Leningradskogo Universiteta, 1957.

Unbegaun, B. O. Russian Versification. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1956.

Ward, Dennis. The Russian Language Today: System and Anoma­ ly. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965.

Ward, Dennis. Russian Pronunciation. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1958.

Wise, C. M. Applied Phonetics. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pren­ tice - HaiTrTnc .TT9577"

Zhirmunsky, Viktor Maksimovich. Introduction to Metrics: The Theory of Verse. Trans. C. F. Brown. Edited by E. Stankiewicz and W. N. Vickery. The Hague: Mouton & C o ., 1966, 380

2. Periodicals

Bailey, James. Review of Alexander Blok; A Study in Rhythm and Metre, by Robin KembaLL, Slavic and East European Journal, XI (Spring 1967), 9Z-95.

Kent, R. G. Review of Language, by Leonard Bloomfield, Lan­ guage, X (M arch 1934), 40-48.

Shapiro, Michael. "Remarks on Phonological Boundaries in Rus - . sian, " Slavic and East European Journal, XI (Winter 1967), 433-441.

Trager, George L. "The Phonemes of Rus sian,"Language,, X (De­ cember, 1934),334-344.

C. CHAPTER III

1. Books

Barnstone, Willis, et. al. (ed.). Modern European Poetry. New York; Bantam Books, Inc., 1966.

Blake, Patricia, and Max Hayward (ed.). Dissonant Voices in __Soviet Literature. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, <

.Half-way to the Moon: New Writing from Russia. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1964.

Field, Andrew (ed.). Pages from Tarusa: New Voices in Rus - sian Writing. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1963.

Hayward, Max, and Edward L. Crowley (ed.). Soviet Literature in the Sixties. New York; Frederick A. Praeger, 1964.

James, C. V. (ed.). Soviet Russian Verse. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1964. 381

Markov, Vladimir, and Merrill Sparks (ed,). Modern Russian Poetry, Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1967.

Mikhailov, A. Lirika Serdtsa i Razuma. Moskva: Sovetskii P isatel', 1965.

Obolensky, Dimitri (ed.). The Penguin Book of Russian Verse. Middlesex, England: Penguin Books Ltd., 1962.

Ognyev, Vladimir (comp.). Vo Ves Golos, Moscow, Progress Publishers, [n.d. ] .

, Surkow, Aleksei. Golosa Vremeni. Moskva: Sovetskii Pisatel', 1965.

Voznesensky, Andrei. Akhi lies ova Serdtse. Moskva: Khudozhest- vennaia Literature, 1966.

Antimiry. Moskva; Molodaia Gvardiia, 1964.

. Antiworlds. Patricia Blake and Max Hayward (ed.). New York; Basic Books, Inc., 1966.

______. Antiworlds and the Elfth Ace. Patricia Blake and Max Hayward (ed.). Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc. , 1967.

______, Selected Poems of Andrei Voznesnsky. Trans. Anselm Hollo. New York: Grove Press, Inc,, 1964.

. Voznesensky: Selected Poems. Trans. Herbert Mar­ shall. New York: Hill and Wang, 1966.

______. Voznesensky: Selected Poems. Trans. Herbert Mar­ shall, Revised edition. New York: Hill and Wang, 1966.

Whitney, Thomas P. (trans.). The New Writing in Russia. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1964. 2. Periodicals

Forgues, Pierre. "The Poetry of Andrei Voznesensky," Sur- vey. XLIX (October, 1963),, 63-77.

. "The Young Poets," Survey, XLVI (January 1963), 31-52.

Harrington, Michael. "The New Parabolist, " The Reporter, XXVIII (February 14, 1943), 50-52.

Karlinsky, Simon. "Yevtushenko and the Underground Poets," Nation, CCIII (November 21, 1966), 549-553.

Koten, Bernard. "On Translating Voznesensky, " Nation, CXCIX (November 9, 1964), 337-338.

"New Voices in Russian Writing," Encounter, XX (April 1963), 27-90.

Nillson, Nills A. "The Parabola of Poetry: Some Remarks on the Poetry of Andrei Voznesenskij, " Scandoslavica, X (1964), 49-64.

Osetrov, Evgenii, "Andrei Voznesensky's Rhythms," Soviet Studies in Literature, XII (Winter 1966), 34-42.

Rosenthal, M. L. "Voznesensky in Translation," Poetry, CX (April 1967), 40-42.

Voznesensky, Andrey. "Six Digressions from the Poem, 'The Tri-Cornered Pear,'" Odyssey Review, II (December 1962), 142-157.

Zelinski, Korneli. "Russian Poetry Today," Survey, XL (Jan­ uary 1962), 49-67.

3. Dictionaries

Alekseev, M. P., et. al. (ed.). Slovar' Russkogo Iazyka. Moskva; Gosudarstvennoe Izdatelstvo Inostrannykh i Natsional'nykh Slovarei, 1957-1961. ! Chernyshev, V. I. (ed,). Slovar* Sovremennogo Russkogo Literaturnogo Iazyka. Moskva; IzdatePstvo Akademii Nauk. SSSR. 195-. \

Smirnitsky, A. I. (ed,). Russian-English Dictionary. Third edition. New York; E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc., 1949.

4. Recordings

Antiworlds; The Poetry of Andrei Voznesensky. CoLumbia OJL 6590 (1966).

The. Voices of Yevgeni Yevtushenko and Andrei Voznesensky. Monitor MR 113 (1964). APPENDICES APPENDIX A

THE RUSSIAN TEXTS

I. OCEHL B CHT7JmE

CBncaio c BaroHHow nAomaAKH, npoinaw T e, npomaM, Moe AeTo, n o p a MHe, Ha flaqe CTytiaT TonopaMM, mom aom 3a(5wBaioT jtomaTHM, n p o m a w T e ,

J ie c a MOH C(5pOCHJIM KpOHbl, riycTbi ohm h rpycTH bi, n a n HmMK c aKKopAeoHa, a My3biKy— yHecAM*

MbI JlHDflM , MbI TOSCe nopO X H H , yXOflHM M H ,TaK nOJIOaceHOj

M3 C T eH , M aTepew M M3 HCeHUMH, H 6TOT nOpHAOK M3BGU6H , npomaw, moh Mawa, y OKOH Tbi CTaHemb npo3pa^Ho, Kan k o k o h , HaBepHO, yManjiacB 3a aeHB, n p n cH A eM ,

Apy3 b h h Bparn, CbiBanTe, ryA 6a w , m3 MeHH ce w w a c c o c b m c to m bm BbitferaeTe m h yxoscy M3 B a c , o poAMHa, nonpomaeMCH, <5yAy 3Be3Aa, BeTJia, He njiauy, He nonpouiaMKa, cnacM(5o, acH3HB, xito f o m a , Ha CTpeJiBtfwmax b 10 d aju io B H npodOBaH BbltfHTB 1 0 0 cnacwtfo, ato omwtfancH, ho TpnacflH cnacudo, ato b npo3patjHwe mom jionaTKM Bonuia reHHaxiBHOCTL, man B pe3MHOByiO nepuaTKy

KpaCHbiii MysccKOH icyjiaK ,

"AHflpeM BoaHeceHCKMM11— <5yAeT, no^HT (5bi He cjiobom, He <5yjiAHKOM, eme Ha mene TBoeii AyniHow— llAHJ^pIOI^KOM,, , c n a c n t f o , a t o b pomax oceHHHX Tbi B C T p eT H Jiac t , *i t o - to cnpocwjia, m nca BOJiOKJia 3a oineuHHK, a oh ynHpajiCH, c n a c w C o , h 03KMB, cnacntfo 3a oceHL, HTO Tbi MHe MeHH O <5i HCHWAa , xo3H M K a (5yflMJia n a c b BOceM B, a b npa3flHHKH ckhjio <5acHJia njiacTHHKa CJjiaTHoro nomwCJa, cnacw(5o,

HO BOT TH yXOflHDIb, yXOAMIUB, K ax n o e 3 A o t x o a h t , yxoA H m B , H3 n o p momx nojibix yxoAnniB, Mbi B p o 3 b Apyr H3 Apyra yxoAHM, ueM hbm 3 t o t aom H e y r o A e n ?

Tbi pfiAOM H TA e-TO A aJieK O , nOATH ATO y BAaAMBOCTOKa,

H 3HaiO, ATO Mbi nOBTOpHMCH b Apy3BHx h noApyrax, b TpaBHHicax, H ac 3T0T 3aMeHHT H t o t , ---- n p u p o A a (So h t c h n y c T O T , cnacn(5o 3a CAyTbie k p o h h , Ha CMeHy npwAyT m hjijim oh h , 3a Banna 3aK0Hu— cnacHtfo, h o TKeHmHHa m < ihtch no CKJioHaM, K&K OrHeHHblH JIHCT 3 a BarOHOM. . .

CnacHTe!

I I . ITAPAE0J1M4ECKAH EAJIJIAJU

Cyattfa, Kan paneTa, neTHT no napatfone Otfu^HO— bo M pane m pe!*ce— n o p a n y r e .

H hji orHeHHO-puKwii xyaoacHHK ToreH, EoreMa, a b nponmoM ToproBbiw a r e H T . 4 t o 6 b JlyBp KOpojieBCKMM nonacTB M3 MOHMapTpa, O h a a ji KpyrajiH *iepe3 HBy c CyMaTpoiU <7HeccH, 3a(5biB cywacmecTBMe aeH er, Ky^axTaHbe aceH, flyxory aKaueMMM. O h npeoAOJieJi TsroteHbe 3e*\iHoe. JKpeijbi roroTanM 3a KpyatKOM nnBHOio: "ITpHMaH— Kopo^ie, napatfojia— icpyqe, He ny^m e jib CKonnpoBaTB pawcKHe Hymn?"

A oh yHOCHJiCH paneTOM peBymen C k b o 3b B e T e p , cpbiBaiomHM $ajijt£>i h yrnw, H b JlyBp o h n o n a n He c k b o 3 L rjiaBHuM nopor — IlapacJojiOM THeBHO npotfHB noTOJion! JAuyT k cbom m npaBnaM, no-pa3HOMy xpatfpo. 4epB H K — »iepe3 men, qejiOBeK— n o n a p a t fo n e .

JKmia-tfbiJia neBOxina pnflOM b K B a p T a n e. Mbi c Heio yuHJiMCB} 3aqeTbi cuaBajin. K y a a ac h y e x a j i! M a e p T MeHH H ec Mea? rpy3Hbix rpy3MHCKMX aBycMbicJieHHbix 3Be3aI IIpocTM MHe aypaiiKyio 3Ty napatfojiy. IlpocTbiBraHe njie^HKM b tiepHOM napaflHOM... 0 , Kan tbi 3 B eH e n a bo Mpane BceneHHOM y n p y r o m npHMo,— nan npyTHK aHTeHHti! A r Bee Jieyy, npM3eMaHHCB n o hmm— 3eMHblM H 03HfSfflMM TBOMM n03HBHHM. Kan TpyaHO aaeTCH hhm 3T a napatfojia!.. 3 88

CMeTaH naHOHBi, nporH03bi, n aparpa$H , HecyTCH MCKyccTBO, jhocJobb m hctophh-- no napatfonmiecKOw TpaeKTopwwI

B CHtfwpt ye3acaeT oh HHHeniHeM ho^bio*

A woweT (5htb, Bee x e npHMan— Kopone?

/ h i . roffii

H— F o m h ! rJia3 HHUH BOpOHOK MH6 BblKJieBajl BOpOT, cjieTan Ha n on e H aroe. R— r o p e .

R— ro jio c. Bomhh, roponoB ronoBHH Ha C H e r y copoK nepBoro rojia. H— rojiofl.

H— ropno noBemeHHoia 6a6u y vbe Teno, KaK k o jio k o ji, 6 kjio Han nnomanfcio rojioii. •. H— F omh I

0 r p o 3flH Bo3Me3nBHl B3bmji 3annoM Ha 3anan— h n en en He3 BaHoro t o c t h I H b MeMopwajiBHoe Hetfo b6kji npenKwe 3Be3nu— Kan r B 0 3 n n . H— roHH.

C mumiiib <5epeMeHHaH, tfnenHaH. Kan tm nepewieHHJiacB, tfenHan.

CHflHmB, oneprMBaeniB iuiaTBMije, M nnaueTCH Tetfe, m nxtatieTCH...

3a tiTo Hac tojibko tfatfw tfanywT H ry<5u, nanaa, naioT.

H ButferaioT 3a anartfayMH, H OT BarOHOB OTCTaiOT? Kan tu (5exana 3 a BaroHaMH, F ji n n e n a b nonocbi OKOHHue...

CTytiaT noMTOBue, KyptepcKHe, XatfapoBCKMe, JiiotfepenKMe. . .

H o t Mo c k b h no Amxatfana, OcTonfieHeB no HeMOTbi,

Ct o h t , nan KaMeHHbie, (5a6bi, JlyHe noncTaBMB xnBOTbi.

M ocnenMTenbHbie cBonotiw CKB03B HHX npOHOCHTCH CM eHCb,

B pytfamxax necTpwx, b mnsnax BOMno^Hbix, M b n ^ e w n e p e , KaK h c e iiw a c .

MOTOrOHKM n o BEPTMKAJIBHOH CTEHE

3aBopaxMBan, MaHexa, CBHmeT xeHmwHa no MaHexy! K p a r n — K p a c H n e , KaK KJieniHH. ry(5u KpameHne— rpeniHbi. MqnT Topnenon ropn30HTanBHOio, Xpn3aHTeMy 3aTKHy b 3a Tanniol

A H ren aTOMHbiii, aM a30HKa! m e n u BnaBneHbi, KaK BopoHKa. MoTonwKn Han ronoBow 3neKTpHnecKOio nnnon.

H a n o e n o x m t b BepT&tKanBHO• Ax, nMKaponKa, noqt M napa... 0<5biBaTenM m BecTanKH BepTHKantHH, KaK "BaHbKH-BCTaHbKH".

B 3TO0, B3BMBUieKCH Han 30HTaMM, Mex OBauwM, a$Kni, ofiwn, CymHOCTB xeHmwHbi r0pM3 0HTanbHaH MHe MepemHTCH h JieTMTl

Ax, KaK KpyxHT ee optfwTa! Ax, KaK cne 3bi k tfenxaM npMtfnTuI M. TwpaHHT- ee MiiHrMcxaH-- TpeHMpyiomMM CwHrsmaHij* . • CwnrKtraHK, noHBJiHHCt, ho c Hew roBopHT, "He M jK a , Tojfce He TproK— no creHe, KaK Myxa... A Buepa Kawepy npoKOJiona.., M htphth*• • rioiifly Hanwray B CeKUtHIO. . . H qapanaeTCH, Kan KOHOKpaaKa".

H k Hew BJiaMwBaiocB b aHTpaKTe* "HaytiH,— roBopio t — ropH3 0 H T y . . .

A OHa MOJitjHT, aMa30HKa. A OHa rojiOBoii KaqaeT. A e e em e xpeK K a u a e T . A rjia3a nojiHH TaKOM— r0pH3 0HTaJIBH0K) t o c k o h !

HO^HOM A3P0n0PT B HbB-HOPKE

ABTonopTpeT mom, peTopTa HeoHa, anocTon HetfecHbix BOPOT---- A o p o n o p T !

Bpe33icaT fliopajieBbie BKTpajKH, To ^HO peHTreHOBCKHM chhmok flymM.

KaK st o CTpam H O , K o r a a b TeCe Ketfo cto h t b TJieiomnx Tpaccax HeotfblKHOBeHHbIX CTOJIHl*!

Kascflbie cyTKH Teo'n HanojiHHioT, KaK nmio3, 3Be3AHbie cyAt(Sbi rpy3UHK0B, ninrox.

B tfa p e , KaK aH rejibi, racH yT t b o h aiiKorojiHKH. Th hm rnarojiembl

Tbi MX, npH^HTHX, B03BbiinaemB. Tbi hm "r.pHtfbiTbe11 B03Bemaeuib I

X«yT KaBSoiepoB, cyaetf, qeMoaaHOB, niyaec... IlflT t> "KapaBextJi" ocjienwTejibHo CHflyT c HecSecI

T I h tl nojiyHo^Him maccM BtinycKatoT ycTajio. I\n;e xe mecTaa?

Bh^ho, flonptirajiacb— flPHHb, aHCTSHOK, 3Be3fla!.. 3jieKTponjiHTKaMH njinmyT noa Hew ropofla. Tfle OHa peeT, CTOHeT, BtypuT? H cwrapeTKOM b TyMaHe ropHT?••

OHa nporH03 He noHHMaeT• Ee 3eMjifl He npwHHMaeT.

XyBH nporH03bi. H tbi b oxwflaHHH tfypw, Kan b napTH3aHbi, yxoflHiHb b cboh BecTH(5iojiM. JlpuxHyT npaBMTejibCTBa b napax tfecnetiHBix. Thx, KaK npoBH3op, hm Tpaccu npopo^MT flHcne^iep. MomHoe oko B3wpaeT b WHBie Mnpa. MoMmHKH OKOH cxte3HT Te<5n, KaK MOEKapa, 3Be3flHHM flecaHTHMK, xpycTanbHoe tiyawme, Cjia^KO, flocaflHO tfuTb cbihom tfyaymero, Tfle HeT aypaKOB K BOK3 aJIOB—TOpTOB--- Oehh no 3 tbi m asponopTul

CTOHeT b aKBapwyMHOM cTeKJie Hetfo, npHBapeHHoe k 3eMJie.

AoponopT— 030Ha k cojimja AKKpeflHTOBaHHOe nOCOJlbCTBOl

C t o noKOJieHHM He CMejiw TaKoro KOCHyTbCH— IIpeoflojieHbH HeCyiHHX KOHCTpyKIIHM. BuecTo KaMeHHbix HCTyKaHOB CTHHeT CTaxaH cwHeBu— <5e3 cTanaHa. Phaom c KaccaMM-TepeMaMH Oh , touho ra3, aHTHMaT epnajieH 1

BpyKJiHH— aypan, TBepflOKaMeHHtiii qepT. IlaMHTHMK a p u ~ AoponopT.

AHTJKLMHHI

JKHBeT y Hac cocea ByKaniKHH, B KajitcoHax UBeTa npoMOKamKW.

Ho, nan B03AymHtie mapti, Hafl hum ropHT Ahtmmhpbi ! M b hhx MarnqecKHM, khk fleMOM, BcejieHHow npaBKT, B03jiexcwT, AHTHdyKauiKHH, anafleMMK, » B 0(5'i>HTMHX JIOJIJIOtfpHflXCMJU

Ha 3flpaBCTByioT Ahthmhph! ^aHTacTH— nocpean Mypu. Ee3 rjiynux He (5mjio (5bi yMHbix, 0a3wcoB— 6 e 3 KapanyMOB, HeT xceHinHH— eCTB aHTHMySK'tlHHH. B jriecax peByT aHTHMaiuHHbi. ECTB COJIB 3eMJIH. ECTB cop 3eMJlH. Ho coxHeT cokoji (5e 3 3Men.

JIlOtfJHO H KPMTMKOB MOMX. Ha raee oflHoro H3 hhx, EjiaroyxaHHa m rojia, CwneT aHTMTOjiOBa!»•

H CIIJIIO C OKOIDKaMH OTKptlTblMM, A rae-TO CBwmeT 3Be3B,onaji, H He6ocKpe(5bi CTCJiaKTHTaMM Ha 6pwxe rjiotfyca b m c h t . M noflo MHOM BHH3 rOJIOBOM, B0H3HBHIHCb BHJIKOH B map 3eMHOH, EecneuHbiii, mmjihm uoT H JieK , JKHBemB TH, MOM aHTMMMpOKl 3aqeM cpeflH hoiihom nopa BcTpeuaioTCH Ahthmhph?

3aueM ohm BABoeM chaht M B TeJieBM30piJ TJlflflHT?

Mm He noHHT h napw $pa3. Mx nepB&in pa3— nocjieflHHH pa3 1

Cmaht, 3a<5HBniH npo (Johtoh, BeAB OyAyT Myumtbch noTOMl

M yniKH npacHBie ropHT, Kan <5yATO tfatfo^KH cmaht...

...3HaKOMMM AeKTop MHe Btiepa CKa3aji: "Ahthmmph—Mypa"

H cnnro, Boponaiocb cnpocoHOK. HaBepHO, npaB HaytiHHM xmhpb. \ Mow KOT, KaK paAHOnpueMHHK, 3eA6HUM TAa30M JIOBMT MMp.

TyMAHHAH yjIHUA

TyMaHHMM npwropOA* kak TypMaH. Kan nonnaBKH, MHJiwmioHepH. TyMaH. KOTOpbIM BeK? KOTOpoil 3ptl?

Bee— no uacTHM, noAotfHO tfpeAy. JIwAeii Kax tfyATO pa3bmhtmjim . EpeAy. BepHew— tfapaxTaiocb b BaTMHe.

Hocbi. rioA$apHMKM. Okojimiiih. Ohm, KaK b $oamC6, abohtch KaAomx? KaK <5u (5aniKOM He otfMeHHTBCH 1

Tan aceHiAMHa— ot ry(5 eABa, ABOHCB M tiTO-TO BocKpemaa, yx He JIlOtfHMaH— BAOBa, euje tboh, yxce— uyscan... 0 TyMtfu, o npoxowwx Tpyct h ... BeHepa? IIpo;aaBeu MopoaceHoro!. Jlpy3tfl? Ox, 3tm aro jiOMopomeHHueI

H c n o T u x a i o c t , <5 bk >c b , K H By, . TyMaH, TyMaH— He pa3<5epemBca Ay I TyMaH, TyMan— He «030BeinBca...

Kan 3flopOBo, Koraa TyMaw paccewBaeTcal APPENDIX B

LITERAL TRANSLATIONS PROVIDED BY THE RESEARCHER

I. AUTUMN IN SIGULDA

I hang from the train platform, Goodbye,

Goodbye, my summer, It is time for me. At the dacha they knock with axes, They nail up my house of boards, Goodbye,

My woods have thrown off the foliage, Empty are they and sad. Like the case from an accordian, But the music they took away.

We a re people, We too are empty, We leave, as is already established, From walls, mothers, and from women, And this order is everlasting.

Goodbye, my mother, At windows You stand transparent, like a cocoon, Probably you got tired from the day, Let us sit down.

Friends and enemies, goodbye, Goodbye, From me right now With the whistle you run away, And I go away from you. 0 Motherland, we say goodbye to each other, 1 will be a star, a white willow, X do not cry, am not a beggar, Thank you, life, that you have been.

In the shooting gallery with a score of ten I tried to score 100, Thank you that I made the mistake, But three times thank you that

Into my transparent shoulders Genius entered, like Into a rubber glove A red, male fist,

"Andrei Voznesenskii" May not remain in word, or stone, Still on your w arm cheek, "Andrushki."

Thank you that in an autumn grove You met, asked something, And pulled the dog by the collar, But he held back, thank you.

I came alive, thank you for autumn, That you explained me to myself, The landlady woke us at eight And on holidays hoarsely spoke deeply A record of thieves' songs, Thank you.

But here you are leaving, leaving, As the train is leaving, you're leaving, From my hollow pores you leave, We separately, one from another, leave, Why is this house disagreeable to us?

I know that we repeat ourselves, In friends and friends (fern.) and blades of grass This and that replace us, -- Nature fears a vacuum, 397

Thank you for blown away leaves, In their place will come millions, For your laws, thank you,

But a woman runs down the slope Like an autumn leaf behind the train car, Save I

II. PARABOLIC BALLAD

Fate, like a rocket, flies along a parabola Usually in darkness and rarely along a rainbow. Ther lived a fiery-redhaired artist Gauguin, Bohemian, and formerly a commercial agent. In order to reach the royal Louvre from Montmartre, He made a big detour through Java and Sumatra! . He sped away, having forgotten the madness of money, The cackle of wives, stuffy air of academies, He overcame the earth's gravity. The priests roared with laughter from behind their beer mugs, "A straight line is shorter, a parabola steeper, Wouldn't it be better to copy our heavenly home?"

But he raised up like a roaring rocket Through the wind, tearing away coattails and ears And into the Louvre he fell not through the main door-- But like a parabola wrathfully pierced through the ceiling 1 They walk toward their truth, in different ways bravely, A worm through a crack, man--along a parabola.

There once lived a girl alongside in the neighborhood. Together we studied, turned in exams. Whither have I gone away! And the devil carried me ' 3 98

Among the massive, TifLis, ambiguous stars! Forgive me this idiotic parabola. Shoulders grown cold in dark front doors... O, how you rang out in the dark of the universe Resilient and direct--like a thin antenna. And I keep on flying, touching down on it-- Your earthly and cold call sign. How hard this parabola gives itself to us.

Sweeping off canons, predictions, paragraphs, Rush about art, Love, and history-- Along a parabolic trajectory.

For Siberia he leaves tonight.

But maybe, nevertheles s ,a straight line is shorter?

III. GOYA

I am Goya, FLying over the bare field, the enemy pecked out my eye-sockets of c ra te rs. I am grief.

I am the voice Of war, of cities of charred logs in the snow of the year *41. I am hunger.

I am the throat of the hanged woman, whose body, Like a beLl, beat over the bare square. I am Goya.

O grapes Of wrath! I raised in a volley to,the West the ashes of the un­ invited guest. And into the memorial sky drove strong stars-- Like naiLs.

I am Goya. IV. "YOU SIT, PREGNANT, PALE. . . "

You sit pregnant, pale1 How you have changed, poor girl.

You sit, you tug at your dress And you feel like crying and crying.

Why on earth do women spoil us And, falling, give us their lips?

And they run out behind crossings And Lag behind train cars.

How you ran after the train, Looked at the streaks made by the windows.

Mail cars, smoking cars rattLe on, To Khabarovsk, Lubertsy,

And from Moscow to Ashkhabad, Struck dumb to the point of muteness,

Women stand Like stone Having shown their bellies to the moon.

And dazzling scoundrels Run past them, laughing,

In gay-colored shirts, in felt hats, Or in a jumper, like me, right now.

ALternate final four lines

And turning toward the light, In night times not "at home,"

How the planet understands them With its own huge belly. 400

V. MOTOR RACES ON A VERTICAL WALL

Casting a spell, of the arena, A woman whistles along the arena! Leggings -- red, like claws. Lips painted--sinful. She runs like a horizontal torpedo, A chrysanthemum thrust in her waist.

Atomic angel, Amazon! Cheeks pressed in, like craters. The motorcycle overhead Is like an electric saw.

It is boring to live vertically. Ach, my little savage, daughter of Icarus... Plebeans and vestal virgins Are vertical like the toy that always stays upright.

In this, having soared over awnings, Amidst ovations, posters, insults, The essence of woman horizontal Appears to me and flies,

Ach, how her orbit whirls ! Ach, how the tears are nailed to the eyeballs. And like Genghis Khan Her director Singichants tyrannizes her.

Singichants, appearing, but talks with her, "not a torment, Also not a trick--on the wall, like a fly... *

And yesterday a flat tire .. . Intrigues... I am going to write to the section. . . And she scratches, like a horse thief."

^The written version of these two lines is as follows:

Singichants: "Nu, and with her isn*t it a torment? Also a trick--on the wall, like a fly. .. I rush to her during intermission. "Teach me," I say, "the horizontal,"

But she is silent, the Amazon. And she shakes her head. And the track still rocks her. And her eyes a re full of such horizontal longing.

VI. NIGHT AIRPORT IN NEW YORK

Facade

My self-portrait, neon retort, apostle of the heavenly gates. A irport!

Duraluminum glass panes glimmer As if they were X-ray pictures of the soul.

How terrifying this is, when inside you the sky stands. In smouldering lines Of unusual capital-cities !

Every twenty-four hours they fill you like a sluice, Starry fates Of stevedores, trollops.

In the bar, like angels, your alcoholics grow dim. You speak to them.

Them, beaten down, you pick up. To them "Arrival" you announce.

J Landing Field

They wait for cavaliers, fates, suitcases, m iracles... Five Caravelles dazzLingly sit down from the skyl 402

Five night birds wearily let out their undercarriages. Where is the sixth?

Evidently she jumped that far-- trash, little stork, atari.. Like electric cooking ranges cities dance under her.

Where does she soar, moan, frolic? And like a cigarette burn in the fog?

The forecast she doesn't understand. The earth doesn't let her land.

Interior

Bad forecasts. And you in the anticipated storms, Like partisans, you go into your vestibules.

Governments doze in carefree pairs. Quiet, like a druggist, the controller predicts routes to them. The powerful eye looks at other worlds.

Window cleaners water you, like a swarm of midges, Starry one who lands, crystal monster, It is sweet, it is vexing to be a son of the future, Where there are no idiots or cake-like railway stations, Only poets and airports !

Groans in the glass aquarium the sky, welded to the earth.

Construction

A irport --of ozone and sun Accredited embassy. A hundred generations did not dare to concern themselves with such- The conquest of supporting structures. In pLace of stone idols A glass of dark blue gets coot--without the glass. By the side of cash-box castles It, exactly gas, antimaterialJ

Brooklyn Bridge--is an idiot, sturdy devil. The monument of the era is The airport.

•VII. A NTIW OR JLDS

A neighbor, Bukashkin, lives by us, In underpants the color of a blotter. But like balloons Over him burn Antiworlds.

And in them, magical like a demon, Rules the universe and reclines Antibukashkin, the academician, And fondles Lollabrigidas.

Long live Anti worlds! Visionaries in the midst of boring trifles. Without the stupid there would be no clever. No oases without the Karakum .

There are no women - - there are antimen. In the forests roar antimachines. There is salt of the earth. There is litter of the earth. But the falcon dries up without snakes.

I love my critics. On the neck of one of them Fragrant and naked Gleams an antihead. I sleep with windows open, And somewhere whistles a falling star, And skyscrapers sta lactites On the paunch of the globe are suspended#

And below me upside down Stuck like a fork into the ball of the earth Carefree, dear moth, You live, my little anti world!

Why in the middle of night times Do antiworlds meet each other?

Why do they sit two together And look at television?

To them is not understood even a pair of phras Their first time is their last time.

A well know lecturer yesterday Told me, "Antiworlds? Boring trifles, "

I sleep, toss and turn half-awake. Probably that scientific bore is right.

My cat, like a radio set, With his green eye snares the world.

VUI. FOGGY STREET

Foggy suburb, like a tumbler pigeon. Like floats, policemen. Fog. What century? What era?

Everything is in parts, like a delirium. People seem to be unstrung. I drag along. Or rather--! flounder in sheet wadding. Noaes. Parking Lights. Hat .bands. Aa in a magic lantern show, they are seen double.

% GaLoshes? Aa if noggins were exchanged!

Thus a woman who has hardLy left your lips, blurring and recalling something to your mind, No Longer beloved--widowed, is still yours, but already another's,..

Posts, passersby I rub against... Venus? An ice-cream vendor I Friends ? Oh, these half-baked Iagos.

I stumble, I struggle, I Live, fog, fog--you don't understand, Ah, whose cheek do you rub against in the fog? Au! Fog, fog--you cannot caLL out...

How wholesome, when the fog dissipates. APPENDIX C

TRANSCRIPTIONS

"Autumn in Sigulda"

1 3 -2 3 *2 + 3 f . 2 -> 1) svi'saju s va'gonai pla1Satki 2 3.2-* 2) p ra 'ia ite 2 3 , + 2 * + 3 - 2 -* 3) pra1Sai ma’ jo 'ljet© 1 3 - + 2 -> 4) pa'ra mnje

1 + 2 . 3 - + 2 3 . 2 5) na 'datle stu'tiat tap©'rami 1 + 2 * ^ 3.2 + 3-2 -* 6) moi dom zabi'va;jut da1Sati

1 2 , 1 -* 7) pra* Saite

1 2 * + * + 3 . 2 + 3 - 2 — 8) l i ' s a mai ' sb r o sili 'kroni

2 % 3 . +2 %->, + - 3 - 2 9) ,pusft4 a’nji i ^rus'ni 1 + 3 - + 2 3.2 -* 10) kale ’ja iik s akorde'ona •

1 2 . + 1 » + 2 «1 ^ Tape 3 3) pra1Sai ma'jo 'l;Jet©

« 0 ^ *-> 1 ^ 2 # 1 Voices 9) pusft4 a*nji p. grus*ni 3 * + 2 ,1 2 * - » a 'muziku uni'sli

2 * + ' 1 V mi 'ljudi

2 ^ 3 * 2 + 3 * 2 ->» mi ft03« pa’rosni

2 3 »2 ^ 1* —>■ u'xodim mi 3 * 4 . 1 + 2 * 1 tak uS pa'lo3en©

2 . + 3 * —y is stjen 2 3 * — ► mate'rei 1 + + 2 # 1 - i iz '3en$in

2 + 3 *2 + *1 + 3 * 2 ->* i 'et©t pa'rjadok iz'vjetim

2 f # + * + 3 *2 4 pra1jai ma'ja 'mama

2 +4*2 + u 'oksn 2+3*2 . 3*2^ + 3 *2 t i 'a ta n ii praz'rating kak 'kokon

1 * + 3 * + 2» —► na'vjerno u'majales za djen

1 3 * 1 pri'sjadjem

2 3 *2 3 * -) Voicea 11) a 'muziku uni tali

v 3 + 2 , Tape 3 15) is stjen 3 * 2 , . .mate'rei

2 . 3# 2 + Voices 18) u 'oksn 1 3 * + + 2 —>■ 1 3 * 1 ^ dru'zja i vra'gi bi'yait;je

2 a + 3*2 _ > god b ai

2 + 3 * + 2 3 * -> iz mi'nja si'tias

2 + 3 * 2 +3 ~2 3 * 2 -> sa ’svistamvi vibi'gaetje

2 + 3a+2 3 *-* 1 + 3 * -> i ja u x a '3 U i z v a s

1 + 2 .1 ■ 3 *2 0 'rodina papra'Saemsa

1 * * + 2 3*>^2 3 * / budu zviz'da vit'la

2 +3 , 2 + 3 * 2 nje 'platiu nje papra'iaika

1 2.1 +2 ,1^ + 3 * _► s p a 's ib a 3 izn Sta bi'la

1 ♦ 2 . + 3 * 2 + 3 a 2 na 'strelbiiax v 'djesat 'balaf

1 % + 2 .1 + 2 *• 1 + 3*2 ja 1proboval 'vibit sto

2 3*2-*-3*—*-2 3 . 2 —*. spa'siba 3ta a$i'balsa

1 +2 . 1 2 .1 3 . / no 1trisd*spa'siba Ho

1 3*2+ 3* + 2 3 a 2 f praz'ratini ma'i la'patki

1 3 * Antiworlds Record 22) dru'zja

2 3 * 2 - * . 3 * 2 -*. Voices 33) spa'siba Sta aSi'balsa

tm Voices 35) ma'i «• 409

2 + 3 - 2 + 3* - s- 36 fxa'dilo praz'rjenje kak 2 3 , 2 + 37 v re1 zinovuju 2 , 3 . 2 per’tSatku 3 . 2 + 1 3 , —> 33 ’krasni muS’koi ku’lak

1 2 . + 3 , 2 —> 3 -2 _> 39 an’drei vazni'sjenski 'budjit 1 2 ' + 1 + 2 +3, 2 _ » >+3,2 40 pa'bit bi ryi 'slovom nje 'buldikom

23, + + 2 3 . + 1 - 3 , 1 —> 41 ji'So na Se’kje tva'jei ’duSnai "1 3 ', 2 42 an'drjiukai

1 2 , 3 ,2 + 3 *2 —> 43 spa'siba its v ’ro^ax o ’sjenix 2 * + 3 ,2 3 . 2 + 3 ,2 44 ti 'fstrjetilas jtO to spra'sila

2 + 3 , +2 3 . + 2 1 ^ 45 1 psa vola'kla za a'oeinik

1 +3. +1 2 , 1 46 a on upi’ralsa

1 3 , 2 47 spa’sibo 1 + 3,2 —> + +3,2 _> 48 ja '031I spa'siba za 'osin

1 + 2 .+ + 3 a +2 3 ,2 _> 49 it© ti mni mi'nja abjas'nila 1 2 . 1 + 2 3 .2 + +3 ,2 50 xa’zjalka bu'dila nas ’vosim

*7 (* + + Voices 36) va'Sla gjeni’alnost kak 1 + * + 3 ~2 + 1 2 * 1 — 51) a f 'prazdniki ’sipla ba'sila

1 2 a 1 + 2 »1 + 2 '1 —> 52) plas'tinka blat’novo pa'Sibo 1 3 .2 53) spa'sibo

1 + 2, + + 3 * 2 . 3 '2 54) no vot ti u'xodiS u’xodii

1 + 2 * + 3 ' 2 — > ■ 3 ' 2 — > 55) kak 'poizd at'xodit u’xodiS

3 +4 , + 2 - +3 ~2 3 , l _> 56) is por ma'ix 'polix u'xodiS

, 2 +3 / +2s + +3~2-^3'2-> 57) mi vros drug is ’druga u'xodim

. C «f + + 4- 58) tiem nam ’etot mir njeu'goden

2 +3,2 +1 ^ 3 , 2 +13 ->2 _=*- 59) ti ’rjadsm i ' 'gde-ta da'ljoko 1 3 . 2 _ ^ ,+ .1 2,1-5- 60) pa’titi Sto u ,vladiva'stoka l +3,2_^ + 3 ,- ^ 2 3.2^ 61) j'a 'znaju 5 to mi pofta'rimsa

Tape 3 51) ba'sila

2 ,1 -* . 2 , Antiworlds Record 52) b la t’novo pa’ Sibe

1. + 2 a + 1 3 ' 2 — Voices 58) 'etot doin njeu'goden Antiworlds Record and Tape 3 omit lines 59-60.

3, + 2 3 * 2 —ir- Voices 61) mi pofta'rimsa 2 3 * 2 + Antiv/orlds Record 61) pofta'rimsa 2 3 ~ +2 + 3*2-*- 3*2 62) v druz'jax i pa'drugax f tra'vinkax 2 . + 4,3 + 2 3 ~ 2 _^1 + 3,2_^ 63) nas ’ etot za'mjenit i tot

1 2 '* 1 + 2 * 1 + 3 * -»- 64) pri'roda ba'itsa pus'tot

2 3 ' -*-2 +3 *2 +3 • 2 65) spa'sibo za ’sduti ’kror.i

2 + 3 .2 + 3 * + 2 3 , 2 66) na 'sirqenu pri'dut m il'joni

2 + * + 5 *2 e ^ . 3 * 2 0 -*«■ 67) aa *vai® za'konl spa'siba

3* + 4 , 3 2 c 3 * 2 + + 3 »2 -»~ 68; 'no ’ 3enjina 'mtiitse pa 'sklonom

2 + 3 > + 2 a -9— + 3 , 2 -a>- 69) kak 'ognjeni l i s t za va'gonom

1 2 , 1 ^ 70) spa'siti

2 + + Voices 66) na 1 sirqenu

3 *->-2 , 1 2 C - 5- Antiworlds Hecord 68 ) no ’3en}ina

1 » + 2 , 1 2 C + ^ 1 — 3 ' 2 no ' 3en$ina 'mtSitsa pa 'sklonom

1 + 3 * + 2 a -> , 12,1 ~ 9 ~ 69) kak 'ognjeni l i s t za va’gonom

1 2 , 1 H 70) spa'siti

3* + 2 , 1 2 e Tape 3 68.) no ' 3enSina

1 * + 2 , 1 2 * 1 + 2 + 3 ,2 . no ' 3enSina 'mtSitso pa ’sklonom

2' + 3 , 1 2a - ^ .1- + 2 + 3 , 2 - no ' 3enjma 'ratiitso pa 'sklonom 412

1 +5' + 2 - + * +1 3 . 2 69) kak 'ognjeni list za va'gonam

1 3.2V 70) spa'siti

"Parabolic Ballad"

1, 3 . 2 - + 3 .1 - » 2 3 - +2 + 3.21-5. 1 sud'ba kak ra'kjeta le'tit pa pa'rabole

13*2 + +3 .1-5- + 2 - 1 + + 2 , 1 X 2 a'bitSne va 'mrak;je i 'rje3 e pa 'radugje

2 , + 3. 2 +3.2_^ 3 - 2 3 , + 3 3 * 1 'ognjena ' r* 3 i xu'do 3 nik go'gen 23,2 ^ + 3 - 2 3 -2 3 - 4 ba'gema a f 'proSlam tor'govi a'g^ent 2 3 . 2 3 - 2 .5- 5 Stob+v luvr * kora' 1 jevski 3 - 2 13-2 pa'past +iz +mon'martrai +

2 + 4. + 2 3 2 . +3 -1 + 3 -2 + 6 on dal kruga'lja 'tSerez 'javu su'matrai

1 3 — 2 — 1 2 - + 1 2 — 1 + 2 - 1 + 7 u'njosja za'bif suma'Sestvije 'djenig 2 3 -2. + 3.2 1 2 - +1 3-2 + 8 ku'daxtanji 3 on pusto'tu aka'djemi 2 3, 2 3 , -^.2 3 -1 9 on preada'ljel tjiga'tjeni zim'noje

1 2 1 2.1 2 A 1 3,2. 10) 3 rje'tsi gogo'tali za 'kruSkoi piv'noju

1 * + 2 , 1 2 -1 * 3 - 2 11) prja'maja ka'rotSi pa'rabola 'krut$i

2 3 , - Voices 3) go'gen

2 3 , - Voices 4) a'gjent 413

2 + 3 . 2 + 1 2.1 + 2 . 1 +3*2-> 12) 113 e ’lutSi ska’pirovat 'raiski 'kuSi 1 + 2*+l 2 . + 3 . 2 + 3 . 2 + 13) a on una'silsja ra'kjetoi rje'vuSi

2 - + 3 *2 -> 3 . 2 + 3 -> 2 + + 3 ,2 -** 14) skvoz ’vjetjer sri'vajuSi 'faldi i 'uSi 2 + 3 * + + 2 , —>■ + + 3 * 2 + 3 , 15) i v luvr on pa’pal nje skvoz ’glavni pa'rok 12.1 + 2 - 1 + 3 ~ + 2 3 , 16) pa’raboloi ’gnjevno pro'bif pota’lok

2 3 a + 2 3 * + , 2 -> 3 + 2 , 1 - > 2 , 1 - ^ 17) i ’dut k sva'im ’pravdam pa 'raznamu fxrabra

,1 3■'+1 **■ + 2 , —>. 1 3 a ^.1+ 2 , 18) tSer'vjak 'tSerez Sel tSela'vjek po pa’rabole

1 2 . +1 % + 2 , 1 - > 2 , 1 + 2 .1 19) 3i ’la b iTla 'djevuSka 'rjadem f kvar’tale

1 + 2 , 1 - > 23*2 + 3 > 2 _> 20) 'mi s nji u’tSilis za'tSoti zda’vali

2 3 a + +2 3 a2 + + 3 * + 2 * + 3 , + 21) ku’da 3 ja u’Jexal i tSort me’nje n^os

1 +2 . + 2 . 1 + 2 . 1 + 2 . + 22) mje3 'gruznax gru’zinskix dvus'raislenix zvjost 1 2 . 1 % + 2 3 . 2 +3.2+ 3,2 23) pras'ti mnje au1ratskuju ’etu pa’rabolu 1 2 . 1 3 . 2 3 . 2 3 , 2 + 24) pras’tifS i ’ple-fcSiki f ’tSornem pa’radnom

2 + 3 . + 2 + 3 ,2 + 3 . 2 + 3 , 2 25) 0 kak ti zven'jela va ’mrake fsje’lenoi

2 3 ,2 Voices 13) r je ’vuSi 3 , Voices 21) njos 2 , Voices 22) zvjost 1 2 , 1 + + 2*1-*- + 2 *1 + 3*2 26 u'prugi i pri'jama kak 'prutik an'tjeni

1 + * + + 2 / + 3*2 ^ + 3 * + 27 a ja fsji le'tSu prizim'ljajas pa njim

1 3, +1 ,2 3 . 2 +1 2 * +1 2 * + 28 zjem'nim i oz'jabiim tva'im poziv'nim

3 * + 2 * 1 + 2 a 1 + 2a1 + 3/2 ->■ 29 kak 'trudna da'jotsa nam 'eta pa'rabola 1 2 *1 + 2 3 *2 + 3*2 + 3/2 + 30 amjx'taja ka'noni prog1nozi pa'ragrafi 2 3 * 2 , 3 / 1 -> 2 3 » +2 3/2 _> 31 ni’sutsa is'kustva lu'bof i ia'torija

2 3 *2 3/2 + 3 *2 32 pa tparaba'litieakoi trajik'tori 1 2 , .*1 2 *1 2 *3. 2 , 1 - . 33 v ai'bir u;ji'3a;)et on 'nineini 'notiu

1 . 2,1 * 2 , 1 - * . 3/2 1 2 - 1 \ 34 a 'mo3it bit fa;}o 30 prji'maja ka'rotii

1 2 , Voicea 28) poziv'nim 2 3/2 Antiworlds Record 30) pa'ragrafi

"G-oya"

3 /2 _ * 3 / 2 * 1) ja 'goija * 2 3 * 2 ,. 3 >2 -* + 3. *2 + 3 * + 2) glaz'nitso va'ronok mnje 'viklival 'vorog

3 *2 + 3 *2 + 3 / sli'taja na 'pole na'go 2 1 , 2,1 - * 3) ja 'gorje

2 - 3 /2 4) Ja 'goles 415

2 3 2 3 * + 2 3 * + 2 + 3. 5) vai'ni gera'dof gelav'ni na snje'gu

2 3 +3 *2 sarek 'pjerva goda

2 *1 2/1 ■ 6) ja 'golad

2* + 3 / 2 ->■ 7) Ja 1gorla

2 3 a 2 3 / 2 — » 3 *2 3 2 8) po'vjeSenoi + 'babi tS J o + 1t j e l e * kak + 'kolakal 1 3^2 3 a2 .3*2 —► 'bile nad 'ploSadJu 'golai

2*L + 2 * 1 9) Ja 'goija

1 .2 * i . 1 0 ) a 'grozdi

12*1 2 + 3 * 2 + 3 / 2 11 ) vaz'mjezdja vzvil ' zalpam na ' zapad

2 3 * 2 3 * 2 3,2-** Ja + 'pjepjel+ njez'vanavo + 'gostja

1 . 2 , 1 2 * 1 + 2 , 1 + 2 * 1 ->■ 12) i v memo'rJalnoJe 'njebo vbil 'krepkije 'zvozdi

3 * . 2 , 1 —> 13) kak 'gvozdi

2 *1 2 ,1 \» 14) Ja 'goija

"You Sit Pregnant and Pale"

1* 2, / 3/2 ^3 / 2 1) 8si'diS bi'rjeminaja 'bljednaja

3 / . 2 * 3 *2 3 , 2 ^ 2) kak ti pirji'nilas 'bjednaja

2 * / — 3.2 3*2 —>■ 3) ,si'di$ a'dJorgivaiS 'platitsa

* 2 ♦5 '2 + 5 * *2 3 *2 v 4) i 'platSitsa ti'bje i 'platSitsa 1 3 * . 2% 3 *2 . 4*2 . 3 » 2 -> 5) za 3to nas 'tolke 'babi 'balujut

‘ 1 + 2 * 1 + 2 *1 + 3 * ^ 6) i 'gubi 'padaja da1jut

1 + 2 3 * 2 + + 3 2 7) i vibi'gajut za Slag'baumi

1 + + 2 * + 3* —>• 8) i at va'gonof atsta'jut

1 + + 2*1 + + 3*1 —>- 9)kak ti bl'gala za va'gonami

1 * + 2 * + 3 * 1 0 ) fstri'tSala f 'polosi a'konije

2 * % + * f3*2 3 * 2 1 1 ) stu'tSat patS'tovije ku'rjerskije

2 3*2 3 * 2 1 2 ) xa'barofskije 1jubi'rjetskije

2 . 3 * . 2 3*2-^ 1 3 ) i ot mesk'vi do ' aSxa^ada

2 4 * .3 . 2 1 4 ) ostolbj'njef do njemo'ti

2 * 3 *->- 4* + 2 ,l V 1 5 ) sta'jat kak ’kamjinije 'babi

2 3 * 2 3 * 2 3 , y 16) l u 1 rxje + p a d 'sta v if + 3i v o 1 t i

2 3*2 .3 *2 r -*~ 17) i osli'pitjelnije 'svolotSi

^ 2 + + 3 *2 + 3 * 18) skvoz nix pro'nosjatsa smi'jas

1 3*1 + 2 *1 — * » 3*1 2*1 19) v ru'baSkax 'pjostrix f 'ilapax 'voilotSnix

3 + 2 * 1 ^ 3 2 * -► 3 1*^1 20) i v 'd3empjerje kak ja sjei'tias 417

"Motor Races on a Vertical Wall"

1 2 ,1 2 ,1 1 ) zava1ra3iva^a ma'njesa

3 , 2 + 3 * 1 2 e 3 ,2 2) 'sviiit '3eniina po ma*nje3U

3 *2 3) ’kragi 3 * 2 + 3» +2 f3 , - * ■ 1krasni kak kli51ni

3 * 2 + 3 * 2 + s 3,2_^_ 4) ’ gubi 'kraieni grii'ni

2 * + 3 ,2 + 3 . 2 5) mtiit tor'pjedoi gorizon'talnuju

3 2,1 + 2 * + 1 + 3 *2 . 6 ) xrizan'temu zat'knuf za 'taliju

om itted 3 om itted 9) om itted 10 omitted

3 2 ,1 3*2 1 3,2-*- 11 n a d a 'jela 3it vjerti'kalna

3* + *2 + 3* f+ 23,2 12 ax di'karotjka dot} i'kara

3 2 3 .2 3* .2 3,2-*- 13 abi'vatjeli i vis'talki

2,13.2 3 . 2 3 .2 14 v;j erti'kalni kak 'vanki 'fstanki

2*l+3.2 3 , 2 15 v ’e to i ' v z v i f i i s j a nad zon'tami 2 + 3 *2 + 3 * +2 3 , 16 mje3 o'vatsi a'fiS a'bid

3 ' c2 + 5 ? + - 17 'suSnaat '3eniin£ 3* 2 „1 gerizon'talnija

3 * + 2.1 2 , 18 mnje mi'rjeSitsa i le'tit 418

2 +3 ^ 2 + * + 3 . 2 ^ . 19) ax kak fkru 3it ji’jo ar'bita

2 3 A 2 3 A ‘ 2 3 , 2 > 20) ax + kak + 1 s lo z i +k bjil'kam + p r i ' b i t i

3 + 2.1 + s + * 2 , 21) i ti'ranit i'jo .tSiQgis'xan

2 A i . 2 , 22) 'zamdi,rjektora ,siogi1jants

1 2 . + 1 2 * +l 2 , + 1 * + 23) jSiogi'Sants pojav’lais no anjei gova'rit

♦ 2 -1 + n j e' muka

2 ,1 +2 A 1 2 A 1 2 ,1 24) *to 3e nje trjuk po ate'nje kak 'muxa

1 2 . A1 2 « 1 2 A 1 2 , 1 25) ftSe'ra 'kameru ^roka'lola in'trigi 1 2 A 1 2 1,21 26) poi'du * napi»Su+ f 'ajektsiju 1 2,1 +2a_^1 2,1-*. 27) i tsa'rapetsa kak kono'kradka

2 + , +3*2 3*2-*- 28) ja k njei ' vlanrivs jus v an'trakte

2 3 .* + 2 1 3 ,2 ^ - 29) nau'tSi gavarju gori'zontu

+ * + ^ c* 5 * 2 — 30) a a’na mal'tiit ama'zonka

2 . * + 3 , 2 3 .*2 31) a a'na gala'voi ka'tSajet

x 2 + % ^ * + 3 * 2 —*• 3*2 -»■ 32) a ji'jo ji'So trek ka'tSajet

1 + . + 3 * 2 3 .-* - 33) a gla'za pol'ni ta'koi 2 , 1 gorizon'talniju 2 ,l\ ta s'k o i 4 19

"Night Airport in New York"

x 2' + 3 - + 2 1__ 2 - + 3-2 3 a 2 1) ,afta par’tret moi re'torta ne'ona a*postal

3 . 2 4 - -*- nje'bjesnix va'rot 1* +2 - 2) ,aera 'port 2 . + 3.2 + 3 - 3) 'hrje30t du'ralevi vitra'3i

2 . + 3 - 2 +3.2 + 3 , 4) 'totSne rent'genafski 'sniraak du'Si

1 A ^ A 2 / ■ ^ 5) kak 'eta 'straSna 3 . 2 -3.2 3 kak’da+f ti'bji +'njeba+ sta'it 3 . 2 + 3 - 2 6) f *tleuiix 'trasax

2 , 3 . 2 3 - 7) ,njeo,bakna'vjenax s ta 'lits

3 . , - 2 x 8) 'ka 3di ' sutki ‘ 1 . + 3 , 2 + + 5 * ti'b ja n a p o l'n ja jit+ kak+ Slus 2 . 1 + 2 - 1 _=^ 9) 'zvjozdni ' sudbi

2 - 1 — 3 - —3— 10) 'grustSikof Slux

1 - + + 3 - 2 + - 1 + 2.-^1 3-21- 11) v 'bare kak 'angeli 'gasnut tva'i alko'goliki

3 2 . Voices 4) rent1genafski

, + .2 3 - 2 Antiworlds Record 5) kak 'eta 'straSna Tape 1 omits lines 3 and 4, and line 11. 1 + + 3 , 2 12) ti im gla’goliS

1, + 3 , 2 13) ti ix pri'bitix , 3 , ^ozvi'SaiS

2 * * * 1 — 14) ti im pri’bitje 3 . 1 X vozvi’ Sai S

1 A + 2 , -9— 3 » 2 3*2 —>- 15) 3dut kava’ljerof su’djeb tSimo’danof

tiuc 3 ’d jes '

2 A 3 . 2 - * - 16) ,pjatj kara'vel 2 3 a2 + asli’pitelna 3 a2 + 3 - 'sjadut s nji’bjes

, 3 . + . 2 3 * 2 1 3 . + 2 3 *1 ' 17) pjatj ,polu’notynits ia’sivipu’skajut

3 #1 u1stala 3 . 1 3 . 2 / 18) gdje se Ses’taja 2 . + 3 , 2 19) ’ vidna da’prigalas 2 , 3 2 3 . 2 -> -2 3 . dr3 an ais’tjonak zviz!da

2 \ 3 a 2 20) I elektra’ plitkami+ 3 a 2 + + 3 * + 2 3 . ’plaSut pad ’ njei gara'da

3 a . - . , 2 ->- 21) gdje a'na ’rejet 3 >2 3 . X ’stonjet du’rit

2- + 3 a + 2 , 1 Voices 14) ti im pri'bitje

2 , 3 . 2 . Antiworlds Record 20) (elektra'plitkami 421

1 * 3 * 1 + 22) i siga’rjetkai 2 *1 + 3 - f tu’manje ga'rit

1 3 * 2 , + 3 * + 2 * 23) a’na prog’nos nje poni'majet 2 3 \ + 2 3 - + * + 2 3 * 2 24) je'jo zim'lja nje prini’majet

3 *2 + 1 3 - 1 -*-2 + * + 3^2 + 3 - 2 23) ?xudi prag'nozi i t i v ogi'dani ’ buri

2 , 3 , 2 • 3 .2 3. + 2 3 - 2 26) kak f (parti’zam u'xodii f sva’i vjesti'bjuli 3.2. 3 - 2 1 27) ’ drixnut pra’ vitelstva 3 *1 + 2 3 , 2 * ->- f ’parax bje’spjetSnax

1 * . * + 2,1 — + 2 * 1 + 2*1 + 28) tix kak pra’vizor /im 'trasi pra’rotiit

2 3 - 2 d is ‘petior

2 1 + 3-l ->• 3 * 2 + 3. + 2 3 ^ 29) 'moSnaje !oka vzi'rajet v ini mi’ra 3 * 2 3-2 30) :moi)iki 'okan 2 3 ~ + 2 * + 3~ + 2 3 - + sle'zjat t i ’bja kak maSka’ra

3* + 1 3 * 1 + Voices 22) kak siga'rjetka

Antiworlds Record 22)v 2 i + siga'rjetkai 5 - 2 +

3 *2 + 3 - f tu’manje ga'rit Voices reverses lines 23 and 24. Tape 1 omits lines 23-24 and 27-30. Voices omits lines 29-30. 2 3 *2 + Tape 1 26) v j e s t j i1bjuli 3 f 2 + 3 ~ 1 —> - 2 a 1 + 3 - 2 * 31) ’zvjozdni di'santnik xrus'talnaja ’tSudiSe

3 , 2 3 . a —>- 32) ’sladka da'sadna 2^ + 3 ~2 +3-2 "bit 'sinom ’buduSiva

2 >* . 3 + 2 j> . —>- 33) ' gd j e nj et dura* kof 2 + l 2 , 1 + 2 * 1 -> i vak’zalof ’tortef 2 3 * + 12,l->- + 2» 1 3 . 2 -> 3'4) ad’ni po’eti i (aera' porta:

3.2 + 1 2 *1 +23 * 35) 'stonjet v ak'variumnam sti'k lje

3 .2 - si- 36) 'njeba 12,1 + 2 „ \ pri'varenae k zim’lje

1, 2 * + 3 -1 +2 + 3 , 2 37) ^era’port a'zona i 1solntsa

a 3 . 2 3 + 2 3 . 2 + 3 8 ) (akredi' tovanaje pa'solstvo

2 , 3 *1 ->- C\J £Q 39) sto paka’ljen i 2 * + 3 *. 2 + 3 ^2 + 3' 4 nje ’smjeli ta'kovo kas’nut 2 3 > 2 40) preada’l rj enija 2 3^2 ¥ 3 . 2 nje'suSix kan’struktsi

3 - 2 + 3 . 2 1 + 3' 2 ; »2 — 41) ’vmjesto ’kamjinix (is tu ’kanaf

3 *2 + Antiworlds Record 3 1 ) 't!mdi$e

1 2 1 2 Tape 1 3 3 ) gdje njet dura’kof

2 * 1 2,1 - Antiworlds Record 34) ad’ni po’eti Tape 1 omits lines 35-38, 3 „ 2 + 3 .2 1 Tape 1 41) ’vmjeste ’kamjinix 3 2 3 * 2 3 * 42) 'stinjit +sta'kan+sinje1vi+ 2 + 3 '2 - bjez sta’kana

2 . +3*2 + 3*2.^ 43) 'rjadem s 'kasami tjere'mami

3* + 2 - + 3' 44) on 'totSno gas 2 % 3 , 2 3,2 tanti #matjiri’alen

3 . 2 +1 2 * » 1 3 *2 1 + 3 * 2 45) ’bruklin du'rak ttverdo'kamjini tSort

3 . 2 + 3*2 46) 'pamjatnik 1 eri

3s 2 +2 , 1 ^ 47) (aera 'port

"Antiworids"

2 3 » +2 * 3 1 , 3 , 1 1 ) 3i'vjot u nas sa'sjed bu'kaSkin

3 , + 2 * ^ 1 , 3 . 1 2) f kal'sonax 'tsvjeta prsma'kaSki

2 +3, 23 * 4) nad nim ge'rjat ,1 2 , , a n tim i'r i

1 2* + 3 *2 + 3 *2 -► 5 ) i v nix ma'gitSiski kak 'djemon

1 2 * 3 , 2 > 3 , ^ 6) fsi'ljenoi + 'pravit vozle' 3i t

3* 2 * + 1 , 3 * 1 7) .antibu'kaSkin ,aka1djemik

1 3 *2 . *1 3 - X 8) i *Supaet (lolebri'd 3i t

1* + 2 * + , +3 2 , 9) da 'zdrafstvuit ,anti mi'ri 424

12. + . 3 2 10) fan'tasti posre’di mu'ri

2 . + . + 3 - + 2 - + + 3 . 1 11) bjez fglupix nje 'bilo bi 'umnix

12. + - + 3.2 12) o'azisof bjes kara'kumof

2 . 3 . 1

13) njet + 13«nSin . 2 s 3 *2 jest (antimu'Sini

2 3 . 2 3 * + 2s 3 >1 14) v le'sax rje'vut (antima'Sini

2 3, + 2 3 1 + 3 * + 1 3 - 15) jest sol zim'li jest sor zim'li

1 3 . + 2 . + 1 - + 3* 16) no 'soxnjet 1soksl bjez zme'i

2 3 , ,l,-*~2 , 1 ,23* 17) lu'blu' ja 'kritikof ma'ix 2 + 3 .1 + 3 . + 2 +1 . 18) na ' 5eje adna'vo iz nix

1 3 .2 + + 3 . 19) blagou'xana i ga'la

12.1 + 2. 1 + 2 . X 20) si'jaet ,anti gala'va

1 + 2 . + 3 . 2 + 3 - 2 21) ja splu s a'koSkami at'kritimi

1 +2 > +3 -2 + . 3 ' ■ 22 a 'gdje-ta 'sviiit 'zvjezda'pat 2 3.2 23) i + fnjeba*skrobi + 3.2 stalak1titami

2 + 3 .2 + 3 .2 + 3 . + 24) na 'brjuxe 'globusi ve'sjat

2 . 3 . > 25) i + * pods mnoi 2 + 3.2-* vniz gala'voi 2 3*2 .3,2 . 3 * .2 3a. von'zifSis 'vilkai f ' Sar zira'noi

2 3 , 2 3 -2 . 3 , bJes'pJetSni 'mill mati'lok

1 2 # 1% 3i'vJoS+ ti 2,1-*-2% 1 3 # moi .antimi'rok

1 2 # / I 2 * + 1 3 * + 2 3 # . za'tSem . sri'di natS'noi pa'ri

2 3 *1 + 2* 1 +2 3 , \ fstri*tSajutsa (anti mi'ri

1 2 * + 3 * ;2 3 # za'tiem a'ni vdva’Jom si'djat

2 3 #2 3 * 1 + £ tjele'vizari + gli* djat *

2 ♦ ♦ * + .3,2 3*2 im ni pa'njat i 'pari fras

1 3 , 2 * 3 , 1 . 3*2 H ix 'pjervi ras pa'sledni ras

1 2 *1 + 2 .1 2 1 2 * zna'komi 'ljektor mnje ftSe'ra

2 l ~ +2* 3 * 1 3 * ska’zal ,anti mi'ri mu'ra

1 + 3 #->-2 3*1 2 a x Ja splu va'rotSaJus spra'sonok

13 *2 + 3« + 1 2* 1 + 3 , na'vjerno praf na'utSni xmir

1 +2# -^1 +3 %2 3 # 2 moi kot kak ,radiopri1Jomnik

23*2 + 3 #2 ^3#2 2*1 X zi'ljonim 'glazom 'lovit mir

Voices omits lines 29-34.

2 3 . 2 3 , 2 3 *2 Voices 37) Ja splu va'rotiajus spra'sonok 42 6

"Foggy Street"

1 . + 2 , + + 3 a 2 l) tu'mani 'prigarad kak 'turraan

2 + 3 a + 2 3 , 2 kak paplaf’ki militsio'neri

2 3 , 2 -V- 2) tu 'man

2 3 , +2 a _^12„1+2,1-^ 3) ka'tori vjek ka'tori 'eri

1 . + + 2 , ^ 1 2 , +3 , 2 4) fsjo + pa tSis'tjam pa'dobno 'brjedu

2 3 a + 2 + 3 a 2 + 3 , 2 ^ lu'djei kak 'budta razvin1tili

1 2 , 5) "ore ' du

2 3* + 2 3 , 2 1 2,1 6) ver'njei ba'raxtajus v a'tinje

12, 1 2,1 _j-2 3 ,2 _>_ 7) na’si ■ pad'farniki a'koliSi

1 - + + 2.1 + 3.2-*- a'ni kak f 'fodisje dva'jatsa

23 , / 8) ka'loSi 3*+2 +l*2,-*-l + 2 , 1 9) kak bi baS'koi nje obmje'njatsa

1 +2 , 1 _^2+3.+23a^_ 10) tak '3en)ina at gub jed'va

2 3a +2+3 a 2 + * 3 ' 2 + dva'jas i Sto ta tvaskri'$aja

N + + 2 , 1 3,2 11) u) nje lju'biaiaja vda'va

2 3 , + 2 3 a->.1 2 A 1 3,2 j'iMo tva'ja u'ge tiu’ 3aja 427

2 3 # 2 + 3*2 + 3 * +2^^ 1-2) a 'tumbi a pra'xc>3ix trusj ja

2 3 *2 3 * + 2 3 *2 + vji'njera prada'vjets ma'ro3enavo

2 3 # 13) dru'zja

3* + 2 J +2 #1 2 # 1 14) ox ’ eti 'jago doma'roSenije

1 2 # 1 1 # 2 3 ' 15) ja spati'kajus bjus 3i'v u

2 3 * , 2 3 * ^ 2 + 3 # 2 ^ tu'man tu'man nje razbi'rjoSsa

1 3*2 17) a'u

12* +1 3 , 2 ^ # + 1 2 * 1 ^ - 18) tu'man tu’man nje daza'vjoSsa

3* ,2 1 - * - 2 . + 3 * +1 % 2 ,1 19) kak 'zdorava kak1da tu'man tra'seivaatsa A P P E N D IX D

AUDIO TAPES AVAILABLE FOR ANALYSES

Tapes 1-4 are the audio portion of a program televized by

Station WNDT, New York City, April 3, 1966. The poems were read in Russian and in English except for those designated with an asterisk, which were read in English only. The English titles are listed. Tape

5 is the audio portion of a program televized by WNDT, May 14, 1967.

The poem is read in Russian and English. Tape 6, distributed by the

Russian Language Specialties, Chicago, is part of a Radio Moscow broadcast. The poems were read only in Russian, and the Russian titles are listed below.

'T ape 1

Goya Fire in the Architectural Institute Her Shoes (from Oza) You Live with Your Aunt* Ballad of the Full Stop New York Airport at Night Leaves and Roots

Tape 2 % Italian Garage* You Sit Pregant and Pale Someone is Beating a Woman. Give Me Peace 429

First Frost Oza (excerpts)

T ape 3 % Dead Still Autumn in Sigulda M a ste rs

Tape 4

Program Discussion

Tape 5

Call of the Lake

Tape 6*

Pervoi Posviashchenie k poeme "Mastera" Vtoraia posviashchenie k poeme "Mastera" G oiia O sen' Gost' u Kostra Ballada Spleten Parabolicheskaia Ballada Otstuplenie, v kotorom Rybak Varit Sup Novogodnee Pis'm o v Varshavu Siren' "Moskva-Varshava" Eshche Vstupitel1 noe S trip tiz Otstuplenie v 17 Vek--Lobnaia Ballada Biut Zhenshchinu Otstupleniya v Vide Monologov Bitnikov--Pervyi M onolog Vynuzhdennoi Otstuplenie Otstuplenie v Vide Motagonok Po Vertikal'noi Stene Shkol'noe, Elena Sergeevna

The poems on this tape were not used for the present study. Either the poems were duplicative, or they were read by someone other than the author . 430

VITA

Mary Frances McKoy HopKins was born in Shreveport,

Louisiana in 1932. After four years in Coushatta, Louisiana, her family home, her family moved to Baton Rouge, where she attended local elementary schools and in 1948 graduated from University High

School. In 1952 she received a B.S. degree in Education from

Louisiana State University with a major in English and a minor in

Speech. In 1959 she received a M aster's degree in Speech. She has taught in the public schools in Baton Rouge and in Shreveport, at

University High School, and as graduate assistant and as instructor at Louisiana State University. She is now a candidate for the doctoral degree in Speech. EXAMINATION AND THESIS REPORT

Candidate: Mary Frances HopKins

Major Field: Speech

Title of Thesis: A Descriptive Analysis of the Phonology of Selected Poems by Andrei Voznesensky

Approved:

Major Professor and Chairman

Dean of the Graduate School

EXAMINING COMMITTEE:

Date of Examination: