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Oscillating World of : Aspects of Convergence with Tantric Buddhism

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Oscillating World of : Aspects of Convergence with Tantric Buddhism 166 CHAPTER IV OSCILLATING WORLD OF KAḶAMEL̤UTTU: ASPECTS OF CONVERGENCE WITH TANTRIC BUDDHISM The living tradition of the ideological, symbolic and cultic nature of kaḷamel̤uttu was examined in the previous chapters. The nature of the sacred sites outside the structural temples and the participation of the entire non-brahmanical social milieu in the religious symbolism and cultic practices of kaḷamel̤uttu were also examined. The ferocious, maithuna and pacific forms in the iconography and the vocal manifestations such as mantras and ritual songs of the cultic practice of kaḷamel̤uttu were also explored. In fact, these religious symbolisms, cultic practices and iconographic tradition of kaḷamel̤uttu are highly influenced by the long tradition of Buddhist iconography. The visual frame of kaḷamel̤uttu evolves as a part of the iconic forms of Buddhist art. The symbols used in kaḷamel̤uttu mark a definite stage in the evolution of Indian iconography. It is reasonable to suppose that the Buddhists, Jains and the Brahmins had drawn upon a common storehouse of symbols, which had been handed down to the historic age from the primitive society. The symbols are easy reminders of certain principles and aims. Through this way, we can analyze the different symbols that are being used to worship in the frame kaḷamel̤uttu. The present chapter proposes to analyse the iconographical influence of Tantric Buddhism in the cultic practices and iconographic traditions of kaḷamel̤uttu in Malabar. The deities in the iconography of kaḷamel̤uttu are also found to be in vogue in the Tantric Buddhist maṇḍala. There can be seen the influence of ferocious and maithuna forms of deities of the Tantric Buddhist maṇḍala in the iconographies of kaḷamel̤uttu. It also examines the similarity of Tantric Buddhist representation of colour symbolism (pan͂ ca-varṇa) with the colour concept of kaḷamel̤uttu. The chapter tries to analyze the influence of Tantric Buddhist rituals in the cultic practices of kaḷamel̤uttu. The involvement women dancers in the cultic tradition of kaḷamel̤uttu are found parallel to the yōgini tradition of Tantric Buddhist maṇḍala. The chapter also discusses the entire world of mantravāda traditions of lower jātis, which are parallel to the healing practices of Tantric Buddhist traditions in north India, Tibet, Nepal and so on. The mantra tradition with the bījakṣaras, diagrams and so on in the mantravādakkaḷam of lower jātis in Malabar is also parallel to the mantra tradition of 167 Tantric Buddhism. The chapter puts forth an argument that the world of kaḷamel̤uttu is found enmeshed with the Tantric Buddhist traditions. IV.a. ELEMENTS OF TANTRIC BUDDHIST MAṆḌALA IN THE ICONOGRAPHY OF KAḶAMEL̤UTTU Maṇḍala is a spiritual and ritual symbol representing the Universe. The basic form of most maṇḍalas is a square with four gates containing a circle with a centre.1It appears in the Ṛg Veda to denote its different sections.2 The term maṇḍala is also employed to denote traditional political formations such as federation of kingdoms. The term rājamaṇḍala was used by Kautilya in the Arthasāstra, which describes circles of friendly and enemy states surrounding the king's state.3 The description of the geometric designs with cosmological implications is attested to by the construction of Vedic altars mentioned in the Taittiriya Samhita, Baudhayana Sulvasautra and Apasthamba Sulvasustra. The best known design is the falcon shaped altar for the Agnicayana ritual. Other geometrically shaped altars are in the form of triangles, wheels and so forth. They all developed out of a basic design, a fire altar resembling a falcon from squares. Another description of the geometrical designs for ritualistic purposes is found in the Vāstusāstra, the handbook on architecture, which mentioned Vāstumaṇḍala consisting of a grid of 64, 81, or more small squares as starting point of a temple construction. Such a vāstumaṇḍala was regarded as the body of the cosmic being (Vāstupuruṣa) in whose parts the main deity, auxiliary deities, and temple guardians resided.4 Tantric Buddhism has popularly used maṇḍalas in various ritual initiations and in post-initiatory practice and are employed for establishing a sacred space or enclosure, often understood as the particular domain of a deity.5 During the third century CE Mahayana Buddhism6 took initiative in the production of Tantric texts 1 Giuseppe Tucci, The Theory and Practice of the Mandala, New Delhi: New Age Books, 2013 (Reprint) p. 49 2H. H. Wilson (Tr.), Ṛg Ved̄a Saṃhita, Vol. I-VII, Delhi: Naga, 1990. 3N. V. Krishna Warrier (Tr.), Arthasatram, Thrissur: Kerala Sahiya Akademi, 1988, p. 293, 298 4Peter Gaeffke, ‘Hindu Mandala’, Mircea Eliade (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of Religion, Vol. 9, New York: Macmillan Company, 1987, pp. 153-154 5 Paul Williams, Buddhist Thought, London: Routledge, 2000, p. 199 6Mahayana Buddhism appears to have originated in the first century BC or the first century AD in the Satavahana empire. The basic idea of Mahayana is the existence of buddhas and bodhisattva as Buddha 168 invoving the use of mantras, maṇḍalas and so forth.7 For centuries, the Buddhist schools like Mantrayana, Vajrayana, and so forth increasingly practiced the ritual and meditative techniques, esoteric and magical use of mantras and maṇḍalas.8 Maṇḍala is a circular diagram or a complex design, capable of innumerable variations and used to aid meditation. It also represents dynamism and a universal creative cycle. Since maṇḍala is endless, it represents eternity and infinity. 9 It is thought to be the abode of the deity. Each maṇḍala is unique and calls the deity into the presence of the practitioner through the elaborate symbolic geometric designs.10 The maṇḍala represents the core essence of the Vajrayana teachings. The maṇḍala is regarded as a place of nirvāṇa and peace, or a Buddha field, which is separated and protected from the ever-changing and impure outer world of samsāra. maṇḍalas are commonly used by tantric Buddhists as an aid to meditation.11 The maṇḍala can be summoned and contemplated at will as a clear and vivid visualized image, which supports the meditating person, and is something to be repeatedly contemplated to the point of saturation, such that the image of the maṇḍala becomes fully internalised in even the minutest detail.12 Every maṇḍala associated with liturgy contained in Tantric texts instructs practitioners as to how the maṇḍala should be drawn, built and visualised, and indicates the mantras to be recited during its ritual use. maṇḍala identifies thoughts of Buddhas, which also that of the Buddha: the Buddha (enlightenment) is to be found in his own thought, in his thought of bōdhicitta (enlightenment).13 nature. The bodhisattva is a model for one’s own spiritual career. See A. K Warder, ‘Feudalism and Mahayana Buddhism’ in R. S. Sharma (Ed.), Indian Society: Historical Probings, New Delhi: Peoples Publishing House, 2013 (Reprint), pp. 164-173 7Hirawaka Akira, A History of Indian Buddhism, New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1998 (Reprint, )p. 300-302 8David B. Gray, The Cakarasamvara Tantra (The discourse of Sri Heruka), New York: The American Institute of Buddhist Studies, 2007, p. 79 9Madhu Jaina, The Adobe of Mahasiva: Cults and Symbology in Jaunsar-Bawar in mid-Himalayas, New Delhi: Indus Publishing, 1995, pp. 133-134 10Giuseppe Tucci, Op. Cit., p. 25 11Alex Wayman, ‘The Manda and the –la of the Term Mandala’ in N. N. Bhattacharya (Ed.), Tantric Buddhism, New Delhi: Manohar, 1999, p. 23 12 Ibid., p. 24 13A. K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2000, p. 461 169 Table 7. Similarities between Kaḷamel̤uttu and Tantric Buddhist Maṇḍala Nature of Kaḷamel̤uttu Nature of Maṇḍalas in Tantric Buddhism Ferocious, wrathful and Maithuna forms Ferocious, wrathful and Maithuna forms Symbolic and anthropomorphic images Symbolic and anthropomorphic images of of deities deities Pan͂ ca-varna concept Pan͂ca-varna concept Five coloured powders from leaves, Five coloured powders from bones, sands, seeds, bricks and stones bricks and stones Women in ritual Yōgini cult Female and male ritual dancers in the Female and male ritual dancers in the maṇḍala maṇḍala Esoteric concept Esoteric concept Applications of Hybrid Sanskrit style of Applications of Buddhist-Hybrid Sanskrit mantras and bījākṣaras, mantra diagram with mantras and bījākṣaras, mantra diagram Healing practices Healing practices Priests as healers Monks as healers Practices in the isolated and secret Practices in the isolated and secret places places Celebrating days in maṇḍalakāla Cittirai tinkal (April-May) Buddha’s birth and Mēṭam month (April-May) day Source: Information gathered by the researcher The geometric pattern of maṇḍala represents the cosmos metaphysically or microcosm of the universe. This symbolizes the transformation which ordinary human beings have to undergo prior to entering the sacred territory within. The Maṇḍala concept of Tantric Buddhism influenced the tradition of kaḷamel̤uttu in Malabar. The iconography of Aṣṭadaḷapatmam, Nāgam, Bhadrakāḷi, Ayyappan, Śāstāvu, Cāttan, Vairajātan, Kālarātri and Bhairavan, Yakṣi, Nāgayōgini/Nāgarājn͂ i, Mātangi, Gandharvan, Yakṣan etc. in the kaḷamel̤uttu is influenced by the iconographies of Tantric Buddhist maṇḍala in north India, Nepal, Tibet and Sino-Japanese tradition.14 The following iconographic survey, given below takes up the inter linkages between the iconographic and ritual world of Tantric Buddhism and those of kaḷamel̤uttu. IV.a.1. Aṣṭadaḷapatmam Symbols played a vital role
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