Volume 2, Issue 1 A California Avocado Commission Publication April 2002 THE CHILEAN AVOCADO RESEARCH INDUSTRY: AN OVERVIEW UPDATE Early results from growth regulator research by Garner and Lovatt have identified strategies that significantly retard the growth of the vegetative Reuben Hofshi Chilean avocados into the marketplace. shoot apex of indeterminate floral shoots as opposed to purely Del Rey Avocado Co., Fallbrook, CA This overview is an effort to answer the vegetative shoots. This is encourag- questions interested growers may have ing, because these strategies may In recent years the presence of Chilean about different aspects of the Chilean improve fruit set and assist in canopy avocados in U.S. markets has become a management in the future. avocado industry. familiar sight. Most California avocado The latest avocado thrips research growers’ knowledge of the Chilean Chilean avocado groves are located in a results were presented at grower avocado industry is limited, although range of latitudes similar to those in meetings in February. Spray trials by Oevering, Morse, Hoddle, Faber, they are familiar with its impact on the California, but in the Southern Phillips, Urena, and Anderson show U.S. market and on personal harvesting Hemisphere. La Serena, the northern that helicopter treatments of abamectin (Agri-Mek), well before strategies. Inventory reports by the limit of the Chilean industry is located fruit set, remained remarkably California Avocado Commission and at 29º53’S, while the southern limit at effective at thrips control. The researchers conclude that abamectin packinghouse faxes are the primary Melipilla is at 33º41’S. Contrast this treatments, if applied properly, can suppress avocado thrips populations sources of information on the flow of continued on page 2 for 60-80 days. Look for a special edition of AvoResearch with a complete summary of these research From The Editor results soon. Guy Witney Watch for meeting notices in California Avocado Commission Production Research Program Manager the AvoGreensheet or log onto www.avocado.org/growers There has been a lot of discussion in our industry about the impact of imported for more information. avocados on the domestic market. Our Education Committee believes that the more avocado growers are informed about their competition, the more likely they are to become involved in industry decision making, and shaping their future. The country In This emerging as perhaps the most important offshore supplier of avocados is . To most In This of us, Chile has been somewhat of a mystery. We knew little about their production IssueIssue capacity, details of their costs of production, or how organized they were as an industry.

Following several months of research, Reuben Hofshi has written a comprehensive Chilean Avocado Overview article on the Chilean avocado industry. This article follows the article on the Mexican • avocado industry by Reuben in the last issue of AvoResearch. It is important to • Stem Canker/Collar Rot mention that the facts and figures presented here were compiled by Reuben working Phytophthora Root Rot not only with the California Avocado Commission, but also directly with key industry • individuals in Chile. These individuals also checked the article for accuracy prior to print. Also in this issue, we have included two inserts to add to your collection. These cover our two most important disease organisms in the grove, namely root rot and collar rot, and were compiled by University of California Faculty: Lawrence Marais, John Menge, Ben Faber and Gary Bender. 2 CHILEAN AVOCADOS continued from page 1 with San Diego, CA at 32º45’N and Cambria in San Luis Obispo county at 35º33’N. Chilean fruit is mature when California is at the transition between the late and early season, from August onward. This unique situation gives the Chilean industry a market well primed by the momentum of California avocado sales. Historically, during this time of the year, demand for California avocados would exceed supplies and prices would rise dramatically. The Chileans recognized this window of opportunity and turned the U.S. into Propagation of avocado trees at the Huerto California Nursery the focus of their avocado exporting near , Chile. efforts. avocado market, thanks to the CAC attempts at exporting avocados to the The first significant shipment of 6 merchandising efforts and U.S. through the usual produce million lbs of Chilean avocados demographic changes, was in a cycle channels, the Chilean industry quickly arrived in the U.S. in 1986 as the U.S. of growth (Figure 1). After some initial learned that the most efficient

Figure 1. Avocado Exports (all varieties) from Chile to the United States from 1986 to 2000. 120

100

80

60 MILLION POUNDS 40

20

0 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 YEAR (Source, U.S. Census Bureau) 3 distribution method was by the same organizations that market California avocados. This shift in marketing strategy provided the Chilean industry an infrastructure and a level of expertise that fostered the current expansion and success of that industry. The close relationship between California and Chilean marketers limited the flow of Chilean avocados to the months they were most needed, from mid-September through mid- December. Constraints of fruit maturity, on both ends of the spectrum, and a lack of dependable Preparation of ridges prior to planting of new avocado grove in Chile. transportation have kept Chilean avocados out of the U.S. markets Producers (Fedefruta). It has a Board of perspective, as opposed to fragmented, during the remainder of the year. The Directors composed of 7 producers, 5 country specific, seasonal campaigns high returns for Chilean avocados in marketers and 2 alternates. Ninety-five for promotion programs. Overall, both the U.S., in most years, have been percent of Chilean avocado exports industries recognize that the existence phenomenal by any measure. This are made under the umbrella of this of the other is a fact of life. An issue golden opportunity has generated a organization. In the last few years the that concerns the Chilean industry is rush for continuous planting of new, Comité de la Palta has been assessing the import duty of $1.50 per 25 lb predominantly Hass orchards in Chile. growers approximately 1 cent per lb carton levied by the U.S. Government This season, the overall production of for all avocados exported to the U.S. on Chilean avocados entering the U.S. all varieties in Chile is estimated to be by its members. There have been (These funds, over $7 million this 264 million lbs, of which 176 million several attempts at joint promotion season alone, are put in the general lbs will be Hass. The majority of this, efforts between CAC and the Comité government fund and do not help 120 million lbs, is being exported to de la Palta. The voluntary agreement promote avocado sales). They hope the U.S., amounting to about 95% of between the two organizations to that the new trade negotiations the total Chilean avocado exports. promote avocados during Fall 2001 between both countries will result in Most of these shipments are received demonstrates that alliances between the removal of such duties or at least and distributed by California handlers competitors are possible. All producers direct some of these funds towards associated with one or more Chilean benefit from a full calendar year continued on page 4 exporters. The exporting companies and their percentage of export volume for the 2001-2002 export season are: Agricom 26.2%, Propal 22.6%, Santa Cruz 17.1%, CabilFrut 13.6% and Safex 5.6%. The remaining 14.9% is distributed among 20-25 other exporters. Readers may recognize some of these names from the PLU stickers on Chilean fruit in supermarkets.

Comité de la Palta is the equivalent of the California Avocado Commission (‘Palta’ is the term for ‘avocado’ in Chile). It is a private organization formed in 1991 under the sponsorship of the National Federation of Fruit Newly planted avocado trees on ridges in Chile. 4 CHILEAN is the use of controlled PERU atmosphere (CA) containers BOLIVIA AVOCADOS where fruit is kept in a continued from page 3 controlled environment of avocado promotion. Relations are reduced oxygen and increased likely to improve as both industries CHILE carbon dioxide, similar to long- learn to understand each other, and term apple storage. This may recognize their mutual needs and add $0.80 - $1.00 per carton in apprehensions. With closer ties and the transportation costs but without similarity of the growing conditions of CA it would be risky to ship both countries, closer cooperation on late-season avocados. February research, technical management, - March in Chile is equivalent variety development and other mutual to August - September in interests, could produce a positive California, a period which, due synergy between both industries. ARGENTINA to maturity and shelf life The current planted acreage of limitations, is not conducive to approximately 48,000 acres is long-distance shipping of La Serena comprised of 30% newly planted, non- avocados. Other options are Coquimbo being studied to improve bearing trees, 40% not yet fully mature Región de with increasing production, 26% shipping and storage quality. Coquimbo mature trees in full production, and 3% One material that is likely to be older trees with declining production. used in the future is the simple New trees are being planted at a rate of organic compound, 1-MCP, 2,500 acres per year. It is expected that which is already registered for plantings of new orchards will slow use on floral and edible once the industry reaches 50,000 acres products in some countries. of Hass. California currently has Registration for the United Región de 58,227 producing acres and 739 non- States food crop sector is bearing acres, with a high percentage expected in Summer 2002; of trees over 15 years old and Hass however, rigorous detailed accounts for 95% of the total studies are still required before production. this material can be Valparaíso commercially applied to Chile has the second highest per capita avocado. 1-MCP, in quantities Santiago consumption of avocados in the world of less than 100 parts per MelipillaMelipilla at 8.5 lbs per person. Chile’s billion and under regular Rancagua population of 15.5 million will refrigeration, can extend consume approximately 130 million avocado shelf life. The Avocado production . lbs of the current year production of all compound attaches itself to the varieties. Due to increased production ethylene receptors in the They are continually looking for new and the proliferation of exporting avocado fruit and blocks ethylene markets to help dampen the inevitable companies, there is pressure to expand action, thus delaying fruit ripening. the shipping period into January, competition for the market window on February and even into March. This Chile is not the only country that which they have focused their efforts. could be facilitated by the adoption of exports avocados to the U.S. during The lack of available alternative faster and more efficient transportation, this time of the year. Chile, Mexico markets is a major concern for the and better postharvest handling and New Zealand all have avocados at Comité de la Palta and all Chilean techniques. (It usually takes 10-15 days basically the same time, and the day marketers. One option is the for the 5,435 mile voyage from when supplies may exceed demand is development of the European market Valparaiso, Chile to San Diego, lurking on the horizon. The Chileans by the Chilean industry. Europe has California.) One solution for increasing are industrious, learn from both been neglected mainly due to the shelf life, and thus the shipping season, success and failure and adapt quickly. higher prices that can be obtained in 5 the U.S.. Peru, which cannot export avocados to the U.S. due to the Mediterranean fruit fly, is also targeting the European avocado market. In 1999 it exported close to 2 million lbs of quality Hass avocados to Europe. Not withstanding the Peruvian competition, which could become significant if increased domestic and imported U.S. volume causes prices to decline, Europe could become a viable, alternative market. Another alternative could be Japan, but it is a small market and Chile would face competition from New Zealand and Mexico. These two markets are marginal options for Chile since the transit time to Europe and Japan is approximately 30 days. Such long transit would require optimum pre- and post-harvest management and the use of expensive CA containers. It is possible, but very risky and costly. The major foreign competition for Chile, particularly in Hass avocado trees planted on ridges sloping downhill in Chile. the U.S. during its traditional exporting the U.S. and that it will likely remain In the long term, the Chilean Hass months, is Mexico. With a high the principal market in the future. In industry is hoping to find an important domestic consumption and a tendency the meanwhile the Chilean avocado market alternative in South America, for alternate bearing, Mexico is not industry is experiencing a boom. especially in Argentina. This option always a consistent source of fruit. The Average FOB prices for the 2000-2001 has been long contemplated, and test Chileans, though watchful and season were $22 per lug. This season is shipments have been made to that concerned, no longer feel threatened likely to produce average FOB returns country. The high prices obtained in by the Mexican presence. The reality greater than $24. other markets, coupled with the is that Chile’s natural export market is economic problems and informal way of doing business in Argentina, have limited the development of this market. Compared with Chilean avocado consumption, Argentines consume a little more than 0.5 lb per capita. With the population of metropolitan Buenos Aires and suburbs approaching 13 million, it is obvious that the growth potential of this market is enormous. Although Argentina, Peru and South Africa are in the same hemisphere as Chile, their avocado harvest seasons are different from Chile’s and thus they complement each other. The availability of fruit throughout the year is a critical component in developing a

Hass avocado trees planted on ridges going downhill in Chile. continued on page 6 6 GROWING REGIONS plantings in Chile. Hass is the main CHILEAN variety grown in this region. Edranol is Avocados have been grown in Chile AVOCADOS the main pollinizer variety although continued from page 5 since the mid 1800’s with the initial Zutano and Bacon are also used as new market. If suppliers such as Peru, seeds thought to have come from Peru. pollinizers to a lesser extent. These South Africa, the small Argentine Roger Magdhal first brought the Hass river basins, which cross Chile from avocado industry, and Chile could avocado to Chile in 1935, three years the to the Pacific Ocean, vary in share the marketing and development after it was patented in California. The their climatic conditions as a function effort, the potential exists for a strong expansion of Chilean avocado of their proximity to the coast. The market in Argentina. plantings began, as in California, in areas of and Longotoma, areas where good soils, favorable which have the greatest marine Current returns to Chilean growers for climate and quality water were influence, have a dry, cloudy summer domestic avocado sales range from abundant. Today many new plantings with an average relative humidity $0.36 to $0.40 per lb for fruit over 6 are on marginal soils, often on around 70% and average temperatures ounces. The Chilean market, however, hillsides, with poor water quality of of 61ºF. In the inland valleys, where can absorb only a certain volume with limited availability, and the potential the marine influence is reduced, the the current per capita consumption for occasional freezes. Prior to the average temperatures are 72-74ºF, and rate and distribution system. The initiation of exports to the U.S., the the average relative humidity is 45%. Comité de la Palta, which is currently avocado varietal composition in Chile Average annual rainfall is 6-8 inches only an exporting organization, is was diverse, with Hass, Fuerte, Negra for the region. contemplating marketing Hass de La Cruz, and Bacon as the avocados in Chile. An important step dominant varieties. Today, 75% of the Irrigation water comes from two rivers for increasing consumption in Chile is avocado trees in Chile are Hass. that flow above ground only price moderation for consumers. This Edranol, Bacon and Zutano are used as intermittently. Water availability is a could be achieved by making the pollinizers while Negra de La Cruz, limiting factor since the mountains supply chain more efficient with more which is a popular, late season Chilean supplying these valleys are not as rational margins for all the middlemen selection, is grown for local extensive and are not as high as other involved. consumption. ranges that provide water for . Therefore, 95% of During April-June the demand for There are three major avocado the groves are irrigated using either Hass avocados in Chile exceeds local growing regions in Chile, which are shallow or deep wells. Almost all supplies. California avocados were presented in order from north to south. previously prohibited from Chile. growers irrigate via pressurized Regulations have recently changed and I. The river basins of the and irrigation with a preference for export to Chile is now permitted. The La Ligua rivers. microsprinklers. Water quality is good, fruit must meet certain phytosanitary This region is the area with the most with electrical conductivity (EC) of 0.4 requirements prior to embarkation. significant new plantings and decisiemens/meter (dS/m) (Colorado represents 35% of the total Hass River water, in contrast, is 0.9 – 1.0

Hass avocado plantings near Quillota, Chile. 7 dS/m) with a pH slightly above neutral emitter. The valley soils are deep plantings, especially on hillsides, use (7.2-7.5). Even though soil quality and sedimentary of alluvial origin. Soil pressurized systems. The soils are climatic conditions can be outstanding texture is light clay with clay substrate generally deep, consisting of light to for growing avocados, these areas are deeper in the profile. There are gravel moderate clay with about 1.5% organic probably near their maximum and stones within the soil that has matter content. Hillside soils are potential for planting. In case of a moderate permeability and organic variable in quality, thin, poor, and drought in Chile, these valleys are matter content of 1 – 1.25%. Hillside shallow, with moderate to heavy clay likely to be the most affected since the soils are granitic in origin, are poor, content. Average summer relative water supply will deplete quickly. with mild to heavy clay, and have an humidity for both valleys is 76-77%. organic matter content of 0.5 – 0.75%. Average annual temperatures are 57ºF. There are 2 dominant soil types: Average summer relative humidity is IV. Other regions. A) Light alluvial sandy alkaline soils 55-60% and average annual rainfall is (pH greater than 8) which are deep, 16.9 inches. Average annual In the last few years, there have been poor in organic matter content and temperatures are 60ºF with the limited new plantings in additional contain large quantities of rocks. The maximum temperature around 80ºF locations such as the interior portions rocks help drainage and help maintain and minimum around 42ºF. of the 3 regions discussed above as high soil temperatures. well as the Ovalle and La Serena III. The Maipo–Mapocho and valleys, which are located 150 to 200 Cachapoal river valleys. B) Marine deposits are the dominant miles north of Santiago. These new soils of the hillsides. They are not This region is extensive and includes and limited production zones, where uniform, but are generally poor, thin, the metropolitan region of Chile’s summer fruit and grapes have alkaline and often affected by high capital, Santiago, and the area south of traditionally been grown, have higher levels of carbonates. They are clay soils Santiago. It represents approximately temperatures and fruit is harvested 1 to with low organic matter content. 15% of the total Chilean Hass 2 months earlier than the in coastal Generally, groves on hillsides are plantings. Well-known localities are areas. In La Serena there are dramatic planted on ridges, sometimes running Mallarauco, Naltagua and Melipilla by temperature and humidity differences up and down the hill in a north-south the Maipo and Mapocho rivers and between the coastal area and the not direction when possible. the localities of Peumo – Las Cabras too-distant interior valleys. All these by the Cachapoal River. New plantings marginal areas represent about 10% of II. The Aconcagua Valley. in this zone are also extensive but the total Hass plantings in Chile. The Aconcagua River provides good more limited due to lower average quality irrigation water (EC 0.7 dS/m) temperatures and the high potential for PESTS AND DISEASES with low sodium and chloride to this freeze. As in California, growers Chile is blessed with having only a few traditional capital of avocado and minimize their risk by planting on pests and diseases. Red Spider mite citrus growing. Like the Petorca – La hillsides where cold air can flow to (Oligonychus yothersi) is controlled by Ligua basins, the Aconcagua basin lower elevations. This area has dry application of oil or wettable sulfur. represents 35% of the Chilean Hass summers with warm temperatures Miticides are used only during severe plantings. Some of the well-known (95ºF maximum) and cold (as low as infestations. Thrips (Heliothrips localities for avocado growing in Chile 23ºF), wet winters with annual rainfall haemorrhoidalis) are left alone and are are , Llay-Llay, , La averaging 29–31 inches. Water quality only controlled during severe Cruz and Quillota. Many of Chile’s of the Maipo and Mapocho rivers is infestations by mineral oils and nurseries are located in this zone, poor. The water is hard, alkaline, with Chlorpyrifos. A characteristic of the including the Magdahl family’s a pH near 8 and EC greater than 1.2 avocado production in Chile, which renowned Huerto California Nursery. dS/m. There are many groves, unfortunately was lost in California This region has also experienced a especially in the vicinity of Mallarauco, due to the introduction of the Persea large expansion of new plantings, with severe tip-burn and poor mite (Oligonychus perseae), and the mainly on hillsides since the flat land production. The region of the avocado thrips (Scirtothrips persea), is was already planted to avocado and Cachapoal River is less affected by the limited use of chemical pesticides. other crops. Most of the old irrigation salinity (water EC is 0.6 dS/m). There Most of the products used are oils, systems (flood or furrow) have been is abundant water and drought rarely soaps and sulfur. Growers often leave converted to pressurized systems, with occurs. Many growers in this region control of possible pests to natural microsprinklers as the preferred still irrigate by flood irrigation although continued on page 8 8 continued from page 7 predators and Integrated Pest Managment (IPM) strategies. Although Chile is geographically isolated, there have been several finds of Mediterranean fruit fly over the years. The source of the fruit fly infestation is thought to be either Argentina or Peru. These finds forced fruit to be quarantined in a manner similar to the event that took place in Ventura, CA in 1997 –1998.

The occurrence of root rot (Phytophthora cinnamomi) is limited and is much less severe than in California. The reason for this is thought to be the fungicidal effect of high copper content in the soils and, to a limited extent, in the irrigation water. This is one of the Fruit packing and grading utilizing HACCP standards reasons clonal rootstocks are not used at Safex Packinghouse near Quillota, Chile. in Chile. Where root rot does exist, the use of low concentrations (less than advisors recommend 11% of the total recommended rate of 4 beehives per 1%) of buffered phosphorus acid planting to be planted to pollinizers. acre. A third of the colonies are applied as a foliar and trunk spray is What is unusual about Edranol is that, brought prior to or at the initiation of recommended. although a well-liked fruit, it produces bloom and the rest during peak bloom. There is little to no rain during the very little if any fruit but flowers Recently, a service providing harvesting months in Chile and profusely in Chile, every year; it is bumblebees for pollination was postharvest decays are substantially planted strictly for pollination introduced in Chile, but the cost- lower, and often almost non-existent, purposes. There is a lesson to be benefit remains questionable. when compared to growing areas with learned by California avocado growers who have been struggling with which Planting, canopy management and high rainfall such as Australia and New production costs. Zealand. variety of ‘B’ flower trees to plant. The Chilean argument is that Edranol is Land prices vary depending on the THE CHILEAN AVOCADO such a good pollinizer that the location and on the potential for future GROVE AND CULTURAL increased production of the residential or commercial PRACTICES surrounding Hass trees more than development. In well-suited avocado The following discussion represents the compensates for the Edranol’s lack of areas, land prices can range from majority of the relatively young productivity. In California, the search $2,800 to $12,000 per acre. Hillsides, Chilean avocado orchards. Most of the for replacement to the traditional where generally mostly avocados are trees in Chile are grown either on pollinizer varieties by Hass-like grown, can cost $400 to $1,800 per Mexícola seedling rootstock or, more varieties is somewhat misdirected. The acre, depending on water availability recently in areas of poor water quality, foremost purpose of a pollinizer variety and pumping requirements. An on Nabal, which is thought to be salt is to do the best job providing irrigation system with microsprinklers tolerant. In the last few years, in abundant quality pollen. Zutano, and costs between $1,200 and $1,600 per response to pollination studies to a lesser extent Bacon, are well suited acre. Non-clonal nursery grown trees conducted by students at the Catholic to do the job! cost about $4 each. The irrigation University of Valparaiso, the variety system and the trees normally To assist in pollination, honey bees are Edranol has become the preferred ‘B’ constitute 50 to 70% of the total cost of introduced to the groves at the type pollinizer variety. The Chilean planting a new orchard. By the fourth 9

Tree pruning and canopy management. This is a new concept with which Chilean growers are experimenting. One advantage they have over California growers is the availability of plant growth regulators (PGRs) such as Sunny, Cultar and NAA, which have proven to be extremely effective in Chile and elsewhere (Australia, Israel, South Africa) in improving productivity and the control of canopy size and shape. These materials are very expensive and are not used routinely in Chile. (The CAC Production Research Committee is currently funding Dr. Carol Lovatt to establish efficacy data on new PGRs such as Apogee, a likely candidate to Overview of fruit grading using HACCP guidelines at Safex Packinghouse be permitted for use on avocados.) near Quillota, Chile. Irrigation. year, when commercial harvest are used to maintain a high level of Because of the Mediterranean climate commences, a grower with a 25-acre distribution uniformity for these unique and the lack of adequate rain between grove will have invested around irrigation systems. August and May, irrigation is a must. $4,000 per acre. The production costs per acre in Chile Many of the older commercial groves The normal planting density for Hass are between $500 and $850 per year. have converted from canal irrigation to is 20 x 20 ft with an additional tree on This includes water, energy, general pressurized systems. Modern irrigation the diagonal, which is later removed. labor, harvest, pruning, and all other is managed mainly through two Other plantings are at 10 x 20 ft. Some direct costs. Two important factors systems: evaporation pans (or progressive growers plant in a high affecting production costs are the size computerized weather stations that density of 10 x 10 ft spacing and girdle of the orchard and the slope of the indicate evapotranspiration) and 1-2 branches in the second year. Due terrain. Labor accounts for 50 to 60% tensiometers. Tensiometers are used to to mild temperatures and appropriate of the costs, and fertilizers and energy, control and monitor this program and fertilization regimes, trees don’t grow mainly for pumping water, account for to indicate the irrigation needs during as fast as in California and such 10% each. The harvest is performed by winter. Ideally, growers try to use both densities can be maintained for a few local farm labor hired by the grower. systems. The Chilean grower prefers to years, especially when careful Harvest cost is $0.009 (0.9 cents per vary the irrigation frequency and keep irrigation and well-monitored and lb). The minimum wage in Chile, the duration of the irrigation event balanced fertilizer regimes are including associated costs and benefits, constant. It is common, when practiced. Recent hillside plantings are is $6 per day for basic labor. Chilean microsprinklers are used, to irrigate mostly on ridges that are 20 ft apart, growing conditions are less stressful to every 5 to 12 days during the dry approximately 6 ft wide at the base, the Hass avocado than the conditions summer. Drip irrigation is sometimes sloped to a height of 4-5 ft, and are in most growing areas in California. In used during the first year after planting about 2 ft wide at the top. The trees general, good-quality mature orchards to provide better control of the amount are planted either 13 ft or 20 ft apart. produce an average of 10-12,000 lbs of water and fertilizer each tree The ridges sometimes run down the per-acre, per-year. There are orchards, receives and for more efficient weed hillside, preferably in a north-south in areas with ideal climatic conditions control. Normally by the second year orientation for better light interception, during flowering and fruit set, with the drip system is converted to for better water and air drainage, and sustained average production microsprinklers. There are some concentration of the thin topsoil, which exceeding 20,000 lbs per acre. plantings that use drip irrigation, based is gathered at the top of the ridges. on the recommendation of foreign Pressure-compensating microsprinklers continued on page 10 10

California, although water quality has influenced by Spanish researchers, do CHILEAN been an important issue, the cost of the not recommend the addition of any K, AVOCADOS irrigation water is the most critical. In while others recommend 35-53 continued from page 9 areas with salinity problems the lbs/acre in the form of potassium consultants (mainly from Israel), but irrigation volumes are increased by 20 nitrate. Zinc, in the form of zinc sulfate, prolonged use of drip irrigation is not to 30% to provide leaching and to is applied at the rate of 18-22 lbs/acre common. The use of microjets, which prevent the accumulation of salts in the and boron in the form of boric acid is have a more limited and focused soil. Soil variability and the availability applied at the rate of 35-70 lbs/acre. throw, has increased due to higher of reliable weather data are important Often, especially in alkaline soils, the density planting and the use of ridges issues for growers, especially when total application of these for planting on hillsides. Currently, marginal soils and poor-quality water micronutrients is buried in shallow new research is being conducted are used. Francisco Gardiazabal has holes at the four corners of the tree or utilizing pulse irrigation systems, which been conducting a study to establish in a band along the drip line. Most provide several pulses of irrigation new crop coefficients (Kc) for Chile. Chilean avocado growers have leaf water per day. Water requirements are Table 1 lists the currently used crop analyses performed annually, while monitored by dendrometers that coefficients (as compared to those we soils are analyzed less frequently. measure the diurnal fluctuation of the use in California) and his proposed girth of the trunk, limbs and leaves. new values. Organic production. One important difference between Organic production has been slow to avocado production expenses of Fertilization. take hold and is constrained by certain California and Chile is the cost of Fertilizer application is primarily limitations. Even though the pest irrigation water. In the Quillota area limited to nitrogen (N) and potassium pressure in avocado orchards in Chile (Aconcagua basin) for example, water (K), although minor amounts of boron is low and the use of pesticides is cost is not higher than $50 per-acre, and zinc are also applied. The general limited, the main limiting factor is the per-year. Water availability and water rate of application is 100-175 lbs of availability of a good and reliable quality are much more important to actual N per acre. The use of K is source of organic nitrogen. The cost of the Chilean avocado grower. In controversial. Some advisors, organic fertilizers, which are always in high demand for use in avocado Table 1. orchards and in other crops, in MONTH CURRENT Kc CROP PROPOSED addition to the transportation and coefficient Kc VALUES handling costs of large volumes of Values manures and other bulk organic SOUTH — NORTH CHILE— CALIFORNIA CHILE products, limit the adoption of organic farming. JANUARY — JULY 0.72 — 0.65 0.72 — 0.75 The Chilean FEBRUARY — AUGUST 0.65 — 0.65 0.72 — 0.75 educational system. MARCH — SEPTEMBER 0.58 — 0.60 0.72 — 0.75 The Chilean educational system is superb, producing many professionals APRIL — OCTOBER 0.58 — 0.55 0.72 with an uncanny determination to MAY — NOVEMBER 0.58 — 0.55 0.72 work hard, learn, and excel. The Catholic University of Valparaiso is JUNE — DECEMBER 0.52 — 0.50 0.72 where the majority of the subtropical JULY — JANUARY 0.52 — 0.40 0.72 fruit research is conducted. Under the watchful eyes of Francisco AUGUST — FEBRUARY 0.52 — 0.50 0.72 Gardiazabal, their major professor, SEPTEMBER — MARCH 0.58 — 0.55 0.72 students are required to produce after graduating from college a significant, OCTOBER — APRIL 0.58 — 0.55 0.72 albeit one year in length, research NOVEMBER — MAY 0.65 — 0.60 0.72 — 0.75 project, and a final report in order to receive their degree in Agronomy. DECEMBER — JUNE 0.72 — 0.65 0.72 — 0.75 These works are well designed and 11 executed, and include a type of exported fruit. This system is California. Some exporting companies comprehensive literature review of the beneficial to the growers and also helps have held growers meetings, inviting subject and statistical analysis. In the the exporters, at least in theory, predict foreign experts for well-attended last 10 years the research, which is very and control the volume, size, and seminars, and some have taken pragmatic in nature, has been quality of fruit they ship. In addition, important growers to visit other concentrated on subjects such as and often in place of company avocado industries. A large number of avocado phenology under Chilean agronomists, many large growers use Chilean growers attend international conditions, nutrition and fertilization, independent consultants/farm advisors, avocado events, such as the World irrigation, pruning, tree manipulation to help them with the technical aspects Avocado Congress. The Chilean with growth regulators and girdling, of their groves. These consultants are industry is, for the most part, open and the use of honey bees and other highly trained, well traveled, and have transparent, a trait learned from the insects, fruit set and the selection and intimate knowledge of international openness and generosity of other use of pollinizers, and the evaluations avocado research and cultural industries such as Australia, Israel, of new varieties from local and practices. Some growers who employ South Africa, Spain and the U.S.. international sources. This practical private consultants believe that it is approach to research is enhanced by difficult for the field representatives, Quality assurance and food safety. the participation of technical people although well trained, to be up-to-date and advisors who are close to the in the technical management aspects of Walking into a modern avocado grower community and to the industry. their orchards. The crop is valuable packinghouse in Chile is an experience The research activities are not funded and an educated opinion from a in sanitary discipline we should all by the industry and financial support is different perspective is good insurance. learn from. Most growers and available mainly through the initiative There is no extension service or exporters in Chile are getting involved and vision of individuals within the government-sponsored farm advisor in a program developed by the industry. An unfortunate problem with service in Chile. (In recent years, Chilean Export Association (ASOEX) the research performed in Chile is that foreign advisers have begun consulting known as “BPA” (Buenas Prácticas the results are not published in any and setting up trial plots in Chile. Agrícolas), which means Best national publication. These valuable These arrangements are expensive and Agricultural Practices. This program’s studies are only available in the library are often limited only to growers objective is to assure sanitary quality of of the universities where the research associated with certain exporting the fruit, environmental conservation, was conducted. This author has companies. Sharing of experiences and product traceability, and worker safety requested those with access to these specific information dissemination is for both field workers and handling works to post summaries in Spanish or more difficult under these personnel. Additionally, most of the English on an accessible web page. circumstances.) The basic primer in packinghouses have international Some representative summaries of the Chile has been the book titled ‘Cultivo inspectors to certify quality assurance research these young agronomists del Palto’ (Cultivating the Avocado), by practices. USDA-APHIS inspects the conducted may be presented in future F. Gardiazabal and G. Rosenberg, Chilean avocados before embarkation issues of AvoResearch. 1990. This book, even today, is a fine and issues a phytosanitary certificate. compilation of information gathered Upon arrival at destinations in the Consulting and information from around the world but with a U.S., USDA will again inspect the dissemination. Chilean perspective. fruit. The inspectors use the Florida In Chile, a system of technical Avocado Standards (a federal standard) consulting and advising has been Growers under the umbrella of the to ascertain that the fruit meets established as part of the duties of the Comité de la Palta are provided with minimum quality standards. California field personnel of the fruit exporting one important meeting per year in Department of Food and Agriculture companies. The growers have accepted which political, strategic, and technical (CDFA), during the early part of the this service as an integral and issues are discussed. There are also export season, tests fruit arriving in important part of the service the seminars organized from time to time California to insure that the fruit meets exporting companies provide. These by various organizations, mainly California’s minimum maturity technical consultants are mostly concentrating on the technical aspects standards. Measuring dry matter agronomists who have specialized as of growing avocados. Otherwise, there content of the fruit 2 to 3 weeks after field representatives and who also are very few organized industry-wide harvest is questionable. Implementing provide technical assistance for each meetings such as those held in continued on page 12 Jaun Pablo Cerda,Cabilfruit Jamie Busquet,Exportadora Santa Cruz Christian Magdahl,Exportadora SAFEX GardiazabalyMagdahlLtda. Francisco Mena,Soc. Ac Enrique EspinosaPavez, avocadogrower this article: profitability oftheindustryasawhole. The followingpeopleinChileprovided valuableinformationand criticalreviews of work onimprovingtheindustryinallitsaspectsfor thebenefitand have acommondenominator-theyrecognizeandcontinually capitalistic andareassecretiveanyCaliforniagrower, butthey although theindustryisfragmented.TheChileangrowers are participates inthechanges that benefittheindustryasawhole innovation, andrapidadaptabilitytonewtechniques. Everyone avocado industryinthelast10 years,inthelevelofmodernization, One canonlybeamazedattheprogressachieved bytheChilean safety fromthetreetoconsumer. this taskforceistoexamineallaspectsoffruitqualityand a newQualityTask Force chaired byRoger Essick. Themissionof programs. InitialstepswererecentlytakenbyCAC whenitcreated have beenexperimentingwithdifferentqualityassurance better itwillbeforallofus.Various packinghouses inCalifornia and thesoonerwebeginworkingonthistrekasanindustry, California avocadoindustrywillbecalledupontodothesame, those withstrictstandardssuch asEuropeandJapan.Soon the requirements andstandardsrequestedbyimporters,especially avocado industryisexport-orientedandquick toimplement available, includingmaterial,people,andtechnology. TheChilean optimum cost,resultinginefficientutilizationoftheresources requirements willbemetbothinternallyandexternallyatan the customers'requirementsarefullymet.Theorganization's methods thatcanbeimplementedinanorganizationtoassure setsoutthe Organization forStandardization)protocol.ISO (International contemplating theimplementationofanISO progressive companieshaveimplementedthisprogramandare the frameworkforhazardidentificationandcontrol.Some internationally recognizedfoodsafetymethodologythatprovides (HazardAnalysisCriticalControl Point),HACCP which isan to shipment.Themostpopularfoodsafetyprogramiscalled industry toofficiallytestfruitdestinedforexporttheU.S.prior being developedcurrentlyinCalifornia,couldenticetheChilean a standardizedtestingprotocolthatiseasytouse,similartheone 12 AVOC continued from page11 CH knowledgements I LEAN ADOS [email protected] California Avocado Commission Subscription queriesshouldbe 1251 E.DyerRoad,Suite 210 Editorial commentsshouldbe Santa Ana,CA92705-5631 A addressed toGuyWitney: voResearch Subscriptions the addressbelow. addressed to: or to

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