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CHAPTER IV OSCILLATING WORLD OF KAḶAMEL̤UTTU: ASPECTS OF CONVERGENCE WITH TANTRIC BUDDHISM

The living tradition of the ideological, symbolic and cultic nature of kaḷamel̤uttu was examined in the previous chapters. The nature of the sacred sites outside the structural temples and the participation of the entire non-brahmanical social milieu in the religious symbolism and cultic practices of kaḷamel̤uttu were also examined. The ferocious, maithuna and pacific forms in the iconography and the vocal manifestations such as mantras and ritual songs of the cultic practice of kaḷamel̤uttu were also explored. In fact, these religious symbolisms, cultic practices and iconographic tradition of kaḷamel̤uttu are highly influenced by the long tradition of Buddhist iconography. The visual frame of kaḷamel̤uttu evolves as a part of the iconic forms of Buddhist art. The symbols used in kaḷamel̤uttu mark a definite stage in the evolution of Indian iconography. It is reasonable to suppose that the Buddhists, Jains and the Brahmins had drawn upon a common storehouse of symbols, which had been handed down to the historic age from the primitive society. The symbols are easy reminders of certain principles and aims. Through this way, we can analyze the different symbols that are being used to worship in the frame kaḷamel̤uttu.

The present chapter proposes to analyse the iconographical influence of Tantric Buddhism in the cultic practices and iconographic traditions of kaḷamel̤uttu in Malabar. The deities in the iconography of kaḷamel̤uttu are also found to be in vogue in the Tantric Buddhist maṇḍala. There can be seen the influence of ferocious and maithuna forms of deities of the Tantric Buddhist maṇḍala in the iconographies of kaḷamel̤uttu. It also examines the similarity of Tantric Buddhist representation of colour symbolism (pan͂ ca-varṇa) with the colour concept of kaḷamel̤uttu. The chapter tries to analyze the influence of Tantric Buddhist rituals in the cultic practices of kaḷamel̤uttu. The involvement women dancers in the cultic tradition of kaḷamel̤uttu are found parallel to the yōgini tradition of Tantric Buddhist maṇḍala. The chapter also discusses the entire world of mantravāda traditions of lower jātis, which are parallel to the healing practices of Tantric Buddhist traditions in north India, Tibet, Nepal and so on. The mantra tradition with the bījakṣaras, diagrams and so on in the mantravādakkaḷam of lower jātis in Malabar is also parallel to the mantra tradition of 167

Tantric Buddhism. The chapter puts forth an argument that the world of kaḷamel̤uttu is found enmeshed with the Tantric Buddhist traditions.

IV.a. ELEMENTS OF TANTRIC BUDDHIST MAṆḌALA IN THE ICONOGRAPHY OF KAḶAMEL̤UTTU Maṇḍala is a spiritual and ritual symbol representing the Universe. The basic form of most maṇḍalas is a square with four gates containing a circle with a centre.1It appears in the Ṛg Veda to denote its different sections.2 The term maṇḍala is also employed to denote traditional political formations such as federation of kingdoms. The term rājamaṇḍala was used by Kautilya in the Arthasāstra, which describes circles of friendly and enemy states surrounding the king's state.3

The description of the geometric designs with cosmological implications is attested to by the construction of Vedic altars mentioned in the Taittiriya Samhita, Baudhayana Sulvasautra and Apasthamba Sulvasustra. The best known design is the falcon shaped altar for the Agnicayana ritual. Other geometrically shaped altars are in the form of triangles, wheels and so forth. They all developed out of a basic design, a fire altar resembling a falcon from squares. Another description of the geometrical designs for ritualistic purposes is found in the Vāstusāstra, the handbook on architecture, which mentioned Vāstumaṇḍala consisting of a grid of 64, 81, or more small squares as starting point of a temple construction. Such a vāstumaṇḍala was regarded as the body of the cosmic being (Vāstupuruṣa) in whose parts the main deity, auxiliary deities, and temple guardians resided.4

Tantric Buddhism has popularly used maṇḍalas in various ritual initiations and in post-initiatory practice and are employed for establishing a sacred space or enclosure, often understood as the particular domain of a deity.5 During the third century CE Mahayana Buddhism6 took initiative in the production of Tantric texts

1 Giuseppe Tucci, The Theory and Practice of the Mandala, New Delhi: New Age Books, 2013 (Reprint) p. 49 2H. H. Wilson (Tr.), Ṛg Ved̄a Saṃhita, Vol. I-VII, Delhi: Naga, 1990. 3N. V. Krishna Warrier (Tr.), Arthasatram, Thrissur: Kerala Sahiya Akademi, 1988, p. 293, 298 4Peter Gaeffke, ‘Hindu Mandala’, Mircea Eliade (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of Religion, Vol. 9, New York: Macmillan Company, 1987, pp. 153-154 5 Paul Williams, Buddhist Thought, London: Routledge, 2000, p. 199 6Mahayana Buddhism appears to have originated in the first century BC or the first century AD in the Satavahana empire. The basic idea of Mahayana is the existence of buddhas and bodhisattva as Buddha 168 invoving the use of mantras, maṇḍalas and so forth.7 For centuries, the Buddhist schools like Mantrayana, Vajrayana, and so forth increasingly practiced the ritual and meditative techniques, esoteric and magical use of mantras and maṇḍalas.8

Maṇḍala is a circular diagram or a complex design, capable of innumerable variations and used to aid meditation. It also represents dynamism and a universal creative cycle. Since maṇḍala is endless, it represents eternity and infinity. 9 It is thought to be the abode of the deity. Each maṇḍala is unique and calls the deity into the presence of the practitioner through the elaborate symbolic geometric designs.10

The maṇḍala represents the core essence of the Vajrayana teachings. The maṇḍala is regarded as a place of nirvāṇa and peace, or a Buddha field, which is separated and protected from the ever-changing and impure outer world of samsāra. maṇḍalas are commonly used by tantric Buddhists as an aid to meditation.11 The maṇḍala can be summoned and contemplated at will as a clear and vivid visualized image, which supports the meditating person, and is something to be repeatedly contemplated to the point of saturation, such that the image of the maṇḍala becomes fully internalised in even the minutest detail.12 Every maṇḍala associated with liturgy contained in Tantric texts instructs practitioners as to how the maṇḍala should be drawn, built and visualised, and indicates the mantras to be recited during its ritual use. maṇḍala identifies thoughts of Buddhas, which also that of the Buddha: the Buddha (enlightenment) is to be found in his own thought, in his thought of bōdhicitta (enlightenment).13

nature. The bodhisattva is a model for one’s own spiritual career. See A. K Warder, ‘Feudalism and Mahayana Buddhism’ in R. S. Sharma (Ed.), Indian Society: Historical Probings, New Delhi: Peoples Publishing House, 2013 (Reprint), pp. 164-173 7Hirawaka Akira, A History of Indian Buddhism, New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1998 (Reprint, )p. 300-302 8David B. Gray, The Cakarasamvara Tantra (The discourse of Sri Heruka), New York: The American Institute of Buddhist Studies, 2007, p. 79 9Madhu Jaina, The Adobe of Mahasiva: Cults and Symbology in Jaunsar-Bawar in mid-Himalayas, New Delhi: Indus Publishing, 1995, pp. 133-134 10Giuseppe Tucci, Op. Cit., p. 25 11Alex Wayman, ‘The Manda and the –la of the Term Mandala’ in N. N. Bhattacharya (Ed.), Tantric Buddhism, New Delhi: Manohar, 1999, p. 23 12 Ibid., p. 24 13A. K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2000, p. 461 169

Table 7. Similarities between Kaḷamel̤uttu and Tantric Buddhist Maṇḍala Nature of Kaḷamel̤uttu Nature of Maṇḍalas in Tantric Buddhism Ferocious, wrathful and Maithuna forms Ferocious, wrathful and Maithuna forms Symbolic and anthropomorphic images Symbolic and anthropomorphic images of of deities deities Pan͂ ca-varna concept Pan͂ca-varna concept Five coloured powders from leaves, Five coloured powders from bones, sands, seeds, bricks and stones bricks and stones Women in ritual Yōgini cult Female and male ritual dancers in the Female and male ritual dancers in the maṇḍala maṇḍala Esoteric concept Esoteric concept Applications of Hybrid Sanskrit style of Applications of Buddhist-Hybrid Sanskrit mantras and bījākṣaras, mantra diagram with mantras and bījākṣaras, mantra diagram Healing practices Healing practices Priests as healers Monks as healers Practices in the isolated and secret Practices in the isolated and secret places places Celebrating days in maṇḍalakāla Cittirai tinkal (April-May) Buddha’s birth and Mēṭam month (April-May) day Source: Information gathered by the researcher

The geometric pattern of maṇḍala represents the cosmos metaphysically or microcosm of the universe. This symbolizes the transformation which ordinary human beings have to undergo prior to entering the sacred territory within. The Maṇḍala concept of Tantric Buddhism influenced the tradition of kaḷamel̤uttu in Malabar. The iconography of Aṣṭadaḷapatmam, Nāgam, Bhadrakāḷi, Ayyappan, Śāstāvu, Cāttan, Vairajātan, Kālarātri and Bhairavan, Yakṣi, Nāgayōgini/Nāgarājn͂ i, Mātangi, Gandharvan, Yakṣan etc. in the kaḷamel̤uttu is influenced by the iconographies of Tantric Buddhist maṇḍala in north India, Nepal, Tibet and Sino-Japanese tradition.14 The following iconographic survey, given below takes up the inter linkages between the iconographic and ritual world of Tantric Buddhism and those of kaḷamel̤uttu.

IV.a.1. Aṣṭadaḷapatmam Symbols played a vital role in Buddhist philosophy and art in the Hinayana phase of Buddhism. The central theme of early Buddhist art is the life-story of the Buddha as given in the Jātakas. It was only from the first century B. C. that the events of the Buddha’s life and great miracles came to be portrayed. We can see

14The large number of Indian Tantric Buddhist texts that survive in their original language as well as in Chinese, Tibetan and Mangolian translation. See Paul Williams, Op. Cit., p. 202 170 representations of the Buddha supported by a lotus-throne before the first century A.D., viz. in the art of Gāndhara (75-50 A.D.), and Amarāvati (200 B.C.- 300 A.D.).15 A lotus maṇḍala depicts common at Bharhut in a second century BC.16 The Vajrayana Buddhism developed the symbol of patmam into a rich and mystical system. In Buddhist iconography, the throne of patmam or lotus is more relevant than other types. The throne of deity is a lotus-throne which is immovable, admantine; and as of one who is in the world but not of it. The Tathagata Buddha, seated on such a throne, standing on such pedestal, affirms an infinite negation, sable stillness against which his golden person shines resplendent, unconfined by any form, but omniform.17

Aṣṭadaḷapatmam, literally as well as iconographically mean eight-petal lotus. We can find the references of Aṣṭadaḷapatmam in Tantricism as a part of fertility cult.18Tantricism placed supreme emphasis on prakriti or the female principle. In Tantricism, the Lotus is invariably a symbolic representation of the female genital organ.19 Referring to the Buddhist Tantricism, Lotus is the literal rendering of bhaga or yōni.20 The main argument is that human fertility, especially female fertility and natural fertility, are interconnected, and are relatively the same. In other words, the process of human reproduction and agricultural production is the same.21

Tantric Buddhism is in general concerned with particular types of meditation and ritual that are seen as especially powerful and efficacious. In Mahayana and especially in Tantrayana, it means a tablet or figure divided into circles and rectangular panels representing the metaphysical structure of the cosmos, designed to serve the believer as an aid to meditation on way to perfect enlightenment. The concept of Buddhist maṇḍala is seen as the essential element of the kaḷamel̤uttu in Kerala. The tradition of maṇḍalas, yantras, cakras, patmams etc. are based on the

15Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, Elements of Buddhist Iconography, New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1972, p. 21 16Peter Harvey, ‘Venerated Objects and Symbols of Early Buddhism’, Karel Werner (Ed.), Symbols in Art and Religion: The Indian and Comparative Perspectives, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1991, p. 73 17Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, Op. Cit., p. 59 18Yantras are very important iconographic types used especially in the Sakta systems. See Kapila Vatsyayan and Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, The Transformation of Nature in Art, New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, 1995, pp. 118-122 19Debiprasad Chattopadyaya, Lokayatha- A Study in the Ancient Indian Materialism, New Delhi: Peoples Publishing House, 1968., p. 281 20Idem. 21Ibid., p. 286 171 maṇḍala concept of Tantric Buddhism. The sūtras of Tantric Buddhism described the importance of Aṣṭadaḷampatmam apart from the maṇḍala worship. There are so many references in the Tantric Buddhist sūtras to show the practices of the maṇḍala of Aṣṭadaḷam.

The Vairōcanabhisambodhi-sutra, which probably belongs to 6th or 7th century of Christian era, described the maṇḍala of lotus with eight petals (Aṣṭadaḷapatmam). The text described and defined the term maṇḍala as the deities on the central lotus, who are Vairōcana in the middle and other four Buddhas on four of the eight petals (the other four being vacant). 22 Aṣṭamaṇḍalaka-sutra (8th century A.D.) describes Aṣṭamahābōdhisattva-maṇḍala (the Maṇḍala of the Eight Great bodhisattvas), which is the same form of Aṣṭadaḷapatmam. The text describes the Aṣṭamahābodhisattvas as holding a lotus.

The same Aṣṭadaḷapatmam also be seen in the other forms of Tantric Buddhist Maṇḍala such as Cakrasmavara-maṇḍala, Candamāharōcana-maṇḍala, Mahākaruṇagarbhava-maṇḍala etc. The Cakrsamvara-tantra prescribes the ritual drawing of Cakrasmavara-maṇḍala. Cakrasmavara-maṇḍala (see fig. 1 in Appendix II), consists of a series of concentric circles. It centres upon the divine couple of Heruka and Vajravārāhi, united in sexual embrace.23 They are surrounded by three additional wheels known as the ‘mind’, ‘speech’ and body wheels. They are understood to correspond to the three bodies of a Buddha. 24 The same concept could be the basis for the visual tradition of Aṣṭadaḷapatmam in Malabar (see figs. 71 and 72). The Aṣṭadaḷapatmam in the centre is enclosed by three circles (of white, red, and black colour).25

The Candamaharocana-tantra describes the Candamaharocana-maṇḍala which consists of a universal lotus (with its petals) in the eight directions, beginning with the east. In its centre, a ninth is drawn, with a deep blue sword in the middle.

22Alex Wayman, ‘The Manda and the –la of the Term Mandala’ in N. N. Bhattacharya (Ed.), Tantric Buddhism, New Delhi: Manohar, 1999, p. 28 23David B. Gray, ‘Cakrasamvara Tantra: Its History, Interpretation and Practice in India and Tibet, Religion Compass, 1/6, 2007, p. 703 24Ibid., p.703 25For detailed discussion see chapter II. 172

This has a vajra engraved upon it, and in the centre there is a vajra-hand-saw with a wheel and a white sword is drawn.26

The Vairōcanabhisammbodhi-tantra describes Mahākaruṇagarbhava- maṇḍala, which consists a centre lotus called Vairocana in the middle surrounded by four Buddhas on four of the eight petals (the four vacant) and the five Buddhas constituting the intrinsic maṇḍala.27

Apart from this, Aṣṭamahābodhisattva-maṇḍala described above, some other forms of maṇḍala are also found in cultic practice of Tantric Buddhism in the pan Indian context. The artistic and ritualistic roots of Guhyasamaja-maṇḍala, 28 Vajradhādhu-maṇḍala, (see fig. 2 in Appendix II) 29 Dhāraṇī-maṇḍala, 30 Yamari- maṇḍala, Sambara-maṇḍala, Navatmaka-Hēruka-maṇḍala, Saptadasatmaka-hevajra- maṇḍala, Pan͂ carākṣā-maṇḍala, Tāra-maṇḍala31 etc. that exist among the Buddhist countries of China, Japan, Tibet, Indonesia,32 Sri Lanka33 and so on can be traced back to the Maṇḍala of Indian Buddhism (see figs. 1-6 in Appendix II).

26Christopher Starr George, Candamahorosana Tantra: Chapters I-VIII, Unpublished Ph. D Thesis, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1971, pp. 70-75 27Alex Wayman and R. Tajima, The Enlightenment of Vairocana, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1998, pp. 86-88 28 The Guhyasamaja-tantra describes the Guhyasamaja-mandala consisting of thirty two deities. Aksobhya and Sparsavajra are in the centre. In the inner circle Vairocana in the East, Ratnasambhava in the South, Amitabha in the West, Amoghasiddhi in the North, Locana in the South East, Mamaki in the South West, Pandara in the North West, and Tara in the North East. The second circle represents twenty two deities. In the Guhyasamaja cult, there are several different deities that are taken as the central deity. While the Aksobhya Mandala is predominant, there is also the Guhyasamaja Manjuvajra, based on Manjusri (Manjughosa). Also the Buddhasrijnana School had rites in which Avalokitesvara was the chief deity. See Alex Wayman, Yoga of the Guhyasamajatantra, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1999, pp. 122-124 29Debala Mitra, ‘Represetations of Asta-mahabodhisattvas from Nalanda : An Iconographic Study’, N. N. Bhattacharya (Ed.), Op. Cit., p. 40 30Lokesh Chandra and Sudarshana Devi Singhal, ‘From the Goddesses of Plaosan to the Dhāranı̄- ̣ Mandala at Alchi’ N.N. Bhattacharya (Ed.), Op. Cit., pp. 54-55 31Dipak Chandra Bhattacharya, Studies in Buddhist Iconography, New Delhi: Manohar, 1978, pp. 63- 64 32Under the influence of the Sailendras, Mahayanism flourished in Java and Sumatra for a long period. Bengal was one of the important centres which introduced the Tantric forms of Buddhism both in Java and Sumatra. Two important Mahayana texts, viz., the Sang hyang Kamahayanam Mantraya and the Sang hyang Kamayanikan give us the leading notions on Mahayanism in Java. It is a chronicle of Vajracaryas and Vajrayana system, which describes the practices of Tantric Buddhist Mandala. See Nagendra Kr. Singh (Ed.), International Encyclopedia of Buddhism: A continuing Series, Vol. 37, New Delhi: Anmd Publications, 1998, pp. 1-4 173

Fig. 71 Aṣṭadaḷapatmam in Kaḷamel̤uttu Valliyurkavu, Wayanadu Source: Photograph©Shibi K. 2009

Fig. 72 Aṣṭadaḷapatmam in Buddhist Maṇḍala, Sand maṇḍala at US, 2003 Source: By Mozart Diensthuber (Ow- nwork) [CC BY 3.0 (http://creativec- ommons.org/licenses/by/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons URL:http://co- mmons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3A- Sandmaṇḍala02.JPG

33Sri Lankan Buddhism is profound by influenced the Mahayanism and Tantric Buddhism. The birth day of the Buddha became an annual festive occasion and relics of the Buddha became the basis of a powerful cult in Sri Lanka. The deification of the Buddha and the bodhisattvas show the influence of Mahayanism in Sri Lankan. Tantric dhāraṇīs and maṇḍalas inscribed on stones, clay tablets and copper plaques and the images of Tara have been found in a number of places in Sri Lanka. See K. M. De Silva, A History of Sri Lanka, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999, pp. 49-51 174

IV.a.2. Nāgam Another significant concept of deity that we come across in the kaḷamel̤uttu and Tantric Buddhism, is that of Nāga. The prevalence of the worship of Nāga can be seen in Buddhism. Nāga worship is widely prevalent in the Buddhist stupa of Amaravati in th south eastern Deccan.34 Nāga is one of the most important forms of kaḷamel̤uttu in Malabar, which consists of two hideous snakes which embrace each other. 35 It symbolically represents the concept of Nāgarāja and Nāgarājn͂ i. It is primarily based on the maithuna concept, which is similar to the maithuna and esoteric teachings of Tantric Buddhism. The Tantric Buddhist maṇḍala usually depicts the sexual imagery and embrace of deities such as the manifestations of Vajrayōgini,36 Dākini,37 Vajravārāhi38etc. with the sexual union of Buddha, which will be discussed below. The Nāgakkaḷam is one of the most significant maithuna forms of kaḷamel̤uttu in Malabar. The women ritual dancers in the Nāgakkaḷam also signify the sexual union of the deities in the maṇḍala worship, who also represent the Yōginis such as Yakṣi, Kanyaka and Nāgarājn͂ i of Tantric Buddhism, and they are discussed below.

One of the significant contributions of Tantric Buddhism is the introduction of the cult of maṇḍala which could also depict the anthropomorphic figures of the deities such as peaceful, wrathful or ferocious39 and maithuna deities.40 The maṇḍala is said to be invested with the power of the deity. A peaceful deity symbolizes its particular existential and spiritual approach. Wrathful or ferocious deities represent the mighty struggle involved in overcoming one's obstacles. It is said that wrathful deities destroyed enemies and helps devotees to attain the level of a Buddha. 41 The integrative process which lies at the heart of the maṇḍala is represented by the sexual imagery. Male and female elements are the symbols of the countless pairs of

34N. J. Francis, Buddhist Art, Religion and Society at Amaravati and other allied centres (BC 300-AD 300), (Un published Ph. D Thesis), Department of History: University of Calicut, 2002, p. 108 35Dr. Babu Mundekkadu recorded the colour photo of Ālavaṭṭamkeṭṭu in his Kallarrakkruppanmarude Kalamezhuthupattu . See Babu Mundekkadu, Kallarrakkuruppanmarude Kalamezhuthupattu (Mal.), Kottayam: DC Books, 2000. 36Elizabeth English, Vajrayogini in Her Visualizations, Rituals and Forms: A Study of the Cult of Vajrayogini in India, Boston: Wisdom Publication, 2002, p. 4 37Ibid., p. 5 38Ibid., p. 4 39B. Bhattacharya, Indian Buddhist Iconography, Calcutta: K. L. Mukhopadyaya, 1958, pp. 193-194 40Elizabeth English, Op. Cit., pp. 4-5 41B. Bhattacharya, Op. Cit., pp. 193-194 175 opposites which is experienced in mundane existence. The deities such Tāra, Śrī Heruka, Vajravārāhi, Avalōkitēśvara, Vajrapāṇi, Man͂ juśrī, Ksitigarbha, Aksagarbha, Vairocana, Akṣōbhya, Ratnasambhava, Amitabha, Amoghasiddhi, Lōcanā, Mamaki, Pandara, Yōginis, etc. are depicted within the inner sides of the maṇḍalas. Drawing the anthropomorphic figures of the deities in the maṇḍala is the fundamental method of the tradition of kaḷamel̤uttu. The maithuna, ferocious and peaceful deities in the kaḷamel̤uttu are influenced by the iconography of Tantric Buddhism. The deities such as Bhadrakāḷi, Kālarātri, Bhairavan, Mātangi, Vairajātan, Gandharvan, Ayyappan etc. in kaḷamel̤uttu are also found in the iconography of the Tantric Buddhist tradition which will be taken up for discussion below.

Table 8. Similarities between Nāga Symbolism in Kaḷamel̤uttu and Tantric Buddhist Maṇḍala Nāgam in Kaḷamel̤uttu Nāga symbolism in Tantric Buddhist Maṇḍala Maithuna Maithuna

Nāgakanyas Nagakanyas

Yakṣikanyas/Yakṣiyammas Yakṣikanyas

Nāgarājni Nāgarājn͂ i

Semi-mythical non-human beings Semi-mythical non-human beings

Maṇḍalas Maṇḍalas

Source: Information gathered by the researcher

IV.a.3. Bhadrakāḷi The Bhadrakāḷi is the most significant deity in the kaḷamel̤uttu who is always found in ferocious forms. Thus the image of Bhadrakāḷi projected in the kaḷamel̤uttu has four or eight arms, her eyes are distended and there are tusks from her mouth. This iconography of Bhadrakāḷi is very similar to the wrathful deities of Tantric Buddhism, especially the supreme Buddhist goddess Tārā. According to the Mahayana Buddhist conception, Tārā is the primordial female energy, the consort of Avalōkitēśvara, who enables her devotees to overcome all sorts of dangers and calamities. She has numerous manifestations and many of them became very popular in India during the early centuries of Christian era when the Mahayana pantheon was 176 emerging rapidly. 42 Mahāmāyavijayavāhini, Parnaśabari, Ekajāta, Mahācinatāra Mārīcī, Vajravārāhi, Vajrayōgini etc. are the important manifestations of Tārā in Mahayana Buddhism. The wrathful and ferocious natures of these deities are identical with the deity Bhadrakāḷi in kaḷamel̤uttu of Malabar.

The Sādhanamāla and Niṣpannayōgavali contain much detail about many such forms of the Tārā. Reference should be made here to the similarities that exist between the Bhadrakāḷi in kaḷamel̤uttu and the Buddhist goddess Tārā. Mahāmāyavijayavāhini is the supreme form of the goddess of Tārā, similar to the Kāḷi who imparts success in wars and struggles.43 She has also been conceived as a war goddess destroying the powers of enemies. She is regarded as having thousands of heads and arms. Her representation is found in Tibet, Nepal, Eastern India, South India, Ceylon etc.44 Tārā is also conceived in terms of five colours in which her white colour belongs to the compassionate category while yellow, red, blue or black to the terrible category.45 All of these characteristic features are also found in the deity Bhadrakāḷi in kaḷamel̤uttu.

Parnaśabari is another significant manifestation of Tārā, which also identical with the wrathful and ferocious nature of Bhadrakāḷi in kaḷamel̤uttu. The form of yellow Tārā is a consort of Akṣōbhya whose effigy she bears on the crown. She has six arms holding thunderbolt, axe, arrow, noose, leaves and bow.46 This yellow form of Tārā is parallel to the iconography of Bhadrakāḷi with yellow colour, which was practiced in north Malabar.

Other forms of Tāra such as Ekajāta and Mahācinatāra are wrathful, single faced and three eyed. They have garlands of heads hanging from their necks, When two armed holds a knife and skull cup, arrow and sword in two right hands and bow and skull in the two left when four handed; she carries sword, arrow, thunderbolt and

42N. N. Bhattacharya, ‘The Cult of Tara in Historical Perspective’, N. N. Bhattacharya (Ed.), Op. Cit., p. 190 43Dipak Chandra Bhattacharya, Op. Cit., pp. 12-13 44Ibid., pp. 12-13 45N. N. Bhattacharya, ‘The Cult of Tara in Historical Perspective’, N. N. Bhattacharya (Ed.), Op. Cit., p. 193 46Ibid., p. 200 177 knife in her four right hands and bow, lotus, axe and skull in her four left hands when eight armed.47

The concept of Mārīcī is another manifestation of the goddess Tārā. The iconography of Mārīcī is very similar to the iconography of Bhadrakāḷi in kaḷamel̤uttu in Malabar. She appears ferocious and has eight arms. She holds a human head in her right hand, while Bhadrakāḷi holds Dārika’s head in kaḷamel̤uttu (see figs. 73 and 74).48

Fig. 73 Bhagavati holding the Head of Dārika Source: Photograph©Shibi K. 2013

47Ibid., p.199 48Dipak Chandra Bhattacharya, Op. Cit., pp. 18-21 178

Fig.74 Mārīcī holding the Human head Source: D. C. Bhattacharya, 1978.

Mārīcī is repeatedly invoked as Varahi49 or Vajravārāhi; and often there are separate sādhanas for the deity Vajravārahi.50 She is manifested in different forms with two armed forms, four armed forms, and six armed forms etc. She is adorned with the garlands of heads. She is one faced, three eyed and four armed carrying in her right hands a damaru, and a katri and in the left a kapāla and khatvanga.51 She looks terrible. She has a protruding belly and tongue.52 Lots of maṇḍalas manifest her.53

Vajrayōgini is also a terrific deity and is an emanation of Dhyani Buddha Ratnasambhava. She is a Dākini, and a deity of initiation who personifies the female wisdom power of emptiness. She appears naked, crushing underfoot the Bhairava and is equivalent to Vajravārāhi. When she is in red colour, she has four arms/hands

49The Varahi yantram and mantram are practiced as part of healing practices in Malabar (see fig.. 32 in chapter II. 50Idem. 51Mallar Mitra, ‘Goddess Vajravarahi: An Iconographic Study’ cited in N.N. Bhattacharya (Ed.), Op. Cit., p.104 52Ibid., p.105 53Ibid., p.116 179 holding daṇḍa (tantric staff), curved knife, vajra (thunderbolt), and kapāla (skull- cup).54 Both of Vajrayōgini and Vajravārāhi are illustrated as in sexual union with Buddha or yōgin, as discussed above. Thus, the ferocious nature of Vajrayōgini and Vajravārāhi of Tantric Buddhist maṇḍala are identical with the ferocious form of deity Bhadrakāḷi in kaḷamel̤uttu.55

The conception of Bhadrakāḷi in kaḷamel̤uttu is highly influenced by the manifestations of the Tantric Buddhist deity Tārā. The ferocious or wrathful deities of Tantric Buddhism like Parṇaśabari, Ekajata, Mahācinatāra Mārīcī, Vajravārahi etc. in the maṇḍalas are found in the iconography of Bhadrakāḷi in the kaḷamel̤uttu of Malabar. The posture, holding of weapons, arms etc. share the similar iconographical features (see figs. 75 and 76).

Fig. 75 Bhadrakāḷi in Kaḷamel̤uttu South Malabar, 21st c Source: Sketch by Anupama M.

54B. Bhattacharya, Op. Cit., p. 597 55 For detailed discussion on the iconography of Bhadrakāḷi see chapter II. 180

Fig. 76 Mārīcī in Buddhist Maṇḍala Nepal, AD 1071 Source: D. C. Bhattacharya, 1978. Pl. 6

Similar parallelism of maithuna form had its impact on the Bhagavati concept of Bhadrakāḷi in the context of kaḷamel̤uttu. She is illustrated in a sitting posture, but formed in to a maithuna form, and is discussed and illustrated as in the chapter II.56 It is very significant to note that the same posture can be seen in the maithuna form of Tantric Buddhist deities (see figs. 77-79). 57 The concept of divine couple in the kaḷamel̤uttu also indicates the idea of maithuna in the Tantric Buddhist maṇḍala. The kaḷamel̤uttu of Kur̤r̤ippurattu Bhagavati and Nampiattu Gopalam, Vairajātan and Bhagavati etc. are the main couples in the deities in kaḷamel̤uttu. Among these deities, Kur̤r̤ippurattu Bhagavati is in a maithuna form, as stated above (see fig. 80). The divine couple in the Tantric Buddhist maṇḍalas always leads in maithuna form such as Heruka and his consort Vajravārahi in Cakrasmavara-maṇḍala (see fig. 81), Kālacakra and his consort Viśvamāta in Kālacakra-maṇḍala, Vajrabhairava and his consort Vajravētāḷi in Vajrabhairava-maṇḍala and so forth. However, the term Bhagavati represents the sexual imagery of the deity. 58 Sexual imagery is considered as a metaphor for enlightenment through the qualities of unity and completion. As stated above, the Buddhist deity Vajravārahi is manifested in the maṇḍalam as a

56The deity Bhadrakali is manifested in the kalameluttu in sexual intercourse with lingam (penis), which is practiced by Kallarrakkuruppus in Malabar. 57Gudrun Buhnemann, ‘Erotic Forms of Ganesa in Hindu and Buddhist Iconography’, Adalbert J. Gail, Gerd J. R. Mevissen and Richard Salomon (Ed.), Script and Image; Papers on Art and Epigraphy, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2006, pp. 17-21 58The term Bhagavati indicates one who possesses bhaga. The term bhaga means vagina or female genital organ. See Sreekanteswaram G. Padmanabha Pillai, Sabdatharavali (Mal), Kottayam: Sahitya Pravartaka Co-operative society, 2010 (35th Ed.), p. 1338 181 divine couple of the sexual intercourse with Śrī Heruka. She has been described as deity Bhagavati in sādhanas 217, 218, 219, 221, 226 and 227 of Sādhanamāla.59 The Mahayana Buddhist deity of the Śabaras came to be known as ‘sarva-sabaranam- bhagavati’, i.e. goddess Bhagavati of all the Śabaras. 60 In the Kālavivēka of Jīmūtavāhana,61 it is stated that the Śabarōtsava62 in Bengal included songs about sex organs and also about sexual intercourse with requisite movements of the body and that the violation of this practice incurred the rage and curse of Bhagavati. 63 The name of Bhagavati is described among the earliest Mahasiddhas, around AD 633.64Obviously, the maithuna concept of Vajravārāhi, VajraYōgini, and other female deities in the Tantric Buddhism is parallel to the maithuna concept of Bhadrakāḷi of kaḷamel̤uttu in Malabar.

Fig. 77 Maithuna form of Gaṇapati in Tantric Buddhism, Tibet, 19th c Source: Gudrun Buhnemann, 2006, Pl. I .B

59Mallar Mitra, Op. Cit., p.102 60Parnasabari Bhattacharyya, ‘Parnasabari: A Tantric Buddhist Goddess’, N.N. Bhattacharya (Ed.), Op. Cit., p. 215 61The Kalaviveka of Jimutavahana is an exhaustive analysis of the auspicious kāla (timing) for the performance of religious rites and ceremonies, it is assumed that the text was written after, 1093. 62Scholars argued that the Sabaraotsava in Bengal is connected with Tantric Buddhism. 63Parnasabari Bhattacharyya, Op. Cit., p. 216 64Shyamalkanti Chakravarti and Sipra Chakravarti, ‘The Concept of Siddhacaryas and their Images’, N. N. Bhattacharya (Ed.), Op. Cit., p. 236 182

Fig. 78 Maithuna form of Ganapati in Tantric Buddhism, Tibet, 19th c Source: Gudrun Buhnemann, 2006, Pl. II 183

Fig. 79 Maithuna form of female attendants in Tantric Buddhism, Tibet, 19th c Source: Source: Gudrun Buhnemann, 2006, Pl. II 184

Fig. 80 Maithuna form of Bhadrakāḷi in Kaḷamel̤uttu Source: Line Sketch by Sankara Kurup (late), Malappuram, 1960s

Fig. 81 Maithuna images in Buddhist Maṇḍala-Cakrasamvara-maṇḍala Nepal, ca 1100 Source: http://commons.wikimedia.- org/wiki/File:Chakrasamvara_Mand- ala.jpg?uselang=en-gb 185

Table 9. Similarities between Bhadrakāḷi in Kaḷamel̤uttu and Tāra in Tantric Buddhism Bhadrakāḷi in Kaḷamel̤uttu Tāra (Marici, Parnasabari, Ekajata and MahacinaTāra) in Tantric Buddhist Maṇḍala Two, four, six arms, eight, Two, four, six arms, sixteen sixteen arms arms Human head in the right hand Human head in the right hand (Mārīcī), a knife and skull cup khadga, khetaka, pātra and (two arms), kapāla, arrow, sword, bow and skull sword, śūlam, vaṭṭaka, (four arms); khatvankam, maṇi, head of sword, arrow, thunderbolt, knife, Dārika, paras and kapāla, axe bow, lotus, axe and skull (eight arms) damaru, katri , kapāla (for details see discussions in and khatvanga, (four arms) chapter II) Danda curved knife, vajra (sword), kapāla Ferocious Ferocious war goddess destroying the war goddess destroying the powers of enemies powers of enemies Red and yellow colour Red and yellow colour

Table 9. continued Bhadrakāḷi in Kaḷamel̤uttu Tāra (Parṇaśabari) in Tantric Buddhism Four, six Eight, sixteen arms Six arms thunderbolt, axe, arrow, noose, leaves and bow war goddess destroying the war goddess destroying the powers of enemies powers of enemies Yellow colour Yellow colour Parnasabari

Table 9. continued Bhadrakāḷi in Kaḷamel̤uttu Tāra (Ekajata and Mahacinatāra) in Tantric Buddhism Two, Four, six arms Two, four, six arms a knife and skull cup (two arms), arrow, sword, bow and skull (four arms); and sword, arrow, thunderbolt, knife, bow, lotus, axe and skull (eight arms)

Ferocious Ferocious Yellow colour Yellow colour Parnasabari 186

Table 9. continued Bhadrakāḷi in Kaḷamel̤uttu Tāra (Vajravārāhi) in Tantric Buddhism Four, four, six arms Two, four, six arms damaru, katri , kapāla and khatvanga Ferocious and maithuna Ferocious and maithuna Yellow colour Yellow colour Parṇaśabari

Table 9. continued Bhadrakāḷi in Kaḷamel̤uttu Tāra (Vajrayōgini) in Tantric Buddhism Four arms Four arms Danda curved knife, thunderbolt (vajra), and skull-cup (kapāla) Ferocious and maithuna Ferocious and maithuna Yellow colour Red colour

Table 9. continued Bhadrakāḷi in Kaḷamel̤uttu Tāra (Mārīcī) in Tantric Buddhism Eight arms Eight arms Human head in the right hand Human head in the right hand Ferocious Ferocious Yellow colour Red colour

IV.a.4. Ayyappan The examination of the iconography of Ayyappan in kaḷamel̤uttu leads us to the some inference. We have seen that the image of Ayyappan is seated on a horse and has a beard face. He is also represented in ferocious form. The same images such as a warrior or trader seated on horses with beard face are frequently met in the murals of Alchi—a Buddhist monastery in Tibet (see figs. 82 and 83).65 The same images are seen in the murals of Tamilnadu during the medieval period due to the west Asian contacts.66

65Nawang Tsering, Alchi, New Delhi: Central Institute of Buddhist Studies, Leh-Ladakh, 2009, pp. 8, 10, 35 66The similar images of Ayyappan also are seen in the murals of Kerala. See M. G. Sasibhooshan, Thiruvananthapuram: State Institute of Languages, 2011, p. 20 187

Fig. 82 Ayyappan with horse in Kaḷamel̤uttu, central Kerala, 21st c Source: M. V. Vishnu Namboothiri, 2000

Fig. 83 Horse-rider in Alchi Source: Sketch by Shibi K. based on Nawang Tsering, 2009. 188

Scholars have already postulated the similarity of Ayyappan with the cult of the Buddha.67 The ritual song of the kaḷamel̤uttu of Ayyappan says that Ayyappan starts off from Trikkunnappuzha. It is significant to remember in this context that five seated Buddha images have been discovered from different parts of Alleppy district, and that some historians had concluded that the Srimulavasa vihara mentioned in the Paliyam copper plates was located somewhere near Trikkunnapuzha. It is very likely that the deity Ayyappan in kaḷamel̤uttu who is represented in a ferocious form, with bearded face and seated on a horse, could be due to some Buddhist influence, though we are not in a position to reconstruct a Mahayana or Tantric Buddhist phase in Kerala one to one correspondence.

IV.a.5. Cāttan Cāttan is an important form of kaḷamel̤uttu in Malabar. Mantravādakkaḷam signifies the different forms of Cāttan such as Unmatta Kuṭṭiccāttan, Ananda Kuṭṭiccāttan, Kurunkuṭṭiccāttan and so on. The mantras start with “ōm namō bhagavato”, which is a mantra of the bodhisattva cult of Tantric Buddhism. This will be discussed later as part of Buddhist mantras in the mantravādakkaḷam. The chapter tries to argue that the term Cāttan is similar to the bōdhisattva cult in south India. The Cilappatikaram also mentions about pāṣaṇḍa bhairavanām cāttan.68 He is also the Buddha. This also will be discussed in the coming chapters. The inscriptional evidences show the prevalence of the worship of Cāttan or Śāsta in Kerala.69 The images of Cāttan/Sāstan explored from different parts of South India again indicate the presence of the bodhisattva cult.70

IV.a.6. Vairajātan Similarly the deity Vairajātan in kaḷamel̤uttu also shares the Tantric Buddhist iconography. The term Vairajātan means one who is born from vaira or vajra, which is similar to the tantric Buddhist deity Vairocana. Vairocana is one of the five dhyāni

67M. G. S. Narayanan, Perumals of Kerala: Political and Social Conditions of Kerala Under the Cera Perumals of Makotai (c. 800 AD-1124 AD), Calicut: Author, 1996, p. 182 68S. Ramesan Nair (Tr.), Cilapatikaram (Mal), Thiruvananthapuram: Author, 1992, p. 146 69The widespread cult of Sāttan/Cāttan worship in Travancore is described in the Guhanathasvamin temple inscription at Kanyakumari, the Sastamangalam inscription, the Sastakkottam inscription (Changanassery), an inscription in the Kunnursalai temple, and an inscription of Sattankulangara (14th c in Chengannur). These documented the grants of land and rice for conducting daily worship and festivals of Sāttan temples in Tiruvitamcore. 70A Stone idol of Sasta recoverd from Tiruvattar in Tamil Nadu. The Hindu Daily, February 4, 2015 189

Buddhas. Many maṇḍalas include the five Buddhas where of the colour, direction and form have symbolic meaning. He is represented by the white colour which is the symbol of space71 and the Vairajātan also represents the white colour in kaḷamel̤uttu (see figs. 84 and 85). He has eight arms, which hold the attributes such as the vajra, the rosary, the arrow, the discus and the bow. He exhibits the dharmacakra mudra and the dhyana mudra.72 On his forehead is represented the seed syllable ‘ōm’. The ritual song of Vairajātan also describes him as he is born with the seed syllable ‘ōm’ (see Ritual Song 1 in Appendix III).73 Niṣpannayōgavali describes him as four-faced and eight-armed and is called Vajradhātu in the Vajradhātu-maṇḍala. Vairōcana is mentioned along with the other Dhyani Buddhas in the Guhysamaja-tantra which is dated to early medieval Tibet and China. 74

The similarities in content, form, iconography and the nomenclature between Vairajātan and Vairocanan clearly indicate the undercurrents of the cult of Tantric Buddhism in the frame of kaḷamel̤uttu in Malabar.

Table 10. Similarities between Vairajātan in Kaḷamel̤uttu and Vairocanan in Tantric Buddhism Vairajātan in Kaḷamel̤uttu Vairocanan in Tantric Buddhist Maṇḍala Eight arms Eight arms Represented the seed syllable Represented the seed syllable ‘ōm’ ‘ōm’ White colour White colour Manifested with his consort Manifested with his consort Source: Information gathered by the researcher

71B. Bhattacharya, Op. cit., pp. 53-54 72Ibid 73Ibid. 74Ibid. 190

Fig. 84 Vairajātan with white colour in Kaḷamel̤uttu, North Malabar Source: Photograph©Shibi K. 2015

Fig. 85 Vairocana with white colour in Buddhist Maṇḍala, Western Tibet 14th c. Source: Distemper on prepared fabric https://www.asianart.com/liebe- rman/gallery2/5.html 13/2/16 10.05 pm 191

IV.a.7. Kālarātri and Bhairavan Kālarātri and Bhairavan are two significant deities in kaḷamel̤uttu and these two deities are also found with exact parallelism in style and imagery in the Buddhist tantric system. Vairōcanabhisambodhi-tantra describes the Kālarātri with Mrtyu and Nṛti as mothers, that reside in the south-western part of the second rank of the Mahakarunagarbhobhava-maṇḍala.75 Kālarātri and Bhairavan are also described with the dance of Vajravārāhi.76

Bhairava is depicted with Buddhist deities such as Vajrapāṇi and Hēruka. Mahakāla and Bhairava were important form of deities in Tantric Buddhist pantheon. The Kalabhairavan is an important form of kaḷamel̤uttu in Malabar. In maṇḍala, the central deities, Heruka and Vajravārāhi, are portrayed as trampling upon the supine deities, Bhairava and Kālarātri.77

Bhairava or Anantha Bhairavan is also referred to in the manuscripts of mantravādam in Malabar. The mantras start with “ōm namo bhagavato”, which is a mantra for the bodhisattva cult of Tantric Buddhism and the term bhagavato belongs to the Buddha himself.78The Cilappatikāram also hints about a pāṣaṇḍa bhairavanam cāttan.79 It is also been proven that ‘pāṣaṇḍa bhairavanam cāttan’ is the Buddha.80 It is tried to argue then that the term Bhairava is prescribed for Buddha. This will be further discussed below in the section dealing with the Buddhist mantras in the mantravādakkaḷam and in the up-coming chapters.

IV.a.8. Maṇimanka The ritual song of Kur̤ r̤ ippurattu Bhagavati describes the female deity Maṇimanka. She is also described in the Maṇimankattōr̤ r̤ am of Bhadrakāḷi-tīyyāṭṭu in Travancore. The song signifies the story of Tamil epic Cilapatikāram and represents Maṇimanka as the deity Kaṇṇaki. At the same time, the term Maṇimanka is similar to the term Maṇimēkhalai, who is a female sea-deity of the Buddhist pantheon. 81 She

75Alex Wayman and R. Tajima, Op. Cit., p. 90 76Mallar Mitra, Op. Cit., p.104 77Mallar Mitra, ‘Goddess Vajravarahi: An Iconographic Study’ cited in N.N. Bhattacharya, op. cit., p.104 78N. J. Francis, Op. Cit., p. 226 79S. Ramesan Nair (Tr.), Op. Cit., p. 146 80Ibid., p. 146 81Shu Hikosaka, Op. Cit., p. 170 192 also signifies a female bodhisattva in the Mahayana teachings of south India. The deity Maṇimanka starts off from the coastal land of Tiruvāl̤ ūr and was understood as a sea goddess. The deity Maṇimanka in the frame of kaḷamel̤uttu and the deity Maṇimēkhalai in Mahayana pantheon are very similar in terms of theme and name, which will be discussed in the coming chapter V.

IV.a.9. Yakṣi, Nāgarājni and Mātangi Another most significant aspect of the influence of Tantric Buddhism in kaḷamel̤uttu was the female principles in the kaḷamel̤uttu. The female representations in the kaḷamel̤uttu such as Yakṣi, Nagakanya or Nāgarājn͂ i, and Mātangi are borrowed from the Yōgini traditions of the maṇḍala cult in the Tantric Buddhism.

Buddhist Tantras of the early medeival period at their centre the worship of female non-human beings in the maṇḍala, such as Dākinis, Yakṣinis, Apsaras (celestial nymphs), Nāgarājni (serpent queens), and so forth.82 The images of Naga worship and Yakṣinis are carved in the reliefs of Bharhut stūpas.83 Several Buddhist tantras describe the sexual practices of yōgins with Yakṣini at secret and isolated places.84 The Guhyasamaja,85 Cakrasmvara and other yoga-tantra also describe them as ideal partners for sexual practices with the Buddhas in the maṇḍala. Subahupariprccha-tantra says about the ritual of the adept’s sexual union with the Yōgini Yakṣini, and described her as not a women but a Yakṣikanya. 86

82Initially Dakinis were concidered to be non-human beings or spirits, akin to raksasi demoness, who were notable for their carnivorous appetite. The Samayoga-tantra describes Dakini (composed of Buddha elements) as an ideal partners for sexual union with the Buddhas. See Ibid., p. 84 83James Fergussion, History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, Vol. I, New Delhi: Rupa Publications, 2011, pp. 105-108 84Shu Hikosaka, Op. Cit., p. 86 85Guhyasamaja-tantra reads: having meditated on Vairocana, the great wheel’ with the hook store Buddhas, he should engage in the supreme attraction of the Yakṣiṇis. See Alex Wayman and R. Tajima, Op. Cit., p. 31 86Subahupariprccha-tantra described thus: Although a woman is summoned by the power of mantra across hundreds of leagues of distance, she is not a woman but a Yakṣikanya, who displays herfelf to the mantrin in that form which he has invoked for the sake of his lust. Insofar as he succeeds in this, it is given to him by the yakṣikanya, who, manifesting in the body of that woman, serves his lust through out the night. The fact that she is a Yaksini and not the actual woman for whom the man lusts means that he who lustfully enjoys her can be one who, in desiring to enjoy another’s woman, avoids the faults of perverse incest and so forth. Apparently by the eighth century the Yaksinis and relaed non-human females were established as aclass of beings to whom the fearless might look for sexual satisfaction, as well as for the possibility of the attainment of magical powers. But truly he would have to need control of his mind and sexual functions. Thus the adept is warned: the mantrin, hinderin (the flow of ) 193

However, several of the Yōgini classes appear to refer to human females. The Cakrasamvara-tantra describes the yōgin’s mudra (sign language) and samketabhasa (symbollic speech) to communicate with Yōginis.87 The text also describes the kanyas as Yōginis who are nondual with the heroes.88 They all have attractive forms. These kanyas are not human females but something akin to the Yakṣikanya of texts such as the Subahupariprccha-tantra, these kanyas who are summoned through the power of mantra and the mind, and who are then dismissed afterward by the same means are also refered to the same text.89 The text also describes Dakini and Yōgini as Guhyaka (secret ones), which is an old term for the Yakṣinis.90Guhysamaja-tantra describes the yoga practiced by the Vajrin and Dākini with sexual union in the maṇḍala.91

The worship of Nāgarājn͂ i (serpent queens) is mentioned in Bhūtadamara- tantra of Tantric Buddhism,92 and she is also a class of Yōginis as well as Yakṣinis and Apsaras (celestial nymphs). The name Nāgayōgini is mentioned in the Guhyasamaja- tantra (Tibetan tradition). A Yōgini, descended from the realm of the Nāgas, heard the Guhyasamaja-tantra from king Indrabhuti and taught it to the king Visukalpa of the southern country. 93 Buddhist Tantras contain the use of mantras and worship procedures of numerous semi-devine beings, among whom include the eight Yakṣinis and eight Nāgarājn͂ is.94

Mātangi is also a manifestation of a Buddhist Yōgini. Sometimes she is described as Mātangi and Canda-mātangi in Buddhist pantheon.95 As per the legend,

his semen at night, should energetically invoke and give rise to her. Othervise, those who commense with deluded minds will be quickly destroyed by the Yakṣiṇi. See Subahupariprccha-tantra, 138b. cited in David B. Gray, The Cakarasamvara Tantra (The discourse of Sri Heruka), New York: The American Institute of Buddhist Studies, 2007, p. 84 87 The chapter twenty seven of the Cakrasamvara-tantra tells that the companionship of duti (messengers), are essential for the yogins seeking empowerment. They thus appear to be a peripatetic class of yōginis. Moreover, it describes the twenty four sacred places of Cakrasamvara, and claims that the dakinis are all-pervasive. See David B. Dray, Op. Cit., p. 84 88Ibid., p. 84 89David B. Gray, Op. Cit., pp. 90-91 90Ibid., pp. 90-91 91Alex Wayman, Yoga of the Guhyasamajatantra, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1999, pp. 33, 298 92Gudrun Buhnemann, ‘Buddhist Deities and Mantras in the Hindu Tantras: II The Srividyarnavatantra and the Tantrasara’,Indo-Iranian Journal, 43: 27-48, 2000, p. 41 93Ibid., p. 90 94Gudrun Buhnemann, Op. Cit., p. 41 95Ibid., p. 30 194 the Yōgini Mātangi was born to a Caṇḍāla man called Mātanga.96 In the later period, she was converted herself as a Buddhist nun. We have reference to Mātangi in south Indian context, as an outcaste and has served as village oracle.97 She is performed maithuna acts with man of higher jātis during the ritual context,98 which typically belongs to the Yōgini tradition of Tantric Buddhism. It is significant to be mentioned here that the way Kaṇiyans draw the diagram of Mātangi-yantram is something special. The central part of this yantra is a triangle which is encircled by an eight- petal lotus. 99 It again represents Yōgini cult and the female worship of Tantric Buddhism.

This examination of the worship of female non-human beings and Yōginis in the Tantric Buddhist literature is crucial to understanding the charector of the female principle in kaḷamel̤uttu of Nāgam (Nāgakkaḷam). The Tantric Buddhist Yōginis like Yakṣinis, Yakṣikanyas, Nāgarājni, Nāgayōgini are portrayed in the Yakṣiyammas, Nāgakanyakas, Nāgayakṣis in the Nāgakkaḷam of Malabar. 100 Obviously, the Nāgakkaḷam of Malabar represents the above mentioned Yōgini cult of the Tantric Buddhist maṇḍalas. The ritual song of Nāgakkaḷam by the Puḷḷuvar describes the Vinata and Kadru as vēśa or vēśanmār which means they belong to the tradition of Yōginis.101 The Pāmpintuḷḷal of women in the Nāgakkaḷam102 symbolizes the sexual union and dances of Yōgini and yogin in the maṇḍalam, which will be examined as detail in the section dealing with the ritual context of Tantric Buddhism. The dances

96Franklin Edgerton defined ‘Matanga’ as a Pratyeka Buddha and a king from Naga lineage. See Franklin Edgerton, Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit: Grammar and Dictionary, Vol. I, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1998 (Reprint), p. 428 97In earlier medieval accounts the Mātangi was an outcaste woman, who represented the manifestation of goddesses, and performed sanctifying ritual actions in south India. See Sarah Caldwell, ‘Margins at the Center; Tracing Kali Through Time, Space and Culture ’ in Rachel Fell McDermott and Jeffrey J. Kripal (Ed.), Encountering Kali; In the Margins, at the Center, in the West, London: University of California Press, 2003, p. 265-266 98Ibid., p. 266 99Interview with Sajith, Kaniyan, Kazargode on 07/02/2013 100 It appears that the Nāgarān͂ji, the Nāgayakṣis, Kanyakamār and women in the Nāgakkaḷam are generally called the yakṣiyammas in the frame of kaḷamel̤uttu. 101 The term vēśa or vēśanmār delineates the people practicing the knowledge of vasikarana or attraction. The same term can be widely seen in the Manipravāḷa texts in Kerala. The term vēsya, abisārika and so forth not indicate the synonyms of prostitute. During the colonial period this medieval terms are completely translates in to prostitute within the colonial modern sexual concepts. It is arguable here that the term vēśya or vēśa—some one knows tantra of vaśīkaraṇa—is used for the same purpose of yōgini cult in Kerala context. For the text of see Ritual song 7 in Appendix III. 102For a detailed discussion see chapter I. 195 of the piṇiyāls in the mantrvādakkaḷam of Kaṇiyans, Vaṇṇāns, Pulayans etc. also replicate the dances of Yōgini in the maṇḍalam. Ritual dances of the Teyyampāṭinampiārs, Teyyampāṭikkuruppus, Kallār̤ r̤ akkuruppus etc. represent the same ritual dance forms in the Tantric Buddhist maṇḍalam. The ritual dance of a single person in a kaḷamel̤uttu is an eventually transformed in medieval period. The secretive nature, the symbolism of maithuna forms and ritual dances of kaḷamel̤uttu in Malabar replicate or are symbolic of the signs of secret consecration or sexual yoga of Tantric Buddhism.

IV.a. 10. Yakṣan and Gandharvan In the case of Yakṣan and Gandharvan the evidence does not permit for a detailed comparative study and derive replicates as we were able to do in the case of Bhadrakāḷi and Tāra, Ayyappan and Buddha, Vairajātan and Vairocanan, Kālarātri and Bhairava, and so on. Yet, there is an underlying common thread linking Tantric Buddhism and the iconography of Yakṣan and Gandharvan of kaḷamel̤uttu in a direct of veiled manner. Yakṣa worship is also prevalent in the Buddhist stūpas of Amaravati103 and Bharhut.104 The terms Yakṣa and Gandharva are sometimes used for the same person in Tantric Buddhism. Yakṣa in Tantric Buddhism is more general term, denoting a variety of lower deities. The Dharmadhātuvagīśvara-maṇḍala describes eight Lords of Yakṣas, who are semi-mythical beings supposed to preside over wealth.105 The worship of Yakṣas can be seen during the rites of Mahakāla- tantra and Mahakāla is considered the king of all Yakṣas, which will be examined below in the section dealing with the Buddhist-Hybrid Sanskrit mantras and religious healing practices in the contexts of mantdavādakkaḷam.106The Mahavairocana-sutra described Yakṣas and Gandharvas in the mystic mudras of the Tathagata. 107 Gandharva or Gandhabba refers to a being in a liminal state between death and rebirth.108

103N. J. Francis, Op. Cit., p. 108 104James Fergussion, Op. Cit., p. 105 105B. Bhattacharya, Op. Cit., pp. 379-380 106William George Stablein (Ed.), Mahakalatantra: A Theory of Ritual Blessings and Tantric Medicine, Columbia University Press, 1976, pp. 186-187 107Alex Wayman and R. Tajima, Op. Cit., p. 319 108Alex Wayman, Yoga of the Guhyasamajatantra, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1999, p. 200 196

Yakṣas and Gandharvas as semi-mythical beings in the Tantric Buddhism is the basic concept is used in the Gandharvan of kaḷamel̤uttu. Kuruppus also draw the Gandharvankaḷam to cast out the influence of Gandharvas in the body of young unmarried ladies.109 The same ideology of Yakṣas is also found in the same context of the healing tradition of Kaṇiyans, Vaṇṇāns and Tīyyans in Malabar.

Table 11. Similarities between Deities in Kaḷamel̤uttu and Tantric Buddhism Deities in Kaḷamel̤uttu Deities in Tantric Buddhism Aṣṭadaḷam Aṣṭadaḷam Nagakanyas and Nāgarājn͂ i Kanyas , Nāgarājn͂ i, Nāgayōgini Mātangi Mātangi Yakṣi Yakṣini Bhadrakāḷi Bhadrakāḷi (Tāra, Mārīcī, Mahacinatāra, Parnaśabari, Vajravārāhi,Vajrayōgini) Kālarātri Kālarātri Bhairavan Bharavan Cāttan Jātan (Vairajātan=Vairocanan) Vairajātan Vairocanan Kaṇṇaki Kaṇṇaki Ayyappan Avalōkitēśvara Source: Information gathered by the researcher

IV.b. COLOUR SYMBOLISM OF TANTRIC BUDDHISM IN KAḶAMEL̤UTTU Pan͂ ca-varṇas or five colours are the basic composition of visual tradition of kaḷamel̤uttu. Colour concept of kaḷamel̤uttu is deeply rooted in the colour symbolism of Tantric Buddhism. In Tantric Buddhism, references to five colours (pan͂ ca-varna) are frequently met with. The colours are white, yellow, red, blue or black, and green, are the base of kaḷamel̤uttu in Malabar. According to Candamaharōcana-tantra (8th century A.D.), the colour black symbolizes killing and anger; white denotes rest and thinking; yellow stands for restraining and nourishing; red subjugation and summoning; and green means exorcism.110

The sādhanas of five dhyāni Buddhas describe the five different body colours of them. Vairōcana is represented through white colour and it stands for delusion. Ratnasambava is yellow that denotes pride. Akṣōbhya is blue colour and it delineates hatred. Amitabha is red and signifies passion, and Amoghasiddhi symbolizes green

109Chummar Choondal, Studies in Folklore of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram: College Book House, 1975, p. 12 110William George Stablein (Ed.), Op. Cit., pp. 118 - 125 197 colour for envy. 111 The maṇḍala painted with these five colours describes Mahavairōcana-sutra (7th century).112 The walls of a maṇḍala with the colours of black, white, yellow, red and green are prescribed in the Cakrasamvara-tantra.113 Further, the text describes Cakrasamavara-maṇḍala with the couple deities are in blue, red and white respectively.114 According to the same text, the maṇḍala has to be drawn with coloured powders made from ingredients such as charcoal, bone, and brick. In contemporary Tibetan traditions, it is drawn with coloured sand particles, a practice that apparently maintains an old Indian tradition.115

The Kālacakra-tantra (9th century) explains the four directions of certain maṇḍalas which are indicated by colours. The text indicates the colour black symbolizes east, yellow west, white north, and red denotes south. In maṇḍala, the protecting circle is drawn with red colour.116 The four elements such as air, fire, water and earth are symbolized with the colours of blue or black, red, white and yellow, respectively.117

Yōga-tantra (6th century A.D.) symbolizes the ‘triad’ kāya (body), vāc (speech) and citta (mind) in three different colours, viz., white, red, and blue, respectively. Akṣōbhya, who rules over citta-cakra or citta-maṇḍala, is represented by a blue vajra. 118 Amitabha, who presides over vac-cakra or vac-maṇḍala, is symbolized as a red lotus flower or a red vajra while Vairōcana, who presides over kaya, is represented either by a white vajra or a white wheel or circle in Cakrasamvara-tantra (6th century A.D.) and Sadhanamala (11th century A.D.).119

Tantric Buddhism denotes the notion of the polarity of black and white colours. The colour black denotes darkness, inauspicious, avidya and represents evil. The colour white represents light, auspicious, vidya and stands for good. The early

111T. K. Biswas, ‘Colour Symbolism in Tantric Buddhism’, N. N. Bhattacharya (Ed.), Op. Cit., p.159 112Ibid., p.159 113Idem. 114David B. Gray, ‘Cakrasamvara Tantra: Its History, Interpretation and Practice in India and Tibet, Religion Compass, 1/6, Black Well Publishing, 2007, p. 703 115Ibid., p. 703 116 David B. Gray, The Cakarasamvara Tantra (The discourse of Sri Heruka), New York: The American Institute of Buddhist Studies, 2007, p.160 117Ibid., p.160 118Idem. 119Idem. 198

Buddhist Tantras also refer to the notion of the polarity of red and white colours, which refer to certain deities as encircled by a red and a white aureole. Bōdhicaryavatāra (7th century AD)120takes these as colours of semen and menstrual blood.121 The female-male principles are represented by the polarity of red and white. In the structural patterns of a maṇḍala, the thought of enlightenment (bōdhi-citta) represents the union of female-male deities of red and white colours, and this union leads to a great bliss (mahā-sukha).122

Guhyasamāja-tantra prescribes the colours of the deities in the Akṣōbhya maṇḍala as Akṣōbhya in black, Vairōcana in white, Ratnasambhava in yellow, Amitabha in red and Amoghasiddhi in green.123

It is clear that pan͂ ca-varna concept within the various forms of kaḷamel̤uttu belongs to the tradition of Tantric Buddhism. The white, red, and black circles of Aṣṭadaḷapatmam denote male-female principles and the fertility cult of tantric practices. The dominant colour of red in the Aṣṭadaḷapatmam symbolises the essence female principles or natural productivity. The human productivity and natural productivity are same, whereas the colour red became the symbol of fertility.

We have seen in the foregoing discussion that both the figures of Bhadrakāḷi in kaḷamel̤uttu and Tāra in Tantric Buddhism are coloured in yellow. Bhadrakāḷi with green colour is widely practiced in southern Malabar, and is similar to the concept of green Tāra in the Indo-Tibetan tradition. We have examined the similarity of the white colour symbolism of Vairajātan in kaḷamel̤uttu and Vairocanan in Tantric Buddhism. The colour symbolism of kaḷamel̤uttu is deeply rooted in the colour symbolism of the maṇḍala practices of Tantric Buddhism. The foregoing examination brings together the similarity of the colour symbolism of the kaḷamel̤uttu and the maṇḍala tradition of Tantric Buddhism.

V.c. RITUAL CONTEXT OF TANTRIC BUDDHISM IN KAḶAMEL̤UTTU Kaḷamel̤uttu in Malabar and caryanṛtta of Vajrayana Buddhism in Nepal shares a common ritual context. The tradition possibly goes back to the 7th or the

120Bodhicaryavatara is a Mahayana Buddhist text in 7th C CE by Santideva, a Buddhist monk. 121 David B. Gray, Op. Cit., p.160 122Ibid., p.160 123Alex Wayman, Yoga of the Guhyasamajatantra, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1999, pp. 127-132 199 eighth century A.D. The Caryanṛtta performed inside the agam at the day or at night, as a part of the ritual sādhana. The caryanṛtta is performed in the maṇḍala drawn in front of the deity. During the performance, a group of musicians sing caryagīti with the accompaniment of five types of musical instruments or pan͂catāḷa, which praises the deities. These caryagīti rendered in rāga (melodies) and forms tāḷa. Pan͂ caśāli or five kinds of rice-wine are also essential ingredients of the offering to deities. In Malabar, the ritual dance in kaḷamel̤uttu with the musical tunes of pan͂ camēḷam,124 and offering of toddy into the Kalam125 are very much related to the above mentioned ritual context of Vajrayana Buddhism (see figs. 86 and 87).

Fig. 86 Vajrayana dancer Nepal, AD 1730, Manuscripts Opaque watercolor and ink on paper Source:https://commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/File:Manual_for_Ritual_Dances_L ACMA_M.82.169.18.1.18(10_of_35).jp g#/media/File:Manual_for_Ritual_Danc es_LACMA_M.82.169.18.1- .18_(10_of_35).jpg

124T. K. Gopala Panikkar, Malabar and Its Folk, E-Book, pp. 146-148 125William Logan, Malabar, Vol. I, New Delhi: Asian Educational Series, 1995 (Reprint), p. 176 200

Fig. 87 Ritual dancer in Kaḷamel̤uttu, Kannur Source: Photograph©Shibi K. 2013

Caryanṛtta is a Buddhist ritual dance and is performed by Newar Buddhist priests known as vajrācārya as part of esoteric rituals.126 In Caryanṛtta vajrācārya usually represents the five Buddhas, Man͂juśrī (who is bodhisattva) and female supreme goddess Vajrayōgini and Tāra.127 The caryagīti opens with a salutation and describes the features of the deities.128 The same structure of salutation can be seen in the form of stuti of the ritual songs of kaḷamel̤uttu.129

126It is clearly indicates that the Performances of kūttu, kūṭiyāṭṭam, teyyam, tira etc. also influence various manifestations of ritual dances of Tantric Buddhism. See Syed Jamil Ahmed, ‘Carya Nṛtya of Nepal, “when Becoming the character” in Asian Performance is Noduality in Quintessence of Void’, The Dharma Review, 47, 3 (T179), New York University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2003, p. 163 127https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newa_dance, 12/06/2015: 1. 46 am 128 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newa_dance, 12/06/2015: 1. 46 am 129For the detailed discussion for this see chapter III. 201

The ritual context prescribed in the early Buddhist Tantras is very similar to the ritual tradition of kaḷamel̤uttu in Malabar. The ritual preparation of maṇḍala ground and ritual process for the Tantric Buddhist maṇḍala are identical with the ritual preparation of ground and ritual process for kaḷamel̤uttu in Malabar (see figs. 88 and 89). The Cakrasamavara-tantra describes the ritual context of Śrī Heruka- maṇḍala thus:

The maṇḍala ground should be anointed there with unfallen cow dung, with charnel ground ash together with the five ambrosias. Anointing thus the ground, there the maṇḍala should be undertaken, and truly accomplished (as) charnel ground. The master who has all good qualities should draw the divine maṇḍala with powdered funeral pyre char together with charnel ground brick. He has the proper knowlelde and understands the Tantra and Sri Heruka’s mantras. He is not angry, is pure and competent, and he understands yoga and is pefected in knowledge. His hair is marked with skulls, his limbs are smeared with ash. His body is decorated with ornaments and it has a bone garlands... Having taken oneself to be Sri Hēruka with a khatvanga staff placed in one’s hand, think of Śrī Herukas, and place him in the center of the wheel. Having thus armored oneself, place the fences (in) the directions. Having thus armored oneself, place as well the weapon below. Oneself being equivalent to the wheel, and having made above for oneself a net of arrows and afloating enclosure, one is well positioned. Thus armed, one who has this armor is unbreakable even by the Thirty-three deities. Well protecting oneself thus, ornamented with mudras and mantras draw the terrifying maṇḍala which bestows great power. Then with a corpse thread, or one coloured with great blood, lay out the terrifying maṇḍala, Hēruka’s supreme mansion. (It is of ) a single cubit, four or eight (with) four corners all around, bedecked with four doors adorned with four arches. The mantrin should double the (thread)”. 130

Mahavairocana-sutra also describes the drawing of two great maṇḍalas of Vajradātu-maṇḍala and Mahākaruṇagarbha-maṇḍala thus:

As to the place that may be chosen for emplacement of the maṇḍala. From this place of land are to be removed gravel, potsherds, insects of all kinds, rubbish etc. a favorable day has to be chosen, and worship made to the local deity. After consolidation of the ground with cow-dung and urine cows, it is purified with perfumed water, concentrating himself on the thought of the five buddhas. Then with the sandal powder one draws an outline sketch of the maṇḍala comprising nine emplacements reserved for the five buddhas, the other buddhas, the bōdhisattvas, the Mother of Buddha, Gangalocana, Padmapani, Vajrapani, Acala, Trailokyavijaya, and for the ācārya. This is what is called “the maṇḍala with nine emplacements in sandal powder”. This is preliminary and provisional sketch.131

130David B. Gray, Op. Cit., pp. 164-167 131Alex Wayman and R. Tajima, Op. Cit., pp. 311-312 202

Fig. 88 Teyyampāṭikuruppus working on Kaḷam Niramkaitakkotta, Malappuram, 21st c Source: Photograph©Shibi K. 2013

Fig. 89 Buddhist Monks working on Maṇḍala at United States, 2003 Source: By Mozart Diensthuber (Own work) [CC BY 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/license- s/by/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons URL: http://commons. wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ASandm- andala02.JPG 203

The four rites of consecration in maṇḍala are described in the Cakrasmvara- tantra such as the kalaśābhiṣeka (vase consecration), guhyābhiṣeka (secret consecration), prajn͂ājn͂anābhiṣeka (gnosis of the consort consecration) and the caturthābhiṣeka (fourth consecration). These consecrations explain the master’s sexual union with a consort and further describes the adept’s self consecration, in which the adept visualizes his or her body (kāyamaṇḍala) as a maṇḍala deity.132The sādhana texts, which provide detailed discussion on thes sexual union of adept and Dākini in the maṇḍala as a meditation.133The sexual union with a consort means that through the application of this meditation, one will effectively attain supreme or Buddha awakening. 134 A similar ritual consecration is symbolised in the rites of kaḷamel̤uttu in Malabar, which has already been mentioned. In the Pāmpinkaḷam, women dancing in the maṇḍala are called kanyakamār or Yakṣiyammamār, as stated earlier. This context shows an influence of the Yōgini cult of the maṇḍala tradition of Tantric Buddhism. In some occasions they appear seated on a pītha as a couple which again symbolically represents the sexual union of a yogi and a Yōgini in the maṇḍalam. The sexual union of two hideous snakes is the basic figure of the Nāgakkaḷam in south India. Again the concept of the female worship such as Yōgini is the concept of Nāgarājni, which has also discussed in the early part of the chapter. There are no references to the female dances in the kaḷamel̤uttu of Teyyampāṭinampiārs, Teyyampāṭikkuruppus and Kallār̤ r̤akkuruppus. At the same time, the secret consecration is the basic characteristics of the kaḷamel̤uttum pāṭṭum, which are usually performed in sacred isolated places. This indicates the secret

132Cakrasmvara-tantra further reads: Then the hero, having drunk the flower water (seminal essence together with uterine blood), should recollect this mantra (seven syllablle mantra). The adept should thus dance to vajra song with his consort. At nigt one should enjoy meat thrice enchanted and thus drinking with athat and offering it, there is this: ” may bliss be produced” Having touched (her), Mahakali, who truly observes chastity (brahmacarini), laughs,132 with laughter and gestures at the begining and end. She is celebrate a woman with a haugty glance. At night or during day one should make laughter with that... Then (there is her) dance--tears arise and her body hair stands on end due to devotion. (Not) mounting with one’s vajra, there is thus worship (when they) are naked. This is the sequence of the host of gestures of all ladies of the left. One should perform before the universal one a marvelous dance with exhalanations, exhortations, laughter and ecstatic frenzy. One should recollect the gestures and laughter mantra. The eightfold laughter, ha ha he he, (and so forth) is the ultimate love of the universal lady. A tear falls--through this one will become their love, having well deployed meditative concentration and mantra. In conjuction with bliss, the yoginis and and yogins body hairs bristle, and so forth. One should (no)t mount with the vajra with the vajra (those) who are fixed upon the left. See David B. Gray, Op. Cit., pp., p. 337-342 133David B. Gray says: this union is further deepened by meditation on what the tradition terms the body mandala (kayamandala), in which the mandala is mapped onto the practitioner’s body, which is transformed into a network of dakinis. See Ibid., p. 56 134Kambala comments Cited in David B. Gray, Op. Cit., p. 275 204 consecration ceremony of the maṇḍala worship of Tantric Buddhism. Now, there are so many places in Malabar, performing kaḷamel̤uttum pāṭṭum as a secret worship.

The ritual concepts of Tantric Buddhism are found in the ritual offering of kaḷamel̤uttu in Malabar. Mahākāla-tantra prescribes the ritual offering of bali with the ingredients such as dark coloured beans, wine, meat and blood, during the occasion of reciting mantra for protecting others (sixteen handed Mahākāla mantra). 135 The same ingredients are ritually offered to the Mantravādkkaḷam of Malabar, which has already been discussed in Chapter I. The cultic practices of kaḷamel̤uttu at Valayanatukavu are known as āṭuveṭṭum pāṭṭum136 which indicates the sacrificial offerings of sheep during the practices of kaḷamel̤uttu. Sometimes, a cup of red powder is offered in the Kaḷam, which symbolizes the blood offerings or female principles.137

The nature of kaḷamel̤uttu was based on madhyamam. The practices of pan͂ ca- makāra (i.e. madya, māmsa, matsya, mudra, and maithuna)138 often resemble the system known as vāmacara and vīrācāra in Mahayana Buddhism.139 The use of meat, fermented liquor and sexual intercourse formed part of their ritual system. It was also part of the worship of Tantric Buddhism. The iconography of Vajrayana Buddhism depicts sexual intercourse as a mean to attain nirvana140and it is also symbolized in maṇḍalam. All forms of kaḷamel̤uttu give more importance the concept of pan͂ca- makāras, such as madhya-māmsa which has also been discussed in Chapter I. The performance of guruti tarppaṇam in Kaḷamel̤uttum pāṭṭum of antarāḷas and Mantravādakkaḷam belongs to the same tradition.

Another significant aspect in kaḷamel̤uttu, which is very similar to the cultic tradition of Buddhism, is the timing of the practicing or celebrating days of kaḷamel̤uttu. Kaḷamel̤uttu in Malabar is performed in the months of Mēṭam,141 which

135William George Stablein, Op. Cit., 1976, p. 199 136 V. V. Haridas, Ksetram, Utsavam, Rakstriyam, Kozhikode: Poorna Publications, 2008, p. 58 137Data collected from the field of the Kalameluttum pattum of Teyyampati Kurupusin Malabar. 138R. S. Sharma, ‘Material Mileu of Tantricism’, in D. N. Jha (Ed.), The Feudal Order: State, Society and Ideology in Early Medeival India, New Delhi: Manohar, 2012, p. 441 139 Pranabananda Jash, ‘The Tantras an Excursus in to Origins’ in N. N. Bhattacharyya (Ed.), Op. Cit., p. 141 140Lokesh Chandra, Buddhist Iconography, Vol. I, New Delhi: Aditya Prakasan, 1987, pp. 226-230 141M.G.S. Narayanan (Ed.), Van͂n͂ēri Granthavari, Document No.53A, Calicut University Historical Series No.1, University of Calicut: Department of History, 1987, p. 51 205 falls into the month of April-May. Obviously, it is the month of Cittirai and a full- moon day of the month Cittirai or budhha pourṇami is the birth day of Buddha.142

The kaḷamel̤uttu of Bhagavati and Ayyappan is conducted in the maṇḍala period, which consists 41 days and starts from the month Vṛścika. It is very significant that this maṇḍala worship is celebrated in kāvus or kōṭṭas which does not performed in brahmanical temples. It is typically belong to the similar practice of Tantric Buddhist maṇḍala.

Table 12. Similarities between Cultic Practices in Kaḷamel̤uttu and Tantric Buddhist Maṇḍala Cultic Practices in Kaḷamel̤uttu Cultic Practices in Tantric Buddhist Maṇḍala

Maṇḍala ground anointed with cow dung Maṇḍala ground anointed with cow dung outline sketch of the maṇḍala with the outline sketch of the maṇḍala with the rice rice powder powder Consecration of kalaśābhiṣeka Consecration of kalaśābhiṣeka Consecration of secret consecration Consecration of guhyābhiṣeka or secret consecration The ritual offering of bali with the The ritual offering of bali with the ingredients ingredients such as beans, toddy, meat such as beans, wine, meat and blood and blood The practices of Pan͂ca-makāra i.e. The practices of Pan͂ca-makāra i.e. madya, madya, māmsa, matsya, mudra, and māmsa, matsya, mudra, and maithuna maithuna Applications of Sanskrit mantras and Applications of Buddhist-Hybrid Sanskrit bījakṣaras mantras and bījakṣaras Ritual songs with musical instruments ritual songs with musical instruments Ritual dances of women Dances of yōgins and Yōginis Ritual dances of males Dances of yōgins and Yōginis A marvelious dance with laughter and A marvelious dance with laughter and ecstatic frenzy ecstatic frenzy Self consecration, in which the ritual Self consecration, in which the adept dancer visualizes his or her body as a visualizes his or her body as kāyamaṇḍala or deity a maṇḍala deity

Source: Information gathered by the researcher

142 Shu Hikosaka, Buddhism in Tamilnadu, Madras: Institute of Asian Studies, 1989, p. 192 206

IV. d. BUDDHIST-HYBRID SANSKRIT MANTRAS AND RELIGIOUS HEALING PRACTICES IN THE CONTEXTS OF MANTDAVĀDAKKAḶAM Mantras are essential part of the ritual performance of symbolic representation of kaḷamel̤uttu, which are very much similar to the Tantric Buddhist mantras. These mantras and yantras are found in two separate traditions in manuscript and oral form. While the applications of mantras have an oral context, its manuscript traditions pertain to the preservation of mantras. Mantras and yantras part of these manuscripts are found composed in the Sanskrit, which already take up discussed in the Chapter III.

These mantras belong to the Mahayana Buddhist canon is composed in Sanskrit but in a dialectic mixture of Middle Indic languages. A Close examination of the mantras of the symbolic diagrams or yantras of kaḷamel̤uttu indicates that the layers of language used in the mantras very much corresponds to Buddhist-Hybrid Sanskrit. For example one of these mantras reads: ‘ōm namo bhagavato’. We have seen ‘bhagavato’ is Buddha and clearly indicates the structure of Vajrayana sadhana practices. 143 Mahākāla-tantra explains the doctrine of the Buddha through the mantras, which are prescribed mantras for obtaining all the powers. For example this mantra reads: ‘oṁ yamaya yamaya kṣobhaya ksobhaya cala cala pātāla kha khāhi khahi gṛhca gṛhca bali hah grhna grhna munca mahābhairavāya svāha svāha’.144 The mantra for protecting others, for obtaining control over women, for control over all Yaksas and divinities etc. are explained in the Tantric Buddhist texts as well as the mantravada manuscripts of Panikkars, Kurupus, Mannans, Tiyyans, Kaṇiyans etc.

As stated above, mantras of the major deities are the most important characteristics in the Buddhist Tantras, which are composed in Hybrid Sanskrit,145and these mantras are an extremely prominent component of rites in meditative practice of Tantric Buddhism. The mantras are vocal manifestations of the deities, and it is a

143The term ‘Bhagavato’ means Buddha in Mahayana Buddhism. At the same time the term also seen in puranic literature to denote Siva or Visnu in later texts. However, it is significant that these Mantras should be viewed not in isolation but in the context of the whole other references of the term ‘Bhagavat’ indicates the manifestations or avatara of the Buddha. 144William George Stablein, Op. Cit., p. 199 145Most of the pan Indian Buddhist texts have been preserved in Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit, which is based on old middle Indic vernacular languages. In other words, Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit texts were extensively influenced by Sanskrit and middle Indic aspects are dialectically mixed. See Franklin Edgerton, Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary, Vol. I, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1998 (Reprint), p.1 207 major factor in which the adept’s experience of union with the deity, which aim the attaining of the awakening of a Buddha. The ritual application of mantras led to the laukikasiddhi (extra-human forces) to the adept,146 which is main component in the rites of drawing and the consecrations of maṇḍala. 147 Candamahārōcana-tantra describes the mantra for making the maṇḍala a residence.148The mantras of the major deities in the Buddhist Tantras are identical with the mantras of mantravādakkaḷam in kaḷamel̤uttu in many aspects such as its ritual ingredients, purpose, structure and so on.149 The significant aspect of Tantric Buddhism is that the mantras are repeated a number of times such as one hundred or one hundred and eight, one thousand or one hundred thousand times. 150 This is a major concern about the mantras of yantra practices of kaḷamel̤uttu in Malabar.151

Another major factor in the similarity of Tantric Buddhist mantras with mantravādakkaḷam in Malabar is its ritual components. While reciting the mantras the ritual ingredients such as quartz, teeth of a horse, bones of a Brahman, bones of an elephant, tiger’s teeth or elephant’s teeth and pearl are used as mantras for suppression, expelling, attraction, production of rain, killing and suppression respectively. 152 Similar ritual ingredients are also major aspects in the ritual applications in the mantra traditions of mantravādakkaḷam in Malabar.153 Another significant aspect that we come across in the Buddhist Tantras is that the purpose of mantras is identical to the mantras in the mantravādakkaḷam. We have a clear picture

146David B. Gray, Op. Cit., p. 132 147Ibid., p. 135 148Christopher Starr George translated this mantra as “om revend Candamaharocana, come come with all your family. Jah hum vam ho make your residence here in this Mandala. “bum phat svaha” by that mantra having caught, caused to enter, bound, and subjugated them, yogin worships. Then there is the following mantra for worship the mandala. See Christopher Starr George, Candamahorosana Tantra: Chapters I-VIII, Ph. D Thesis, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1971, pp. 75-78 149In some cases the mantras must be written or inscribed in magical diagrams (yantra) on a different substances such as incense, plant substances, skull bowls, charnel ground ash and so forth. See Yantracaram, Manuscript No: 139, Library of S.S.U.S., Kalady, which is collected from Tiyyans in Palakkadu district and Manuscripts documented from personal collection of Harsha Kumar, Kuruppu, Mundakkal, Thiruvanathapuram. 150David B. Gray, Op. Cit., p. 132 151mūvāyyiram gāyatri japiccu sēvikka, sulini mantra nururu japika, pantirāyiram japiccu sēvikka see Appendix IV. 152William George Stablein, Op. Cit., p. 196 153The ritual ingredients such as hair, teeth, bone, mouse fuzz, crows, frog, cock, ashes from burial sites, palli etc. are used as mantras in mantravadakkalam. See Appendix IV. 208 of the variety of Tantric Buddhist mantras which ritually practiced in the context of mantravādakkaḷam. The mantra of Kuṭṭiccāttan heals mental disorder in mantravādakkaḷam of Kaṇiyan, Maṇṇān, Tiyyan and so forth in Malabar. The mantra for suppressing one’s mental disorder is ōm hrīm śavikam hrīm ōm hrīm kḷaśavaya svāha.154 It is identical with the bhānti mantra of the ābhicāra rites of Buddhist Tantra of Kṛṣṇayamari-tantra.155Similarly the mantra for jvara156 and vyādhi157 in the Mantravādakkaḷam are also identical with the rōga or vyādhi, especially the jvara of the ābhicāra mantra of Tantric Buddhism.158

Apart from the above mantras, the mantra for killing enemy in mantravādakkaḷam159 is again similar to the bali mantra for killing enemy—ōṁ haḥ kaka kaka malinīm upaśodhaya upaśodhaya mahākāla buddhajn͂ā samprahina isi māraya māraya ōṁ sarvaduṣṭapraduṣṭan gṛhna gṛhna māraya māraya kha kha khāhi khāhi śīghram daha śīghram daha paca paca hura hura maṁ raṁ huṁ phaṭ idaṁ baliṁ graha graham sri svāha’’and ōṁ huṁ māmasamāraya svāha— in Tantric Buddhism. 160

Among the other more important mantras is the mantra for suppressing one’s speech such as ōm mantramuttimāre auṣadha śakti mahāśakti svāha 161and ōṁ śakti śakti eva vaśśassu muttīyāmāvambhavaya vaśam kuru kuru svāha 162 which are identical with the mantra for suppressing man’s speech— ōṁ mukhaṁ stambhaya amukhasya vamp phaṭ— in Tantric Buddhism.163

As we come to the case of the mantra for protection from prēta in mantravādakkaḷam, 164 we come across a few Vajrgandhari mantra in the

154 M. V. Lalithambika, Kaniyanmarute Jeevithavum Samskaravaum, Thiruvananthapuram: Kerala Bhasha Institute, 2011, p. 132 155Gurdrun Buhmann, ‘Buddhist Deities and Mantras in the Hindu Tantras: I The Tantrasarasamgraha and the Isanagurudevapaddhati’, Indo Iranian Journal, 1999, p. 314 156Manuscripts dealing with mantravadam collected from south Malabar. 157M. V. Lalitambika, Op. Cit., p. 115 158Gudrun Buhnemann, ‘Buddhist Deities and Mantras in the Hindu Tantras: I The Tantrasarasamgraha and Isanasivagurudevapaddati’, Indo-Iranian Journal, 42, 1999, p. 314 159Manuscripts dealing with mantravādam collected from south Malabar. 160William George Stablein, Op. Cit., pp. 199-203 161Manuscripts dealing with mantravādam collected from south Malabar. 162Idem. 163William George Stablein, Op. Cit., pp. 199-203 164M. V. Lalitambika, Op. Cit., p. 119 209

Sādhanāmala of Tantric Buddhism. 165 Simultaneously, the mantras for sthambhana,166 māraṇa, 167 uccāṭana, 168 ākarṣaṇa, 169 and vidvēṣaṇa170 of ābhicāra in Mantravādakkaḷam belong to the mantra of yama in Tantric Buddhism.171

Similarly, there is the mantra for jvara—ōm namō bhagavate ōm kāḷi koṭunkāḷi bhairavakāḷi hrīm nandikēśvarakāḷiye svāha— 172 in mantravādakkaḷam which is identical with the mantra of karinkāḷi—oṁ kāḷi kāḷivikarālāksi sriṁ kṣaṁ ksiṁ phaṭ svāha—in Buddhist tantras.173

Table 13. Similarities between Mantra Traditions in Kaḷamel̤uttu and Tantric Buddhism Mantras in Kaḷamel̤uttu Mantras in Tantric Buddhism Hybrid style Sanskrit-Malayalam Buddhist-Hybrid Sanskrit Use of bījakṣaras and mantra diagrams Use of bījakṣaras and mantra diagrams Repeated mantras Repeated mantras Ritual ingredients such as teeth, bones, Ritual ingredients such as quartz, teeth of ashes from burial site, hair, mouse, a horse, bones of a Brahman, bones of an crows, frog, cock etc. elephant, tiger’s teeth or elephant’s teeth Healing practices Healing practices Priest as healer who possesses extra- Monk as healer who possesses extra- human powers human powers Diseases caused as deities attacks Diseases caused as deities attacks Mantras of Bhrānti, jvara, vyādhi, rōga Mantras of Bhrānti, jvara, vyādhi, rōga Mantras of ābhicāra such as Mantras of ābhicāra such as sthambhana, māraṇa, uccāṭana, sthambhana, māraṇa, uccāṭana, ākarṣaṇa, vidvēṣaṇa ākarṣaṇa, vidvēṣaṇa Mantra for suppressing one’s speech Mantra for suppressing one’s speech Mantra for killing enemy Mantra for killing enemy Mantra for protection from prēta Vajrgandhari mantra for protection from prēta Source: Information gathered by the researcher

The above examination of the occurrence of Tantric Buddhist mantras in the hybrid style of Sanskrit in the context of mantravādakkaḷam in Malabar is necessary

165Gudrun Buhnemann, I, Op. Cit., p. 326 166Manuscripts dealing with mantravadam collected from south Malabar. 167Idem. 168 Idem. 169 Idem. 170 Idem. 171Krisnayamari-tantra of Tantric Budhism described the inscription of this mantras in the yantra of Yama. Later Isanasivagurudevapaddhati and Tantrasarasamgraha borrowed this mantra as Yamantaka mantra. See Gudrun Buhnemann, I, Op. Cit., p. 314 172Manuscripts dealing with mantravadam collected from south Malabar. 173William George Stablein, Op. Cit., pp. 199-203 210 for understanding the functioning of the Tantric Buddhist mantra tradition in kaḷamel̤uttu, especially in the ritual context of kaḷampāṭṭu and mantravādakkaḷam of lower jātis such as Kaṇiyan, Maṇṇan, Tīyyan and so on.

A significant factor in the structure of mantras in the mantravādakkaḷam is its nature of bījākṣaras and mantra diagrams. These mantras are represented in the way of mantrākṣaras and mantra diagrams could possibly be due to some Buddhist influence. The Cakrasamvara-tantra discusses the intervening mantrākṣaras (syllables) used by Sri Hēruka. The mantrākṣaras such as ōm, namah, svāha, vausat, hum, and phat are positioned through the unification with the six heroes viz. the first is known as the heart, the second as the head, the third as the crown, the fourth the armor, the fifth the eye, and the sixth is the weapon.174 The Tibetan Vajrayōgini mantra used the mantrākṣaras as ōm, hum, phat, svāha.175 The ōm represent the real, enjoyment and emanation bodies of all Buddhas. The second hum176 and phat177 are requests to Vajrayōgini. And the svāha’ conveys the request.178 These mantrākṣaras can be seen in the mantras of the diagrams of above mentioned lower jātis such as Maṇṇāns, Tīyyans, Vaṇṇāns and so on.

Apart from these similarities of Tantric Buddhist mantras and mantravādakkaḷam, there are Sanskrit alphabets and phonemes that are represented in the mantra diagram. The mantra diagram is basically the letters of the Sanskrit alphabet which operate as numbers, tables etc., which is major factor in the ritual applications of Tantric Buddhist mantras. 179 These practices can be seen in the Mantravādakkaḷam of the Kaṇiyans, Maṇṇāns, Tīyyans and other lower jātis in Malabar. According to the tradition of Kaṇiyans, they inscribe Sanskrit alphabets and numbers on the particular kinds of yantras or diagrams and tables. They usually inscribe the syllables such as hri, kha, ōm, ni, sa, sru, mra, yam, ya, la, ra, na, o,

174David B. Gray, Op. Cit., pp. 186-187 175Elizabeth English, Op. Cit., p. 178 176 ‘hum' is a request to Vajrayogini: ‘Please grant me the blessings of your body, speech and mind so that I may attain the Vajra body, speech and mind.” See Julie O'Donnell, Pennie White B.A. Dip.Ed., Rilla Oellien and Evelin Halls, A Monograph on a Vajrayogini Thanka Painting 177 ‘phat’ is the request: ‘Please pacify my outer, inner and secret obstacles. ‘Phat’ is known as the destruction Mantra. In this context, it is to destroy the outer, inner and secret obstacles so that the practitioner may have success.” See Idem. 178 ‘svoha’ conveys the request: ‘Please help me to build the foundation of all attainments”. Idem. 179Ibid., pp. 133-136 211 dhra, hra, sri etc. and numerals such as 4,5,6,9 etc. These mantrākṣaras (syllables) and numbers are repeatedly inscribed in the mantra diagrams. The repetition and ritual application of the mantras lead to extra-human powers. The mantra diagrams of Kaṇiyans are illustrated and analysed in the table below.

Table 14. Mantrākṣaras and Numbers in the Mantras of Kaṇiyans180 Syllables pa hrī Kha oṁ ni sa sru mra yam ya la ra na o dhra hra ṣrī śa ja sa gha a nṭa nga

Numbers 2 4 5 6 9 Source: Information gathered by the researcher

In Tantric Buddhism, the mantrākṣara represents the immobility of the heart of Bodhi. All the syllables beginning with ‘a’ or the bījākṣara (seed syllable) of Mahavairōcana are also represented in it. Mahavairōcana-sutra describes the method of contemplating all these mantrākṣaras. In the Tantras, the mantr̄ akṣaras aṃ and aḥ signify the involvement in enlightenment and entry into nirvana respectively. The Mahavairōcana-sutra mentions the bījākṣaras such as a, sa and va, which represent the Buddha, the Padma and the Vajra clan respectively. 181 Obviously, Sanskrit mantrākṣaras, tables and diagrams in the mantravādakkaḷam of Malabar are significantly influenced by Buddhist-Hybrid Sanskrit textual traditions of Tantric Buddhism.

As we come to the ritual situation obtaining in the mantravādakkaḷam, we have a clear picture of healing practices influenced by Tantric Buddhism. The cultic practices of kaḷampāṭṭu and mantravādakkaḷam of lower jātis indicate that traditional healing practices were basically systems of healing through mystic practices. These mystic practices constitute an attempt at winning the favour of deities by prayers and sacrifices.182 In Tantric Buddhism, disease was caused by divine forces when they attacked and entered the bodies of their victims, causing the manifestation of morbid

180 M. V. Lalithambika, Kaniyanmarute Jeevithavum Samskaravaum, Thiruvananthapuram: Kerala Bhasha Institute, 2011, pp. 122-139 181Alex Wayman and R. Tajima, Op. Cit., pp. 319-320 182 James Frazer, The Golden Bough: A History of Myth and Religion, London: Chancellor Press, 1994, p. 48 212

bodily conditions.183As we have seen in chapter I, most of the ritual context in the mantravādakkaḷam describes that disease is caused by divine attack and it functions as a healing practice.

The picture of magico-religious medicine occurs in the medical practices of early Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism. 184 The Mahayana form of Buddhism influenced the popular cults in the lower strata of society and came to acquire new form of Tanricism. Apart from mantras, ābhicāra, maithuna and other secret rites and rituals based on female deities, healing practices were introduced in Tantric Buddhism.185

Buddhist canonical literature provides information on the medical practices mingling with different forms of healing, and the spread of these Indian healing practices to Tibet and parts of central, East and Southeast Asia. 186 Some early Mahayana texts contain the magical forms of healing with protective charms, dhārāṇ̣īs, and mantras.187 This magical healing owes much influence from esoteric Tantras. The full expression of esoteric Buddhism in Mantrayāna and Vajrayāna of Tibetan Buddhism described the acquisition of magical powers to cure disease, to ward off demoniacal attacks and to save off death.188 Through this way Buddhist ācārya act in the role of healer, who could win extra-human power and magical healing became integral part of Tibetan Buddhism.189

It is very interesting to note that almost all of these traditions are found enmeshed in the mantravādakkaḷam and kaḷampāṭṭu in Malabar. As stated above, mantravādakkaḷam suggests that the disease was caused by divine attacks and priest heals it through the mantravāda or ābhicāra practices (healing traditions). It is

183This kind of medical practices of healing rites and mantras can be seen from both Rgveda and Atharvaveda. Later Mahayan Buddhism developed this medical practices with its dhāraṇīs. See Kenneth G. Zysk, Asceticism and Healing in Ancient India: Medicine in the Buddhist Monastery, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1991, p. 15 184Ibid., p. 20 185The monks of this form of Buddhism were studied at the Buddhist Universities of Nalanda and Vikramasila until the end of 12th c CE. See P. V. Bapat, ‘India and Buddhism’ in P. V. Bapat (Ed.), Two Thousand and Five Hundred Years of Buddhism, New Delhi: Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting Government of India, 1997 (Reprint), p. 6 186Ibid., p. 50 ` 187Megasthenes noted the magico-healing practices of sramana-physicians of Mahayana tradition. He described the healing with sorcery, dhāraṇīs and charm etc. See Kenneth G. Zysk, Op. Cit., pp. 31-32 188Ibid., p. 50-51 189Ibid., p. 51 213 identical to the mantras, such as bhrānti (creating madness), rōga, and vyādhi (creating illness), practiced in the ābhicāra of Tantric Buddhism, 190as mentioned earlier. In the case of mantravādakkaḷam, brānti or mental disorder is caused by the attack of Cāttan. The mantra of Kutticcāttan heals mental disorder. It is also parallel to the cultic tradition of the of ābhicāra rites of bhrānti (creating madness), in the Tantric Buddhism.191

In Tantric Buddhism, the yogis make pan͂ ca-makāra offerings to all Yakṣas and practice ābhicāra for attaining power, desires, removing rōga, destroying enemies and increasing happiness, and all the Yakṣas in the world will be satisfied when one offers bali to all Yakṣas.192 The ācārya was understood as a great healer and he possesses extra-human forces.193 The same religious rites have been noticed in previous chapters in the context of mantravādakkaḷam of Kaṇiyans and Vaṇṇāns in north Malabar. The priest in the kaḷampāṭṭu also acts as healer and he is known as mantravādi in Malabar.

Much of the discussion on the mantravādakkaḷam and kaḷampāṭṭu in Malabar in this chapter, was an attempt to identify and locate mantras composed in the style of Buddhist-Hybrid Sanskrit. These are generally taken to indicate the Tantric Buddhist mantras including bījākṣaras, mantra diagrams and ritual ingredients. Similarly, the mantravādakkaḷam is highly influenced by the healing tradition of Tantric Buddhism. As for the priests in mantravādakkaḷam, they acts as healers like Buddhist ācārya in Tantric Buddhsim.

The above examination of Tantric Buddhist ritual tradition and iconography in kaḷamel̤uttu taken up has very interesting implications on the medieval ritual milieu of Malabar. From the above discussion, we come to the conclusion that the practicing world of kaḷamel̤uttu in Malabar and the similar tradition has frequently been

190According to Dvivedi this mantras are from the Krisnayamari-tantra of Tantric Budhism. Later it is appropriated by brahmanical Tantras as Yamantaka mantras. See Gudrun Buhnemann, ‘Buddhist Deities and Mantras in the Hindu Tantras: I The Tantrasarasamgraha and Isanasivagurudevapaddati’, Indo-Iranian Journal, 42, 1999, p. 314 191According to Dvivedi this mantras are from the Krisnayamari-tantra of Tantric Budhism. Later it is appropriated by brahmanical Tantras as Yamantaka mantras. See Gudrun Buhnemann, I, Op. Cit., p. 314 192It is performed during the rites of Mahakala-tantra. Mahakala is the king of all Yaksas in Tantric Buddhism. See William George Stablein, Op. Cit., pp. 186-187 193Kenneth G. Zysk, Op. Cit., p. 51 214 mentioned in the early medieval Tantric Buddhist system. The relation between kaḷamel̤uttu and maṇḍalas of Tantric Buddhism is ascertained by the fact that all important iconographic forms of kaḷamel̤uttu like Aṣṭadaḷam, Bhadrakāḷi, Kālarātri, Bhairavan, Gandharvan, Mātangi Nāgam etc. are, also essential part of Tantric Buddhist maṇḍalas. The ferocious, pacific and maithuna forms with its esoteric and colour concepts of the kaḷamel̤uttu are also found similar to the tantric Buddhist maṇḍalas and rites. There are also found a common platform of shared language such as Buddhist-Hybrid Sanskrit in the mantras of kaḷamel̤uttu and Tantric Buddhist system. Similar mantras, bījākṣaras and mantra diagrams are found in the kaḷamel̤uttu and Tantric Buddhism. A common religious healing system can be seen in the ritual traditions of kaḷamel̤uttu and Tantric Buddhist system. A detailed examination of the problem of conceptualising these Tantric Buddhist roots in kaḷamel̤uttu in Malabar is taken up in the following chapter.